ELS Reviewer

LESSON 1
COSMOLOGY
 Understanding of the origin, evolution, structure & fate of the universe.
BARYONIC MATTER
 Protons, electrons & neutrons
DARK MATTER
 Has gravity but does not emit light.
DARK ENEGRY
 Antigravity; a force causes the universe to expand.
PROTOSTAR
 Formation of star from the gravitational collapse of gases. (Pull the gases together
into a ball)
LIGHT YEAR
 Measurement of astronomical distance; distance light can travel in a year.
STAR
 The building block of the galaxies; born out of clouds of gas and dust.
THERMONUCLEAR REACTIONS
 It is reaction where two light atomic nuclear fusion by extremely high
temperature, then release of a relatively large amount of energy. (ex. SUN)
STELLAR INTERIOR
 Where elements are synthesized/fused together
MAIN SEQUENCE STARS
 It is a star that is fusing hydrogen in its core
DENSITY
 Mass per unit volume of an object or region
 Ratio of the density of matter and energy

UNIVERSE
 it comprises all space, time, all matter and energy in it.
it’s made of
 4.6% Baryonic Matter
 24% Cold Dark Matter
 71.4% Dark Energy
The Universe is 13.8 billion years old
3 Most Abundant Elements
 Hydrogen
 Helium
 Lithium

ORIGIN OF THE UNIVERSE

Divine Creation Theory
Creationism: believes that the universe and the various forms of live were created by
God out of nothing
  According to the book of genesis, the universe was created in just 6 days.
 DAY 1: LIGHT
 DAY 2: ATMOSPHERE
 DAY 3: DRY GROUND & PLANTS
 DAY 4: SUN, MOON & STAR
 DAY 5: BIRDS AND SEA ANIMALS
 DAY 6: LAND ANIMAL & HUMANS
 DAY 7: SABBATH/REST DAY
Creation Myths
Ancient Egyptians
 Believed the world arose from an infinite sea at the first rising of the sun
Kuba people of Central Africa
 Believes on Mbombo/Bumba, felt an intense stomach pain and then vomited the
stars, the sun and the moon
India
 God sacrificed Purusha, the primal man whose head, feet, eyes and mind became
the sky, earth, sun and moon
BIGBANG THEORY (ALEXANDER FRIEDMANN & GEORGES LEMAITRE
1931)
 The universe began with a massive and rapid expansion around billion years ago.
 It states the universe expanded from a very tiny, extremely hot and dense energy
single point called “singularity” to much cooler size.
SINGULARITY
 A point of infinite density and gravity
RED SHIFT (EDWIN HUBBLE)
 Evidence for big bang theory
 The galaxies are moving away from each other
 “If the universe is expanding, then the universe was very small at some moment
in the past.”
STEADY STATE THEORY (BONDI, GOULD & HOYLE 1948)
 The universe is always expanding but maintaining its density
 The universe stays the same
COSMIC MICROWAVE BACKGROUND (CMB; ARNO PENZIAS & ROBERT
WOODROW WILSON 1964)
 Also called cosmic microwave radiation
 The radiation left over from big bang theory
COSMIC INFLATION THEORY (ALAN GUTH 1981)
 “The space itself is expanding”
 Proposes a period of extremely rapid expansion of the universe during its first
few moments.
 which time the energy density of the universe was dominated by a cosmological
constant-type of vacuum energy that later decayed to produce the matter and
radiation that fill the universe today.
OSCILLATING THEORY
 Combines the Big band theory & Big crunch theory
  The universe is expanding and will contract once all energy after the Big band
theory is used up
 Which the universe has no end and goes through a series of different processes
for it formation and accelerated expansion.

SOLAR SYSTEM
 Revolves around the galactic center once in 240 million years
 Earth & Solar System are 4.6 billion years old
Milky way
 About at least 100 billion stars and other bodies
 Rotates around a globular cluster blackhole
 A part of the galaxies
 Supercluster of galaxies
Galaxy
 100 million light years

ORIGIN OF THE SOLAR SYSTEM

 Explain both Large- & Small-scale properties of the solar system
 Natural forces created & shaped the solar system
Large Scale Properties
1. Most of the mass of the solar system focus at the center of the sun
2. Orbits of the planets elliptical & are on the same plane
3. All planets revolve around the Sun
4. The speed of orbit of the solar system depends on the closest to the sun
(Innermost: fastest, outermost “Kuiper belt”: Slowest)
5. All planets are located at regular intervals from the sun
Small Scale Properties
1. Most planets rotate prograde
2. Inner terrestrial planets
 are made of materials with high melting point (silicates, iron & nickel)
 they rotate slower due to thin or no atmosphere, higher densities and low
with (hydrogen, helium & noble gases)
3. The 4 outer planets (Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune)
Are called “Gas Giants” due to dominance of gases & their larger size
They rotate faster due to thick atmosphere, lower densities and high with
(hydrogen, helium & ice “water, ammonia & methane”)

Early Hypotheses
Catastrophic Hypothesis
 States our solar system formed due to a sudden and improbable event such as the
Collision of the two stars
Evolutionary Hypothesis
 States that gradual and natural changes caused the formation of our solar system
Nebular Hypothesis (Pierre Laplace 1755)
  Spinning cloud of dust from light elements, called a “nebula”, flattened into
protoplanetary disk and become a solar system consists of a star with orbiting
planets
 Rotating gaseous cloud that cools and contracts in the middle to form the sun and
the rest into a disc that become the planets
 5 stages of Nebular Hypothesis
 Collapse
 Spinning
 Flattening
 Condensation
 Accretion
 But the theory failed to account for the distribution of angular momentum (L) in
the solar system
Encounter Hypothesis
 It states that around 5 billion years ago, a Rouge Star come close to the Sun. and
due to some force, it tidally striped some part of the Sun & the Rouge Star that
forms the planets
 Has advance explanation why the planets all revolve in the same direction and
why inner planets are denser than outer planets
 But has major flaw like
 Hot gas expands instead contracts, lumps of hot gas would not form
planets
 The chance of encounters between stars are extremely rare, so rare as to be
improbable in the lifetime of the universe
Collision theory (George louis leclerc comte de buffon 18th Century)
 Planets were formed by the collision of the sun with a giant comet
 The resulting debris formed into planets that rotate in the same direction as they
revolve around the sun
Protoplanet Hypothesis
 The current working model for the formation of the solar system
 Is a modified version of the nebular hypothesis
 It incorporates many of the components of the nebular hypothesis, buts add some
new aspects from modern knowledge of fluids and states of matter
 A dense interstellar cloud produces a cluster of stars
 Contraction of slowly rotating gas cloud dominated by hydrogen and helium due
to gravity that later form a cloud of rotating disc
 Most of the maa move to the sun creating the protosun
 Remaining materials formed a disc and eventually become the planets and
momentum is transferred outwards
 Collisions of other fragment and other solid matter formed larger bodies;
protoplanets
Advance note
 Expect to hydrogen, helium, insert gases and volatiles, earth and the universe
have a similar abundance of elements specially to rock and minerals
 The Sun and larger planets have enough gravity to retain the hydrogen & helium
  Rare insert gases are too light to retain the earth’s gravity
 Earth and the solar system could derive from the universe

LESSON 2
Factors That Make Planets Habitable
1.Temperature
 Influences how quickly atoms & molecules move
2.Water
 Essential requirement for life
 Capable of dissolving substances and enabling key chemical reactions in animal,
plants and microbial cells
Atmosphere
 Traps heat, shields the surface from harmful radiation, and provides chemicals
needed for life; such as Nitrogen & Carbon Dioxide
Energy
 With a steady input of either light or chemical energy, cells can run the chemical
reaction necessary for life
Nutrients
 To build and maintain an organism
Earth Is Habitable Because Of:
1. the right distance from the Sun
2. strong Magnetic field
3. it is protected by plate tectonics
(plate tectonics=event)
4. right chemical materials
5. presence of oxygen
6. atmospheric condition

Earth As a System
 the earth system is all the matter, energy, and processes within earth’s boundary
 earth is a complex system made of living and non-living things, and matter &
energy continuously cycle through the smaller system

Earth Subsystem
 ATMOSPHERE
 A thin gaseous layer that envelopes the earth
 Consist of a mixture of gases composed primarily of nitrogen, oxygen,
carbon dioxide & water vaper
 Atmosphere of the earth composition
: Nitrogen=78%
: Oxygen=20.95%
: Argon=0.93%
: other gases =0.04%
 Layers of Atmosphere
 Exosphere-highest and top layer of the earth’s atmosphere
 
Thermosphere-protect earth from sun’s harmful radiation

Mesosphere-where meteors burns as they enter the earth’s
atmosphere
 Stratosphere-very important ozone layer; it protects earth from
ultraviolet radiation
 Troposphere-where most weather phenomena occur; contains
greenhouse gases
 GEOSPHERE
 Composed of rock and minerals
 The geosphere develops a layer of soil in which nutrients become available
to living organisms
 Crust-the light & very thin outer skin of the earth
 Mantle-less dense layer; made up of silicate, rocks, mostly made
silicate, oxygen, iron & magnesium
 Core-dense layer; creates earth’s magnetic field (molten/liquid)
1. Outer Core-mostly composed of liquid
2. Inner Core-most metal place; keeps solid due to intense pressure
 BIOSPHERE
 The living things/organisms of the earth
 It covers all ecosystem; Form plants to humans to animals to sea animals
 HYDROSPHERE
 liquid Composed of the earth
 it covers 71% of the earth surface
 97% of the water on earth is salt water

SYSTEM INTERACTION

LESSON 3
MINERALS
 Building block of rocks

Characteristics of Minerals
 Naturally Occurring-it’s not man made; a product of earth’s natural processes.
 Inorganic-it’s not a living thing.
 Homogenous Solid- (mixture solid) will have uniform composition and the
same properties throughout. The different pure substances present in it cannot
be distinguished separately.
  Definite Chemical Composition-all occurrences of that mineral have a
chemical composition that varies within a specific limited range and the atoms
that make up the mineral must occur in specific ratios.
 Ordered Internal Structure/Crystal Structure- a description of the
ordered arrangement of atoms, ions or molecules in a crystalline material.

Properties of Minerals
LUSTER: the manner in which a mineral reflects light.
 Glassy
 Metallic
COLOR
STREAK: is the color of the mineral in powdered form
HARDNESS: scratch ability
 MOH’S HARDNESS SCALE
CLEAVAGE: the ability to break
SPECIFIC DENSITY: (mass/volume)
CRYSTAL HABIT/FORM: the general appearance a mineral tends to have; external
shape of crystal

Special Properties of Minerals

 Taste
 Odor
 Striations: surface of a rock or a mineral; the narrow alternating grooves or
furrows and ridges appearing as parallel lines on some minerals.
 Magnetism: the motion of electric charges; the force exerted by magnets when they
attract or repel each other
 Double Refraction: an optical property in which a single ray of light enters
minerals then split into two rays, each traveling in a different direction.
 Chemical Tests

ROCKS
 Solid mixture of two or more minerals/ organic matter
 Can be classified by; how they are formed, their composition & their texture
 Rocks change over time (rocks cycle)
Magma
 Mixture of many minerals
Magma can form:
 When rock is heated
 When pressure is released
 When rock changes composition

Types of Rocks
IGNEOUS ROCKS
 Begins as Magma
2 Types of Igneous Rock
  Intrusive Igneous Rocks
 Magma pushes into surrounding rock below the earth’s surface
 Extrusive Igneous Rocks
 Forms when magma erupts onto the earth’s surface (lava); cools quickly
with very small or no crystal formed

Classification: Composition & Texture

Felsic: light colored rocks that are rich in elements (aluminum, potassium, silicon &
sodium)
Mafic: dark colored rocks that are rich in (calcium, iron & magnesium); poor in silicon
Phaneritic (Coarse-grained): takes longer to cool; giving mineral crystal more time
to grow
Aphanitic (Fine-grained): cools quickly with little to no crystals

SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
 Formed by erosion
 Sediments are moved from one place to another
 Sediments are deposited in layers; the older ones on the bottom
 The layers become compacted and cemented together
 Formed at/near the earth’s surface
 No heat and pressure involved
Strata
 Layers of rocks
Stratification
 The process in sedimentary rocks are layers
Types Of Sedimentary Rocks
Clastic: made of fragments of rock cemented together with calcite quartz; “clasts”
Ex. Breccia

Chemical Sedimentary: minerals crystallize out of solution to become rock

Ex. Limestone

Organic Sedimentary: has remains of plants and animals

Ex. Coal

METAMORPHIC ROCKS
 Meaning to change shape
 Change with temperature and pressure; but remains solid
 Takes place deep in the earth

Types of Metamorphic Rocks

Contact metamorphism: heated by nearby magma; increased temperature changes
the composition of the rock; minerals are changed into new minerals
Ex. Hornfels
Regional metamorphism: pressure builds up in rocks that is deep within the earth
Foliated: contain aligned grains of flat minerals
Ex. Gneiss
Non-Foliated: minerals grains are not arranged in plains or bands
Ex. Marble

The Rock Cycle

 Form Magma ➝ melting ➝ Igneous rock ➝ weathering ➝ sediment ➝

compaction/cementation ➝ Sedimentary rock ➝ heat & pressure ➝
Metamorphic rock ➝ melting ➝ Magma

 Form Magma ➝ melting ➝ Igneous rock ➝ heat & pressure ➝

Metamorphic rock ➝ weathering ➝ sediment ➝ compaction/cementation
➝ Sedimentary rock

Lesson 4
Geomorphic processes
 Physical processes which create & modify landform on the surface of the earth

Exogenic
MASS WASTING
 The movement of rock and soil down slope under the influence of gravity
Types of Mass Wasting
WEATHERING
 The breaking down of rocks
 Involves with: water, ice, wind, animals & growing plants
EROSION
 The movement of sediment from broken rock
 Involves with: water, wind, ice & gravity
DEPOSITION
 The dropping of sediment in a new place
 Ex. Formation of an island & sand dunes
 Endogenic
DIASTROPHIC MOVEMENTS
 Encompasses all processes that move, elevate, or build up sections of the
earth’s crust
2 Types of Diastrophic Movement
EPEIROGENIC: they create land upheavals or depressions with long-wavelength
undulations (wavy surface) & little folding
1. Uplifted-raise into earth’s surface
2. Subsidence-sinking of ground
OROGENIC: act tangentially to the earth’s surface, as in plate tectonics
1. Tension (fissures)-a stress; stretches rocks into 2 opposite directions
2. Compression (folds)-a stress; directed towards the center of a rock mass

SUDDEN
Earthquakes: when two blocks of the earth suddenly slip past one another; shaking of
the surface of the earth due to the sudden release of energy in the earth’s crust
Volcanic Eruptions: when lava and gas are released from a volcano; explosively
 Oral communication Reviewer
Communication
 Form 2 Latin word “communis” = working together “communicare” = to join,
share, receive or divide with/without
 Process of sharing & conveying messages or information from one person to
another within and across channels, contexts, media, and cultures
 A process by which information is exchanged a common system of symbols,
signs, or behavior
 Deliberate/accidental transfer of meaning
 Includes coordination, symbolic interaction, listening & speaking skills
 To be understood and understand other people in an effort to reach a common
goal

Communication is a human activity

 People communicate their ideas & feeling using language, in difference kinds of
form, to meet their needs
 A complex activity that only human being uses, since we are wired as thinking,
feeding, and reacting beings
 Is a vehicle to negotiate meaning in a cycle that prompts further action and
reaction
Intrapersonal
 Talking to yourself
Interpersonal
 Talking to one or more groups of people

Factor Of Communication
INVOLVES
 SENDING AND RECEIVING
 ENCODING AND DECODING
CONTENT
 NEEDS
 DESIRES
 PERCEPTION
 KNOWLEDGE
 FEELINGS
 IDEAS
 THOUGHTS
 NEWS
MEDIUM
 SPEECH(FACE-TO-FACE)
 LETTER
 EMAIL
 TEXT
  TELEVISION
 RADIO
 MEMOS
FORMS
 LINGUISTIC
 NON-LINGUISTIC
 VERBAL ;(conversation, speech, presentation)
 NON-VERBAL ;(waving, pointing, indicating numbers with fingers)
 INTENTIONAL ;(speech, advertising)
 UNINTENTIONAL ;(shaking hands=nervous)
 CONVENTIONAL
 UNCONVENTIONAL
PURPOSE
 TO INFORM
 TO PERSUADE
 TO SHARE
 TO EMOTE

Nature Of Communication
Dynamic Process
 It goes way beyond the words we say. Communication needs all it’s elements
Systemic
 Process to create and to interpret the meaning.
 The process is involved how sender and receiver encode and decode the message.
Involves Communicators
 Communication goes two-ways, a sender and a receiver.
Irreversible
 “Think before you say/click” suggests that you go over any message
 The discipline of mulling over your thoughts before translating them into words
can help avoid any instances which may cause problems directly or indirectly.
Proactive
 Communication is active, forceful or powerful. In a communicative act, there will
always be different effects to the participants. Any message conveyed may have
various interpretations
Symbolic Interaction
Three main aspects of communication
 Meaning
 Language
 Thought
 Signs, symbols, letters, graphs, pictures, etc. are concrete objects that stands for
or represents an idea.
Meaning Is Individually Construed
  To understand or explain the meaning

Elements Of Communication
Source
 Sender of information/ speaker
Messages
 A concept, ideas & emotion that the person wants to share
Channel
 Also called medium
 A system or method that is used for communicating
Receiver
 Gathering the information
Feedback
 Reply/respond.
 Review the effectives of the messages.
Noise
 Distorts a message by interfering with the communication process.
Decoding
 Involves the receiver, to interpret the appoint meaning on it
Encoding
 This process needs the sender to code the ideas that will be communicated
Context
 Setting in which the communication is taking place

Form Of Communication
Verbal; sounds, language
Non-verbal; facial expression, body language, gestures & posture
Aural/Audio; radio, podcast, music
Visual; pictures, drawing, arts, charts, tables
Written; journal, emails, texts
Informal; talking to friends
Formal; seminars, meeting, interview