RESOURCE GEOLOGY

LESSON 2: WEATHERING Controls of Hydrothermal Alteration

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN ALTERATION, ORE AND
GANGUE, AND MINERALIZATION
Alteration – defined as the change in mineralogical
assemblage of the rock, brought about the physical and
chemical changes
In the mineral industry, alteration can result into an ore, with
a component of gangue along with commodity. The type of
alteration depends on:
- The character of the wall rock
- Character of the invading fluids
- Temperatures and pressure where the reactions
takes place.
Alteration may result from the following processes:
- Diagenesis
- Regional Process/ Metamorphism
- Post-magmatic / volcanic processes
- Direct mineralization
- Weathering
TEMPERATURE, PRESSURE, AND COMPOSITION
GRADIENT
SYNGENETIC DEPOSITS
Syngenetic deposits – in general, have no effect in
mineralization – the ore deposits are deposited along the host
rocks.
- Syngenetic deposits are mineral formations that
develop simultaneously with the parent rock and
are enclosed by it.
1. Temperature
2. Fluid Composition
3. Pressure
4. Fluid Flow
5. Host Rock
6. Time
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN WALL ROCK AND FLUIDS
HYDROLYSIS
Refers to the conversion of anhydrous silicates with H+ to
hydrolyzed silicates like feldspars to mica and clay minerals,
furthermore: hydrolysis controls the alkali-stripping of mica
into kaolinite.
▪ Hydrolysis in the context of ore deposits refers to
the chemical process in which minerals are altered
through the reaction with water.
▪ This process can lead to the formation of secondary
minerals and the release of metal ions, which may
subsequently contribute to the formation of ore
deposits.

- These deposits can be classified into two main

types: igneous and sedimentary.

- Examples of syngenetic deposits include 3KAlSi3O8 + 2H (aq) ⇌ KAl3Si3O10(OH)2 +6SiO2 + 2K (aq)

K feldspar Muscovite Quartz
nickeliferous sulfides, non-titaniferous magnetite,
diamond, chromite, and corundum.
KAl3Si3O10(OH)2 + 2H+ + 3H2O ⇌ NaAl3Si3O10(OH)4 + 2k+
Muscovite Kaolinite
Chemical and Sedimentary deposits, volcanogenic ores,
most black shale hosted ores, and magmatic segregation Porphyry copper
deposits are generally free of alterations.
deposits are typically
formed by the intrusion
Syngenetic deposits are distinguished from epigenetic
of granitic magma into
deposits, which form much later than the rocks that enclose the Earth's crust, which
them, such as veins that form through fracturing and
can lead to the alteration
hydrothermal processes.
of the surrounding rocks
through hydrothermal
processes.

EPIGENETIC DEPOSITS The alteration of the host rocks can lead to the formation of
These deposits are associated with intermediate and felsic secondary minerals, including copper sulfides, which can
volcanism and plutonism, long burial diagenetic deposits for accumulate in the altered rocks and form the basis of the ore
petroleum where temperature, pressure and composition deposit.
probably exist between circulating fluids and the walls. HYDRATION AND DEHYDRATION
Hydration – is the process of adding water molecules to a
▪ Epigenetic deposits are mineral formations that substance, which can lead to the formation of new minerals
develop within preexisting rocks, often much later
or the alteration of existing minerals.
than the rocks themselves.
▪ These deposits are typically formed by the
infiltration of fluids into intergranular porosity, with
- For example, the hydration of magnesian serpentine
subsequent precipitation of ore and gangue
can lead to the formation of new minerals.
minerals.
- Olivine ⇌ Serpentinite
- Hematite ⇌ Goethite
Epigenetic deposits include:
o Veins, which form through fracturing and
Dehydration - is the process of removing water molecules
hydrothermal processes.
from a substance, which can lead to the formation of
o Replacement bodies, such as magnetite in different minerals or the alteration of existing minerals.
limestone
o Placer deposits, which form due to weathering and
- Kaolinite + Quartz ⇌ Pyrophylite
deposition of detrital sedimentary rocks in basins.

Jhon Andro Jarovilla

BS Geology 3A
 RESOURCE GEOLOGY

Alkali-Earth Metasomatism Silication - refers to the introduction or replacement of

Alkali and alkaline earth elements are introduced into existing silicate minerals in rocks or other materials.
rocks through the action of metamorphic or hydrothermal o can occur through various processes, including
fluids. metamorphism, hydrothermal alteration, and
weathering.
Key Aspects:
o The introduction of alkali elements, such as
potassium (K) and rubidium (Rb), and alkaline earth
elements, such as calcium (Ca) and magnesium
(Mg).
o The development of metasomatic zoning, where the
altered rocks transition from unaltered lithologies to
albite-actinolite assemblages.

Examples:

Calcite + Quartz = Wollastonite

OXIDATION-REDUCTION
Oxidation and reduction (redox) reactions are chemical
processes involving the transfer of electrons between
chemical species.

▪ In ore deposits, oxidation and reduction reactions

▪ Mostly affects Fe and S mineralogies and
Example:
Calcite ⇌ Dolomite
2CaCO3 + Mg2+ (aq) ⇌ CaMg(CO3)2 + Ca2+ (aq)
dolomitization, a diagenetic process in which the calcium
carbonate minerals aragonite and calcite are recrystallized
and converted into the mineral dolomite.
can lead to the formation of oxidized zones, which
contain minerals like azurite, malachite, and
chalcocite.
complexes, where the end reaction would be
sulfidation and fluoridation. This is due to the
components of minerals often starts as Oxides e.g.
Olivine is composed of FeO , MgO, nd SiO2.

DECARBONATION
A process that occurs during metamorphism, where
carbonate minerals in rocks are broken down and released as
carbon dioxide gas.

Dolomite + Quartz ⇌ Diopside

SILICIFICATION AND SILICATION Placer gold deposits are concentrations of gold that
Silicification and silication are geological processes that accumulate in river beds and in the sand and gravel of
involve the introduction or replacement of silica in rocks or stream beds.
organic materials. They are formed by the weathering and erosion of gold-
bearing rocks, with the released gold being transported by
Silicification - is a petrification process in which silica-rich water and subsequently deposited and concentrated in
fluids seep into the voids of Earth materials, such as rocks, specific areas.
wood, bones, and shells, and replace the original materials
with silica (SiO2).
o can occur through various mechanisms, including
permeation, replacement, and hydrothermal
alteration.
o often associated with hydrothermal processes and
can lead to the formation of mineral deposits, such
as albitites and microlites.

Sulphide vein oxidation is a geochemical process in which

sulfide minerals, such as pyrite (FeS₂), are exposed to
oxidizing conditions, leading to the formation of oxidized
minerals and the release of metal ions and sulfuric acid. This
process occurs when sulfide minerals are exposed to oxygen
and water, often through weathering at the Earth's surface or
through hydrothermal fluids in the subsurface.
Jhon Andro Jarovilla
BS Geology 3A
 RESOURCE GEOLOGY

Jhon Andro Jarovilla

BS Geology 3A