CARBON MONOXIDE, AMMONIA AND NOISE POLLUTION

SURVEY IN BENIN CITY, EDO STATE, NIGERIA

BY

AGHEDO, ALLISON AISOSA

(PSC1405800)

DEPARTMENT OF CHEMISTRY
FACULTY OF PHYSICAL SCIENCES, UNIVERSITY OF BENIN

OCTOBER, 2018

i
 CERTIFICATION

This is to certify that this work was carried out by AGHEDO ALLISON

AISOSA with Matriculation number of PSC1405800 of the department of

Chemistry, University of Benin, Benin City.

_____________________ _____________
AGHEDO ALLISON AISOSA DATE
Student

______________________ _____________
PROF.E.E.UKPEBOR DATE
Project Supervisor

_______________________ _____________
PROF.E.E.UKPEBOR DATE
Head of Department

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 DEDICATION

This project is dedicated to God Almighty, my father late Mr Sunday Omoregie

Aghedo and my uncle late Mr Bernard Ugowe.

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

My sincere gratitude goes to my beloved mother Mrs Orobosa Aghedo for her

love, prayers, financial and moral support throughout the course of this program

and to my dearest siblings Osazuwa, Efosa, Nosakhare and Prayer Aghedo.

Also my profound thanks and appreciation goes to the family of my late uncle

Mr Bernard Ugowe for their support. I would also want to specially thank my

project supervisor PROF.E.E. Ukpebor for his fatherly role, intelligent

criticisms, prayers, guidance and his contribution to my growth as a chemist and

to all my lecturers for the knowledge and wisdom acquired throughout my stay

in the Department of Chemistry. I would also want to appreciate all my project

research team members Blessed, Benson, Benedicta, Theophilus, Victor, Medon

and Abayode, my friends Sophia, Kira, Gift, Naomi, Innocent, Gifty, Ola,

Agape ,Joy,Williams amongst others for their love and support throughout the

course of this research.

Finally all honour and glory to God Almighty for his grace and mercy thus far.

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

TITLE PAGE i

CERTIFICATION ii

DEDICATION iii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT iv

TABLE OF CONTENTS v

ABSTRACT ix

CHAPTER ONE

1.0 Introduction and literature review 1

1.1 Introduction 1

1.1.1 Background of study 3

1.1.2 Statement of problem 3

1.1.3 Justification of study 4

1.1.4 Scope of study 4

1.1.5 Aim and objectives 5

1.2 Literature review 5

1.2.1 Environmental pollution 7

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1.2.2 Major forms of pollution 6

1.2.2.1 Water pollution 7

1.2.2.2 Land/soil pollution 7

1.2.2.3 Noise pollution 9

1.2.3 Atmosphere 10

1.2.3.1 Protective functions of the atmosphere 10

1.2.3.1.1Classification of the atmosphere 10

1.2.3.1.2 Classification based on composition 11

1.2.3.1.3 Classification based on temperature 11

1.2.3.2 Chemical composition of the atmosphere 14

1.2.4 Air pollution 16

1.2.4.1 Air pollutants 18

1.2.4.2 Sources of air pollution 19

1.2.4.3 Impacts of air pollution 25

1.2.4.3.1 Health impact 25

1.2.4.3.2 Environmental impacts 28

1.2.4.4 Carbon monoxide 31

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1.2.4.5 Ammonia 33

CHAPTER TWO

2.0 Materials and methods 37

2.1 Materials used 37

2.2 Methodology 37

2.2.1 Study area 37

2.2.2 Sampling sites 40

2.2.3 Sample collection 42

2.2.4 Sampling methodology 42

2.2.4.1 Carbon monoxide sampling 42

2.2.4.2 Ammonia sampling 43

2.2.4.3 Noise level sampling 43

2.2.4.4 Temperature, humidity and wind speed sampling 44

2.3 Statistical analysis 44

2.3.1 Hypothesis 45

CHAPTER THREE

3.0 Results and discussion 46

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3.1 Spatial variation in carbon monoxide, ammonia and noise levels

concentration 46

3.2 Comparison of measured data with regulatory limit 53

CONCLUSION 59

REFERENCES 60

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 ABSTRACT

Carbon monoxide (CO), ammonia (NH3) and noise are some of the

common pollutants found in the environment and they have disastrous effects

on man and our ecosystem. Previous studies carried out in Benin City have

shown non-compliance of carbon monoxide pollution with both national and

international regulatory standards. CO, NH3 and noise have been used in this

study to ascertain the effectiveness of the newly implemented traffic control

measures by the state government in the city. A dosimeter (in situ method) was

used to measure ambient CO concentrations, NH3 concentrations were measured

using a portable, handheld ammonia gas detector and noise level was measured

using a Data logger sound level meter. Samples were collected during the rainy

season in five selected sampling sites to represent all quarters of the city. A

control location was chosen in an area within a farmland to obtain background

information on the distribution of these pollutants. The results for CO was

found to be within the range of 1.00 – 5.00ppm which suggests that the traffic

control measures have been effective in reducing carbon monoxide and

ammonia pollution in the city because they were found to be below all available

national and international regulatory limit .However, these measures haven’t

been as effective in combating noise pollution because the values obtained were

in the range of 41.00 – 87.00 which exceeds all available national and

international regulatory limits. More stringent implementation of the traffic

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control measures will be required to produce the necessary results for noise

pollution.

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 CHAPTER ONE

1.0 INTRODUCTION AND LITERATURE

1.1 Introduction

Environmental pollution is one of the greatest challenges the world is

facing. Industrial revolution gave rise to environmental pollution and it

increases daily due to the increase in human activities causing irreparable

damage to Mother Earth. Environmental pollution is caused by the activities of

man and his continuous interaction with the environment. Several studies has

shown that as the population of a country increases, the exploitation of the

environment and its consequential effects on lives of the people and other living

organisms increases. Activities such as bush burning, use of auto mobiles, solid

waste incineration and burning of fossil fuel directly and or indirectly release

harmful gases such as CO, NOX, SO2, O3,NH3 and even noise into the

environment. These gases leads to the pollution of air, water and soil. For the

purpose of this study however, carbon monoxide (CO), ammonia (NH 3) and

noise pollution would be studied.

Carbon monoxide poisoning is the most common type of fatal air

poisoning in many countries [Omaye, 2002]. Carbon monoxide is colourless,

odourless but highly toxic. It combines with haemoglobin to produce

carboxyhaemoglobin, which usurps the space in haemoglobin that normally

1
carries oxygen, but is ineffective for delivering oxygen to bodily tissues. A level

of 50% carboxyhemoglobin may result in seizure, coma, and can be fatal.

Gaseous ammonia (NH3) is the most abundant alkaline gas in the

atmosphere. . At room temperature, ammonia is a colourless, pungent-smelling

gas and is lighter than air. The largest source of NH 3 emissions is agriculture

other sources of NH3 include industrial processes and vehicular emissions.

Recent studies have indicated that NH3 emissions have been increasing over the

last few decades on a global scale. This is a concern because NH 3 plays a

significant role in the formation of atmospheric particulate matter, visibility

degradation and atmospheric deposition of nitrogen to sensitive ecosystems.

Thus, the increase in NH3 emissions negatively influences environmental and

public health as well as climate change.

Noise could be any sound. It becomes a pollutant when it is unpleasant.

Noise pollution is hazardous to human health. It is an enemy of the environment

as it pollutes the surroundings. In recent years, many studies have shown that

noise is an issue that must be taken into serious consideration. Not only has

noise pollution been associated with hearing loss, there are other harmful effects

on humans such as insomnia.

1.1.1 Background of study

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 Morbidity and mortality rates in Nigeria rank among the highest in the

world with the average life expectancy currently at 55 years (WHO, 2018) and a

large part of this challenge is being attributed to the impacts of environmental

pollution. Pollution has always accompanied civilization. Pollution started from

prehistoric times, when man created the first fires. At that time the pollution

was comparatively small and could be handled by nature. It is industrial

revolution that gave rise to the environmental pollution we all know today. With

Benin City, the capital of Edo state being a gateway to other states, air pollution

is usually a challenge due to pollution from high vehicular activities in the state

and thus the Government has developed effective traffic control measures in the

city.

1.1.2 Statement of the problem

Automobile exhaust emission is the major source of a number of

deleterious pollutants usually detected in the atmosphere of urban areas

(Nasralla, 1982). Air pollution has become a challenge in Benin City, and this

has been attributed to automobile exhaust emission which is due to bad traffic

control. Effort has been made by the Edo state Government towards bringing

about effective traffic control in the state, which has led to the belief that there

is a reduction in the concentration of pollutants in the atmosphere. This work is

using noise, carbon monoxide and ammonia to check the effectiveness of these

measures.

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1.1.3 Justification of study

In the research carried out by Ukpebor et al. (2009), on the spatial and

diurnal variations of carbon monoxide pollution from motor vehicles in an

urban centre (Benin City), it was observed that frequent traffic jams resulting

from the high traffic density and inadequate traffic discipline was responsible

for the excessive enrichment of CO levels in the air. Consequently this study is

to ascertain the significance of effective traffic control in the city as developed

by the current government on air quality.

1.1.4 Scope of study

This work is centered in Benin City, the capital of Edo state. Five

sampling sites were chosen at strategic locations within the city (fig 2.1) to

represent all quarters of the city. Sites were created at New Benin market, Ring

road, Upper sakponba, Ramat Park and airport road with a control location in an

area within a farmland, Off Federal road, Ugbowo.

1.1.5 Aim and objectives

The aim of this study is to assess the effectiveness of good traffic control

on the emission of carbon monoxide, ammonia and noise pollution levels in

Benin City, Nigeria.

To achieve the above stated aim, the objectives are to:

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•Measure the concentration of CO, NH3, and Noise around pollution hotspots in

Benin-city

•Measure the concentration of CO, NH3, and Noise in a control location

(background information)

•Compare the measured levels of CO, NH3 and noise with national and

international regulatory standards

 Quantify meteorological parameters during the study

•Make data acquired available to the Edo state Government for effective air

pollution control in the state.

1.2 LITERATURE REVIEW

1.2.1 Environmental Pollution

Environment simply depicts what surrounds us (Hagget, 1975). It refers to

the sum total of all conditions that surrounds man at any point in time on the

earth surface (Anijah-Obi, 2001). Environmental protection Agency (FEPA)

Act of 1990,under section 38 also gave a very lucid definition of environment,

thus, environment include water, air, land and all plants and human beings or

animals living there and the inter-relationship which exists among these or any

of them. Environment can therefore be defined as everything that is surrounding

living organism including man which sees for the continued existence and

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development of other things therein. Pollution is a derivation of the word

pollute. Which means to make something dirty or no longer pure, especially by

adding harmful or unpleasant substances to it. Pollution is a contamination,

defilement, mischief, perturbation and reduction in the value of an object or

thing (Ekuri and Eze, 1999).Pollution is therefore the act of contaminating the

environment by harmful substances.

Environmental pollution occurs when any material, organism or substance is

introduced into the environment especially by the direct and indirect action of

man in more than its natural concentration which has detrimental effect on it

and every other thing therein (Okonkwo and Eboatu, 1999). In the quest to meet

up the basic needs of lives of these increasing population which includes

shelter, feeding, clothing, man has over stretched the environment .Trees are cut

down as timbers for building, to meet the feeding need of the ever growing

population, farmers have adopted some modern techniques such as the use of

herbicides, pesticides, inorganic fertilizers, mechanized farming etc. All of these

have contributed a lot in the pollution of the environment. It has been observed

in recent times that the role of the environment to a nation’s developmental

process cannot be relegated to the background. Apart from being the physical

surrounding for natural habitats ,the environment provide the basis for human

exploit for agricultural, industrial, commercial, technological, and tourism

development of a society. For this and several other reasons, environmental

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issues now occupy a centre stage in academic discourse and other public forum

both at national and international levels. Recorded evidence has also shown that

the environment is a wide range of the external circumstances, conditions and

the things that affect the existence and development of an individual, organism,

group and society (Isaichel, 1999).

1.2.2 Major forms of pollution

 Water/AquaticPollution

 Land/ Soil Pollution

 Noise Pollution

 Air Pollution

1.2.2.1 Water/aquatic pollution

Aquatic or water pollution is the discharge of unwanted biological,

chemical and physical materials into water bodies from man’s

environment .Water is vital to the existence of all living organisms .The

significance of water to human and other biological systems cannot be over

emphasized ,and there are numerous scientific and economic facts that water

shortage or it’s pollution cause severe decrease in productivity and deaths of

living species (Garba et al.,2008; 2010)The common sources of water that are

available to the local communities are fast being severed by a number of

anthropogenic factors ,of which pollution remains the most important

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problem(Galadima et al.,2011),The main sources of water pollution has to do

with forestry activities ,improper soil tillage practices, discharge of industrial

waste materials into bodies of water. Discharges from industries such as

petroleum, mining, iron and steel, pharmaceuticals and textiles among many

others have increased the contents of sulphates and nitrates in water bodies and

has altered properties such as colour and odour (Adelegan, 2004).These metals

and chemical substances increase the toxicity of water bodies.

1.2.2.2 Land/soil pollution

We walk and survive on land .It is literally the base of our

ecosystem .Land pollution is the degradation or destruction of earth’s surface

and soil directly or indirectly as a result of human activities. All life depends on

land and usually life’s basic needs are expressed to be food clothing and shelter

but it is true that to assert that there is only one essential or basic need of life

and that’s land because food, clothing and shelter are entirely derived from land.

The concern over soil contamination stems primarily from health risks, from

direct contact with the contaminated soil, vapors from the contaminants, and

from secondary contamination of water supplies within and underlying the soil.

Soil pollution can be caused by the following, oil spills, mining and activities by

other heavy industries, accidental spills as may happen during activities,

corrosion of underground storage tanks (including piping used to transmit the

contents), acid rain (in turn caused by air pollution), intensive farming,

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agrochemicals, such as pesticides, herbicides and fertilizers, industrial

accidents, road debris, drainage of contaminated surface water into the soil,

Ammunitions, chemical agents, and other agents of war, waste disposal, oil and

fuel dumping, nuclear wastes, direct discharge of industrial wastes to the soil,

Discharge of sewage, Landfill and illegal dumping.

1.2.2.3 Noise pollution

Noise could be any sound. It becomes a pollutant when it is unpleasant

and noise can be hazardous to human health. It is an enemy of the environment

as it pollutes the surroundings. In recent years, many studies have shown that

noise is an issue that must be taken into serious consideration. Not only has

noise pollution been associated with hearing loss, there are other harmful effects

on the human body such as insomnia. It is generally believed that noise disturbs

activities and communications, causing annoyance. Research has shown that as

the population of a country grows/increases with attendant pressure on the

environment especially in the make of improved technologies, environment

abuse and pollution is nevertheless heightened with corresponding effects on

lives of people and other living organisms. (Evelyn and Tyav, 2013). The world

seems to have ignored the effects of noise pollution to the extent that when

issues of pollution are discussed at world environmental conferences and

seminars, noise pollution is given very little cognizance (Nyakuma,2012). Noise

is measured in decibels (dB) using a pattern-approved sound level meter. Traffic

9
is the main source of sound pollution in cities. Noise limit for residential areas

during the day is 55db and 45db at night (WHO, 2000)

1.2.3 Atmosphere

An atmosphere (from Greek ἀτμός (atmos), meaning 'vapour', and σφαῖρα

(sphaira), meaning 'sphere' is a layer or a set of layers of gases surrounding a

planet or other material body, that is held in place by the gravity of that body.

An atmosphere is more likely to be retained if the gravity it is subject to is high

and the temperature of the atmosphere is low.The earth’s atmosphere is a

reservoir of gases. Air is a mixture of gases that is naturally odorless, colorless,

tasteless and formless.

1.2.3.1 Protective functions of the Atmosphere

a) Air is the medium of life on Earth’s surface

b) A major industrial and chemical raw material

c) Absorbs and interacts with harmful electromagnetic radiation and stream of

charged particles in the solar wind.

d) Protects the earth from natural and human-caused space debris.

1.2.3.1.1 The atmosphere is conveniently classified using 2 criteria:

a) Composition

b) Temperature
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1.2.3.1.2 Based on composition, the atmosphere is divided into 2 broad

regions:

a) The Heterosphere and…

b) The Homosphere.

a) Heterosphere:

The outer atmosphere beginning from about 50 miles from the earth’s surface

and extending to space Gases are not evenly mixed but assorted by gravity

according to their atomic weight and reaction of the gases with solar radiation.

Less than 0.001% of the mass of the earth’s atmosphere is in the heterosphere.

b) Homosphere:

Extends from earth’s surface to about 50 miles (80 km/s). Density of air

changes with altitude but the proportion of gases is nearly uniform. Exceptions

are: Ozone O3, Water vapor, Pollutants & Some trace chemicals.

1.2.3.1.3 Based on Temperature, The atmosphere is divided into 5 layers:

a) The Troposphere

This is the lowest part of the atmosphere - the part we live in. It contains

most of our weather - clouds, rain, snow. In this part of the atmosphere the

temperature gets colder as the distance above the earth increases, by about

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6.5°C per kilometre. The actual change of temperature with height varies from

day to day, depending on the weather.

The troposphere contains about 75% of all the air in the atmosphere, and

almost all of the water vapour (which forms clouds and rain). The decrease in

temperature with height is a result of the decreasing pressure. If a parcel of air

moves upwards it expands (because of the lower pressure). When air expands it

cools. So air higher up is cooler than air lower down.

The lowest part of the troposphere is called the boundary layer. This is

where the air motion is determined by the properties of the Earth's surface.

Turbulence is generated as the wind blows over the Earth's surface, and by

thermals rising from the land as it is heated by the sun. This turbulence

redistributes heat and moisture within the boundary layer, as well as pollutants

and other constituents of the atmosphere.

The top of the troposphere is called the tropopause. This is lowest at the

poles, where it is about 7 - 10 km above the Earth's surface. It is highest (about

17 - 18 km) near the equator.

b) The Stratosphere

This extends upwards from the tropopause to about 50 km. It contains

much of the ozone in the atmosphere. The increase in temperature with height

occurs because of absorption of ultraviolet (UV) radiation from the sun by this

12
ozone. Temperatures in the stratosphere are highest over the summer pole, and

lowest over the winter pole.

By absorbing dangerous UV radiation, the ozone in the stratosphere

protects us from skin cancer and other health damage. However chemicals

(called CFCs or freons, and halons) which were once used in refrigerators, spray

cans and fire extinguishers have reduced the amount of ozone in the

stratosphere, particularly at polar latitudes, leading to the so-called "Antarctic

ozone hole".

Now humans have stopped making most of the harmful CFCs we expect

the ozone hole will eventually recover over the 21st century, but this is a slow

process.

c) The Mesosphere

The region above the stratosphere is called the mesosphere. Here the

temperature again decreases with height, reaching a minimum of about -90°C at

the "mesopause".

d) The Thermosphere and Ionosphere

The thermosphere lies above the mesopause, and is a region in which

temperatures again increase with height. This temperature increase is caused by

the absorption of energetic ultraviolet and X-Ray radiation from the sun.

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 The region of the atmosphere above about 80 km is also caused the

"ionosphere", since the energetic solar radiation knocks electrons off molecules

and atoms, turning them into "ions" with a positive charge. The temperature of

the thermosphere varies between night and day and between the seasons, as do

the numbers of ions and electrons which are present. The ionosphere reflects

and absorbs radio waves, allowing us to receive shortwave radio broadcasts in

New Zealand from other parts of the world.

e) The Exosphere

The region above about 500 km is called the exosphere. It contains mainly

oxygen and hydrogen atoms, but there are so few of them that they rarely

collide - they follow "ballistic" trajectories under the influence of gravity, and

some of them escape right out into space.

1.2.3.2 Chemical composition of the atmosphere

The atmosphere is actually very thin compared to the size of the earth,

equivalent in thickness to a piece of paper laid over a beach ball. However, it is

responsible for keeping our earth habitable and for producing weather.

The atmosphere is composed of a mix of several different gases in differing

amounts. The permanent gases whose percentages do not change from day to

day are nitrogen, oxygen and argon. Nitrogen accounts for 78% of the

atmosphere, oxygen 21% and argon 0.9%. Gases like carbon dioxide, nitrous

14
oxides, methane, and ozone are trace gases that account for about a tenth of one

percent of the atmosphere. Water vapor is unique in that its concentration

varies from 0-4% of the atmosphere depending on where you are and what time

of the day it is. In the cold, dry artic regions water vapor usually accounts for

less than 1% of the atmosphere, while in humid, tropical regions water vapor

can account for almost 4% of the atmosphere. Water vapor content is very

important in predicting weather.

Greenhouse gases whose percentages vary daily, seasonally, and annually

have physical and chemical properties which make them interact with solar

radiation and infrared light (heat) given off from the earth to affect the energy

balance of the globe. This is why scientists are watching the observed increase

in greenhouse gases like carbon dioxide and methane carefully, because even

though they are small in amount, they can strongly affect the global energy

balance and temperature over time.

The present-day atmosphere is quite different from the natural atmosphere

that existed before the Industrial Revolution (Ashton,1948)in terms of chemical

composition. If the natural atmosphere is considered to be “clean”, then this

means that clean air cannot be found anywhere in today’s atmosphere.

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1.2.4 Air pollution

Defining “air pollution” is not simple. One could claim that air pollution

started when humans began burning fuels. In other words, all man-made

(anthropogenic) emissions into the air can be called air pollution, because they

alter the chemical composition of the natural atmosphere. One can refine this

approach and only consider anthropogenic emissions of harmful chemicals as

air pollution. However, this refined approach has some drawbacks. Firstly,

one has to define what “harmful” means. “Harmful” could mean an adverse

effect on the health of living things, an adverse effect on anthropogenic or

natural non-living structures, or a reduction in the air’s visibility. Also, a

chemical that does not cause any short-term harmful effects may accumulate in

the atmosphere and create a long-term harmful effect. For example,

anthropogenic emissions of chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) were once considered

safe because they are in the troposphere. However, once these chemicals enter

the stratosphere, ultraviolet radiation can convert them into highly reactive

species that can have a devastating effect on stratospheric ozone. Similarly,

anthropogenic CO2 emissions from combustion processes were considered safe

because they are not toxic, but the long-term accumulation of CO2 in the

atmosphere may lead to a climate change, which could then be harmful to

humans and the ecosystem. So besides anthropogenic emissions, it is useful to

also consider geogenic emissions and biogenic emissions as contributors to air

16
pollution. Geogenic emissions are defined as emissions caused by the non-

living world, such as volcanic emissions, sea-salt emissions, and natural fires.

Biogenic emissions come from the living world; such as volatile organic

compound (VOC) emissions from forests and CH4 emissions from swamps.

So taking all of the above into account, air pollution can be defined as

Emission of any substance into the air from an anthropogenic, biogenic, or

geogenic source, that is either not part of the natural atmosphere or is present in

higher concentrations than the natural atmosphere, and may cause a short-term

or long-term adverse effect. Air pollution therefore refers to the condition in

which the existence of toxic substance in the atmosphere generated by various

human activities and natural phenomenon which results in the damaging effects

on the welfare of human beings and the living environment.

To a large extent man is responsible for air pollution. His activities, careless

technology, casual attitude and lack of awareness may contribute to air

pollution. Sometimes natural factors such as fog, mist, bacteria, wind velocity

and its direction and volcanic ash may be the cause of air pollution. If the

unpolluted gases in the atmosphere are contaminated with man made pollutants

i.e: aerosol, dusts and particulate matters, gases and fumes of sulfur compounds

(SO2, H2S), nitrogen compounds (NO, NO2, NH3), oxygen compounds (CO,

CO2, O3), Halogen Compounds (HF, HCl), organic compounds (aldehydes),

Hydrocarbons and radioactive compounds (radioactive gases), the air tend to be

17
polluted. Moreover large increases in population causing loss of forest and

advancement of modern technology have resulted in air pollution problem in

recent years. The impact of polluted air on health takes into account the type

and duration and amount of contaminants present in the air.

1.2.4.1 Air pollutants

Pollutants can be classified as primary or secondary. Primary pollutants are

substances that are directly emitted into the atmosphere room sources. The

main primary pollutants known to cause harm in high enough concentrations are

the following:

• Carbon compounds, such as CO, CO2, CH4, and VOCs

• Nitrogen compounds, such as NO, N2O, and NH3

• Sulfur compounds, such as H2S

• Halogen compounds, such as chlorides, fluorides, and bromides

• Particulate Matter (PM or “aerosols”), either in solid or liquid form.

Secondary pollutants are not directly emitted from sources, but instead

form in the atmosphere from primary pollutants (also called “precursors”). The

main secondary pollutants known to cause harm in high enough concentrations

are the following:

• NO2 and HNO3 formed from NO

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 • Ozone (O3) formed from photochemical reactions of nitrogen oxides and

VOCs

• Sulfuric acid droplets formed from SO2, and nitric acid droplets formed from

NO2

• Sulfates and nitrates aerosols (e.g., ammonium (bi) sulfate and ammonium

nitrate) formed from reactions of sulfuric acid droplets and nitric acid droplets

with NH3, respectively

• Organic aerosols formed from VOCs in gas-to-particle reactions.

1.2.4.2 Sources of air pollution

The sources of air pollution can be classified under 2 broad headings, which

are

•Natural sources

•Anthropogenic Sources

a) Natural Sources

Volcanic activities – volcanic eruptions emit a series of toxic gases (including

sulfur and chlorine) as well as particulate matter (ash particles) but are usually

restricted to localized areas.

Winds and air currents – can mobilize pollutants from the ground and

transport them over large areas.

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Wildfires – add carbon monoxide, as well as particulate matter, to the

atmosphere (containing organic contaminants such as PAHs); could affect

significant areas, although in general they are restricted and may be contained.

Microbial decaying processes – microorganisms which are present in any

environment have a major role in natural decaying processes of living

organisms as well as environmental contaminants; this activity results in the

natural release of gases especially methane gas.

b) Anthropogenic Sources

Anthropogenic sources of atmospheric pollution are divided into two

categories

Point sources: Point sources are discrete, stationary, identifiable sources of

emissions which are typically located in industrial settings. They are

characterized by the release of general air pollutants typically associated with

fossil fuel combustion and by products like oxides of nitrogen (NOx), sulphur

dioxide (SO2) , carbon monoxide (CO), trace metals etc.

Fugitive sources: They are not confined to specific points. They have the

potential for much greater ground level impact once they are emitted and

dispersed. The two main type of fugitive emissions are volatile organic

compounds and particulate matter.

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Major Antropogenic Sources of Air Pollution

Industries

Industrial activities are one of the greatest sources of manmade pollution in air.

This ia particularly so in countries like Nigeria where most of the operating

industries were set up when there was no pollution abatement regulations in

place (Asubiojo, 2016).

The greatest contributors of particulate dust are cement and metal smelting

industries. This particulate are host to many heavy metals which are very toxic

(Adejomo et al., 2004). However, with environmental protection now being

enforced by the various national and state environmental agencies, these are

now being minimized. Other air pollutants commonly emitted from

manufacturing industries are sulphur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides both

from fuel combustion, carbon monoxide (CO) from incomplete combustion of

fuel, volatile organic compound from the use of industrial solvent.

Oil exploration and production activities are also major sources of atmospheric

pollution in Nigeria. VOCs are entitled into the environment from product

volatilization and fugitive emissions. Associated gas containing SO 2, NOx, CO,

CO2, Hydro carbons, soot and particulate matter in the oil fields are flared into

the environment. Some of the pollutants like NO 2 and SO2 have been implicated

as primary precursors in the formation of acid rain. Some previous studies of the

21
Niger delta region showed considerable acidity of rain water (ph3.35 -6.8),

(Oluwole et al., 1996). And these gases are still; some of the major contributors

to global warming.

Mining

In the solid mineral sector, the three processes of exploration, mining and

processing all generate health impairing pollutant of all forms. Site clearing

involve the use of fuel operating machine which emit noxious fumes of SO 2,

NOx, CO into the atmosphere. In addition to particulate matter, the metals and

industrial minerals that mining produces can also find their way into the

environment as pollutant and associated by products of processing such as

sulphur, arsenic, mercury and other heavy metals which are all harmful to

human health. Coal mining produces methane a potent green house gas with a

global warming potential 21 times greater than CO 2 on a 100 year timeline

(Asubiojo, 2016).

Vehicular Emission

Air pollutants from motor vehicles are of two types, exhaust and non exhaust

emissions. Emissions from the exhaust are products of fuel combustion such as

NOx, SO2, CO, CO2, VOCs and some quantities of

Particulate matter containing toxic heavy metals like vanadium V, cadmium Cd

and lead Pb in cases of leaded gasoline. In order to investigate the effect of

22
vehicular emission on human health in Nigeria, the concentration of lead,

bromine and zinc and some other vehicle traffic related element in road side air

particulate and human blood was determined in Lagos and Ile -Ife (Ogunsola et

al.,1993). Lead, bromine and zinc where highly enriched in ambient air and road

side dust in both cities with the enrichment being higher in Lagos and the

concentration being positively correlated with traffic density. On the other

hand, non exhaust emissions from vehicles include particles from brake wear,

tire wear, road surface abrasion and re suspension in the wake of passing traffic

(Thope and Harrison, 2008).

Solid waste dumps

The problem of solid waste disposal is a major environmental issue in

developing countries like Nigeria particularly in urban centres. A common way

of solving this problem is disposal at designated sites, this however is an

indirect source of air pollution by way of bio degration of organic waste

producing methane and other gaseous toxins, closely related to this is

incineration of solid waste which generate CO 2, CO and VOCs into the

atmosphere.

Agricultural practices

Agricultural practices contribute to atmospheric pollution by way of bush

burning and pesticide use. Nigeria ranks among the top 13 countries in the

23
volume of biomass burning worldwide (Isichei et al 19950). Bush burning leads

to emission of gaseous pollutants such as CO, CO 2, NOx, SO2, VOCs and

particulate. Decay of agricultural waste leads to emission of methane of other

greenhouse gases (Obioh et al., 1994).And cattle farming contributes to air

pollution by feeding on vegetation which normally absorbs CO 2 from the

atmosphere, thus indirectly increasing CO2 and producing methane gas,CH4,a

very potent green house gas.

Domestic Practices

Wood burning for domestic cooking is still very prevalent in Nigeria,

particularly in the rural areas. This practices results in production of smoke

which contains toxic polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH), carbon

monoxide, sulphur dioxide, and particulate matter. The world health

organisation (WHO) estimates that 2.5 billion people are adversely affected by

pollution from this source .The use of kerosene and cooking gas also produces

sulphur and carbon monoxides which are major indoor air pollutants

particularly in poorly ventilated homes. Air pollution affects all sectors of the

environment, human health, ecosystems, physical materials and global climate.

24
1.2.4.3 Impacts of air pollution

1.2.4.3.1 Health impact

Early concerns about health-related effects of air pollution originated

from catastrophes like the Great London Smog, in 1952 which caused

acute illnesses and premature deaths. Although the effects of these severe

pollution episodes remain a topic of debate, well-documented, episode-

related increases in morbidity and mortality from cardiopulmonary causes

provided clear evidence that extremely high concentrations of air pollution

can have adverse effects on health (Pope et al., 2002). Air pollution can

affect human health in a number of ways with both acute (short-term)

and chronic (long-term) effects. Different groups of individuals are

affected by air pollution in different ways depending on their level of

sensitivity. Young children and elderly people often suffer more from the

effects of air pollution. People with health problems such as asthma,

heart and lung disease may also suffer more when exposed to polluted

air. Continual exposure to air pollution affects the lungs of growing

children and may aggravate or complicate medical conditions in the

elderly. The extent to which an individual is harmed by air pollution

usually depends on the total exposure to the damaging chemicals. In some

cases, even healthy individuals may be at risk to health effects. Examples

of short-term effects include irritation to the eyes, nose and throat, and

25
upper respiratory infections. Other symptoms may include headaches, nausea,

and allergic reactions. Short-term exposure to air pollution can aggravate

the medical conditions of individuals with asthma and emphysema. Long-

term health effects can include chronic respiratory disease, lung cancer,

heart disease, and even damage to the brain, nerves, liver, or kidneys. Air

pollution has increasingly become a significant cause of health problems

affecting the developed and developing nations around the world. Air

pollutants that are inhaled can have serious impacts on human health and

mainly target the respiratory and cardiovascular system. Because human

lungs have a large surface area and because people inhale large volumes

of air, lungs are the most significant site of interaction between air

pollutants and the physiological system. Pollutants are also absorbed by

the blood and circulated throughout the body, and may cause tissue and

organ damage. Humans are exposed to air pollutants in the ambient and

indoor environment. Those most susceptible to severe health problems from air

pollution are: Individuals with heart disease, coronary artery disease or

congestive heart failure, Individuals with lung diseases such as asthma,

emphysema or chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), Pregnant

women, Outdoor workers, Older adults and the elderly, Children under age 14,

Athletes who exercise vigorously outdoors.

26
 WHO estimates that 4.2 million premature deaths globally are linked to

ambient air pollution, mainly from heart disease, stroke, chronic obstructive

pulmonary disease, lung cancer, and acute respiratory infections in children.

Worldwide ambient air pollution accounts for:

25% of all deaths and disease from lung cancer (WHO, 2018)

17% of all deaths and disease from acute lower respiratory infection

(WHO, 2018)

16% of all deaths from stroke (WHO, 2018)

15% of all deaths and disease from ischemic heart disease (WHO, 2018)

8% of all deaths and disease from chronic obstructive pulmonary disease

(WHO, 2018)

In children and adults, both short- and long-term exposure to ambient air

pollution can lead to reduced lung function, respiratory infections and

aggravated asthma. Maternal exposure to ambient air pollution is associated

with adverse birth outcomes, such as low birth weight, pre-term birth and small

gestational age births. Emerging evidence also suggests ambient air pollution

may affect diabetes and neurological development in children. Considering the

precise death and disability toll from many of the conditions mentioned are not

currently quantified in current estimates, with growing evidence, the burden of

disease from ambient air pollution is expected to greatly increase.

27
Air pollution levels remain at dangerously high levels in many parts of the

world. New data reveals that 9 out of 10 people breathe air containing high

levels of pollutants. Like black carbon which penetrate deep into the lungs and

cardiovascular system (WHO, 2018).

WHO estimates that around 7 million people die every year from exposure

to fine particles in polluted air that lead to diseases such as stroke, heart disease,

lung cancer, chronic obstructive pulmonary diseases and respiratory infections,

including pneumonia.

1.2.4.3.2 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS

The environmental impacts of Air pollution includes:

•Global Warming

•Formation of Smog

•Formation of Acid Rain

•Stratospheric Ozone Depletion

Global Warming

Global warming also referred to as climate change is the observed century

scale rise in the average temperature of the Earth's climate system and its related

effects. Multiple lines of scientific evidence shows that the climate system is

warming (Hartman et al., 2013). In 2013, The Intergovernmental Panel on

28
Climate Change (IPCC) Fifth assessment report concluded that it is extremely

likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed

warming since the mid-20th century (IPCC, 2013). The largest human influence

has been the emission of green house gases such as carbon dioxide, methane

and nitrous oxide. Future climate change and associated impacts will differ from

region to region (IPCC, 2014).Anticipated effects include increasing global

temperatures, Rising sea levels and expansion of deserts in the subtropics (Zeng

and Yoon, 2009). Warming is expected to be greater over land than over the

oceans and greatest in the artic, with the continuing retreat of glaciers, other

likely changes include more frequent extreme weather events such as heat

waves, droughts,heavy rainfall with floods, ocean acidification and species

extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes. Effects significant to humans

include the threat to food security from decreasing crop yields and the

abandonment of populated areas due to rising sea levels (Battisti and Naylor,

2009).

Formation of Smog

Smog is a type of air pollutant. The word smog was coined in the early 20th

century as a portmanteau of the words smoke and fog, its opacity and odour

(Schwartz, 1997). This type of visible air pollution is composed of nitrogen

oxides, sulphur oxides, ozone, smoke or dirt particles and also less visible

particles such as CFC's. Human made smog is from coal emissions, vehicular

29
emissions, Industrial emissions, Forest and agricultural fires and photochemical

reactions of these emissions. It is usually very toxic to humans.

Formation of acid rain

Acid rain is any form of precipitation that is unusually acidic i.e, it has a low

ph. It is caused by emissions of sulphur dioxide and Nitrogen oxide. Sulphur

dioxide and nitrogen oxides react with water in the atmosphere producing

sulphuric acid and nitric acid. These acids come down along with the rain. This

phenomenon is called acid rain. The pH of acid rain varies from 3-6. The

composition of acid rain is sulphuric acid, nitric acid and weak carbonic acid.

The problem of acid rain has not only increased in population and industrial

growth but has become more widespread. The use of tall smokestacks to reduce

local pollution has contributed to the wide spread of acid rain by releasing gases

into regional atmospheric circulation. (Likkens et al., 1979). Its adverse effects

on the environment includes: causes respiratory and skin disorders, affects

productivity of plants by damaging the leaves, enters the soil and affects the

soil, pH and causes leaching, enters the ground and river waters which causes

harm to the aquatic life, causes damage to marble and thus damages buildings

and monuments. The effects of this are commonly seen on old gravestones,

where acid rain can cause the inscriptions to become completely illegible. Acid

rain also increases corrosion rate of metals (Reisener et al., 1995).

30
Stratospheric Ozone Depletion

Stratospheric ozone is Earth's natural sun screen, shielding life from

dangerous solar ultraviolet radiation. The phenomenon of the stratospheric

decrease of ozone around Earth's Polar Regions is referred to as Ozone hole.

The main cause of ozone depletion and ozone hole is man made chemicals like

halocarbon refrigerants, chlorofluorocarbons and other compounds are referred

to as ozone depleting substances. These compounds are transported into the

stratosphere by winds after being emmited and since the ozone layer absorbs

ultraviolet light from the sun,, ozone layer depletion increases surface

ultraviolet levels in the troposphere which could lead to damages like skin

cancer and cataract (EPA, 2013). These concerns led to the adoption of the

Montreal protocol in 1987, which bans the production of CFC's, halocarbons

and other ozone depleting chemicals, although the ban came into effect in 1989.

1.2.4.4 Carbon monoxide

Carbon Monoxide is a colourless, odourless, tasteless, non irritant and

poisonous gas which is lighter than air with molar mass of 28. The gas is

made up of one carbon atom and one oxygen atom joined with triple bond.

Carbon monoxide is formed with insufficient oxygen in combustion engine

Its occurrence is naturally in volcanoes, natural gas emission and seed

germination. CO can kill you before you are aware it is in your home. At lower

levels of exposure, CO causes mild effects that are often mistaken for the flu.

31
These symptoms include headaches, dizziness, disorientation, nausea and

fatigue. The effects of CO exposure can vary greatly from person to person

depending on age, overall health and the concentration and length of exposure.

It is formed by incomplete combustion of carbon in fuel. The main source is

motor vehicle exhaust, along with industrial processes and biomass

burning. Carbon monoxide binds to haemoglobin in red blood cells,

reducing their ability to transport and release oxygen throughout the body.

Low exposures can aggravate cardiac ailments, while high exposures cause

central nervous system impairment or death. It also plays a role in the

generation of tropospheric ozone.

Carbon monoxide poisoning is the most common type of fatal air poisoning

in many countries [Omaye, 2002] Carbon monoxide is colorless, odorless, and

tasteless, but highly toxic. It combines with hemoglobin to produce

carboxyhemoglobin, which usurps the space in hemoglobin that normally

carries oxygen, but is ineffective for delivering oxygen to bodily tissues. A level

of 50% carboxyhemoglobin may result in seizure, coma, and fatality. In the

United States, the OSHA limits long-term workplace exposure levels above 50

ppm.

The most common symptoms of carbon monoxide poisoning may resemble

other types of poisonings and infections, including symptoms such as headache,

nausea, vomiting, dizziness, fatigue, and a feeling of weakness. Carbon

32
monoxide also binds to other molecules such as myoglobin and mitochondrial

cytochrome oxidase. Exposures to carbon monoxide may cause significant

damage to the heart and central nervous system, especially to the globus

pallidus, (Prockop and Chichkova, 2007) often with long-term chronic

pathological conditions. Carbon monoxide may have severe adverse effects on

the fetus of a pregnant woman. (Tucker, 2007) Apart from its lethality, CO is

an indirect green house gas that increases the amount of other greenhouse gases

and eventually oxidizes into main greenhouse gas, CO 2. In Nigeria, there are air

quality guidelines in force in order to control and reduce the impacts of air

pollution on human health as well as other negative consequences. The national

daily threshold for CO is 10ppm (FEPA, 2000). The WHO regulatory limit for

the same pollutant is 9.0ppm (WHO, 2000).

Frequent traffic jams resulting from high density, unfavourable traffic

handling and inadequate traffic discipline are identified as being responsible for

the high accumulation of CO in urban centres (Ukpebor et al., 2010).

1.2.4.5 AMMONIA

About a century ago, Fritz Haber developed a process to convert essentially

inert gaseous N2 into biologically active forms that could fertilize food

production, allowing increases in production capable of supporting a much

larger population (Erisman et al., 2007). Humans gradually learned to convert

gaseous N into forms that could sustain food production for a large population.

33
However, the addition of excess anthropogenic nitrogen (N) compounds to the

atmosphere remains a matter of great concern to human health and the

environment (Krupa and Moncrief 2002; Aneja et al., 2009).

Gaseous ammonia (NH3) is the most abundant alkaline gas in the

atmosphere. . At room temperature, ammonia is a colorless, pungent-smelling

gas and is lighter than air. In addition, it is a major component of total reactive

nitrogen. The largest source of NH3 emissions is agriculture, including animal

husbandry and NH3-based fertilizer applications. Other sources of NH3 include

industrial processes, vehicular emissions and volatilization from soils and

oceans. Recent studies have indicated that NH3 emissions have been increasing

over the last few decades on a global scale. This is a concern because NH 3 plays

a significant role in the formation of atmospheric particulate matter, visibility

degradation and atmospheric deposition of nitrogen to sensitive ecosystems.

Thus, the increase in NH3 emissions negatively influences environmental and

public health as well as climate change. There are currently no regulations or

incentive programs in most countries around the world for reductions in NH 3

emissions. Compared with regulations for other primary gaseous pollutants,

extensive control measures have not been taken to mitigate emissions of NH 3

despite the fact that all these pollutants make similar contributions to PM mass

loading, visibility degradation and/or acidification/eutrophication.

34
 N, as an essential ingredient of proteins, is present in all biomass. For

example, the average concentration of N in wood is about 0.1 % (Sutton et al.,

2000). Under poor mixing conditions during biomass burning, the biomass N

can be released as NH3.

The contribution of vehicles to non-agricultural NH 3 emissions has been

considered to be negligible (Sutton et al., 1995; Perrino et al., 2002). Recent

studies, however, have shown that NH3 concentration in urban environments has

increased significantly due to over-reduction of NOx in catalytic converters in

automobile exhaust, and also in industrial and power station control systems

(Sutton et al., 2000; Perrino et al., 2002). According to the technical report of

2011 of the European Environment Agency on emission inventories, road

transport is estimated to contribute 2 % to total NH 3 emissions, industrial

processes 1 % and waste decomposition 1 %, with the remaining percentage

being attributable to agriculture from activities such as manure storage, slurry

spreading and the use of synthetic nitrogenous fertilizers (Reche et al., 2012).

Although vehicles form a minor part of global emissions, they have significant

local NH3 emissions (Fraser and Cass 1998; Kean et al., 2009).

Exposure to high concentrations of ammonia in air causes immediate

burning of the nose, throat and respiratory tract. This can cause bronchiolar and

alveolar edema, and airway destruction resulting in respiratory distress or

35
failure. Inhalation of lower concentrations can cause coughing, and nose and

throat irritation.

36
 CHAPTER TWO

2.0 MATERIALS AND METHODS

2.1 Materials Used

Carbon monoxide dosimeter

Portable hand held ammonia gas detector

Sound level meter

Humidity/ temperature meter

Anemometer

2.2 Methodology

2.2.1 Study Area

This study was carried out in Benin City, the capital and largest city of

Edo State, which is located at 6.5◦N and 5.8◦E and is situated in the southern

part of Nigeria. It is the leading home of arts and culture in Nigeria. It is the

center of Nigeria’s rubber industry, and oil production is also a significant

industry. The city is a beautiful and ancient city with a population of about

1,086,882 people (Census, 2006).The principal inhabitants of the city are the

Bini people, most of whom are Christians. Benin City is home to some of

Nigeria’s institutions of higher learning, namely, the University of Benin

located at Ugbowo and Ekenwan, the College of Education Ekiadolor, the

37
Benson Idahosa University etc. The climate of Benin City is tropical with two

major seasons, wet (April –October) and dry (November – March). Rainfall is

bimodal, peaking usually in July and September, with a brief drop in August.

The mean annual rainfall is 2,300mm, while the average temperature is 26 ◦c.

The mean relative humidity is about 70% .Benin city is a commercial city with

few petroleum and allied industries. The urban economy is dominated by the

government in the formal sector and trade in the informal sector. Because Benin

City is the capital of Edo state, the government and its agencies are the main

employers for the wage earning portion of the population. Traffic volume is

high in the city all year round, because the city is a gateway to the other parts of

the country. Emissions from heavily loaded transportation vehicles, badly

maintained automobiles that run on diesel and leaded fuel, industrial emissions

and open burning of refuse waste are largely responsible for the pollution

problems in the city. Previous air quality and noise assessment of the city

revealed excessive levels of suspended particulate matter (Ukpebor et al., 2006)

and noise (Odeh, 2005).

38
FIG 2.1: A GIS base map of Benin City showing the sampling locations.

39
2.2.2 Sampling Sites

In order to acquire a comprehensive data on the distribution of these

pollutants in the city, five sampling sites and a control site were carefully

selected to represent all the quarters of the city with high levels of air pollution.

The sites were created at roadside verges and junctions. The criteria that

influenced the choosing of the sampling sites includes:

•public safety

•safety of personnel and equipment

•Location of sensitive or vulnerable receptors in the city

•perceived high air pollution sources (pollution hot-spots)

And the selected sites are shown in a table below.

40
Table 2.1: Sampling sites for the study

S/N SITE COORDI ELEVA TRAFFIC SITE DESCRIPTION

CODE NATES TION DENSITY
1 AQ N 92m Traffic Sample reading was taken from
RR 06◦20.020’ volume of several meters from a major road,
3,246 cars located at the center of the city and
E per hour is one of the busiest parts of the
005◦37.352’ city with very high human and
vehicular activities.
2 AQ N06◦20.980 92m Traffic Sample reading was taken from a
NB ’ volume of distance of about 2m from a major
1,554 cars road, close to the infamous new
E005◦37.88 per hour Benin market with very high
6’ human and vehicular activities.
3 AQ RP N06◦21.008 83m Traffic Sample reading was taken from a
’ volume of distance of about 3m from a major
3,030 cars road, close to the oregbeni market
E005◦39.58 per hour with very high human and
3’ vehicular activities on market days
and milder human and vehicular
activities on non-market days.
4 AQ N06◦19.289 88m Traffic Sample reading was taken from a
US ’ volume of distance that is several meters
1,594 cars from a major road, very close to
E005◦38.18 per hour the Ekiosa market. so there is very
1’ high human and vehicular
activities
5 AQ N06◦18.893 85m Traffic Sample reading was taken from a
AR ’ volume of distance of about 2m from a major
1,534 cars road, opposite the Benin airport
E005◦36.08 per hour and so there is very mild human
7’ and vehicular activity
6 AQ FR N06◦27.732 95m No traffic Sample reading was taken from a
’ location within a farmland, a place
that is far from human and
E005◦27.90 vehicular activities.
5’

41
2.2.3 Sample Collection

Air quality samples were collected using active method in the months of

May, June and July. The samples were collected by in situ methods using hand

held meters between the periods of 9am to 3pm once a week at the five selected

monitoring sites at a height of approximately 1.5 to 2.0m above ground level.

2.2.4 Sampling Methodology

2.2.4.1 Carbon Monoxide Sampling

Carbon monoxide concentrations were measured using a CO dosimeter

(model 627,BK precision USA). This sampler has a range from 0 to 1,000 ppm,

with a sensitivity of 1ppm, an accuracy of ±5%, operating temperature from 0 to

50°c and operating relative humidity from 0 to 99%.it is equipped with a sensor

that has an electrochemical sensing electrode and a counter electrode. The

sensor has a permanent irreplaceable filter built inside the sensor to filter out

trace concentrations of SO2, NO2 and most hydrocarbons. The CO being diffused

into the sensor reacts with the special catalyzed sensing electrode to produce

electrons. A built-in circuit amplifies the signal into a millivolt output that is

displayed on a liquid crystal display (LCD) panel as CO concentration in ppm.

Readings were obtained by holding the dosimeter to a height between1.5 and

2m at the different sampling locations and readings recorded at stability. This

sampling approach has been used by several air quality analyst (Wan-kuen and

42
Joon-Yeob,2006 ; Osuntogun,2004) because of the following positive attributes;

low cost, high accuracy and sensitivity, no special training required before

usage, direct readout, wide spatial coverage and no dependence on electricity.

2.2.4.2 Ammonia Sampling

NH3 concentrations were measured using a portable, handheld ammonia

gas detector (GasBadge pro personal single gas monitor). This sampler has a

range from 0-100ppm in 1ppm measurements, an operating temperature of -

40◦c to 60◦c and operating relative humidity of 0 to 99%. It is equipped with an

electrochemical sensor that has a sensing and a counter electrode. The NH 3

being diffused into the sensor reacts with the special catalyzed sensing electrode

to produce electrons. A built-in circuit amplifies the signal into a millivolt

output that is displayed on a liquid crystal display (LCD) panel as NH 3

concentration in ppm. Readings were obtained by holding the detector to a

height of 1.5m to 2m at the different sampling locations and readings recorded

at stability.

2.2.4.3 Noise level sampling

The noise level was measured using a Data logger sound level meter (BK

precision sound level meter, model 735 with RS-232 software and cable). This

sampler has a frequency range of 31.5Hz -8KHz, an accuracy of ±1.5dB under

reference conditions @ 94dB,1KHz, a measuring level range of 30dB -130dB,

43
an altitude of up to 2000m with a relative humidity of 90%max and operation

ambient temperature of 0◦c -40◦c with a ½ inch electret condenser microphone.

Readings were obtained by holding the sound meter to a height of 1.5 – 2m at

the different sampling locations and readings were recorded in decibels.

2.2.4.4 Temperature, humidity and wind speed sampling

The temperature, humidity and wind speed level were measured with a

handheld meter. Air temperatures and humidity were measured using a

humidity /temperature meter with resolutions of 0.1% relative humidity and

0.1◦c (model RS 1364, RS components Ltd, UK). And wind speed was

measured using LM-8000 anemometer with a resolution of 0.1ms -1 (Heatmiser

UK Ltd). The readings were obtained by holding the meters to a height of 1.5-

2m at the different sampling locations.

2.3 Statistical analysis (SPSS)

The Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) a statistical tool developed by Fisher

was used to analyze the data. The procedure enabled us to test the effect of the

parameters across the different locations. In other words the procedures enabled

us to explain if the observed difference of each of the parameters was due to the

treatment applied or by chance. So our sources of variation is divided into two

that attributed to treatment and the other attributed to error

44
2.3.1 Hypothesis

Ho: U1=U2=U3=U4=U5=U6

I.e. The parameters do not differ from one location to the other

Ha: U1≠U2≠U3≠U4≠U5≠U6

i.e. The parameters are not the same across the six locations sampled.

45
 CHAPTER THREE

3.0 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The primary goal of this study is to make available very reliable air

quality data that will provide the necessary information for the government to

make good policies on how to better manage and improve the environment.

Data generated from this research aimed at assessing the levels of carbon

monoxide, ammonia and noise pollution in designated pollution hotspots in

Benin City, and the significance of the traffic control measures in the city as

developed by the current government on air quality are presented in tables 3.1

and 3.2. Also meteorological parameters have also been monitored during this

survey. Results obtained from this study are further discussed below.

3.1 Spatial Variation in Carbon monoxide (CO), Ammonia (NH 3) And

Noise levels concentration

46
 Table 3.1: Concentration of Carbon Monoxide (CO), Ammonia (NH3) and

Noise measured in the month of May.

S/N Site Coordinate Ele CO(ppm) NoisedB (A) NH3(ppm)

Code s v
(m)

Mean±SD Range Mean±SD

Range
1 N
AQ- 06°20.020’ BDL
92 1-2 1.33 ± 0.52 68 – 74 70.10±1.90
RR E005°37.352
’
2 N
AQ- 06°19.289’ BDL
88 2 2.00 ± 0.00 70 – 75 72.40 ± 1.82
US E
005°38.181’
3 N
AQ- 06°21.008’ BDL
83 1-2 1.40 ± 0.55 65 – 73 70.32 ± 2.89
RP E
005°39.583’
4 N
AQ- 06°20.980’ BDL
92 2-5 4.17 ± 1.17 75 - 84 79.24 ± 3.12
NB E
005°37.886’
5 N
AQ- 06°18.893’ BDL
85 1-2 1.50 ± 0.55 59 - 74 69.52 ± 5.99
AR E
005°36.087’
6 N
AQ- 06°27.732’ BDL
95 2 2.00 ± 0.00 41 - 45 43.63 ± 1.29
FR E
005°27.905’

BDL = below detection limit. Detection limit for NH3 = 1ppm.

The highest mean concentration of 4.17ppm for CO was recorded at monitoring

site 4 created at New Benin while the least value of 1.33ppm for CO was

recorded at monitoring site 1 created at the ring road and although the vehicular

activity recorded at AQ-RR was high (Fig 2.1). The low mean concentration can

be attributed to the high humidity level recorded (Table3.3) and this is due to
47
the fact that this study was carried out in the wet season. The highest mean

concentration of 79.24dB (A) for noise was recorded at monitoring site 4

created at new Benin and the least mean concentration of 69.52dB(A) recorded

at monitoring site 5 created at Airport road and this can be attributed to the high

traffic volume of sites 4 and. Site 4 was created at a location very close to the

famous new Benin market. Values obtained from all the sampling locations for

noise were found to be higher than the values from the control location. The

concentration of NH3 was below the detection limit (BDL) at all the sites and

this does not mean they were not present but were present at concentrations

below the limit of detection of our portable handheld ammonia gas detector.

The recorded mean of CO, NH 3 and noise mean concentrations and range

values for the month of June are reported in Table 3.2. Table 3.2 shows the

mean concentrations obtained in the month of June. A range of 1.00 – 5.00ppm

for CO was obtained at all surveyed locations and a range of 37.30 –

86.50dB(A) for noise was obtained at all surveyed locations and NH3

concentrations were below the detection limit (BDL) for all the sites studied.

Table 3.2: Concentration of Carbon Monoxide (CO), Ammonia (NH3) and

48
 Noise measured in the month of June

S/ Site Coordinates CO(ppm) NoisedB(A) NH3(ppm)

N Code Elev

(m)
Range Mean±SD Range Mean ± SD
1 N 06°20.020’ 1.00 –
AQ-RR 92 1.60 ± 0.55 68.00 –85.00 73.76 ± 6.67
E005°37.352’ 2.00 BDL

2 N 06°19.289’ 1.00 – 70.00 –

AQ-US 88 1.60 ± 0.89 73.08 ± 3.39
E 005°38.181’ 3.00 78.00 BDL

3 N 06°21.008’ 1.00 – 71.00 –

AQ-RP 83 2.60 ± 1.52 74.20 ± 2.31
E 005°39.583’ 5.00 78.00 BDL

4 N 06°20.980’ 1.00 – 75.00 –

AQ-NB 92 2.60 ± 1.52 80.04± 4.59
E 005°37.886’ 5.00 87.00 BDL

5 N 06°18.893’ 1.00 – 65.00 –

AQ-AR 85 1.40 ± 0.55 72.44 ± 5.46
E 005°36.087’ 2.00 78.oo BDL

6 N 06°27.732’ 2.00- 37.00 –

AQ-FR 95 2.00 ± 0.00 41.38 ± 3.05
E 005°27.905’ 2.00 45.00 BDL

BDL = below detection limit. Detection limit for NH3 = 1ppm.

The highest mean concentration of 2.60ppm for CO was recorded at

monitoring sites 3 and 4 created at Ramat Park and New Benin while the least

value of 1.40ppm for CO was recorded at monitoring site 5 created at Airport

road. This can be attributed to the fact that Airport road site had the least traffic

volume when compared to the other selected sites (Fig 2.1). Furthermore the

low mean concentration can be attributed to the high humidity level recorded in

this site (Table 3.4) and this is due to the fact that this study was carried out in

49
the wet season. The highest mean concentration of 80.04dB(A) for noise was

recorded at monitoring site 4 created at New Benin market and the least mean

concentration of 72.44dB(A) was recorded at monitoring site 5 created at

Airport road site and this corresponds to the traffic volume and human activities

of site 4 and site 5. The control site mean concentration was recorded to be

41.38dB (A) which is lower than the mean concentration recorded at Airport

road and this is because the control was created at a site within a farmland with

no traffic density. The concentration of NH3 was below the detection limit

(BDL) at all the sites and this does not mean they were not present but were

present at concentrations below the limit of detection of our portable handheld

ammonia gas detector.

Meteorological parameters were also measured alongside pollutants.

Meteorological parameters are the natural agents which influence the

concentration of atmospheric pollutants. Consequently, those monitored during

the survey were wind speed, temperature and relative humidity. These

parameters have been noted to be responsible for the dispersion, transformation

and removal of air pollutants from the ambient environment (Ibe et. al., 2017).

Wind velocities, for example, will cause pollutant migration away from sources

and increase mixing process while humidity which is the amount of water

vapour in the air, and humidity is inversely proportional to temperature and so

the higher the humidity of atmosphere, the lower the resident time of the

50
 pollutant in the air. Table 3.3 shows the results obtained from meteorological

monitoring during the survey in May. A range of 33.9 -37.90◦c for temperature

and a range of 48.5 – 65.82% for humidity and a range of 0.3 – 3.5ms-1 for wind

speed

Table 3.3 Meteorological parameters recorded in the month of May

S/N

Temperature (°C) Humidity (%) Wind speed (ms-1)

Site
Range Mean±SD Range Mean±SD Range Mean±SD

1
AQ-RR 33.90 – 34.60 34.10 ± 0.27 58.20 – 60.40 59.37 ± 0.91 1.30 – 2.30 1.93 ± 0.35
2
AQ-US 34.00 – 34.30 34.12 ± 0.13 55.70 – 59.90 56.76 ± 1.77 0.30 – 0.80 0.54 ± 0.19
3
AQ-RP 34.10 – 34.30 34.22 ± 0.08 53.00 – 54.00 53.56 ± 0.44 1.70 – 2.40 2.06 ± 0.25
4 AQ-NB 37.10 – 37.40 37.28 ± 0.13 48.50 – 50.30 49.52 ± 0.69 1.50 – 3.50 2.28 ± 0.98
5
AQ-AR 37.70 – 38.10 37.90 ± 0.16 49.80 – 52.80 51.54 ± 1.59 1.40 – 2.30 2.02 ± 0.37
6
AQ-FR 34.60 – 35.10 34.88 ± 0.17 65.50 – 66.10 65.82 ± 0.23 0.70 – 1.50 1.12 ± 0.33

The highest mean concentration obtained for humidity was 59.37%

(besides control) and this was recorded at site 1 created at ring road and this

may be the reason why ring road was recorded as having the least CO mean

concentration of 1.33ppm for the month of May and the least mean

concentration for humidity of 48.5% was recorded at site 4 created at New

Benin which had the highest mean CO concentration of 4.17ppm.

51
 Table 3.4 shows the results obtained from meteorological monitoring during the

survey in June. A range of 28.0 – 34.1◦c for temperature and a range of 55.3 –

79.2% for humidity and a range of 0.4 – 3.4ms-1 for wind speed.

Table 3.4 Meteorological parameters recorded in the month of June

S/N Temperature (°C) Humidity (%) Wind speed (ms-1)

Site Range Mean±SD Range Mean±SD Range Mean±SD

1
AQ-RR 33.60 – 34.10 33.86 ± 0.19 55.30 – 56.00 55.74 ± 0.32 1.30 – 2.20 1.82 ± 0.37
2
AQ-US 33.30 – 34.10 33.76 ± 0.36 55.70 – 56.70 56.16 ± 0.43 1.30 – 3.40 2.34 ± 0.80
3
AQ-RP 31.30 – 31.60 31.46 ± 0.11 66.10 – 68.40 67.30 ± 1.03 0.40 – 1.50 0.92 ± 0.46
4 AQ-NB 31.20 – 31.90 31.52 ± 0.29 66.50 – 67.70 67.18 ± 0.50 1.70 – 3.30 2.66 ± 0.61
5
AQ-AR 28.00 – 28.40 28.16 ± 0.15 77.80 – 79.20 78.50 ± 0.57 0.70 – 2.30 1.54 ± 0.71
6
AQ-FR 32.40 – 32.5 0 32.40 ± 0.05 60.80 – 62.00 61.40 ± 0.52 0.20 – 0.60 0.50 ± 0.17

The highest mean concentration obtained for humidity was 78.50% and

this was recorded at site 5 created at airport road and this is why airport road

was observed as having the least CO mean concentration of 1.40ppm for the

month of June and the least mean concentration for humidity of 55.74% was

recorded at site 1 created at ring road which was recorded to have a CO mean

concentration of 1.60ppm which is the second highest mean concentration of

CO for June.

3.2 Comparison of Measured Data with Regulatory Limits

52
 In Nigeria, the agency responsible for protecting, restoring and preserving

the ecosystem is the Federal Ministry of Environment (FMENV). This body

was formerly known as Federal Environmental Protection Agency (FEPA)

which was established by decree No.58 of 1988(FEPA, 2000). For the World,

the World Health Organization (WHO) is charged with protecting the health of

all humans and the environment. In the United States of America, the agency

responsible for protecting, restoring and preserving the environment is the

United States Environmental Protection Agency (US EPA) and the

Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) which is an agency of

the United State Department of Labour to assure safe and healthy working

conditions for working men and women by setting and enforcing standards.

Table 3.5 shows the regulatory limit for CO, NH3 and noise by FMENV, WHO,

US EPA and OSHA representing respective national and international

regulatory authorities. When the mean concentration of CO is compared to the

regulatory limit, there is no violation of the regulatory limit as the mean

concentration of all the surveyed location is below 9ppm. This is shown in fig

3.1

53
 S/N 3.5Site
Table Comparison of measured pollutants with regulatory limits
Code CO (ppm) Noise NH3(ppm) Regulatory Limit
dB(A)

CO(ppm) Noise NH3(ppm)

dB(A)
1 BDL WHO – WHO – OSHA –
9.00 55.00 50.00ppm
AQ-RR 1.45 ± 0.52 71.76 ± 4.82 (day)
45.00(nig
ht)
2 BDL FMENV - FMENV -
AQ-US 1.64 ± 0.81 72.74 ± 2.59
10.00
3 BDL USEPA – USEPA
AQ-RP 2.0 ± 1.25 72.26± 3.20
9.00
4 AQ-NB 3.45 ± 1.51 79.64 ± 3.73 BDL
5 AQ-AR 1.45 ± 0.52 70.98 ± 5.62 BDL
6 AQ-FR 2.00 ± 0.00 42.61 ± 2.44 BDL

12

10

CO
6
WHO
FMENV
4

0
AQ-RR AQ-US AQ-RP AQ-NB AQ-AR AQ-FR

Fig 3.1: Clustered column chart showing the relationship between mean

concentrations of CO obtained from the six (6) survey locations and WHO and

FMENV regulatory limits.

54
 When comparing the mean concentration for noise against the various

regulatory limits, there is a clear violation of the regulatory limit of WHO which

is 55dB (A) during the day and 45dB (A) at night and our readings were all

done during the day. From Table 3.5 above, mean concentrations from all the

sampling sites recorded greatly exceeded 55dB(A). The limit of FMENV for a

mixed residential area (areas with some commercial activities) (FMENV, 2009)

which fits the descriptions of our sampling locations is 55dB(A) during the day

and 45dB(A) at night and all our readings were taken during the day. From

Table 3.5, mean concentrations from all the sampling sites recorded greatly

exceeded 55dB(A) thus violating FMENV regulatory limit. From the research

carried out, the mean noise concentrations for all the sampling sites exceeded

the regulatory limits, only the control location readings did not violate the

regulatory limits of these agencies. This is shown in Fig 3.2

90

80

70

60

50 Noise
40 WHO Day
WHO Night
30

20

10

0
AQ-RR AQ-US AQ-RP AQ-NB AQ-AR AQ-FR

55
Fig 3.2: Clustered column chart showing the relationship between mean

concentrations of Noise obtained from the six (6) survey locations and WHO

regulatory limits

When comparing the mean concentration for NH3 against OSHA

regulatory limit, it does not exceed or violate it because the NH 3 concentration

was BDL. From Previous studies carried out in the study area, Benin City, It

was observed that the baseline ambient level of CO in Benin City exceeded the

available national and international regulatory limits (Ukpebor et.al, 2006).

From this study however, it has been observed that the ambient level of CO in

Benin City no longer exceeded the national and international regulatory limits.

Table 3.6: Mean Values of the Different Parameters across the Locations

(ANOVA)

Site Location Parameters

CO(Ppm) NH3(ppm) Noise dB(A)

AQ RR 1.45 0.00 71.76

AQ NB 3.45 0.00 79.06

AQ RP 2.00 0.00 72.26

AQ SR 1.64 0.00 72.74

56
AQ AR 1.45 0.00 70.98

AQ CR 2.00 0.00 42.61

Remarks Significant Not significant Significant

For CO, the analysis of variant table (ANOVA) reported a (p≤0.05), this

show that the value of (CO, NH3 and noise) are not the same across the

locations sampled. However a further examination of the mean using Duncan

multiple range test shows that CO for GRA, Ring road, Upper sakponba,

Federal road and Ramat park were the same but were significantly different

from that of new Benin . Since the CO values in majority of the locations were

the same as that of the control it shows that Government policy was effective.

The study however recommends that more effective implementation of the

policy be ensured at the New Benin area.

Similarly for NH3, Nil values were recorded in all sampled locations.

For Noise the ANOVA table reported a significant value (P<0.05)

indicating that the noise level at the different sample locations were not the

same. A further separation of the mean using Duncan Multiple Range Test

(DMRT) shows that the noise level at Federal road (Control) was significantly

57
different from others. The table also shows that New Benin and G.R.A.

Reported the same noise level while the noise level at Sakponba Road, Ring

Road and Ramat Park were not significantly different from one another. The

noise level at the Control was still lower than other location, shows that

government policy has not been effective in combating noise pollution. More

stringent implementation of the policy may be required to produce the necessary

results.

CONCLUSION

This study assessed the effectiveness of the Edo State Government traffic

control measures on air quality in Benin City using CO, NH 3 and noise levels as

basis for this assessment. It was observed that CO concentrations were below all

available National and International regulatory limits at all the surveyed sites.

However, noise levels exceeded or violated all available national and

international regulatory limits for the five surveyed sites and only the control

site did not exceed or violate these regulatory limits. NH 3 was observed to be

58
below detection limits at all the survey sites and therefore did not violate any

available national or international limit. This result suggests that the traffic

control measures implemented by the government have been effective in

reducing CO and NH3 in the state capital but that these measures haven’t been

effective in combating noise pollution. More stringent implementation of these

measures will be required to produce the necessary results for noise pollution.

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