EARTH SCI Q2 LONG TEST
layer continues to weather, allowing the
REVIEWER
SHUA
MODULE 1:
Weathering – rocks and minerals are broken
down and dissolved on the Earth’s surface.
 partners with erosion.
 Disintegration – describes how large
masses of rocks and mechanically
broken down into smaller chunks or
fragments.
 Decomposition – describes changes in
the chemical composition of rocks to
form new products.
 clasts – broken fragments of rocks.
- transported elsewhere in a process called
erosion.
TYPES OF WEATHERING
Mechanical Weathering – disintegration of
rocks causing it to break while retaining its
chemical properties.
 also called physical weathering and
disaggregation.
Chemical Weathering – caused by changes in
chemical properties of minerals and rocks.
 most commonly catalyzed by agents
such as water, carbon dioxide and
oxygen.
Biological weathering – caused by living
organisms.
 can fall to both mechanical and chemical
weathering.
Types of Mechanical Weathering
UNLOADING – caused by the expansion of the
upper portion of a block intrusive igneous rock.
 exfoliation – process where exposed
successive removal of outer rock sheets.
Thermal Expansion and Contraction – high
temperature causes rock to expand while low
temperature causes rocks to contract.
 Charles’ Law.
Freeze-Thaw Weathering – water penetrates
into rock cracks.
 as temperature drops, the water freezes
and expands causing the widening of
cracks.
Salt-crystal Growth – water that contains
dissolved salt penetrates into cracks and
crevices.
 quite similar to freeze-thaw.
 as temperature rise, water will evaporate
leaving the salt inside it.
Hydration – water molecules will attach to
crystalline structure of minerals.
 water moves in and out of the mineral
causing the rock to shrink, swell and
break without changing its chemical
properties.
Types of Chemical Weathering
Oxidation – oxygen (from water) bonds with
other elements from rock forming minerals.
Solution and Carbonation
 Solution – dissolving rock-forming
minerals in water.
 lichens and mosses aid in the solution
process.
 Carbonation – decomposes rocks
through the aid of water and carbon
dioxide.
Hydrolysis – water molecules alone, rather than
oxygen and carbon dioxide in it, react with the
components of rock-forming minerals.
  ions from water combine with other
elements/compounds forming new
products.
VARIABILITY IN WEATHERING
CLIMATE
- areas that are cold and dry is mostly
physical weathering.
- areas with high temperature and rainfall
is mostly chemical weathering.
ROCK TYPE
- rock susceptibility on weathering is also
dependent on the rock type.
- Bowen’s reaction series – minerals that
crystallize first are more susceptible and
minerals that crystallize last are more
resistant.
 describe the crystallization sequence of
common igneous silicate minerals.
 shows the crystallization temperature for
each mineral.
 work of a petrologist named Norman L.
Bowen.
ROCK STRUCTURE
- rate of weathering is affected by the
presence of joints, folds, faults, bedding
planes through which agents of
weathering enter a rock mass.
TOPOGRAPHY
- physical weathering occurs more
quickly to highly elevated areas with
steep slope due to the help of gravity.
- areas with gentle slopes, water may stay
longer on the surface which causes
chemical weathering to occur more
quickly.
TIME
- length of exposure to agents of
weathering affects the rate of erosion.
Differential Weathering – variability in the rate
of weathering in rocks in a landform.
MODULE 2:
Magma – composed of semi-liquid hot molten
rocks located beneath the Earth.
 is fluid—it has the ability to flow.
 volcanoes – magma that reaches the
surface does so by erupting through
vents.
 liquid magma is less dense than
surrounding solid rock.
Compositions of Magma
- Si, Al, Fe, Ca, Mg, Na, K, H, and O
 has a wide range of compositions, but
silica (SiO2) always dominates the
mixture.
Gases Dissolved in Magma
- principal gas is water vapor, which,
together with carbon dioxide.
Temperature of Magmas and Lavas
- magma temperatures range from 1000C
to 1200C, but it can reach 1400C under
some conditions.
Viscosity of Magmas and Lavas
viscosity – internal property of a substance that
offers resistance to flow.
 depends on temperature and
composition.
 the more viscous a magma, the less
easily it flows.
Types of Magma
(Based on their classification as how they are
formed, their characteristics and the kind of
rocks they are composed of.)
Basaltic Magmas – formed by the dry partial
melting of the mantle.
 normally found in oceanic volcanoes.
 magma from Hawaiian volcanoes such
as Kilauea and Mauna Loa is basaltic.
Andesitic magma – formed through the wet
partial melting of the mantle.
 mantle under the ocean has contact with
water.
 Magma from Mount St. Helens in
Washington State and Krakatau in
Indonesia is usually andesitic.
Rhyolitic magma – forms because of wet
melting of the continental crust.
 famous for creating mounds and lava
domes.
 when gasses are present, it can become
explosive, resulting in the formation of
pumice.
 glasslike obsidian – rock with a
molecular structure so defined that a
broken edge actually is sharper than a
surgeon’s scalpel.
 magmas erupted from volcanoes that
once were active at Yellowstone Park
(Being identified based from the amount of
silica they contain, correlated to gas content,
viscosity, and temperature are mostly
rhyolitic.)
Felsic Magma
- has the highest Silica content.
- has the highest gas content and
viscosity.
- has the lowest average temperature.
 low in iron, magnesium and calcium but
is high in potassium and sodium.
Intermediate magma
- higher silica content than that of mafic
magma
- has higher gas content and higher
viscosity.
 as a result of the higher viscosity and
gas content it builds up pressure beneath
the surface of the earth before it can be
released as lava.
 this more gaseous and sticky lava has
the tendency to violently explode and
cools as andesite rock.
Mafic Magma
- has relatively low silica content but has
high iron and magnesium content.
- this magma both has low gas content
and viscosity.
- has high average temperature which
results to its low viscosity.
- low viscosity means that this type of
magma is the most fluid.
Ultramafic magma
- hottest and most viscous magma.
MAGMATISM – process under the earth’s
crust where formation and movement of magma
occurs.
 the movement and flow of magma
happen in the lower part of the Earth’s
crust and in the upper portion of the
mantle, known as asthenosphere.
HOW MAGMA IS FORMED?
partial melting – process where magma present
in the lower crust and upper mantle of the Earth
is formed or generated.
 addition of volatile materials such as
water and carbon dioxide.
 different minerals in rock melt at
different temperature and pressure.
Process of Partial Melting
1. Partial Melting thru heat transfer
- conduction in mantle happens when heat
is transferred from hotter molten rocks
to the Earth’s cold crust. (heat transfer)
- as magma rises, it is often hot enough to
melt the rock it touches.
 - it happens at convergent boundaries,
where tectonic plates are crashing
together.
2. A DECREASE OF PRESSURE
- mantle rocks remain solid when exposed
to high pressure.
- however, during convection, these rocks
tend to go upward (shallower level) and
the pressure is reduced.
- this triggers the melting of magma.
- this is known as decompression melting.
- this process occurs at the Mid-Ocean
Ridge, an underwater mountain system.
3. ADDITION OF VOLATILES
- when water or carbon dioxide is added
to hot rocks, flux melting occurs.
- the melting points of minerals within the
rocks decrease.
- if a rock is already close to its melting
point, the effect of adding these volatiles
can be enough to trigger partial melting.
- it occurs around subduction zones.
MODULE 3 (METAMORPHISM):
Metamorphism – pre-exiting rocks transformed
into metamorphic rocks.
Factors controlling the mineral assemblage of
metamorphic rocks;
- Bulk composition of the original rock.
- Attained pressure/temperature during
metamorphism.
- Composition of fluid phase that was present
during metamorphism.
Foliation – generally caused by repetitive
layering of sheet silicates (silica minerals with
sheet-like structures) such as clay minerals, mica
and chlorite.
Classification of Metamorphic Rocks
1. Foliated – shows a layered or banded
appearance due to the parallel alignment
of elongated or platy minerals.
 common foliated metamorphic rocks are
slate, phyllite, schists, and gneiss.
 Gneiss
- (pronounced, nice).
- foliation in gneiss is striking. -light-
colored minerals segregate from dark
ones, forming light and dark layers
alternating with one another.
2. Non-foliated – do not exhibit foliation
because they are commonly made of
minerals which are neither platy or
elongated.
 Example: Marble, Quartzite
Types of Metamorphism
1. Contact – intrusion of hot, molten
magma will change the rock when it
comes in contact. - do not show
foliation.
2. Regional metamorphism – large scale
movements of Earth's crust cause a vast
region of rock to sink into the Earth
which experiences increased heat and
pressure.
 develop foliation or layered texture.
MODULE 3 (DEFORMATION):
Deformation – changes in volume and or shape
of rocks.
- squeezed by compressional forces or
stretched by the tensional forces.
Stress – force per unit area applied on the rock.
strain – change in shape or volume of the rock
that experienced stress.
Types of Stress
Tensional – forces pulling in opposite
directions.
- Divergent
- Stretching and Thinning
- Normal
Compressional – involves forces pushing
together.
- Convergent
- Shortening and Thickening
- Reverse
Shear – involves transverse forces that result in
deformation of material by slippage.
- Transform Fault
- Tearing
- Strike Slip
Elastic deformation – reversible after a stress is
released.
ductile deformation – causes changes in shape
and no longer be able to return to its original
shape.
Yield point – point at which elastic deformation
is surpassed and strain becomes permanent.
Brittle deformation – materials respond to
stress by breaking and fracturing.
fracture (break) – uppermost part of the crust
which tends to break when subjected to
compressional or tensional forces.
Two Types of Fractures
faults – breaks along when there is considerable
movement.
joints – breaks where there is little or no
movement.
fold (bend) – happens deep within the crust and
the rocks do not break the way they do at the
earth's surface.
Types of Folds
Hanging wall – block of rocks resting on the
fault plane.
Footwall – block below the fault plane.
Two Types of Faults
Dip-Slip Faulting – movement of blocks of
rocks mainly in vertical direction, move up and
down.
Types of Dip-Slip Faults
Normal fault – crust is stretched or pulled apart
by forces in opposing directions.
- hanging wall moves down with respect
to the footwall.
Reverse fault – crust is squeezed or
compressed.
- hanging moves up relative to the
footwall.
Strike-Slip Faulting – movement chiefly in the
horizontal direction (sideways or laterally).
Kinds of Strike-Slip Faults
Right-Lateral Strike-Slip Fault – sideways
movement of fault to the right.
Left-Lateral Strike-Slip Fault – other block
moved to your left then the fault is a left-lateral
strike-slip fault.
Philippine Fault is an example of Strike-Slip
Fault.