Lesson 1: Weathering

Weathering- process of breakdown of rocks at Earth’s surface, by action of water, ice, acids, plants, animals,
gravity, and changing temperatures.

THREE TYPES OF WEATHERING

Physical Weathering - caused by effects of changing temperatures on rocks, causing rock to break
apart.
- Sometimes assisted by water. Happens in places where little soil and plants
grow, like mountain regions and hot desserts.
- Occurs either repeated melting or freezing of water through expansion and
contraction of surface layer of rocks baked by sun. Three types:

1: Abrasion- occurs when rocks surface frequently exposed to water

2: Freeze-thaw- occurs when water continually seeps into cracks, freezes, and
expands, eventually breaking rock apart. Occurs in mountainous regions like Alps
or Snowdonia.

Rainwater/snow – melt collects in crack in rocks – at night temp. drops and water
expands – increases volume in ice exerts pressure on cracks, splitting further –
during day ice melts and water seeps deeper into cracks – night, water freezes
again.

3: Exfoliation- happen as cracks develop parallel to the land surface as

consequence of reduction in pressure during uplift and erosion. Occurs in upland
areas where exposures of uniform coarsely crystalline igneous rock.

Rock mass at depth under high pressure from underlying rocks. Tends to uniform
and lack fractures – Progressive erosion occurs, rock mass subjected to
progressively low pressure of overlying rocks leads to tension in directions at right
angle of surface – tension relieved by formation of cracks follow land surface –
Exfoliation domes are relatively flat on plateaus but can be steep on flanks of
mountain – once crack developed; water enters causes chemical weathering
leading to formation of new low density minerals, causing detachment.
Chemical Weathering -caused by rainwater reacting with mineral grains rocks to form new minerals and
soluble salts.
- reactions occur when water slightly acidic. This needs water and occurs rapidly
in high temperature.
- First process in the production of soils. Types

1: Carbonation- CO2 in air dissolves in rainwater and becomes weakly acidic.

Weak carbonic acid dissolve limestone seeps to crack and cavities. Over years,
solution of rock can form spectacular cave systems.

2: Acidification- polluting gas, sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxide dissolve

rainwater to make stronger acids. When rainwater falls, we get acid rain, attacks
many rocks, damaging buildings and monuments.

3: Hydrolysis- breakdown of rock by acidic water produce clay and soluble salts.
Takes place when acid rain reacts with minerals like feldspar producing clay and
salt removed from body. Quartz mineral not affected to by weathering.

4: Hydration- water reacts with rocks, modifying chemical structure.

5: Oxidation- breakdown of rock by oxygen and water often giving iron rich rock
rusty-colored weathered surface.
Biological Weathering - when rocks weakened by different biological agents like plants and animals.
When plant roots grow through rocks, creates fracture and breakage. Classified:

1: by Physical Means- borrowing creates holes on ground by excavation and

move rock fragments to surface. Become exposed to other further enhance
 weathering. Also hujmans.
2: By Chemical Compounds- plants and animals produce substances react with
rock and cause slow disintegration.

Lesson 2: Earth’s Interior

Convection- process of heat in Earth’s interior. Less dense material goes up and thick sinks. Happens in
mantle.

∆ 3 Main Sources: (1) Primordial heat or left over accretion and differentiation lead Earth’s core formation. (2)
Decay of radioactive isotopes (3) tidal friction from Moon’s pull-on Earth.
∆ Earth made up entirely materials-crust and mantle.
∆ Magma only be formed where pre-existing solid rocks undergo melting. Melting due to reasons;
-decrease in pressure affects hot mantle rock.
-addition of volatiles mix with hot, dry rock, decrease melting point of rock then helps breaking chemical
bonds allow melting.
-heat transfer from rising magma.

PLACES MAGMA IS FORMED

Mid-oceanic ridges-rising magma in mantle convection cell brings heat to surface, transferring heat to overlying
rocks.
Mantle plumes- transfer of heat and decompression result to magma generation. Has deeper source of heat
Subduction zones- oceanic crustal rocks formed along spreading centers beneath several km of seawater.
Presence of water during generation results formation of hydrous materials, as oceanic slab thrusted down along
subduction area, cause mineral instability.

Lesson 2: After Magma Formation

Igneous Rocks- originates beneath earth’s surface in molten state called magma.
Magma- hot molten rock containing chemical elements from uppermost mantle asthenosphere. Formed in
mantle where subducted oceanic plate is located. Temp and pressures in area extremely high cause water to
sweat mantle. Addition of water to hot mantle causes rock melt and form magma. Magma rise less dense
compared to surroundings.

At deeper levels- surrounding mantle rock, magma rises and passes mineral grain borders and cracks.
At lower levels- magma may no longer rise because density almost same as its surroundings.
Plutonic Bodies- When magma solidifies at area, forms different types.

Norman L. Bowen- why certain materials occur together while others almost never linked to one another.
1900s, he heated powdered rock until melted. Cooled down molten material and observed minerals formed.
Bowen’s Reaction Series- one can conclude from minerals present in rock conditions under which rock had
formed.
Crystallization- minerals unchanging at higher melting temperature and crystallize before stable at lower temp.
Continuous- contains plagioclase feldspar.
Discontinuous- describes ferromagnesian in magma changed if temperature changes.

Magmatic differentiation- process of generating one or more subordinate magmas from single parent magma.
Crystal Fractionation- chemical process which structure of liquid, magma, changes due to crystallization.
Crystal setting- happens when heavier minerals crystallize first and settle down while less dense materials
crystallize at final stages.
Partial melting- describes Bowen’s Reaction series, quartz, and muscovite mostly formed under low temp
conditions, making first melt from parent rock once exposed to higher temp. Ultramafic rock forms basaltic
magma.

Magma mixing- happens when two different magma rises up, with more buoyant mass overtakes slower rising
body.
Convective flow- mixes two magmas, produces single, and intermediate magma.
Assimilation/Contamination- reaction that occurs when crust mixed up with rising magma. When magma rises
to surface, surrounding rock dissolve and eventually mixed with magma. Scenario produces change in chemical
composition of magma unless added same magma.
Lesson 2: Rocks Under Different Types of Stress

Rock deformation- change in shape, position, of rock response to stress.

Stress- force per unit area applied on rock layers.
Strain- change in shape or volume of rock undergone stress. Thus, stress cause strain on rock layers.
Magnitude of Stress- not just function of amount of stress but also related to area force applied.

Elastic deformation- when strain is reversible. Material returns to original state once stress deforms removed.
Ductile deformation- when strain is irreversible. Rocks layers or materials respond to stress bending or
deforming without breaking.
Fracture deformation- irreversible strain where material breaks because brittle.

Folds- formed when rock layers or materials are deforming plastically under compressive stress. Do not return
to original shape. If stress increased, rocks undergo more folds and fracture.

Monocline- when there is simple folding of rock layers they no longer horizontal.
Anticline- occurs when fold bents upward
Syncline- fold bends downward.

Fault- too much stress applied to rock layers. Rock undergo fracture or rock materials break. If sudden motion
along faults, causes rock break and move suddenly
Earthquake- energy released during movement of fault.
Slip- distance or rock move sideways fault. Can be up or down. Slip is relative, because usually no way to know
whether both sides moved or only one.
Dip- angle faults lie to horizontal of surface of earth

Normal faults- hanging wall drops down relative to footwall

Reverse Fault- when footwall drops relative to hanging wall
Strike Slip- vertical fracturs where blocks mostly moved horizontally.