Fundamentals of Bridge Design – CENG 5501 Lecture Note

Chapter 1
INTRODUCTION

1.1 General Introduction

A bridge is a structure providing passage over an obstacle. The obstacle may be a river,
valley, road or railway. The passage may be for highway or railway traffic, pedestrian, canal
or pipeline.

As the saying “Build bridges and you will have a friend” goes, bridges have a unique
attribute of connecting different people. Rivers and mountains form physical barriers
between people to interact, trade with one another, live and work together. For Ethiopia this
holds especially true as the country is known as “The Water Tower of Africa” due to the high
rainfall we receive, which resulted in quite many big rivers dissecting the rough terrain and
flowing deep in the valleys. Consequently we are composed of people speaking about 82
different languages.

Transportation network is crucial for the development and prosperity of a country.

Investment by both nationals and foreigners is crucial for economic development of a
country, and one of the criteria that foreign investors weigh in their investment decisions in a
country is the level of development of the transportation network. Bridges provide essential
links in highways and railways at obstacles. The cost of bridges (and culverts) is a significant
proportion of a highway project.

Many cities and towns are established near rivers and bridges add to the beauty of cities and
towns. Bridges aid the social, cultural and economic improvements of the locations around
them.

Bridges also have military strategic importance. The mobility of an army at war is often
affected by the availability or otherwise of bridges to cross rivers. Military training puts
special emphasis on learning how to build new bridges quickly while advancing and destroy
bridges while retreating.

Bridge engineering is one of the fascinating fields in civil engineering calling for expertise in
many areas: structural analysis and design, geotechniques, traffic projection, surveying,
runoff calculation and methods of construction. A bridge engineer has to have an
appreciation of economics and aesthetics besides ability in analysis and design. The
materials and procedures involved in the construction of any sizable bridge are quite varied.

“From its foundations rooted in bed rock to its towering pylons and vaulting span, a bridge is
a thing of wonder and of poetry.” David B. Steinman

The following Fig. gives components of the most common type of bridge, slab-stringer type.

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1- Deck and overpass 2- Stringer(longitudinal beams) 3-Bearing 4- Pedestal

5-Footing 6- Piles 7-Underpass 8- Embankment 9- Live load

1.2 Overview of Bridge Types

Slab bridge: examples are most of ring road bridges

Cross section of solid slab bridge

Slab Stringer bridge:

Baro River bridge A closer part view of Baro River bridge

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Temcha river bridge, photo of whole bridge

Part side view of Temcha river bridge view from underneath temcha river bridge

Arch bridge:

Abay bridge on Goha Tsion – Dejen road

West Lilac overpass arch bridge, California, USA

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Truss arch - New River Gorge bridge

Truss bridge:

New Orleans through truss bridge

Cable stayed bridge:

Hidassie bridge

Suspension bridge:

Brooklyn bridge, Newyork city

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Akashi-Kaikyo Bridge, Japan Suspension bridge

Movable Bridge: Tubular Bridge:

Four level directional interchange:

Interchange, San Diego California

1.3 Historical Development

The History of development of bridges is closely linked with the history of human
civilization. Fig. 1.1 outlines the development of the various forms of bridges. Based on
structural action, bridge structures can be classified into four basic types: beam bridges,
cantilever bridges, suspension bridges and arch bridges.

Nature fashioned the first bridges. Tree fallen accidentally across a chasm or a stream was
the earliest example of a beam type bridge. Similarly, the natural rock arch formed by
erosion of the loose soil below was the earliest forebear of arch bridges. And creepers
hanging from tree to tree allowing monkeys to cross from one bank to the other were the
forerunners of suspension bridges. The ancient who felled tree deliberately across a stream
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so that it afforded him a crossing was the first bridge builder. Since the primitive man was a
wanderer in search of food and shelter the first structures he built were bridged.

Around 4000 B.C men were settling to community life and were giving more thought to
permanence of bridges.

Between 200 B.C. and 260 A.D. the Romans build many magnificent stone arch bridges. The
arches were semi-circular using massive piers, so that, if one span got damaged in war, the
others would remain standing. Bridge construction was considered very important an ancient
Rome to rule the world.

The Chinese were building stone arch bridges since 250 B.C.

In the middle ages after the fall of Rome, the bridge building activity was mainly taken up by
the religious orders in Europe. The medieval bridges has decorative and defensive towers,
chapels, statues, shops and dwellings.
With the dawn of Renaissance, advances were made in theory, technical skill and mechanical
appliances. Bridges were regarded as civic works of art and the bridge builder was
recognized as a leader in progress and a creator of monuments. Stone masonry segmental
arches were predominantly used in bridges.

The eighteenth century ushered in the age of reason. The first treatise on bridge engineering
was published in 1714 by a French engineer Rubert Gautier. In 1716, the Corps des
Ingenieurs de Ponts et Chaussees was founded for the scientific advancement of bridge
construction; and in 1747, the Ecole de Ponts et Chaussees at Paris, the first engineering
school in the world, was founded, with Jean Perronet, “Father of modern bridge building”, as
the first Director. Perronet perfected the masonry arch and introduced slender piers, his best
work being the Pont de la Concorda at Paris built in 1791.

Though timber bridges have been built since early days, covered timber bridges of each form
were popular during the late eighteenth century. Wooden bridges were covered for protection
of the timber from the weather. A notable timber bridge was the “Colossus” bridge over the
Schuylkill River at Fairmount, Pennsylvania, with an arch span of 104m. This fine bridge,
build in 1812, was destroyed by fire in 1838.

The first iron bridge was built at Coalbrookdale in 1779 over the Severn in England by
Abraham Darby and John Wilkinson. It consisted of five semicircular arch ribs in iron,
joined together side by side to form a single arch span of 30m. In 1808, James Finley in

Pennsylvania patented a design for a suspension bridge with wrought iron chain cables and
level floor. Forty bridges of this design were built in the USA within the next eight years.
Thomas Telford completed the Menai Strait bridge in Wales in 1826, a suspension bridge
with wrought iron chains with a record-breaking span of 177m. George Stephenson built the
first iron railway bridge in 1823 on the Stockton-Darlington railway. The most famous of the
early iron railway bridge in 1823 on the Stockton-Darlington railway. The most famous of
the early iron railway bridges is the Britannia tubular bridge built by Robert Stephenson in
1850 across the Menai Strait. It consisted of twin wrought iron tubes, continuous over four
spans of 70, 140, 140 and 70m. Wrought iron replaced cast iron in bridge construction
during the period 1840-1890. Many truss bridges of the form Howe, Pratt, Whipple, Bolman,
Fink, and Warren were built on railways during this period.

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Fig. 1.1. Development of Bridges

The failure of a number of wrought iron railway bridges, specially the Howe truss bridge of
Ashtabula, Ohio in 1877 and the Firth of Tay bridge in Scotland in 1879, resulting in serious
loss of life, led to a new era in bridge building – an era of specialization, research, careful
detailing, thorough inspection and a more durable and stronger material-steel.
Steel was first extensively used in the Eads Bridge at St. Louis, Missouri, built in 1874 as a
steel arch bridge of three spans of 153, 158 and 153 m. The Eads bridge was also the first
bridge to use pneumatic caissons in USA, the first bridge to make extensive use of cantilever
method of erection, and the first to specify and test for elastic limit and ultimate strength for
steel. The first all-steel bridge was built at Glasgow, South Dakota in 1878. Steel was also
used in the cables and spans of Brooklyn Bridge during 1869-83.

With the introduction of steel, the earlier truss forms yielded place to more efficient forms
such as the Baltimore, Parker, Pennsylvania and K-truss types. The world’s longest simple

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steel truss bridge span is the suspended span of J.J. Barry bridge across Delaware river with a
span of 251 m.

The world’s first modern cantilever bridge was built in 1867 by Heinrich Gerber across the
river Main at Hassfurt, Germany, with a main span of 129 m. The world’s most famous
cantilever bridge is the Firth of Forth bridge in Scotland, with two main spans of 521 m, built
in 1889. The world’s longest span cantilever bridge was built in 1917 at Quebec, over the St.
Lawrence river, with a main span of 549 m. The Howrah bridge over the Hoogly river at
Calcutta, built in 1943 with a main span of 457 m, has elegant aesthetics and possesses
pleasing proportions among the suspended span, cantilever arms and the anchor spans.

Inspired by the success of the Eads Bridge, many fine arch bridges were built. Notable
among these are the Hell Gate Bridge at new York with a span of 297 m built in 1971 and the
Sydney harbor bridge at Sydney, Australia, with a span of 503 m built in 1932. The world’s
longest arch bridge in the new River Gorge bridge in West Virginia built in 1976 using
weathering steel with a span of 519 m. The deck type arch span is aesthetically the most
pleasing. The Henry Hudson bridge built in 1936 with a span of 244 m and the Rainbow
bridge at Niagara Falls built in 1941 with a span of 290 m are outstanding examples of
beautiful steel arch bridges.

The first reinforced concrete bridge was built by Adair in 1871 as a 15 m span bridge across
the Waveney at Homersfield, England. Soon after, a 6m arch was built in 1889 at Golden
Gate Park in San Francisco and a girder bridge was built in 1893 by Hennebique as an
approach to a mill at Don, France. The adaptability of reinforced concrete to any
architectural form and the increased efficiency in concrete construction resulted in its
widespread use in bridge building. Maillart in Switzerland produced fine arch bridges in
reinforced concrete, utilizing the integrated structural action of thin arch slabs with
monolithically cast stiffening beams. The longest span concrete arch bridge is the
Gladesville built in 1964 at Sydney, Australia, with a span of 305 m.

The application of prestressing in concrete design opened new horizons in the use of concrete
since 1930. One of the early prestressed concrete bridges was the Mame bridge built by
Freyssinet in France. The Bendorf bridge over the Rhine in Germany with a main span of
208 m built in 1965 by Finsterwalder using the free cantilever method of construction and
adopting short high tensile bar tendons marked a breakthrough in prestressed concrete bridge
construction.
During the period following Fasiladas (after 1667) it is said that many bridges were
constructed in Gonder and Lake Tana area. Pankhrust listed the following: two arch bridges
at Alata, one at Sila, one on Gondar-Debretabor road, one on Angereb river, another at the
junction of Angereb and Keha.
Many of the bridges built during the 17th and 18th centuries were destroyed during the civil
war in the Zemene Mesafint. The knowledge of bridge building was also lost during this
period.

Emperor Theodros was much admired for his road building activities and built road from his
capital Debretabor to Gojjam, Maqdella and to the north. He supervised the road
construction in person. But most of these might have been temporary bridges.

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The first modern bridges seem to have been built by the local chief of Gojjam, king Tekle
Haymanot in the years 1884-1885.

Like many other aspects of modernization, Menelik’s period marks the revival of bridge
building in Ethiopia. During his many campaigns especially to the south, he felt the great
necessity of roads. The first bridge constructed was timber bridge on Awash river.
During and after battle of Adwa, and having seen the difficulty in the march to and back from
Adwa, the emperor was more than determined to construct roads. After the battle he had
many Italian prisoners working on road and bridge construction.
In Addis the first stone bridge was constructed on Kebena river in 1902 by a Russian
engineer after their compatriate staff was drowned. The second was Ras Mekonnen bridge
built in 1908 by Ras Mekonnen.

In Jimma and Illubabor areas, fine timber bridges are reported to be constructed by the local
community.

After 1906 Menelik employed many foreign experts: Indians, Greeks, and Italians to
construct roads in the country, especially in the provinces for the first time. But these bridges
were made of timber and stone bridges were exclusively constructed in the capital.

On the eve of Italian invasion of 1935, road building program with the erection of numerous
bridges was initiated and constructed. This was carried out under Ministry of Public Works.
But these served the invaders only.

The years 1935-1941 were the years of occupation by Italians. The great program was
announced in which Italy tried to win Ethiopia and set a program of building major and minor
roads throughout the country.

The following roads were constructed by Italians during this period:

Assab-Serdo-Dessie road – 1504 minor and 80 major bridges constructed
288km road on of Asmara-Addis road upto Debre Sina – 606 minor and 24 major bridges
Road from Tekkezie to Tanna (431km)-686 minor bridges and culverts and 52 major bridges
Road from Gondar to Debretabor(168km), road from Addis to Mille(138km)-650 small and
50 major bridges. Most of the roads were built to connect Addis to the different parts:
Addis to Debre Sina, Addis to Debre Markos-Gondar-Axum, Addis to Lekemtie, Addis to
Recently, cable stayed bridges have gained popularity for long span bridges in the range of
about 200 m. One well known bridge in this category is the Marakaibo Lake bridge in
Venezuela built in 1963. Many bridges of this type have been built in Europe and in Japan.
The suspension bridge has come to stay as the type best suited for very long spans. In 1883
the Brooklyn Bridge was completed with a main span of 486 m the longest bridge in the
world at that time. Other suspension bridges followed raising the record span. The Golden
Gate bridge at San Francisco was completed in 1937 with a record span of 1280 m. In 1940,
the Tacoma Narrows bridge at Puget Sound, Washington, was opened to traffic. It had a span
of 853 m and stiffening truss only 2.4 m deep. The bridge collapsed the same year during a
68 kmph gale due to aerodynamic instability. This failure forcefully brought home the need
for consideration of aerodynamic effects on suspension bridges and triggered many
theoretical and experimental studies into the problem.

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The next longest span bridge in the world is Humber Estuary Bridge at Humber, England. It
was built in 1981 with a main span of 1410 m. This great bridge is indicative of the
irresistible urge of man to continually thrust forward. According to D.B. Steinman, bridge
spans as large as 3000m are practically feasible and will be built in the future. The Akashi-
Kaikyo Bridge in Japan is now the longest span suspension bridge with a main span of
1990m.

The design of long span bridges always poses a challenge to the ingenuity and to the
perseverance of the designer. Every long span bridge brings in new problems in design
concepts and new construction details. The designer chooses his solution with full freedom
of decision, but with full responsibility for the success of the work. In fact, long span bridges
are creative works, and serve as landmarks in the art of bridge building.

There are many bridges built 30-70 years back in transportation networks which require
maintenance, and some rehabilitation. From this experience, now many codes require
considering (inspectability and) maintainability during design and total cost comparison as
opposed to first cost comparison in bridge selection.

Historical Development of Bridge Construction in Ethiopia

Early travelers before the 16th century had recorded near complete absence of roads and river
crossings in the country. The rough terrain, deep gorges and fast and high floods during rainy
season that wash off everything are the main difficulties that hindered bridge construction.

Almeida first recorded about two crude but sturdy and useful bridges in the second half of the
16th century. One of these was on Blue Nile near Alata where thick log is placed across the
narrow rocky banks. The whole of emperor Susenyos’ army often crossed by this crossing.
The second one was on river Zebes which is a wide and fast river. A long was placed across
and as people crossed it vibrated up and down.

Portugese mission which came to help the highlander dynasty from Muslim invaders of Harar
constructed the first stone masonry bridge using lime mortar as binder in 1626 near the old
bridge at Alata. Later Susenyos ordered construction of bridges, which was carried out by a
draftsman from India.
Jimma, Addis Ato Nazareth and Assela, Addis to Modjo and Shashemenie, and Addis to
Dire Dawa and Harar.

Bridges were also built to in the Ogaden and Southern Bale regions to connect Addis and
Jimma to their Somali colony. Totally 673 small bridges and culverts and 16 major bridges
were constructed. These were: road to connect Jimma to Indian ocean through Borena and
Filtu (Bale), road to connect Addis with Mogadishu through Ferfer and Shashemenie, and
road connecting Addis to Mogadishu through Ferfer and Harar.
After 1941 the Ministry of Public works was mainly engaged in maintenance of bridges
destroyed in the liberation battles and construction of few new bridges, one of which is Abai
bridge near Dejen constructed in 1949.

An independent agency for road building was established as Imperial Highway Authority in
1951 with expatriate staff from the US Bureau of Public Roads.

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This authority established district headquarters at Shoea, Gondar, Wello, Tigrai, Harar and
Sidamo. Since its establishment, the Authority set different highway maintenance at the
beginning and mainly construction programs. These are
First Highway Program (1951-1957) – this consisted of reconstruction and maintenance
Second Highway Program (1957-1965) – Constructed 1200km new roads and maintained
4500km all-weather roads. Many minor and major bridges were constructed. Abai bridge
near Bahir Dar was constructed in this program.
Third Highway Program (1965-1968) – new and improved standard bridge and culvert
plans were prepared during this program. Many minor and major bridges were constructed.
Fourth Highway Program (1968-1972) – two major road projects were completed during
this period: Lekemte-Ghimbi and Agaro-Bedele roads. Others: Bedele-Mettu, Awash-
Tendaho, Nazareth-Awash, Jimma-Agaro and Dilla-Moyalle projects. Many minor and
major bridges were constructed.
Fifth Higway Program (1972-1975) – During this period, local contractors began to take
major contract projects.
Sixty Highway Program (1975-) – Rural Roads Division established with in the Authority
to program and execute the construction of access roads, mainly in the drought affected areas.
Drought in the north, east and southern parts of the country initiated construction of low cost,
standard roads where in many small bridges were constructed. A notable bridge constructed
during the Derge regime is the one on Baro river with a total span of 305m, which was the
longest span in the country.

1.4 Elements of a Bridge Project

The design of bridges requires the collection of extensive data and from this the selection of
possible options. From such a review the choice is narrowed down to a shortlist of potential
bridge designs. A sensible work plan should be devised for the marshalling and deployment
of information throughout the project from conception to completion and through the design
period to the end of its life. Such a checklist will vary from project to project but a typical
example might be drawn along the following lines.
(b) foundation considerations;
i) Feasibility Phase:
(c) hydraulic considerations, flood, scour;
a) data collection;
(d) loading and design criteria;
b) topographical and hydrographical surveys;
(e) clearance height and width (such as for
c) hydrological information;
navigation or traffic);
d) geological and geotechnical information;
(f) criteria for gradients, alignment, etc,;
e) site investigation requirements for soil and
(g) hazards such as impact, accident;
rock evaluation
(h) proximity to other engineering works
f) Meteorological and aerodynamic data;
(i) functional requirements;
g) Assembly of basic criteria;
(j) transportation and traffic planning;
h) Likely budget
(k) highway and/or railway engineering aspects;
ii) Assembly of design criteria: (l) drainage requirements;
(a) data and properties on the material to be
used including steel, concrete, timber,
masonry, etc.;

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ii) Assembly of design criteria:
(m)provision for services (water, sewage, power,
electricity, telephone, communications links)
(n) design life and durability considerations.
iii) Design phase:
(a) choice of bridge:
(b) detailed design of bridge including foundations,
substructure and superstructure;
(c) production of drawings and documentation,
(d) preparation of quality assurance plan;
(e) estimation of cost and program.
iv) Construction phase:
(a) contractual matters;
(b) construction methods;
Such a project list serves to highlight the various requirements of a bridge project
Lecture Note
iv) Construction phase:
(c) budget and financial control;
(d) quality control;
(e) supervision of construction;
(f) commissioning;
(g) operating, inspection and maintenance
schedules for each part of the work.
iv) Performance phase:
(a) obligations of owner;
(b) management of facility;
(c) inspection, maintenance and repair;
(d) rehabilitation and refurbishment requirements
(change of loading, widening, change of use
and durability aspects);
(e) decommissioning and demolition

1.5 Design Objectives

The objectives in a bridge design are safety, serviceability, economy, constructability and
aesthetics.
Safety – the primary responsibility of the engineer is to ensure public safety in the design by
ensuring adequate structural safety (the philosophy of achieving structural safety is treated in
subsection 1.5)
Serviceability – consists of satisfying requirements of deformation, durability, inspect
ability, maintainability and ride ability.
Deformation – Bridges should be designed to avoid excessive deformations that cause
undesirable structural or psychological effects. Limits on deflection or minimum depth to
consider are given in codes (AASHTO 98, Articles 2.5.2.6.2 and 2.5.2.6.3 respectively).
Durability – contract documents specify quality of materials to be used and standards of
fabrication and erection of elements to ensure durability. Self - protecting measures of the
structure from the effects of the weather will be taken during design and construction
Inspectability – inspection ladders, walkways, catwalks and covered access holes will be
provided where other means of inspection are not practical.
Maintainability – structural systems whose maintenance is expected to be difficult should be
avoided
Rideability – the deck of the bridge will be designed to permit smooth movement of traffic.
The number of deck joints will be kept to a practicable minimum.
Economy – structural types, span lengths and materials should be selected based on cost.
The cost of future expenditures during the projected service life of the bridge should be
considered
Constructability – bridges should be designed in a manner such that fabrication and erection
can be performed without undue difficulty or distress and that construction force effects are
within tolerable limits
Aesthetics – Aesthetics aspect and space requirement of buildings are designed by architects.
Aesthetic, space requirement, hydraulic and structural aspects of bridges are designed by civil
engineers. Bridges should complement their surroundings, be graceful in form and present an
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appearance of adequate strength. Because the major structural components are the largest
parts and are seen first, they determine the appearance of a bridge.

Oftentimes the most aesthetically pleasing bridge is also the least expensive. Sometimes a
modest increase in construction cost is required to improve the appearance of a bridge. Menn
states that the additional cost is about 2% for short spans and only about 5% for long spans in
California, USA. Public expenditures on improved appearance are generally supported and
appreciated. Given a choice, even with a modest increase in initial cost, the public prefers the
bridge that has a nicer appearance.

Although beauty in anything is somewhat subjective and undefinable, experience has shown
that there are some general guidelines which, if followed, will result in a structure of
improved appearance. Bearing in mind that a bridge may well serve for 100 years or more,
the designer should become familiar with the aesthetic techniques that may be used to
improve the appearance of a bridge so that the bridge will be a credit to its designer and to
itself for many decades to come. The following are some special areas of concern.
Proportions and Lines. All the members should bear a pleasing relationship to each other.
Columns should not be spindly nor superstructures too heavy. Span lengths should be chosen
carefully. Where there are no other constraints, and odd number is better that an even
number, with the longest span in the center – lines should be mainly horizontal so that the
structure seems to flow from end to end. Intermediate supports should be subdued to that
they do not break the dominant horizontal flow. This means pushing the bent caps up into the
superstructure or covering their ends with skirts to make the longitudinal lines continuous
over the supports. The bridge should look like it was designed as a whole, not as a lot of
individual parts glued together. Bridges using precast concrete or simple steel plate girders
require special treatment to conceal the caps and extend the horizontal lines over the
supports. Giving the soffit lines a slight arch, more than the normal camber, will often
improve the overall appearance.
Pleasing Shapes – appearance can be enhanced by avoiding stereotyped round or square
columns and flat soffits. A column which may be adequate structurally will often be too
small to be good looking. Add enough size to make the proportions seem right. Columns,
which are smaller at the bottom than the top, will help make the structure seem lighter and
more dynamic. Make sure the columns are all the same type and size both for appearance
and for reusability of forms. Avoid large expanses of plain concrete. Break them up with
ledges to create shadow lines or use heavily textured panels. Slope the sides of box girders
back under the bridge, and give the bottom edge a large curved fillet to diminish its apparent
depth.
Compatibility – make the bridge fit its surroundings. If it looks like it belongs there, it will
be a pleasing addition to its environment. If it is a misfit, it will be an eyesore forever. Even
industrial or utilitarian bridges need not be ugly. It is worthwhile to make every bridge have
an appearance of quality and careful craftsmanship.
Implementation of those features must be balanced with their effects on the structural
adequacy of the bridge as a whole.
Consequently, engineers should seek excellent appearance in bridge parts in the following
order of importance: horizontal and vertical alignment and position in the environment,
superstructure type (girder, arch, etc), pier placement, abutment placement and height,
superstructure shape (haunched, tapered depth), pier shape, abutment shape, parapet and
railing details, surface colors and texture and ornament.

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1.6 Design Philosophy
Bridges shall be designed for specified limit states to achieve the objectives of safety,
serviceability, economy, constructability and aesthetics. Each component and connection
should be designed to satisfy equation 1-1 for each of the limit states: service, fatigue and
fracture, strength and extreme event limit states. A bridge for which any of these limit states
is exceeded is unfit for the intended function or use. This equation is the basis of the Load
and Resistance Factor Design (LRFD) method, which will be used in this course. Factors
obtained from the theory of reliability based on current statistical knowledge of loads and
structural performances are used for both the loads and the resistances. Besides, ductility and
redundancy are important in ensuring safety.

. . . . . (1.1)

Where
i = load factor, a statistically based multiplier applied to force effects
i = Resistance factor, a statistically based multiplier applied to nominal resistance
i =Load modifier, a factor relating to ductility, redundancy and operational importance
Qi is force effect, Rn = nominal resistance and Rf = factored resistance = Rn

The different limit states may be defined now

Strength limit state – is meant to ensure that strength and stability, both local and global, are
provided to resist the specified statistically significant load combinations that a bridge is
expected to be subjected to in its design life
Service limit state – is restrictions on stress, deformation and crack width under regular
service conditions
Fatigue and fracture limit state – the fatigue limit state is restrictions on stress range as a
result of a single design truck occurring at the number of expected stress range cycles. The
fracture limit state is taken as a set of material toughness requirements.
Extreme event limit states - this is taken to ensure the structural survival of a bridge during a
major earthquake or flood, or when collided by a vehicle, vessel, possibly under scoured
conditions.
Ductility – the structural system of a bridge shall be proportioned and detailed to ensure the
development of significant and visible inelastic deformations at the strength and extreme
event limit states prior to failure. Ductile structures give ample warning before they lose load
carrying capacity where as brittle structures collapse without giving warning.

Redundancy – multiple load path and continuous structures should be used unless there are
compelling reasons not to use them. Indeterminate structures survive overloads and extreme
events due to multiple load paths and redistribution of internal forces.

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