GEOLOGIC PROCESSES ON EARTH(Exogenous
Processes)
I. WEATHERING
Weathering Processes – surface rocks undergo
changes in their appearance and composition.
Weathering – the natural process by which
atmospheric and environmental agents, such as
wind, rain, and temperature changes, disintegrate
and decompose rocks.
Types of Weathering
A. Mechanical (physical) weathering is the physical
disintegration and reduction in the size of the rocks
without changing their chemical composition.
Types of Mechanical Weathering
Action of plants and animals:
Larger trees and shrubs may grow in the
cracks of large rocks.
Ants, earthworms, rabbits, and other
animals dig holes in the soil.
these holes allow air and water to reach
the bedrock and weather it.
Ice Wedging
A type of mechanical weathering that occurs
in cold climates is called ice wedging.
Ice wedging occurs when water seeps into
the cracks in rocks and freezes.
When the water freezes, its volume
increases by about 10% & creates pressures
on the surrounding rock. This process
eventually splits the rock apart.
B. Chemical weathering decomposes, dissolves, alters,
or weakens the rock through chemical processes to
form residual materials.
Examples: carbonation, hydration, hydrolysis,
oxidation, and solution
Types of Chemical Weathering
Results mainly from the action of rainwater,
oxygen, carbon dioxide, and acids of plant
decay.
Agents of Chemical Weathering
The chemical reaction of water with other
substances is called hydrolysis.
Common materials undergoing hydrolysis:
Feldspar
Hornblende
Augite
Agents of Chemical Weathering
The chemical reaction of oxygen with other
substances is called oxidation.
Iron-bearing minerals are the ones
most easily attacked by oxygen.
Examples:
Magnetite
Pyrite
Dark-colored ferromagnesian silicates
Oxidation of these minerals results in kinds
of rust, or iron oxides.
Chemical Weathering: Carbonation
It is a process by which carbon dioxide and
rainwater or moisture in the surrounding
environment chemically react to produce
carbonic acid, a weak acid, that reacts with
carbonate minerals in the rock.
This process simultaneously weakens the
rock and removes the chemically
weathered materials.
C. Biological weathering is the disintegration or
decay of rocks and minerals caused by chemical
or physical agents of organisms.
Examples: organic activity from lichen &
algae, rock disintegration by plant or root
growth, burrowing and tunneling organisms,
and acid secretion.
II. Erosion
It is the process where rocks are broken down
by natural forces such as wind or water.
III. Mass Wasting
It is the movement of rock and soil downslope
under the influence of gravity.
Four different forms of mass wasting:
Debris flows are fast-moving landslides
that are particularly dangerous to life and
property because they move quickly,
destroy objects in their paths, and often
strike without warning.
Mudflow is a fast-moving flow of debris
and dirt that has become liquified by the
addition of water.
Slump results in the sliding of coherent rock
materials along curved surfaces.
Sedimentation is the deposition of rock
fragments, soil, organic matter, or dissolved
material that has been eroded.
Why does Earth’s interior is hot?
The interior of Earth is very hot because
the temperature of the core reaches more
than 5,000 degrees Celsius for two main
reasons:
i. The heat from when the planet formed.
ii. The heat from the decay of radioactive
elements.
What happens after magma is formed?
Once it is formed, it moves in an upward flow
because it is less dense than other rocks
under the Earth and can feed into a volcano or
cool and crystallize into intrusive igneous
rock. If it feeds into a volcano, magma will
eventually erupt and become lava.
Endogenous Processes
Takes place within or in the interior of Earth.
The driving force is the thermal energy of the
mantle.
Responsible for earthquakes, the development of
continents, mountain building, volcanic activities,
etc.
I. Magmatism
Magma is the original material that makes up
igneous rocks.
Magmatism happens when magma is generated
and develops into igneous (magmatic) rocks.
The process can take place either under the
surface or on the surface of Earth.
II. Volcanism (Plutonism)
Mount Isarog is an active stratovolcano also
known as a composite volcano. The lava flowing
from stratovolcanoes typically cools and hardens
before spreading far, due to high viscosity. The
magma forming this lava is often felsic, having
high-to-intermediate levels of silica. Potentially
active stratovolcano. The last erupted – 125 years
ago
II. Volcanism (Plutonism)
The process usually happens after the
magma is formed.
Magma tries to escape from the source
through openings such as volcanoes or
existing cracks in the ground.
As soon as magma reaches the earth's
surface, it is now called lava.
PROCESS OF VOLCANISM
During this process, the underground
volcanic magma comes out of the surface of
the Earth in the form of lava.
In this process, different rocky materials and
gases are involved.
Usually volcanism occurs along the cracks of
Earth plates because volcanoes are mostly
found in cracks or on the boundaries of the
plates of Earth.
About 70 % volcanoes of the world are found
on the bed of oceans.
Such volcanoes remain hidden due to their
presence in sea.
EFFECTS OF VOLCANISM.
Volcanoes are formed due to volcanism.
These volcanoes keep on growing by the
deposition of lava layers are repeated
volcanism.
Such features are found in the region of
Earth plates.
The matter, gases and dust etc., which come
out from volcanoes cause environmental
pollution in the nearby areas.
This pollution affects human and plant lives.
Sometimes, clouds of different gases are
released rapidly during volcanism.
Due to high temperature, a part of volcano
bursts with thunder and gases are released
along with the other matter.
For example, in 1902 similar incident
occurred in Indonesia which caused great
fear of lives.
TYPES OF VOLCANOES:
[1] ACTIVE VOLCANOES
The volcanoes in which the volcanism
continues are known as active volcanoes.
These volcanoes often keep on erupting lava
e.g. Mayon Volcano (Albay), Bulkan Taal
(Batangas) etc.
According to the Philippine Institute of
Volcanology and Seismology, there are 24 active
volcanoes in the country. Based on their recent
activity, Mayon, Pinatubo, Taal, Hibok-Hibok,
Bulusan, and Kanlaon are the six most active
volcanoes.
[2]DORMANT VOLCANOES
A long period has gone since the eruption of lava
from dormant volcanoes but volcanism can
occur anytime in these volcanoes. Such
volcanoes are very dangerous.
[3]EXTINCT VOLCANOES
In some volcanoes, the eruption of lava has
stopped and there are no chances of the
eruption of lava in the future. These are known
as extinct volcanoes.
DISTRIBUTION OF VOLCANOES
VOLCANOES are found in the cracks of Earth's
plates.
Most of the volcanoes of the world are found in
the surrounding areas of the Pacific Ocean.
Coastal areas of the Pacific Ocean, in particular,
the eastern Islands are mostly formed due to
volcanism.
This portion is also known as the “Ring of fire”.
Trans-Eurasian is the second important area
where volcanoes are found.
It has the Australian plate, the Eurasian plate,
and the middle part of the Pacific Ocean plate.
It is in between the Atlantic and Indian oceans.
This rocky area has formed due to volcanism.
It is also known as the mid-Atlantic rock range.
III. Metamorphism
Process of changing the materials that make up a
rock.
Chemical components and geologic
characteristics of the rock change due to heat
and pressure that are increasing or decreasing.
Note:
Rocks changing due to weathering and
sedimentation are not considered to have
undergone metamorphism.
GEOLOGIC PROCESSES ON EARTH
What causes the rock cycle and the continuous
alteration on Earth?
The dynamism of Earth is attributed to its never-
ending geologic processes that have been driven
by internal and external forces. Geologic
processes are broken down into two categories:
exogenous (external) and endogenous (internal)
EXOGENOUS PROCESSES
The exogenous processes occur on or near the
surface of the Earth. They are usually influenced
or driven by gravity, water, wind, and organisms.
The following are the different types of exogenous
processes
Weathering- It is the disintegration of rocks, soil,
and minerals together with other materials
through contact with Earth’s subsystem.
a. Physical Weathering is the breakdown of
rocks by mechanical forces concentrated along
rock fractures. Can occur due to changes in
temperature, pressure, or both. For example,
soil cracks due to extreme heat or drought.
b. Chemical Weathering is the process by
which rocks break down because of chemical
reactions.
Agents of Chemical Weathering
Oxygen
the oxygen gas in air combines with iron in the
presence of water in a process called oxidation. The
product of oxidation is rust. Rust makes rock soft and
crumbly.
Carbon dioxide
Another gas found in the air causes chemical
weathering when it dissolves in water. The result is a
weak acid called carbonic acid. C. A. easily weathers
some kinds of rocks, such as marble and limestone.
Organisms
as plants roots grow, they produce weak acids that
slowly dissolve rock around the roots. Lichens-
plantlike organisms that grow on rocks- also produce
weak acids.
Acid rain
Acidic rainwater. Sulfur, carbon, and nitrogen from
burning coal, oil, and gas damage the air. Clouds react
with these molecules to form stronger acids than
raindrops. Acid rain forms from these acids and
rainfall. Acid rain rapidly chemically weathers rock.
Erosion- It is the process by which Earth’s surface
is worn away by wind, water, or ice. The process
of erosion moves rocks debris or soil from one
place to another.
Mass Wasting. This refers to the movement of
large masses of materials (e.g., rock, debris, soil,
mud) down a slope or a steep-sided hill or
mountain due to the pull of gravity. There are
different forms of mass wasting:
a. Debris flow happens when a large amount
of sediments, usually rocks of various sizes,
falls down the slope.
b. Mudflow happens when combined soil and
water flow down a slope. This usually happens
near rivers or streams where soil or sand is
always moist or has been soaked in water for a
long time.
c. Slump is a slow movement of soil along a
curved surface.
Sedimentation. It is the accumulation of
materials such as soil, rock fragments, and soil
particles settling on the ground. This usually
occurs in streams and sea erosion.
ENDOGENOUS PROCESSES
The endogenous processes on earth takes place
within or in the interior of Earth. The driving force
is the thermal energy of the mantle. Most of the
thermal energy originates from the decay and
disintegration of radioactive elements in earth’s
core.
1. Magmatism- happens when magma is generated
and develops into igneous (magmatic) rocks.
2. Volcanism (or Plutonism)- the process that
usually happens after a magma is formed.
3. Metamorphism- is the process of changing the
materials that make up a rock.
ENDOGENIC PROCESSES
Geological processes occur beneath the surface
of the earth.
Associated with energy originating in the interior
of the earth.
TYPES OF STRESS THAT INFLUENCE ROCK BEHAVIOR
Geological stress is the force (from pushing and
pulling of plates) that acts on the rocks that then
creates different characteristics.
1. Compressional- In compressional stress, rocks push
or squeeze with against one another.
2. Tensional- In tensional stress, rocks are pulled apart.
3. Shear- In shear stress, some of the portions of a
plate at the edges may break away in different
directions, eventually making the plate smaller in
size.
4. Confining- In confining stress, the crust becomes
compact, making it look smaller.
TECTONIC PLATES
(also called a lithospheric plate) is a massive,
irregularly shaped slab of solid rock, generally
composed of both continental and oceanic
lithosphere. Plate size can vary greatly, from a few
hundred to thousands of kilometers across; the
Pacific and Antarctic Plates are among the largest.
These plates lie on top of a partially molten layer of
rock called the asthenosphere.
HEAT IN THE EARTH’S INTERIOR
PRIMORDIAL HEAT -Heat generated during the
earth’s formation
SOURCES
ACCRETION ENERGY
CORE FORMATION ENERGY
ADIABATIC COMPRESSION
RADIOACTIVE HEAT- Heat generated by a long-term
radioactive decay.
 Due to the convection of the asthenosphere and
lithosphere, the plates move relative to each other
at different rates, from two to 15 centimeters (one
to six inches) per year. This interaction of tectonic
plates is responsible for many different geological
formations such as the Himalaya Mountain range Tectonic Forces
in Asia, the East African Rift, and the San Andreas Tensional Stress (stretching)
Fault in California, United States. Compressional Stress (squeezing)
Wegener’s Continental Drift Hypothesis Shearing Stress (side-to-side shearing)
Wegener put his idea in his book, The Origin of
Continents and Oceans. The book was first VOLCANISM
published in 1915. He included evidence that the Volcanism is one of the endogenic processes. It
continents had been joined. In his book he said is a phenomenon in which molten rocks(magma)
that around 300 million years ago, the continents are erupted from the Earth’s interior onto the
had all been joined. They created a single surface. Volcanism takes place at or near
landmass he called Pangaea, meaning “all earth” in divergent and convergent plate boundaries.
ancient Greek. The supercontinent later broke Volcanoes may be classified as active, dormant,
apart. Since then, the continents have been or extinct.
moving into their current positions. He called his ZONES OF VOLCANISM
hypothesis continental drift. Volcanic materials ejected during a volcanic
Plate Boundaries eruption include gases, lava, and solid particles.
A plate boundary is a fracture separating one plate Most active volcanic activities are associated
from another. All major interactions among with plate boundaries
individual plates occur along their boundaries.
There are three distinct types of boundaries
differentiated by the type of movement. These are
convergent, divergent, and transform.
Convergent plate boundary
two plates move toward each other. Crust is
destroyed when two plates converge. The
heavier plate dives beneath the more buoyant
plate.
Divergent plate boundary
also known as spreading center or rift zone,
two plates move apart. As the plates move
away, the fractures that are formed are filled
with hot magma via upwelling.
Transform plate boundary
forms when plates slide horizontally past one
another. Conservative plate margins
commonly affect active spreading ridges,
producing zigzag plate margins.