1

Computer Networks (KCS- 603) Syllabus

Unit-I
Introductory Concepts: Goals and applications of networks, Categories of networks, Organization of the
Internet, ISP, Network structure and architecture (layering principles, services, protocols, and standards), The
OSI reference model, TCP/IP protocol suite, Network devices and components.
Physical Layer: Network topology design, Types of connections, Transmission media, Signal transmission
and encoding, Network performance and transmission impairments, Switching techniques and multiplexing.
Unit-II
Link layer: Framing, Error Detection and Correction, Flow control (Elementary Data Link Protocols, Sliding
Window protocols). Medium Access Control and Local Area Networks: Channel allocation, Multiple access
protocols, LAN standards, Link layer switches & bridges (learning bridge and spanning tree algorithms).
Unit-III
Network Layer: Point-to-point networks, Logical addressing, Basic internetworking (IP, CIDR, ARP, RARP,
DHCP, ICMP), Routing, forwarding and delivery, Static and dynamic routing, Routing algorithms and
protocols, Congestion control algorithms, IPv6.
Unit-IV
Transport Layer: Process-to-process delivery, Transport layer protocols (UDP and TCP), Multiplexing,
Connection management, Flow control and retransmission, Window management, TCP Congestion control,
Quality of service.
Unit-V
Application Layer: Domain Name System, World Wide Web and Hyper Text Transfer Protocol, Electronic
mail, File Transfer Protocol, Remote login, Network management, Data compression, Cryptography – basic
concepts.
Text books and References:
1. Behrouz Forouzan, “Data Communication and Networking”, McGraw Hill
2. Andrew Tanenbaum “Computer Networks”, Prentice Hall.
3. William Stallings, “Data and Computer Communication”, Pearson.
4. Kurose and Ross, “Computer Networking- A Top-Down Approach”, Pearson.
5. Peterson and Davie, “Computer Networks: A Systems Approach”, Morgan Kaufmann
6. W. A. Shay, “Understanding Communications and Networks”, Cengage Learning.
7. D. Comer, “Computer Networks and Internets”, Pearson.
8. Behrouz Forouzan, “TCP/IP Protocol Suite”, McGraw Hill
Computer Network:
A network consists of two or more nodes (e.g. computers) that are linked in order to share resources (such as
printers and CDs), exchange files, or allow electronic communications. The computers on a network may be
linked through cables, telephone lines, radio waves, satellites, or infrared light beams.
Goals of Networks
Computer Network means an interconnection of autonomous (standalone) computers for information
exchange. The connecting media could be a copper wire, optical fiber, microwave, or satellite.
Networking Elements – The computer network includes the following networking elements:
1. At least two computers
2. Transmission medium either wired or wireless
3. Protocols or rules that govern the communication
4. Network software such as Network Operating System
Network Criteria:
The criteria that have to be met by a computer network are:
1. Performance – It is measured in terms of transit time and response time.
• Transit time is the time for a message to travel from one device to another
• Response time is the elapsed time between an inquiry and a response.
Performance is dependent on the following factors:
• The number of users
 2

• Type of transmission medium

• Capability of connected network
• Efficiency of software
2. Reliability – It is measured in terms of
• Frequency of failure
• Recovery from failures
• Robustness during catastrophe
3. Security – It means protecting data from unauthorized access.
Goals of Computer Networks: The following are some important goals of computer networks:
1. Resource Sharing –
Many organization has a substantial number of computers in operations, which are located apart.
Ex. A group of office workers can share a common printer, fax, modem, scanner, etc.

2. High Reliability –
If there are alternate sources of supply, all files could be replicated on two or more machines. If
one of them is not available, due to hardware failure, the other copies could be used.

3. Inter-process Communication –
Network users, located geographically apart, may converse in an interactive session through the
network. In order to permit this, the network must provide almost error-free communications.

4. Flexible access –
Files can be accessed from any computer in the network. The project can be begun on one
computer and finished on another.
Other goals include Distribution of processing functions, Centralized management, and allocation
of network resources, Compatibility of dissimilar equipment and software, Good network
performance, Scalability, Saving money, Access to remote information, Person to person
communication, etc.
NETWORK APPLICATIONS:
• Access to remote programs.
• Access to remote databases.
• Value-added communication facilities.

Types of Computer Networks

1. Personal Area Network (PAN)
The smallest and most basic type of network, a PAN is made up of a wireless modem, a computer or two,
phones, printers, tablets, etc., and revolves around one person in one building. These types of networks are
typically found in small offices or residences and are managed by one person or organization from a single
device.
2. Local Area Network (LAN)
We’re confident that you’ve heard of these types of networks before – LANs are the most frequently discussed
networks, one of the most common, one of the most original and one of the simplest types of
networks. LANs connect groups of computers and low-voltage devices together across short distances (within
a building or between a group of two or three buildings in close proximity to each other) to share information
and resources. Enterprises typically manage and maintain LANs.
Using routers, LANs can connect to wide area networks (WANs, explained below) to rapidly and safely
transfer data.
3. Wireless Local Area Network (WLAN)
 3

Functioning like a LAN, WLANs make use of wireless network technology, such as Wi-Fi. Typically seen in
the same types of applications as LANs, these types of networks don’t require that devices rely on physical
cables to connect to the network.
4. Campus Area Network (CAN)
Larger than LANs, but smaller than metropolitan area networks (MANs, explained below), these types of
networks are typically seen in universities, large K-12 school districts or small businesses. They can be spread
across several buildings that are fairly close to each other so users can share resources.
5. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
These types of networks are larger than LANs but smaller than WANs – and incorporate elements from both
types of networks. MANs span an entire geographic area (typically a town or city, but sometimes a campus).
Ownership and maintenance is handled by either a single person or company (a local council, a large company,
etc.).
6. Wide Area Network (WAN)
Slightly more complex than a LAN, a WAN connects computers together across longer physical distances.
This allows computers and low-voltage devices to be remotely connected to each other over one large network
to communicate even when they’re miles apart.
The Internet is the most basic example of a WAN, connecting all computers together around the world.
Because of a WAN’s vast reach, it is typically owned and maintained by multiple administrators or the public.
7. Storage-Area Network (SAN)
As a dedicated high-speed network that connects shared pools of storage devices to several servers, these types
of networks don’t rely on a LAN or WAN. Instead, they move storage resources away from the network and
place them into their own high-performance network. SANs can be accessed in the same fashion as a drive
attached to a server. Types of storage-area networks include converged, virtual and unified SANs.
8. System-Area Network (also known as SAN)
This term is fairly new within the past two decades. It is used to explain a relatively local network that is
designed to provide high-speed connection in server-to-server applications (cluster environments), storage
area networks (called “SANs” as well) and processor-to-processor applications. The computers connected on
a SAN operate as a single system at very high speeds.
9. Passive Optical Local Area Network (POLAN)
As an alternative to traditional switch-based Ethernet LANs, POLAN technology can be integrated into
structured cabling to overcome concerns about supporting traditional Ethernet protocols and network
applications such as PoE (Power over Ethernet). A point-to-multipoint LAN architecture, POLAN uses optical
splitters to split an optical signal from one strand of single mode optical fibre into multiple signals to serve
users and devices.

10. Enterprise Private Network (EPN)

These types of networks are built and owned by businesses that want to securely connect its various locations
to share computer resources.
11. Virtual Private Network (VPN)
By extending a private network across the Internet, a VPN lets its users send and receive data as if their devices
were connected to the private network – even if they’re not. Through a virtual point-to-point connection, users
can access a private network remotely.
Internet Organization
The Internet, an autonomous, interconnected network, loosely structured international cooperation, facilitates
host-to - host communication, voluntarily following transparent protocols and procedures set out in the Internet
standards. There also are a number of disconnected Internet sites that do not connect to the Internet, but use
Internet standards , for example, interconnected network sets. (The 1602 RFC).
Nobody owns the internet or actually regulates it. Alternatively, Internet engagement is the result of voluntary
Internet involvement. To addition to complying with these requirements, many internet providers already
allow public access to their networks.
 4

The digital Web consists of these providers' mutual interconnection and cooperation. Roughly 300 service
providers are currently interconnected with the Internet (beginning in 1996).
1. Internet Society (ISOC)
The Internet Society (ISOC) is a professional organization that is concerned with the development and
advancement of the Internet worldwide, its use and its financial, political and technological issues. The
approval of the IAB nominations from the candidates sent by the Nominating Committee of the IAB is the
responsibility of ISOC Trustees. (RFC 1718).
2. Internet Architecture Board (IAB)
The ISOC is a technical advisory committee of the Internet Architecture Board ( IAB). It is chartered to control
the internet infrastructure and protocols and to serve as an body through which IESG decisions can be appealed
in the form of the Internet standard procedure. The IAB is responsible for the approval of IESG appointments
by the candidates submitted by the IETF committee of nominations. (RFC 1718)
3. Internet Engineering Steering Group (IESG)
The IESG is responsible for the strategic control of IETF activities and the Internet Standards System. This
administers the process as part of the ISOC according to the rules and procedures that the ISOC trustees have
ratified. In addition to the endorsements under Internet standards, IESG is specifically responsible for actions
related to the entry and movement along the "standards line" of the internet.
4. Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF)

The IETF is a loosely structured community of individuals who make technical and other contributions
to the Internet and its technological innovation and development. This is the primary body interested in
creating new Internet standards. The mission consists of:
• Identification and offer of solutions to urgent organizational and technological internet
issues.
• Specifies development or use of protocols and the short-term framework for Internet
resolution of these technical problems.
• Recommendations on the standardization of protocols and protocol use in the Internet to an
Network infrastructure steering group (IESG).
• The transition of technology from the IRTF to a larger network population is facilitated.
• providing a forum for the sharing between suppliers, customers, analysts, agency contractors
and network managers of knowledge within the Internet community.
• The IETF consists of 8 operating units. Applications, Internet, management of the Network,
operational needs, routing, security, transportation, and user services, etc. One or two area
managers are in each region. The IESG is established by the area managers along with the
IETF / IESG chair.
There are a variety of working groups in each region. A working group is a community of people who work
for a certain cause under a charter. This purpose could be to create a knowledge paper, create a specification
of a protocol or fix problems on the Internet. Many groups of work have a final life. Which is, when a working
party achieves its target, it dissolves. As with IETF, a working group does not have formal membership.
Unofficially, a member of the working group is someone on the mailing list of the working group, but everyone
can attend a meeting of the Working Group. (RFC 1718).
5. Internet Assigned Number Authority (IANA)
Numbers, keywords, and other parameters to be allocated are used in several protocol specifications. E.g.,
version numbers, protocol numbers, port numbers and MIBs. The IAB has assigned the responsibility of
assigning these protocol parameters to the Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA). The IANA shall
publish in RFCs the "Assigned Numbers" table of all currently allocated numbers and parameters. (RFC 1502).
6. RFC Editor
As part of the "Request for Comments" (RFC) document sequence, every version of a specification is written.
This collection of archives is the official outlet for the publication of IESG, IAB, and the internet culture
documents and other publications. A variety of internet hosts provide RFCs for anonymous FTP.
 5

As part of the initial ARPA wide-ranging networking (ARPANET) initiative, the RFC networking documents
were introduced in 1969 (see Appendix A for glossary acronyms). A variety of subjects occupy RFCs, from
early debate on new research ideas to Internet status memoranda. Under the general guidance of IAB, RFC
publishing is the sole responsibility of the RFC publisher. (RFC 1502)
7. InterNIC
Two main components are found in Inter NIC, the Internet Network Information Centre. AT&T provides
directory and database services, primarily Internet web sites, which are used by Who is to find users, networks
and domains. Including domain name registration, Network Solutions, Inc. offers registry services. Inter NIC,
which was initially supported by the NSF, was autonomous.
Internet Service Provider (ISP):
An Internet Service Provider (ISP) is a company such as AT&T, Verizon, Comcast, or Spectrum that
provides Internet access to companies, families, and even mobile users. ISPs use fiber-optics, satellite, copper
wire, and other forms to provide Internet access to its customers.
The type of Internet access varies depending on what the customer requires. For home use, cable, or DSL
(digital subscriber line) is the perfect, affordable choice. The price of home use can range anywhere from free
to roughly $120 a month. The amount of bandwidth is usually what drives the price. Bandwidth is the amount
of data that can be sent through an internet connection in a given amount of time. The speed for home use
usually varies from 14 kilobits per second to 100 megabits per second. For large companies and organizations,
their bandwidth requirements may be 1 to 10 gigabits per second, which is both insanely fast and expensive!

The Internet Highway

ISPs connect to one another by forming backbones, which is another way of saying a main highway of
communications. Backbones usually consist of satellite, copper wire, or even fiber-optic media. Media is a
term that means cables or lines, and it's the physical means of connecting your home to the internet.
Now, imagine these 'main highways' are like the major arteries that we have in our bodies. These major arteries
push an extreme amount of blood (or data) to our smaller blood arteries (cities). Those smaller arteries then
feed into blood vessels (neighbourhoods) and then into tiny capillaries (our individual homes).
ISPs provide the same service, except that they use different types of media to do so. ISPs bridge distant
locations between cities, states, and countries. Because of these high-speed backbone systems, we are able
receive an email within seconds, stream our favourite movie without interruption, and play online games with
no lag whatsoever.

Satellites
Let's go over the different types of media that are used in order to give you a broader understanding of how
ISPs work.
Customers who live in remote locations, such as farms, deserts, and mountainous areas, may require a satellite
Internet service. This involves transmitting and receiving data from a satellite orbiting about 22,000 miles
above the earth. Although satellite communication is not as fast as other mediums, it does provide flexibility
with limited environmental impact, and there is not as much need for support from the local
telecommunications company.
These satellite terminals can also be used when setting up natural disaster recovery centres. For example,
FEMA used a satellite terminal during Hurricane Katrina, since the public telecommunication infrastructure
was severely damaged.

Fiber Optics
Fiber optics, or fiber, is a transmission medium used to transmit light instead of electrical voltage, like copper.
The great thing about fiber is that it transmits Internet traffic at the speed of light!
 6

Fiber has great qualities, such as being very reliable and immune to electromagnetic interference, unlike
copper. Fiber has the bandwidth capability from 10 gigabits per second all the way up to 31 terabits per second.
Without boosting stations (which boost or amplify the signal as it travels, and commonly used with copper),
fiber can transmit signals up to 150 miles without regeneration. Right now, there are fiber cables that run along
the ocean floor, connecting countries across the globe through high speed Internet access. Pretty cool!

Copper Cables
ISPs will more likely supply home users with a copper medium, such as that used for DSL or cable broadband.
This works by sending electrical pulses through a copper wire. Broadband is cheap and provides excellent
Internet service to the home user. It uses existing media found commonly in homes, such as your cable and
telephone outlets, to provide users with Internet access. Most ISPs will provide their customers with equipment
such as modems and routers to complete the installation and receive Internet access.

Computer Network Models

A communication subsystem is a complex piece of Hardware and software. Early attempts for implementing
the software for such subsystems were based on a single, complex, unstructured program with many interacting
components. The resultant software was very difficult to test and modify. To overcome such problem, the ISO
has developed a layered approach. In a layered approach, networking concept is divided into several layers,
and each layer is assigned a particular task. Therefore, we can say that networking tasks depend upon the
layers.

Layered Architecture

o The main aim of the layered architecture is to divide the design into small pieces.
o Each lower layer adds its services to the higher layer to provide a full set of services to manage
communications and run the applications.
o It provides modularity and clear interfaces, i.e., provides interaction between subsystems.
o It ensures the independence between layers by providing the services from lower to higher layer
without defining how the services are implemented. Therefore, any modification in a layer will not
affect the other layers.
o The number of layers, functions, contents of each layer will vary from network to network. However,
the purpose of each layer is to provide the service from lower to a higher layer and hiding the details
from the layers of how the services are implemented.
o The basic elements of layered architecture are services, protocols, and interfaces.
o Service: It is a set of actions that a layer provides to the higher layer.
o Protocol: It defines a set of rules that a layer uses to exchange the information with peer entity.
These rules mainly concern about both the contents and order of the messages used.
o Interface: It is a way through which the message is transferred from one layer to another layer.
o In a layer n architecture, layer n on one machine will have a communication with the layer n on another
machine and the rules used in a conversation are known as a layer-n protocol.
Let's take an example of the five-layered architecture.
 7

o In case of layered architecture, no data is transferred from layer n of one machine to layer n of another
machine. Instead, each layer passes the data to the layer immediately just below it, until the lowest
layer is reached.
o Below layer 1 is the physical medium through which the actual communication takes place.
o In a layered architecture, unmanageable tasks are divided into several small and manageable tasks.
o The data is passed from the upper layer to lower layer through an interface. A Layered architecture
provides a clean-cut interface so that minimum information is shared among different layers. It also
ensures that the implementation of one layer can be easily replaced by another implementation.
o A set of layers and protocols is known as network architecture.

Why do we require Layered architecture?

o Divide-and-conquer approach: Divide-and-conquer approach makes a design process in such a way

that the unmanageable tasks are divided into small and manageable tasks. In short, we can say that this
approach reduces the complexity of the design.
o Modularity: Layered architecture is more modular. Modularity provides the independence of layers,
which is easier to understand and implement.
o Easy to modify: It ensures the independence of layers so that implementation in one layer can be
changed without affecting other layers.
o Easy to test: Each layer of the layered architecture can be analyzed and tested individually.
Protocols:

Network Protocols are a set of rules governing exchange of information in an easy, reliable and secure way.
Before we discuss the most common protocols used to transmit and receive data over a network, we need to
understand how a network is logically organized or designed. The most popular model used to establish open
communication between two systems is the Open Systems Interface (OSI) model proposed by ISO.
 8

OSI Model
OSI model is not a network architecture because it does not specify the exact services and protocols for
each layer. It simply tells what each layer should do by defining its input and output data. It is up to network
architects to implement the layers according to their needs and resources available.
These are the seven layers of the OSI model −
• Physical layer −It is the first layer that physically connects the two systems that need to communicate.
It transmits data in bits and manages simplex or duplex transmission by modem. It also manages
Network Interface Card’s hardware interface to the network, like cabling, cable terminators,
topography, voltage levels, etc.
• Data link layer − It is the firmware layer of Network Interface Card. It assembles datagrams into
frames and adds start and stop flags to each frame. It also resolves problems caused by damaged, lost
or duplicate frames.
• Network layer − It is concerned with routing, switching and controlling flow of information between
the workstations. It also breaks down transport layer datagrams into smaller datagrams.
• Transport layer − Till the session layer, file is in its own form. Transport layer breaks it down into
data frames, provides error checking at network segment level and prevents a fast host from
overrunning a slower one. Transport layer isolates the upper layers from network hardware.
• Session layer − This layer is responsible for establishing a session between two workstations that want
to exchange data.
• Presentation layer − This layer is concerned with correct representation of data, i.e. syntax and
semantics of information. It controls file level security and is also responsible for converting data to
network standards.
• Application layer − It is the topmost layer of the network that is responsible for sending application
requests by the user to the lower levels. Typical applications include file transfer, E-mail, remote
logon, data entry, etc.

It is not necessary for every network to have all the layers. For example, network layer is not there in broadcast
networks.
 9

When a system wants to share data with another workstation or send a request over the network, it is received
by the application layer. Data then proceeds to lower layers after processing till it reaches the physical layer.
At the physical layer, the data is actually transferred and received by the physical layer of the destination
workstation. There, the data proceeds to upper layers after processing till it reaches application layer.
At the application layer, data or request is shared with the workstation. So each layer has opposite functions
for source and destination workstations. For example, data link layer of the source workstation adds start and
stop flags to the frames but the same layer of the destination workstation will remove the start and stop flags
from the frames.
Let us now see some of the protocols used by different layers to accomplish user requests.

TCP/IP
TCP/IP stands for Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol. TCP/IP is a set of layered protocols
used for communication over the Internet. The communication model of this suite is client-server model. A
computer that sends a request is the client and a computer to which the request is sent is the server.

TCP/IP has four layers −

• Application layer − Application layer protocols like HTTP and FTP are used.
• Transport layer − Data is transmitted in form of datagrams using the Transmission Control Protocol
(TCP). TCP is responsible for breaking up data at the client side and then reassembling it on the server
side.
• Network layer − Network layer connection is established using Internet Protocol (IP) at the network
layer. Every machine connected to the Internet is assigned an address called IP address by the protocol
to easily identify source and destination machines.
 10

Data link layer − Actual data transmission in bits occurs at the data link layer using the destination
•
address provided by network layer.
TCP/IP is widely used in many communication networks other than the Internet.

FTP
As we have seen, the need for network came up primarily to facilitate sharing of files between researchers.
And to this day, file transfer remains one of the most used facilities.The protocol that handles these requests
is File Transfer Protocol or FTP.

Using FTP to transfer files is helpful in these ways −

• Easily transfers files between two different networks
• Can resume file transfer sessions even if connection is dropped, if protocol is configure appropriately
• Enables collaboration between geographically separated teams

PPP
Point to Point Protocol or PPP is a data link layer protocol that enables transmission of TCP/IP traffic over
serial connection, like telephone line.
To do this, PPP defines these three things −
• A framing method to clearly define end of one frame and start of another, incorporating errors
detection as well.
• Link control protocol (LCP) for bringing communication lines up, authenticating and bringing them
down when no longer needed.
• Network control protocol (NCP) for each network layer protocol supported by other networks.
Using PPP, home users can avail Internet connection over telephone lines.

Protocols supported at various levels

Layer Name Protocols
Layer 7 Application SMTP, HTTP, FTP, POP3, SNMP
Layer 6 Presentation MPEG, ASCH, SSL, TLS
 11

Layer Name Protocols

Layer 5 Session NetBIOS, SAP
Layer 4 Transport TCP, UDP
Layer 3 Network IPV5, IPV6, ICMP, IPSEC, ARP, MPLS.
Layer 2 Data Link RAPA, PPP, Frame Relay, ATM, Fiber Cable, etc.
Layer 1 Physical RS232, 100BaseTX, ISDN, 11.

Differences between OSI & TCP/IP

Here, are some important differences between the OSI & TCP/IP model:
OSI Model TCP/IP model
TCP/IP doesn’t offer any clear distinguishing
OSI model provides a clear distinction between
points between services, interfaces, and
interfaces, services, and protocols.
protocols.
OSI uses the network layer to define routing standards and
TCP/IP uses only the Internet layer.
protocols.
OSI model use two separate layers physical and data link
TCP/IP uses only one layer (link).
to define the functionality of the bottom layers
OSI model, the transport layer is only connection- A layer of the TCP/IP model is both connection-
oriented. oriented and connectionless.
In OSI model, data link layer and physical are separate In TCP data link layer and physical layer are
layers. combined as a single host-to-network layer.
The minimum size of the OSI header is 5 bytes. Minimum header size is 20 bytes.
 12

Advantages of the OSI Model

Here, are major benefits/pros of using the OSI model :
• It helps you to standardize router, switch, motherboard, and other hardware
• Reduces complexity and standardizes interfaces
• Facilitates modular engineering
• Helps you to ensure interoperable technology
• Helps you to accelerate the evolution
• Protocols can be replaced by new protocols when technology changes.
• Provide support for connection-oriented services as well as connectionless service.
• It is a standard model in computer networking.
• Supports connectionless and connection-oriented services.
• Offers flexibility to adapt to various types of protocols

Disadvantages of the OSI Model

Here are some cons/ drawbacks of using OSI Model:
• Fitting of protocols is a tedious task.
• You can only use it as a reference model.
• Doesn’t define any specific protocol.
• In the OSI network layer model, some services are duplicated in many layers such as the transport and
data link layers
• Layers can’t work in parallel as each layer need to wait to obtain data from the previous layer.

Summary

• The OSI Model is a logical and conceptual model that defines network communication which is used
by systems open to interconnection and communication with other systems
• In OSI model, layer should only be created where the definite levels of abstraction are needed.
• OSI layer helps you to understand communication over a network
• In 1984, the OSI architecture was formally adopted by ISO as an international standard
Layer Name Function Protocols
SMTP, HTTP, FTP,
Layer 7 Application To allow access to network resources.
POP3, SNMP
Layer 6 Presentation To translate, encrypt and compress data. MPEG, ASCH, SSL, TLS
Layer 5 Session To establish, manage, and terminate the session NetBIOS, SAP
The transport layer builds on the network layer to
Layer 4 Transport provide data transport from a process on a source TCP, UDP
machine to a process on a destination machine.
To provide internetworking. To move packets from IPV5, IPV6, ICMP,
Layer 3 Network
source to destination IPSEC, ARP, MPLS.
RAPA, PPP, Frame
To organize bits into frames. To provide hop-to-hop
Layer 2 Data Link Relay, ATM, Fiber Cable,
delivery
etc.
 13

Layer Name Function Protocols

To transmit bits over a medium. To provide RS232, 100BaseTX,
Layer 1 Physical
mechanical and electrical specifications ISDN, 11.

Computer Network Components

Computer network components are the major parts which are needed to install the software. Some important
network components are NIC, switch, cable, hub, router, and modem. Depending on the type of network
that we need to install, some network components can also be removed. For example, the wireless network
does not require a cable.
Following are the major components required to install a network:

NIC

o NIC stands for network interface card.

o NIC is a hardware component used to connect a computer with another computer onto a network
o It can support a transfer rate of 10,100 to 1000 Mb/s.
o The MAC address or physical address is encoded on the network card chip which is assigned by the
IEEE to identify a network card uniquely. The MAC address is stored in the PROM (Programmable
read-only memory).

There are two types of NIC:

1. Wired NIC
2. Wireless NIC
Wired NIC: The Wired NIC is present inside the motherboard. Cables and connectors are used with wired
NIC to transfer data.
Wireless NIC: The wireless NIC contains the antenna to obtain the connection over the wireless network. For
example, laptop computer contains the wireless NIC.
Skip Ad

Hub
A Hub is a hardware device that divides the network connection among multiple devices. When computer
requests for some information from a network, it first sends the request to the Hub through cable. Hub will
broadcast this request to the entire network. All the devices will check whether the request belongs to them or
not. If not, the request will be dropped.
 14

The process used by the Hub consumes more bandwidth and limits the amount of communication. Nowadays,
the use of hub is obsolete, and it is replaced by more advanced computer network components such as
Switches, Routers.

Switch
A switch is a hardware device that connects multiple devices on a computer network. A Switch contains more
advanced features than Hub. The Switch contains the updated table that decides where the data is transmitted
or not. Switch delivers the message to the correct destination based on the physical address present in the
incoming message. A Switch does not broadcast the message to the entire network like the Hub. It determines
the device to whom the message is to be transmitted. Therefore, we can say that switch provides a direct
connection between the source and destination. It increases the speed of the network.

Router

o A router is a hardware device which is used to connect a LAN with an internet connection. It is used
to receive, analyze and forward the incoming packets to another network.
o A router works in a Layer 3 (Network layer) of the OSI Reference model.
o A router forwards the packet based on the information available in the routing table.
o It determines the best path from the available paths for the transmission of the packet.

Advantages Of Router:

o Security: The information which is transmitted to the network will traverse the entire cable, but the
only specified device which has been addressed can read the data.
o Reliability: If the server has stopped functioning, the network goes down, but no other networks are
affected that are served by the router.
o Performance: Router enhances the overall performance of the network. Suppose there are 24
workstations in a network generates a same amount of traffic. This increases the traffic load on the
network. Router splits the single network into two networks of 12 workstations each, reduces the traffic
load by half.
o Network range

Modem

o A modem is a hardware device that allows the computer to connect to the internet over the existing
telephone line.
o A modem is not integrated with the motherboard rather than it is installed on the PCI slot found on the
motherboard.
o It stands for Modulator/Demodulator. It converts the digital data into an analog signal over the
telephone lines.
 15

Based on the differences in speed and transmission rate, a modem can be classified in the following categories:

o Standard PC modem or Dial-up modem

o Cellular Modem
o Cable modem

Cables and Connectors

Cable is a transmission media used for transmitting a signal.
There are three types of cables used in transmission:

o Twisted pair cable

o Coaxial cable
o Fibre-optic cable

What is Topology?
Topology defines the structure of the network of how all the components are interconnected to each other.
There are two types of topology: physical and logical topology.
Physical topology is the geometric representation of all the nodes in a network.

Bus Topology
 16

o The bus topology is designed in such a way that all the stations are connected through a single cable
known as a backbone cable.
o Each node is either connected to the backbone cable by drop cable or directly connected to the
backbone cable.
o When a node wants to send a message over the network, it puts a message over the network. All the
stations available in the network will receive the message whether it has been addressed or not.
o The bus topology is mainly used in 802.3 (ethernet) and 802.4 standard networks.
o The configuration of a bus topology is quite simpler as compared to other topologies.
o The backbone cable is considered as a "single lane" through which the message is broadcast to all the
stations.
o The most common access method of the bus topologies is CSMA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access).
CSMA: It is a media access control used to control the data flow so that data integrity is maintained, i.e., the
packets do not get lost. There are two alternative ways of handling the problems that occur when two nodes
send the messages simultaneously.

o CSMA CD: CSMA CD (Collision detection) is an access method used to detect the collision. Once
the collision is detected, the sender will stop transmitting the data. Therefore, it works on "recovery
after the collision".
o CSMA CA: CSMA CA (Collision Avoidance) is an access method used to avoid the collision by
checking whether the transmission media is busy or not. If busy, then the sender waits until the media
becomes idle. This technique effectively reduces the possibility of the collision. It does not work on
"recovery after the collision".

Advantages of Bus topology:

o Low-cost cable: In bus topology, nodes are directly connected to the cable without passing through a
hub. Therefore, the initial cost of installation is low.
o Moderate data speeds: Coaxial or twisted pair cables are mainly used in bus-based networks that
support upto 10 Mbps.
o Familiar technology: Bus topology is a familiar technology as the installation and troubleshooting
techniques are well known, and hardware components are easily available.
o Limited failure: A failure in one node will not have any effect on other nodes.

Disadvantages of Bus topology:

o Extensive cabling: A bus topology is quite simpler, but still it requires a lot of cabling.
o Difficult troubleshooting: It requires specialized test equipment to determine the cable faults. If any
fault occurs in the cable, then it would disrupt the communication for all the nodes.
o Signal interference: If two nodes send the messages simultaneously, then the signals of both the nodes
collide with each other.
 17

o Reconfiguration difficult: Adding new devices to the network would slow down the network.
o Attenuation: Attenuation is a loss of signal leads to communication issues. Repeaters are used to
regenerate the signal.

Ring Topology

o Ring topology is like a bus topology, but with connected ends.

o The node that receives the message from the previous computer will retransmit to the next node.
o The data flows in one direction, i.e., it is unidirectional.
o The data flows in a single loop continuously known as an endless loop.
o It has no terminated ends, i.e., each node is connected to other node and having no termination point.
o The data in a ring topology flow in a clockwise direction.
o The most common access method of the ring topology is token passing.
o Token passing: It is a network access method in which token is passed from one node to
another node.
o Token: It is a frame that circulates around the network.

Working of Token passing

o A token moves around the network, and it is passed from computer to computer until it reaches the
destination.
o The sender modifies the token by putting the address along with the data.
o The data is passed from one device to another device until the destination address matches. Once the
token received by the destination device, then it sends the acknowledgment to the sender.
o In a ring topology, a token is used as a carrier.

Advantages of Ring topology:

o Network Management: Faulty devices can be removed from the network without bringing the
network down.
 18

o Product availability: Many hardware and software tools for network operation and monitoring are
available.
o Cost: Twisted pair cabling is inexpensive and easily available. Therefore, the installation cost is very
low.
o Reliable: It is a more reliable network because the communication system is not dependent on the
single host computer.

Disadvantages of Ring topology:

o Difficult troubleshooting: It requires specialized test equipment to determine the cable faults. If any
fault occurs in the cable, then it would disrupt the communication for all the nodes.
o Failure: The breakdown in one station leads to the failure of the overall network.
o Reconfiguration difficult: Adding new devices to the network would slow down the network.
o Delay: Communication delay is directly proportional to the number of nodes. Adding new devices
increases the communication delay.

Star Topology

o Star topology is an arrangement of the network in which every node is connected to the central hub,
switch or a central computer.
o The central computer is known as a server, and the peripheral devices attached to the server are known
as clients.
o Coaxial cable or RJ-45 cables are used to connect the computers.
o Hubs or Switches are mainly used as connection devices in a physical star topology.
o Star topology is the most popular topology in network implementation.

Advantages of Star topology

o Efficient troubleshooting: Troubleshooting is quite efficient in a star topology as compared to bus

topology. In a bus topology, the manager has to inspect the kilometers of cable. In a star topology, all
 19

the stations are connected to the centralized network. Therefore, the network administrator has to go
to the single station to troubleshoot the problem.
o Network control: Complex network control features can be easily implemented in the star topology.
Any changes made in the star topology are automatically accommodated.
o Limited failure: As each station is connected to the central hub with its own cable, therefore failure
in one cable will not affect the entire network.
o Familiar technology: Star topology is a familiar technology as its tools are cost-effective.
o Easily expandable: It is easily expandable as new stations can be added to the open ports on the hub.
o Cost effective: Star topology networks are cost-effective as it uses inexpensive coaxial cable.
o High data speeds: It supports a bandwidth of approx 100Mbps. Ethernet 100BaseT is one of the most
popular Star topology networks.

Disadvantages of Star topology

o A Central point of failure: If the central hub or switch goes down, then all the connected nodes will
not be able to communicate with each other.
o Cable: Sometimes cable routing becomes difficult when a significant amount of routing is required.

Tree topology

o Tree topology combines the characteristics of bus topology and star topology.
o A tree topology is a type of structure in which all the computers are connected with each other in
hierarchical fashion.
o The top-most node in tree topology is known as a root node, and all other nodes are the descendants of
the root node.
o There is only one path exists between two nodes for the data transmission. Thus, it forms a parent-
child hierarchy.

Advantages of Tree topology

o Support for broadband transmission: Tree topology is mainly used to provide broadband
transmission, i.e., signals are sent over long distances without being attenuated.
 20

o Easily expandable: We can add the new device to the existing network. Therefore, we can say that
tree topology is easily expandable.
o Easily manageable: In tree topology, the whole network is divided into segments known as star
networks which can be easily managed and maintained.
o Error detection: Error detection and error correction are very easy in a tree topology.
o Limited failure: The breakdown in one station does not affect the entire network.
o Point-to-point wiring: It has point-to-point wiring for individual segments.

Disadvantages of Tree topology

o Difficult troubleshooting: If any fault occurs in the node, then it becomes difficult to troubleshoot the
problem.
o High cost: Devices required for broadband transmission are very costly.
o Failure: A tree topology mainly relies on main bus cable and failure in main bus cable will damage
the overall network.
o Reconfiguration difficult: If new devices are added, then it becomes difficult to reconfigure.

Mesh topology

o Mesh technology is an arrangement of the network in which computers are interconnected with each
other through various redundant connections.
o There are multiple paths from one computer to another computer.
o It does not contain the switch, hub or any central computer which acts as a central point of
communication.
o The Internet is an example of the mesh topology.
o Mesh topology is mainly used for WAN implementations where communication failures are a critical
concern.
o Mesh topology is mainly used for wireless networks.
o Mesh topology can be formed by using the formula:
Number of cables = (n*(n-1))/2;
 21

Where n is the number of nodes that represents the network.

27.1M
561
HTML Tutorial

Mesh topology is divided into two categories:

o Fully connected mesh topology

o Partially connected mesh topology

o Full Mesh Topology: In a full mesh topology, each computer is connected to all the computers
available in the network.
o Partial Mesh Topology: In a partial mesh topology, not all but certain computers are connected to
those computers with which they communicate frequently.

Advantages of Mesh topology:

Reliable: The mesh topology networks are very reliable as if any link breakdown will not affect the
communication between connected computers.
Fast Communication: Communication is very fast between the nodes.
Easier Reconfiguration: Adding new devices would not disrupt the communication between other devices.

Disadvantages of Mesh topology

o Cost: A mesh topology contains a large number of connected devices such as a router and more
transmission media than other topologies.
o Management: Mesh topology networks are very large and very difficult to maintain and manage. If
the network is not monitored carefully, then the communication link failure goes undetected.
o Efficiency: In this topology, redundant connections are high that reduces the efficiency of the network.
 22

Hybrid Topology

o The combination of various different topologies is known as Hybrid topology.

o A Hybrid topology is a connection between different links and nodes to transfer the data.
o When two or more different topologies are combined together is termed as Hybrid topology and if
similar topologies are connected with each other will not result in Hybrid topology. For example, if
there exist a ring topology in one branch of ICICI bank and bus topology in another branch of ICICI
bank, connecting these two topologies will result in Hybrid topology.

Advantages of Hybrid Topology

o Reliable: If a fault occurs in any part of the network will not affect the functioning of the rest of the
network.
o Scalable: Size of the network can be easily expanded by adding new devices without affecting the
functionality of the existing network.
o Flexible: This topology is very flexible as it can be designed according to the requirements of the
organization.
o Effective: Hybrid topology is very effective as it can be designed in such a way that the strength of the
network is maximized and weakness of the network is minimized.

Disadvantages of Hybrid topology

o Complex design: The major drawback of the Hybrid topology is the design of the Hybrid network. It
is very difficult to design the architecture of the Hybrid network.
o Costly Hub: The Hubs used in the Hybrid topology are very expensive as these hubs are different from
usual Hubs used in other topologies.
 23

o Costly infrastructure: The infrastructure cost is very high as a hybrid network requires a lot of
cabling, network devices, etc.

Transmission modes

o The way in which data is transmitted from one device to another device is known as transmission
mode.
o The transmission mode is also known as the communication mode.
o Each communication channel has a direction associated with it, and transmission media provide the
direction. Therefore, the transmission mode is also known as a directional mode.
o The transmission mode is defined in the physical layer.
The Transmission mode is divided into three categories:

o Simplex mode
o Half-duplex mode
o Full-duplex mode

Simplex mode

o In Simplex mode, the communication is unidirectional, i.e., the data flow in one direction.
o A device can only send the data but cannot receive it or it can receive the data but cannot send the data.
o This transmission mode is not very popular as mainly communications require the two-way exchange
of data. The simplex mode is used in the business field as in sales that do not require any corresponding
reply.
o The radio station is a simplex channel as it transmits the signal to the listeners but never allows them
to transmit back.
o Keyboard and Monitor are the examples of the simplex mode as a keyboard can only accept the data
from the user and monitor can only be used to display the data on the screen.
 24

o The main advantage of the simplex mode is that the full capacity of the communication channel can
be utilized during transmission.

Advantage of Simplex mode:

o In simplex mode, the station can utilize the entire bandwidth of the communication channel, so that
more data can be transmitted at a time.

Disadvantage of Simplex mode:

o Communication is unidirectional, so it has no inter-communication between devices.

Half-Duplex mode

o In a Half-duplex channel, direction can be reversed, i.e., the station can transmit and receive the data
as well.
o Messages flow in both the directions, but not at the same time.
o The entire bandwidth of the communication channel is utilized in one direction at a time.
o In half-duplex mode, it is possible to perform the error detection, and if any error occurs, then the
receiver requests the sender to retransmit the data.
o A Walkie-talkie is an example of the Half-duplex mode. In Walkie-talkie, one party speaks, and
another party listens. After a pause, the other speaks and first party listens. Speaking simultaneously
will create the distorted sound which cannot be understood.

Advantage of Half-duplex mode:

o In half-duplex mode, both the devices can send and receive the data and also can utilize the entire
bandwidth of the communication channel during the transmission of data.

Disadvantage of Half-Duplex mode:

o In half-duplex mode, when one device is sending the data, then another has to wait, this causes the
delay in sending the data at the right time.
 25

Full-duplex mode

o In Full duplex mode, the communication is bi-directional, i.e., the data flow in both the directions.
o Both the stations can send and receive the message simultaneously.
o Full-duplex mode has two simplex channels. One channel has traffic moving in one direction, and
another channel has traffic flowing in the opposite direction.
o The Full-duplex mode is the fastest mode of communication between devices.
o The most common example of the full-duplex mode is a telephone network. When two people are
communicating with each other by a telephone line, both can talk and listen at the same time.

Advantage of Full-duplex mode:

o Both the stations can send and receive the data at the same time.

Disadvantage of Full-duplex mode:

o If there is no dedicated path exists between the devices, then the capacity of the communication channel
is divided into two parts.

Differences b/w Simplex, Half-duplex and Full-duplex mode

Basis for Simplex mode Half-duplex mode Full-duplex mode

comparison

Direction of In simplex mode, the In half-duplex mode, In full-duplex mode, the

communication communication is the communication communication is
unidirectional. is bidirectional, but bidirectional.
one at a time.

Send/Receive A device can only send Both the devices can Both the devices can send and
the data but cannot send and receive the receive the data
receive it or it can only data, but one at a simultaneously.
receive the data but time.
cannot send it.

Performance The performance of half- The performance of The Full-duplex mode has
duplex mode is better full-duplex mode is better performance among
than the simplex mode. simplex and half-duplex
 26

better than the half- mode as it doubles the

duplex mode. utilization of the capacity of
the communication channel.

Example Examples of Simplex Example of half- Example of the Full-duplex

mode are radio, duplex is Walkie- mode is a telephone network.
keyboard, and monitor. Talkies.

What is Transmission media?

o Transmission media is a communication channel that carries the information from the sender to the
receiver. Data is transmitted through the electromagnetic signals.
o The main functionality of the transmission media is to carry the information in the form of bits
through LAN(Local Area Network).
o It is a physical path between transmitter and receiver in data communication.
o In a copper-based network, the bits in the form of electrical signals.
o In a fibre based network, the bits in the form of light pulses.
o In OSI(Open System Interconnection) phase, transmission media supports the Layer 1. Therefore, it is
considered to be as a Layer 1 component.
o The electrical signals can be sent through the copper wire, fibre optics, atmosphere, water, and vacuum.
o The characteristics and quality of data transmission are determined by the characteristics of medium
and signal.
o Transmission media is of two types are wired media and wireless media. In wired media, medium
characteristics are more important whereas, in wireless media, signal characteristics are more
important.
o Different transmission media have different properties such as bandwidth, delay, cost and ease of
installation and maintenance.
o The transmission media is available in the lowest layer of the OSI reference model, i.e., Physical layer.

Some factors need to be considered for designing the transmission media:

o Bandwidth: All the factors are remaining constant, the greater the bandwidth of a medium, the higher
the data transmission rate of a signal.
o Transmission impairment: When the received signal is not identical to the transmitted one due to the
transmission impairment. The quality of the signals will get destroyed due to transmission impairment.
o Interference: An interference is defined as the process of disrupting a signal when it travels over a
communication medium on the addition of some unwanted signal.
 27

Causes Of Transmission Impairment:

o Attenuation: Attenuation means the loss of energy, i.e., the strength of the signal decreases with
increasing the distance which causes the loss of energy.
o Distortion: Distortion occurs when there is a change in the shape of the signal. This type of distortion
is examined from different signals having different frequencies. Each frequency component has its
own propagation speed, so they reach at a different time which leads to the delay distortion.
o Noise: When data is travelled over a transmission medium, some unwanted signal is added to it which
creates the noise.

Classification Of Transmission Media:

o Guided Transmission Media

o UnGuided Transmission Media

Guided Media

It is defined as the physical medium through which the signals are transmitted. It is also known as Bounded
media.
Types Of Guided media:
 28

Twisted pair:
Twisted pair is a physical media made up of a pair of cables twisted with each other. A twisted pair cable is
cheap as compared to other transmission media. Installation of the twisted pair cable is easy, and it is a
lightweight cable. The frequency range for twisted pair cable is from 0 to 3.5KHz.
A twisted pair consists of two insulated copper wires arranged in a regular spiral pattern.
The degree of reduction in noise interference is determined by the number of turns per foot. Increasing the
number of turns per foot decreases noise interference.

Types of Twisted pair:

Unshielded Twisted Pair:

An unshielded twisted pair is widely used in telecommunication. Following are the categories of the
unshielded twisted pair cable:

o Category 1: Category 1 is used for telephone lines that have low-speed data.
o Category 2: It can support upto 4Mbps.
o Category 3: It can support upto 16Mbps.
o Category 4: It can support upto 20Mbps. Therefore, it can be used for long-distance communication.
o Category 5: It can support upto 200Mbps.
Advantages Of Unshielded Twisted Pair:

o It is cheap.
o Installation of the unshielded twisted pair is easy.
o It can be used for high-speed LAN.
Disadvantage:

o This cable can only be used for shorter distances because of attenuation.
 29

Shielded Twisted Pair

A shielded twisted pair is a cable that contains the mesh surrounding the wire that allows the higher
transmission rate.
Characteristics Of Shielded Twisted Pair:

o The cost of the shielded twisted pair cable is not very high and not very low.
o An installation of STP is easy.
o It has higher capacity as compared to unshielded twisted pair cable.
o It has a higher attenuation.
o It is shielded that provides the higher data transmission rate.
Disadvantages

o It is more expensive as compared to UTP and coaxial cable.

o It has a higher attenuation rate.

Coaxial Cable

o Coaxial cable is very commonly used transmission media, for example, TV wire is usually a coaxial
cable.
o The name of the cable is coaxial as it contains two conductors parallel to each other.
o It has a higher frequency as compared to Twisted pair cable.
o The inner conductor of the coaxial cable is made up of copper, and the outer conductor is made up of
copper mesh. The middle core is made up of non-conductive cover that separates the inner conductor
from the outer conductor.
o The middle core is responsible for the data transferring whereas the copper mesh prevents from
the EMI(Electromagnetic interference).

Coaxial cable is of two types:

1. Baseband transmission: It is defined as the process of transmitting a single signal at high speed.
2. Broadband transmission: It is defined as the process of transmitting multiple signals simultaneously.
Advantages Of Coaxial cable:

o The data can be transmitted at high speed.

o It has better shielding as compared to twisted pair cable.
o It provides higher bandwidth.
 30

Disadvantages Of Coaxial cable:

o It is more expensive as compared to twisted pair cable.

o If any fault occurs in the cable causes the failure in the entire network.

Fibre Optic

o Fibre optic cable is a cable that uses electrical signals for communication.
o Fibre optic is a cable that holds the optical fibres coated in plastic that are used to send the data by
pulses of light.
o The plastic coating protects the optical fibres from heat, cold, electromagnetic interference from other
types of wiring.
o Fibre optics provide faster data transmission than copper wires.
Diagrammatic representation of fibre optic cable:

Basic elements of Fibre optic cable:

o Core: The optical fibre consists of a narrow strand of glass or plastic known as a core. A core is a light
transmission area of the fibre. The more the area of the core, the more light will be transmitted into the
fibre.
o Cladding: The concentric layer of glass is known as cladding. The main functionality of the cladding
is to provide the lower refractive index at the core interface as to cause the reflection within the core
so that the light waves are transmitted through the fibre.
o Jacket: The protective coating consisting of plastic is known as a jacket. The main purpose of a jacket
is to preserve the fibre strength, absorb shock and extra fibre protection.
Following are the advantages of fibre optic cable over copper:

o Greater Bandwidth: The fibre optic cable provides more bandwidth as compared copper. Therefore,
the fibre optic carries more data as compared to copper cable.
o Faster speed: Fibre optic cable carries the data in the form of light. This allows the fibre optic cable
to carry the signals at a higher speed.
o Longer distances: The fibre optic cable carries the data at a longer distance as compared to copper
cable.
 31

o Better reliability: The fibre optic cable is more reliable than the copper cable as it is immune to any
temperature changes while it can cause obstruct in the connectivity of copper cable.
o Thinner and Sturdier: Fibre optic cable is thinner and lighter in weight so it can withstand more pull
pressure than copper cable.

UnGuided Transmission

o An unguided transmission transmits the electromagnetic waves without using any physical medium.
Therefore it is also known as wireless transmission.
o In unguided media, air is the media through which the electromagnetic energy can flow easily.
Unguided transmission is broadly classified into three categories:

Radio waves

o Radio waves are the electromagnetic waves that are transmitted in all the directions of free space.
o Radio waves are omnidirectional, i.e., the signals are propagated in all the directions.
o The range in frequencies of radio waves is from 3Khz to 1 khz.
o In the case of radio waves, the sending and receiving antenna are not aligned, i.e., the wave sent by the
sending antenna can be received by any receiving antenna.
o An example of the radio wave is FM radio.

Applications Of Radio waves:

o A Radio wave is useful for multicasting when there is one sender and many receivers.
o An FM radio, television, cordless phones are examples of a radio wave.
Advantages Of Radio transmission:

o Radio transmission is mainly used for wide area networks and mobile cellular phones.
o Radio waves cover a large area, and they can penetrate the walls.
o Radio transmission provides a higher transmission rate.
 32

Microwaves

Microwaves are of two types:

o Terrestrial microwave
o Satellite microwave communication.

Terrestrial Microwave Transmission

o Terrestrial Microwave transmission is a technology that transmits the focused beam of a radio signal
from one ground-based microwave transmission antenna to another.
o Microwaves are the electromagnetic waves having the frequency in the range from 1GHz to 1000 GHz.
o Microwaves are unidirectional as the sending and receiving antenna is to be aligned, i.e., the waves
sent by the sending antenna are narrowly focussed.
o In this case, antennas are mounted on the towers to send a beam to another antenna which is km away.
o It works on the line of sight transmission, i.e., the antennas mounted on the towers are the direct sight
of each other.
Characteristics of Microwave:

o Frequency range: The frequency range of terrestrial microwave is from 4-6 GHz to 21-23 GHz.
o Bandwidth: It supports the bandwidth from 1 to 10 Mbps.
o Short distance: It is inexpensive for short distance.
o Long distance: It is expensive as it requires a higher tower for a longer distance.
o Attenuation: Attenuation means loss of signal. It is affected by environmental conditions and antenna
size.
Advantages Of Microwave:

o Microwave transmission is cheaper than using cables.

o It is free from land acquisition as it does not require any land for the installation of cables.
o Microwave transmission provides an easy communication in terrains as the installation of cable in
terrain is quite a difficult task.
o Communication over oceans can be achieved by using microwave transmission.
 33

Disadvantages of Microwave transmission:

o Eavesdropping: An eavesdropping creates insecure communication. Any malicious user can catch the
signal in the air by using its own antenna.
o Out of phase signal: A signal can be moved out of phase by using microwave transmission.
o Susceptible to weather condition: A microwave transmission is susceptible to weather condition.
This means that any environmental change such as rain, wind can distort the signal.
o Bandwidth limited: Allocation of bandwidth is limited in the case of microwave transmission.

Satellite Microwave Communication

o A satellite is a physical object that revolves around the earth at a known height.
o Satellite communication is more reliable nowadays as it offers more flexibility than cable and fibre
optic systems.
o We can communicate with any point on the globe by using satellite communication.
How Does Satellite work?
The satellite accepts the signal that is transmitted from the earth station, and it amplifies the signal. The
amplified signal is retransmitted to another earth station.
Advantages Of Satellite Microwave Communication:

o The coverage area of a satellite microwave is more than the terrestrial microwave.
o The transmission cost of the satellite is independent of the distance from the centre of the coverage
area.
o Satellite communication is used in mobile and wireless communication applications.
o It is easy to install.
o It is used in a wide variety of applications such as weather forecasting, radio/TV signal broadcasting,
mobile communication, etc.
Disadvantages Of Satellite Microwave Communication:

o Satellite designing and development requires more time and higher cost.
o The Satellite needs to be monitored and controlled on regular periods so that it remains in orbit.
o The life of the satellite is about 12-15 years. Due to this reason, another launch of the satellite has to
be planned before it becomes non-functional.

Infrared

o An infrared transmission is a wireless technology used for communication over short ranges.
o The frequency of the infrared in the range from 300 GHz to 400 THz.
o It is used for short-range communication such as data transfer between two cell phones, TV remote
operation, data transfer between a computer and cell phone resides in the same closed area.
Characteristics Of Infrared:
 34

o It supports high bandwidth, and hence the data rate will be very high.
o Infrared waves cannot penetrate the walls. Therefore, the infrared communication in one room cannot
be interrupted by the nearby rooms.
o An infrared communication provides better security with minimum interference.
o Infrared communication is unreliable outside the building because the sun rays will interfere with the
infrared waves.

What is Multiplexing?
Multiplexing is a technique used to combine and send the multiple data streams over a single medium. The
process of combining the data streams is known as multiplexing and hardware used for multiplexing is known
as a multiplexer.
Multiplexing is achieved by using a device called Multiplexer (MUX) that combines n input lines to generate
a single output line. Multiplexing follows many-to-one, i.e., n input lines and one output line.
Demultiplexing is achieved by using a device called Demultiplexer (DEMUX) available at the receiving end.
DEMUX separates a signal into its component signals (one input and n outputs). Therefore, we can say that
demultiplexing follows the one-to-many approach.

Why Multiplexing?

o The transmission medium is used to send the signal from sender to receiver. The medium can only
have one signal at a time.
o If there are multiple signals to share one medium, then the medium must be divided in such a way that
each signal is given some portion of the available bandwidth. For example: If there are 10 signals and
bandwidth of medium is100 units, then the 10 unit is shared by each signal.
o When multiple signals share the common medium, there is a possibility of collision. Multiplexing
concept is used to avoid such collision.
o Transmission services are very expensive.

History of Multiplexing

o Multiplexing technique is widely used in telecommunications in which several telephone calls are
carried through a single wire.
o Multiplexing originated in telegraphy in the early 1870s and is now widely used in communication.
o George Owen Squier developed the telephone carrier multiplexing in 1910.

Concept of Multiplexing
 35

o The 'n' input lines are transmitted through a multiplexer and multiplexer combines the signals to form
a composite signal.
o The composite signal is passed through a Demultiplexer and demultiplexer separates a signal to
component signals and transfers them to their respective destinations.

Advantages of Multiplexing:

o More than one signal can be sent over a single medium.

o The bandwidth of a medium can be utilized effectively.

Multiplexing Techniques
Multiplexing techniques can be classified as:
28.1M
52
Java Try Catch

Frequency-division Multiplexing (FDM)

o It is an analog technique.
o Frequency Division Multiplexing is a technique in which the available bandwidth of a single
transmission medium is subdivided into several channels.

o In the above diagram, a single transmission medium is subdivided into several frequency channels, and
each frequency channel is given to different devices. Device 1 has a frequency channel of range from
1 to 5.
o The input signals are translated into frequency bands by using modulation techniques, and they are
combined by a multiplexer to form a composite signal.
 36

o The main aim of the FDM is to subdivide the available bandwidth into different frequency channels
and allocate them to different devices.
o Using the modulation technique, the input signals are transmitted into frequency bands and then
combined to form a composite signal.
o The carriers which are used for modulating the signals are known as sub-carriers. They are
represented as f1,f2..fn.
o FDM is mainly used in radio broadcasts and TV networks.

Advantages Of FDM:

o FDM is used for analog signals.

o FDM process is very simple and easy modulation.
o A Large number of signals can be sent through an FDM simultaneously.
o It does not require any synchronization between sender and receiver.
Disadvantages Of FDM:

o FDM technique is used only when low-speed channels are required.

o It suffers the problem of crosstalk.
o A Large number of modulators are required.
o It requires a high bandwidth channel.
Applications Of FDM:

o FDM is commonly used in TV networks.

o It is used in FM and AM broadcasting. Each FM radio station has different frequencies, and they are
multiplexed to form a composite signal. The multiplexed signal is transmitted in the air.
 37

Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM)

o Wavelength Division Multiplexing is same as FDM except that the optical signals are transmitted
through the fibre optic cable.
o WDM is used on fibre optics to increase the capacity of a single fibre.
o It is used to utilize the high data rate capability of fibre optic cable.
o It is an analog multiplexing technique.
o Optical signals from different source are combined to form a wider band of light with the help of
multiplexer.
o At the receiving end, demultiplexer separates the signals to transmit them to their respective
destinations.
o Multiplexing and Demultiplexing can be achieved by using a prism.
o Prism can perform a role of multiplexer by combining the various optical signals to form a composite
signal, and the composite signal is transmitted through a fibre optical cable.
o Prism also performs a reverse operation, i.e., demultiplexing the signal.

Time Division Multiplexing

o It is a digital technique.
o In Frequency Division Multiplexing Technique, all signals operate at the same time with different
frequency, but in case of Time Division Multiplexing technique, all signals operate at the same
frequency with different time.
 38

o In Time Division Multiplexing technique, the total time available in the channel is distributed among
different users. Therefore, each user is allocated with different time interval known as a Time slot at
which data is to be transmitted by the sender.
o A user takes control of the channel for a fixed amount of time.
o In Time Division Multiplexing technique, data is not transmitted simultaneously rather the data is
transmitted one-by-one.
o In TDM, the signal is transmitted in the form of frames. Frames contain a cycle of time slots in which
each frame contains one or more slots dedicated to each user.
o It can be used to multiplex both digital and analog signals but mainly used to multiplex digital signals.
There are two types of TDM:

o Synchronous TDM
o Asynchronous TDM

Synchronous TDM

o A Synchronous TDM is a technique in which time slot is preassigned to every device.

o In Synchronous TDM, each device is given some time slot irrespective of the fact that the device
contains the data or not.
o If the device does not have any data, then the slot will remain empty.
o In Synchronous TDM, signals are sent in the form of frames. Time slots are organized in the form of
frames. If a device does not have data for a particular time slot, then the empty slot will be transmitted.
o The most popular Synchronous TDM are T-1 multiplexing, ISDN multiplexing, and SONET
multiplexing.
o If there are n devices, then there are n slots.

Concept Of Synchronous TDM

 39

In the above figure, the Synchronous TDM technique is implemented. Each device is allocated with some time
slot. The time slots are transmitted irrespective of whether the sender has data to send or not.
Disadvantages Of Synchronous TDM:

o The capacity of the channel is not fully utilized as the empty slots are also transmitted which is having
no data. In the above figure, the first frame is completely filled, but in the last two frames, some slots
are empty. Therefore, we can say that the capacity of the channel is not utilized efficiently.
o The speed of the transmission medium should be greater than the total speed of the input lines. An
alternative approach to the Synchronous TDM is Asynchronous Time Division Multiplexing.

Asynchronous TDM

o An asynchronous TDM is also known as Statistical TDM.

o An asynchronous TDM is a technique in which time slots are not fixed as in the case of Synchronous
TDM. Time slots are allocated to only those devices which have the data to send. Therefore, we can
say that Asynchronous Time Division multiplexor transmits only the data from active workstations.
o An asynchronous TDM technique dynamically allocates the time slots to the devices.
o In Asynchronous TDM, total speed of the input lines can be greater than the capacity of the channel.
o Asynchronous Time Division multiplexor accepts the incoming data streams and creates a frame that
contains only data with no empty slots.
o In Asynchronous TDM, each slot contains an address part that identifies the source of the data.

o The difference between Asynchronous TDM and Synchronous TDM is that many slots in Synchronous
TDM are unutilized, but in Asynchronous TDM, slots are fully utilized. This leads to the smaller
transmission time and efficient utilization of the capacity of the channel.
o In Synchronous TDM, if there are n sending devices, then there are n time slots. In Asynchronous
TDM, if there are n sending devices, then there are m time slots where m is less than n (m<n).
o The number of slots in a frame depends on the statistical analysis of the number of input lines.
Concept Of Asynchronous TDM
 40

In the above diagram, there are 4 devices, but only two devices are sending the data, i.e., A and C. Therefore,
the data of A and C are only transmitted through the transmission line.
Frame of above diagram can be represented as:

The above figure shows that the data part contains the address to determine the source of the data.

Switching

o When a user accesses the internet or another computer network outside their immediate location,
messages are sent through the network of transmission media. This technique of transferring the
information from one computer network to another network is known as switching.
o Switching in a computer network is achieved by using switches. A switch is a small hardware device
which is used to join multiple computers together with one local area network (LAN).
o Network switches operate at layer 2 (Data link layer) in the OSI model.
o Switching is transparent to the user and does not require any configuration in the home network.
o Switches are used to forward the packets based on MAC addresses.
o A Switch is used to transfer the data only to the device that has been addressed. It verifies the
destination address to route the packet appropriately.
o It is operated in full duplex mode.
o Packet collision is minimum as it directly communicates between source and destination.
o It does not broadcast the message as it works with limited bandwidth.
 41

Why is Switching Concept required?

Switching concept is developed because of the following reasons:

o Bandwidth: It is defined as the maximum transfer rate of a cable. It is a very critical and expensive
resource. Therefore, switching techniques are used for the effective utilization of the bandwidth of a
network.
o Collision: Collision is the effect that occurs when more than one device transmits the message over
the same physical media, and they collide with each other. To overcome this problem, switching
technology is implemented so that packets do not collide with each other.

Advantages of Switching:

o Switch increases the bandwidth of the network.

o It reduces the workload on individual PCs as it sends the information to only that device which has
been addressed.
o It increases the overall performance of the network by reducing the traffic on the network.
o There will be less frame collision as switch creates the collision domain for each connection.

Disadvantages of Switching:

o A Switch is more expensive than network bridges.

o A Switch cannot determine the network connectivity issues easily.
o Proper designing and configuration of the switch are required to handle multicast packets.

Switching Modes

o The layer 2 switches are used for transmitting the data on the data link layer, and it also performs error
checking on transmitted and received frames.
o The layer 2 switches forward the packets with the help of MAC address.
o Different modes are used for forwarding the packets known as Switching modes.
o In switching mode, Different parts of a frame are recognized. The frame consists of several parts such
as preamble, destination MAC address, source MAC address, user's data, FCS.

There are three types of switching modes:

 42

o Store-and-forward
o Cut-through
o Fragment-free

Store-and-forward

o Store-and-forward is a technique in which the intermediate nodes store the received frame and then
check for errors before forwarding the packets to the next node.
o The layer 2 switch waits until the entire frame has received. On receiving the entire frame, switch store
the frame into the switch buffer memory. This process is known as storing the frame.
o When the frame is stored, then the frame is checked for the errors. If any error found, the message is
discarded otherwise the message is forwarded to the next node. This process is known as forwarding
the frame.
o CRC (Cyclic Redundancy Check) technique is implemented that uses a number of bits to check for the
errors on the received frame.
o The store-and-forward technique ensures a high level of security as the destination network will not be
affected by the corrupted frames.
o Store-and-forward switches are highly reliable as it does not forward the collided frames.
 43

Cut-through Switching

o Cut-through switching is a technique in which the switch forwards the packets after the destination
address has been identified without waiting for the entire frame to be received.
o Once the frame is received, it checks the first six bytes of the frame following the preamble, the switch
checks the destination in the switching table to determine the outgoing interface port, and forwards the
frame to the destination.
o It has low latency rate as the switch does not wait for the entire frame to be received before sending
the packets to the destination.
o It has no error checking technique. Therefore, the errors can be sent with or without errors to the
receiver.
o A Cut-through switching technique has low wait time as it forwards the packets as soon as it identifies
the destination MAC address.
o In this technique, collision is not detected, if frames have collided will also be forwarded.

Fragment-free Switching

o A Fragment-free switching is an advanced technique of the Cut-through Switching.

o A Fragment-free switching is a technique that reads atleast 64 bytes of a frame before forwarding to
the next node to provide the error-free transmission.
o It combines the speed of Cut-through Switching with the error checking functionality.
o This technique checks the 64 bytes of the ethernet frame where addressing information is available.
o A collision is detected within 64 bytes of the frame, the frames which are collided will not be forwarded
further.
 44

Differences b/w Store-and-forward and Cut-through Switching.

Store-and-forward Switching Cut-through Switching

Store-and-forward Switching is a technique that waits until Cut-through Switching is a technique that
the entire frame is received. checks the first 6 bytes following the
preamble to identify the destination address.

It performs error checking functionality. If any error is It does not perform any error checking. The
found in the frame, the frame will be discarded otherwise frame with or without errors will be
forwarded to the next node. forwarded.

It has high latency rate as it waits for the entire frame to be It has low latency rate as it checks only six
received before forwarding to the next node. bytes of the frame to determine the
destination address.

It is highly reliable as it forwards only error-free packets. It is less reliable as compared to Store-and-
forward technique as it forwards error prone
packets as well.

It has a high wait time as it waits for the entire frame to be It has low wait time as cut-through switches
received before taking any forwarding decisions. do not store the whole frame or packets.

Switching techniques
In large networks, there can be multiple paths from sender to receiver. The switching technique will decide
the best route for data transmission.
Switching technique is used to connect the systems for making one-to-one communication.
Classification Of Switching Techniques
 45

Circuit Switching

o Circuit switching is a switching technique that establishes a dedicated path between sender and
receiver.
o In the Circuit Switching Technique, once the connection is established then the dedicated path will
remain to exist until the connection is terminated.
o Circuit switching in a network operates in a similar way as the telephone works.
o A complete end-to-end path must exist before the communication takes place.
o In case of circuit switching technique, when any user wants to send the data, voice, video, a request
signal is sent to the receiver then the receiver sends back the acknowledgment to ensure the availability
of the dedicated path. After receiving the acknowledgment, dedicated path transfers the data.
o Circuit switching is used in public telephone network. It is used for voice transmission.
o Fixed data can be transferred at a time in circuit switching technology.
Communication through circuit switching has 3 phases:

o Circuit establishment
o Data transfer
o Circuit Disconnect

Circuit Switching can use either of the two technologies:

Space Division Switches:

o Space Division Switching is a circuit switching technology in which a single transmission path is
accomplished in a switch by using a physically separate set of crosspoints.
o Space Division Switching can be achieved by using crossbar switch. A crossbar switch is a metallic
crosspoint or semiconductor gate that can be enabled or disabled by a control unit.
o The Crossbar switch is made by using the semiconductor. For example, Xilinx crossbar switch using
FPGAs.
o Space Division Switching has high speed, high capacity, and nonblocking switches.
Space Division Switches can be categorized in two ways:

o Crossbar Switch
o Multistage Switch
 46

Crossbar Switch
The Crossbar switch is a switch that has n input lines and n output lines. The crossbar switch has n 2 intersection
points known as crosspoints.
Disadvantage of Crossbar switch:
The number of crosspoints increases as the number of stations is increased. Therefore, it becomes very
expensive for a large switch. The solution to this is to use a multistage switch.

Multistage Switch

o Multistage Switch is made by splitting the crossbar switch into the smaller units and then
interconnecting them.
o It reduces the number of crosspoints.
o If one path fails, then there will be an availability of another path.
Advantages Of Circuit Switching:

o In the case of Circuit Switching technique, the communication channel is dedicated.

o It has fixed bandwidth.
Disadvantages Of Circuit Switching:

o Once the dedicated path is established, the only delay occurs in the speed of data transmission.
o It takes a long time to establish a connection approx 10 seconds during which no data can be
transmitted.
o It is more expensive than other switching techniques as a dedicated path is required for each
connection.
o It is inefficient to use because once the path is established and no data is transferred, then the capacity
of the path is wasted.
o In this case, the connection is dedicated therefore no other data can be transferred even if the channel
is free.

Message Switching

o Message Switching is a switching technique in which a message is transferred as a complete unit and
routed through intermediate nodes at which it is stored and forwarded.
o In Message Switching technique, there is no establishment of a dedicated path between the sender and
receiver.
o The destination address is appended to the message. Message Switching provides a dynamic routing
as the message is routed through the intermediate nodes based on the information available in the
message.
o Message switches are programmed in such a way so that they can provide the most efficient routes.
o Each and every node stores the entire message and then forward it to the next node. This type of
network is known as store and forward network.
 47

o Message switching treats each message as an independent entity.

Advantages Of Message Switching

o Data channels are shared among the communicating devices that improve the efficiency of using
available bandwidth.
o Traffic congestion can be reduced because the message is temporarily stored in the nodes.
o Message priority can be used to manage the network.
o The size of the message which is sent over the network can be varied. Therefore, it supports the data
of unlimited size.
Disadvantages Of Message Switching

o The message switches must be equipped with sufficient storage to enable them to store the messages
until the message is forwarded.
o The Long delay can occur due to the storing and forwarding facility provided by the message switching
technique.

Packet Switching

o The packet switching is a switching technique in which the message is sent in one go, but it is divided
into smaller pieces, and they are sent individually.
o The message splits into smaller pieces known as packets and packets are given a unique number to
identify their order at the receiving end.
o Every packet contains some information in its headers such as source address, destination address and
sequence number.
o Packets will travel across the network, taking the shortest path as possible.
o All the packets are reassembled at the receiving end in correct order.
o If any packet is missing or corrupted, then the message will be sent to resend the message.
o If the correct order of the packets is reached, then the acknowledgment message will be sent.
 48

Approaches Of Packet Switching:

There are two approaches to Packet Switching:

Datagram Packet switching:

o It is a packet switching technology in which packet is known as a datagram, is considered as an

independent entity. Each packet contains the information about the destination and switch uses this
information to forward the packet to the correct destination.
o The packets are reassembled at the receiving end in correct order.
o In Datagram Packet Switching technique, the path is not fixed.
o Intermediate nodes take the routing decisions to forward the packets.
o Datagram Packet Switching is also known as connectionless switching.

Virtual Circuit Switching

o Virtual Circuit Switching is also known as connection-oriented switching.

o In the case of Virtual circuit switching, a preplanned route is established before the messages are sent.
o Call request and call accept packets are used to establish the connection between sender and receiver.
o In this case, the path is fixed for the duration of a logical connection.
Let's understand the concept of virtual circuit switching through a diagram:
 49

o In the above diagram, A and B are the sender and receiver respectively. 1 and 2 are the nodes.
o Call request and call accept packets are used to establish a connection between the sender and receiver.
o When a route is established, data will be transferred.
o After transmission of data, an acknowledgment signal is sent by the receiver that the message has been
received.
o If the user wants to terminate the connection, a clear signal is sent for the termination.

Differences b/w Datagram approach and Virtual Circuit approach

Datagram approach Virtual Circuit approach

Node takes routing decisions to forward the Node does not take any routing decision.
packets.

Congestion cannot occur as all the packets travel Congestion can occur when the node is busy, and it
in different directions. does not allow other packets to pass through.

It is more flexible as all the packets are treated It is not very flexible.
as an independent entity.

Advantages Of Packet Switching:

o Cost-effective: In packet switching technique, switching devices do not require massive secondary
storage to store the packets, so cost is minimized to some extent. Therefore, we can say that the packet
switching technique is a cost-effective technique.
o Reliable: If any node is busy, then the packets can be rerouted. This ensures that the Packet Switching
technique provides reliable communication.
o Efficient: Packet Switching is an efficient technique. It does not require any established path prior to
the transmission, and many users can use the same communication channel simultaneously, hence
makes use of available bandwidth very efficiently.
 50

Disadvantages Of Packet Switching:

o Packet Switching technique cannot be implemented in those applications that require low delay and
high-quality services.
o The protocols used in a packet switching technique are very complex and requires high implementation
cost.
o If the network is overloaded or corrupted, then it requires retransmission of lost packets. It can also
lead to the loss of critical information if errors are nor recovered.
Signal transmission and encoding:

Digital Transmission
Data can be represented either in analog or digital form. The computers used the digital form to store the
information. Therefore, the data needs to be converted in digital form so that it can be used by a computer.

DIGITAL-TO-DIGITAL CONVERSION
Digital-to-digital encoding is the representation of digital information by a digital signal. When binary 1s and
0s generated by the computer are translated into a sequence of voltage pulses that can be propagated over a
wire, this process is known as digital-to-digital encoding.

Digital-to-digital encoding is divided into three categories:

o Unipolar Encoding
o Polar Encoding
o Bipolar Encoding

Unipolar

o Digital transmission system sends the voltage pulses over the medium link such as wire or cable.
o In most types of encoding, one voltage level represents 0, and another voltage level represents 1.
o The polarity of each pulse determines whether it is positive or negative.
o This type of encoding is known as Unipolar encoding as it uses only one polarity.
 51

o In Unipolar encoding, the polarity is assigned to the 1 binary state.

o In this, 1s are represented as a positive value and 0s are represented as a zero value.
o In Unipolar Encoding, '1' is considered as a high voltage and '0' is considered as a zero voltage.
o Unipolar encoding is simpler and inexpensive to implement.

Unipolar encoding has two problems that make this scheme less desirable:
35.1M
586
Hello Java Program for Beginners
o DC Component
o Synchronization

Polar

o Polar encoding is an encoding scheme that uses two voltage levels: one is positive, and another is
negative.
o By using two voltage levels, an average voltage level is reduced, and the DC component problem of
unipolar encoding scheme is alleviated.
 52

NRZ

o NRZ stands for Non-return zero.

o In NRZ encoding, the level of the signal can be represented either positive or negative.
The two most common methods used in NRZ are:
NRZ-L: In NRZ-L encoding, the level of the signal depends on the type of the bit that it represents. If a bit is
0 or 1, then their voltages will be positive and negative respectively. Therefore, we can say that the level of
the signal is dependent on the state of the bit.
NRZ-I: NRZ-I is an inversion of the voltage level that represents 1 bit. In the NRZ-I encoding scheme, a
transition occurs between the positive and negative voltage that represents 1 bit. In this scheme, 0 bit represents
no change and 1 bit represents a change in voltage level.

RZ

o RZ stands for Return to zero.

o There must be a signal change for each bit to achieve synchronization. However, to change with every
bit, we need to have three values: positive, negative and zero.
o RZ is an encoding scheme that provides three values, positive voltage represents 1, the negative voltage
represents 0, and zero voltage represents none.
o In the RZ scheme, halfway through each interval, the signal returns to zero.
o In RZ scheme, 1 bit is represented by positive-to-zero and 0 bit is represented by negative-to-zero.
 53

Disadvantage of RZ:
It performs two signal changes to encode one bit that acquires more bandwidth.

Biphase

o Biphase is an encoding scheme in which signal changes at the middle of the bit interval but does not
return to zero.
Biphase encoding is implemented in two different ways:
Manchester

o It changes the signal at the middle of the bit interval but does not return to zero for synchronization.
o In Manchester encoding, a negative-to-positive transition represents binary 1, and positive-to-negative
transition represents 0.
o Manchester has the same level of synchronization as RZ scheme except that it has two levels of
amplitude.
Differential Manchester

o It changes the signal at the middle of the bit interval for synchronization, but the presence or absence
of the transition at the beginning of the interval determines the bit. A transition means binary 0 and no
transition means binary 1.
o In Manchester Encoding scheme, two signal changes represent 0 and one signal change represent 1.
 54

Bipolar

o Bipolar encoding scheme represents three voltage levels: positive, negative, and zero.
o In Bipolar encoding scheme, zero level represents binary 0, and binary 1 is represented by alternating
positive and negative voltages.
o If the first 1 bit is represented by positive amplitude, then the second 1 bit is represented by negative
voltage, third 1 bit is represented by the positive amplitude and so on. This alternation can also occur
even when the 1bits are not consecutive.
Bipolar can be classified as:
 55

AMI

o AMI stands for alternate mark inversion where mark work comes from telegraphy which means 1.
So, it can be redefined as alternate 1 inversion.
o In Bipolar AMI encoding scheme, 0 bit is represented by zero level and 1 bit is represented by
alternating positive and negative voltages.
Advantage:

o DC component is zero.
o Sequence of 1s bits are synchronized.
Disadvantage:

o This encoding scheme does not ensure the synchronization of a long string of 0s bits.

B8ZS

o B8ZS stands for Bipolar 8-Zero Substitution.

o This technique is adopted in North America to provide synchronization of a long sequence of 0s bits.
o In most of the cases, the functionality of B8ZS is similar to the bipolar AMI, but the only difference is
that it provides the synchronization when a long sequence of 0s bits occur.
o B8ZS ensures synchronization of a long string of 0s by providing force artificial signal changes called
violations, within 0 string pattern.
o When eight 0 occurs, then B8ZS implements some changes in 0s string pattern based on the polarity
of the previous 1 bit.
o If the polarity of the previous 1 bit is positive, the eight 0s will be encoded as zero, zero, zero, positive,
negative, zero, negative, positive.
 56

o If the polarity of previous 1 bit is negative, then the eight 0s will be encoded as zero, zero, zero,
negative, positive, zero, positive, negative.

HDB3

o HDB3 stands for High-Density Bipolar 3.

o HDB3 technique was first adopted in Europe and Japan.
o HDB3 technique is designed to provide the synchronization of a long sequence of 0s bits.
o In the HDB3 technique, the pattern of violation is based on the polarity of the previous bit.
o When four 0s occur, HDB3 looks at the number of 1s bits occurred since the last substitution.
o If the number of 1s bits is odd, then the violation is made on the fourth consecutive of 0. If the polarity
of the previous bit is positive, then the violation is positive. If the polarity of the previous bit is negative,
then the violation is negative.
If the number of 1s bits since the last substitution is odd.

If the number of 1s bits is even, then the violation is made on the place of the first and fourth consecutive 0s.
If the polarity of the previous bit is positive, then violations are negative, and if the polarity of the previous bit
is negative, then violations are positive.
If the number of 1s bits since the last substitution is even.
 57

ANALOG-TO-DIGITAL CONVERSION

o When an analog signal is digitalized, this is called an analog-to-digital conversion.

o Suppose human sends a voice in the form of an analog signal, we need to digitalize the analog signal
which is less prone to noise. It requires a reduction in the number of values in an analog message so
that they can be represented in the digital stream.
o In analog-to-digital conversion, the information contained in a continuous wave form is converted in
digital pulses.

Techniques for Analog-To-Digital Conversion

PAM

o PAM stands for pulse amplitude modulation.

o PAM is a technique used in analog-to-digital conversion.
o PAM technique takes an analog signal, samples it, and generates a series of digital pulses based on the
result of sampling where sampling means measuring the amplitude of a signal at equal intervals.
o PAM technique is not useful in data communication as it translates the original wave form into pulses,
but these pulses are not digital. To make them digital, PAM technique is modified to PCM technique.

PCM

o PCM stands for Pulse Code Modulation.

 58

o PCM technique is used to modify the pulses created by PAM to form a digital signal. To achieve this,
PCM quantizes PAM pulses. Quantization is a process of assigning integral values in a specific range
to sampled instances.
o PCM is made of four separate processes: PAM, quantization, binary encoding, and digital-to-digital
encoding.

PCM
 59

Transmission Impairment
In the data communication system, analog and digital signals go through the transmission medium.
Transmission media are not ideal. There are some imperfections in transmission mediums. So, the signals sent
through the transmission medium are also not perfect. This imperfection cause signal impairment.
It means that signals that are transmitted at the beginning of the medium are not the same as the signals that
are received at the end of the medium that is what is sent is not what is received. These impairments tend to
deteriorate the quality of analog and digital signals.
Consequences
1. For a digital signal, there may occur bit errors.
2. For analog signals, these impairments degrade the quality of the signals.
Causes of impairment
There are three main causes of impairment are,
1. Attenuation
2. Distortion
3. Noise
1) Attenuation
Here attenuation Means loss of energy that is the weaker signal. Whenever a signal transmitted through a
medium it loses its energy, so that it can overcome by the resistance of the medium.

• That is why a wire carrying electrical signals gets warm, if not hot, after a while. Some of the electrical
energy is converted to heat in the signal.
• Amplifiers are used to amplify the signals to compensate for this loss.
• This figure shows the effect of attenuation and amplification:

• A signal has lost or gained its strength, for this purpose engineers use the concept of decibel(dB).
• Decibel is used to measure the relative strengths of two signals or a signal at two different points.
 60

Attenuation is measured in decibels(dB). It measures the relative strengths of two signals or one signal at two
different point.

Attenuation(dB) = 10log10(P2/P1)
P1 is the power at sending end and P2 is the power at receiving end.
Some where the decibel is also define in terms of voltage instead of power.In this case because power is
proportional to the square of the voltage the formula is
Attenuation(dB) = 20log10(V2/V1)
V1 is the voltage at sending end and V2 is the voltage at receiving end.
2) Distortion
If a signal changes its form or shape, it is referred to as distortion. Signals made up of different frequencies
are composite signals. Distortion occurs in these composite signals.
• Each component of frequency has its propagation speed traveling through a medium and therefore,
different components have different delay in arriving at the final destination.
• It means that signals have different phases at the receiver than they did at the source.
• This figure shows the effect of distortion on a composite signal:

3) Noise
Noise is another problem. There are some random or unwanted signals mix up with the original signal is called
noise. Noises can corrupt the signals in many ways along with the distortion introduced by the transmission
media.
 61

Different types of noises are:

a. Thermal noise
b. Intermodulation noise
c. Crosstalk
d. Impulse noise
a) Thermal noise
The thermal noise is random motion of electrons in a conductor that creates an extra signal not originally sent
by the transmitter.
It is also known as white noise because it is distributed across the entire spectrum (as the frequency encompass
over a broad range of frequencies).
b) Intermodulation noise
More than one signal share a single transmission channel, intermodulation noise is generated.
For instance, two signals S1 and S2 will generate signals of frequencies (S1 + S2) and (s1 - S2), which may
interfere with the signals of the same frequencies sent by the sender. due to If nonlinearity present in any part
of the communication system, intermodulation noise is introduced.
c) Cross talk
Cross talk is an effect a wire on the another. One wire acts as a sending antenna and the transmission medium
acts as the receiving antenna.
Just like in telephone system, it is a common experience to hear conversation of other people in the
background. This is known as cross talk.
d) Impulse noise
Impulse noise is irregular pulses or spikes (a signal with high energy in a very short period) generated by
phenomena like that comes from power lines, lightning, spark due to loose contact in electric circuits and so
on.
It is a primary source of bit-errors in digital data communication that kind of noise introduces burst errors.
Performance of a Network
Performance of a network pertains to the measure of service quality of a network as perceived by the user.
There are different ways to measure the performance of a network, depending upon the nature and design of
the network. The characteristics that measure the performance of a network are:
• Bandwidth
• Throughput
 62

• Latency (Delay)
• Bandwidth – Delay Product
• Jitter
BANDWIDTH
One of the most essential conditions of a website’s performance is the amount of bandwidth allocated to the
network. Bandwidth determines how rapidly the webserver is able to upload the requested information. While
there are different factors to consider with respect to a site’s performance, bandwidth is every now and again
the restricting element.
Bandwidth is characterized as the measure of data or information that can be transmitted in a fixed measure
of time. The term can be used in two different contexts with two distinctive estimating values. In the case of
digital devices, the bandwidth is measured in bits per second(bps) or bytes per second. In the case of analogue
devices, the bandwidth is measured in cycles per second, or Hertz (Hz).
Bandwidth is only one component of what an individual sees as the speed of a network. People frequently
mistake bandwidth with internet speed in light of the fact that internet service providers (ISPs) tend to claim
that they have a fast “40Mbps connection” in their advertising campaigns. True internet speed is actually the
amount of data you receive every second and that has a lot to do with latency too.
“Bandwidth” means “Capacity” and “Speed” means “Transfer rate”.
More bandwidth does not mean more speed. Let us take a case where we have double the width of the tap
pipe, but the water rate is still the same as it was when the tap pipe was half the width. Hence, there will be no
improvement in speed. When we consider WAN links, we mostly mean bandwidth but when we consider
LAN, we mostly mean speed. This is on the grounds that we are generally constrained by expensive cable
bandwidth over WAN rather than hardware and interface data transfer rates (or speed) over LAN.
Bandwidth in Hertz: It is the range of frequencies contained in a composite signal or the range of frequencies
a channel can pass. For example, let us consider the bandwidth of a subscriber telephone line as 4 kHz.
Bandwidth in Bits per Seconds: It refers to the number of bits per second that a channel, a link, or rather a
network can transmit. For example, we can say the bandwidth of a Fast Ethernet network is a maximum of
100 Mbps, which means that the network can send 100 Mbps of data.
Note: There exists an explicit relationship between the bandwidth in hertz and the bandwidth in bits per
second. An increase in bandwidth in hertz means an increase in bandwidth in bits per second. The relationship
depends upon whether we have baseband transmission or transmission with modulation.
THROUGHPUT
Throughput is the number of messages successfully transmitted per unit time. It is controlled by available
bandwidth, the available signal-to-noise ratio and hardware limitations. The maximum throughput of a
network may be consequently higher than the actual throughput achieved in everyday consumption. The terms
‘throughput’ and ‘bandwidth’ are often thought of as the same, yet they are different. Bandwidth is the
potential measurement of a link, whereas throughput is an actual measurement of how fast we can send data.
Throughput is measured by tabulating the amount of data transferred between multiple locations during a
specific period of time, usually resulting in the unit of bits per second(bps), which has evolved to bytes per
second(Bps), kilobytes per second(KBps), megabytes per second(MBps) and gigabytes per second(GBps).
Throughput may be affected by numerous factors, such as the hindrance of the underlying analogue physical
medium, the available processing power of the system components, and end-user behaviour. When numerous
protocol expenses are taken into account, the use rate of the transferred data can be significantly lower than
the maximum achievable throughput.
Let us consider: A highway which has a capacity of moving, say, 200 vehicles at a time. But at a random
time, someone notices only, say, 150 vehicles moving through it due to some congestion on the road. As a
result, the capacity is likely to be 200 vehicles per unit time and the throughput is 150 vehicles at a time.
Example:
Input:A network with bandwidth of 10 Mbps can pass only an average of 12, 000 frames
per minute where each frame carries an average of 10, 000 bits. What will be the
throughput for this network?
 63

Output: We can calculate the throughput as-

Throughput = (12, 000 x 10, 000) / 60 = 2 Mbps
The throughput is nearly equal to one-fifth of the bandwidth in this case.
For the difference between Bandwidth and Throughput, refer.
LATENCY
In a network, during the process of data communication, latency(also known as delay) is defined as the total
time taken for a complete message to arrive at the destination, starting with the time when the first bit of the
message is sent out from the source and ending with the time when the last bit of the message is delivered at
the destination. The network connections where small delays occur are called “Low-Latency-Networks” and
the network connections which suffer from long delays are known as “High-Latency-Networks”.
High latency leads to the creation of bottlenecks in any network communication. It stops the data from taking
full advantage of the network pipe and conclusively decreases the bandwidth of the communicating network.
The effect of the latency on a network’s bandwidth can be temporary or never-ending depending on the source
of the delays. Latency is also known as a ping rate and is measured in milliseconds(ms).
In simpler terms: latency may be defined as the time required to successfully send a packet across a network.
• It is measured in many ways like round trip, one way, etc.
• It might be affected by any component in the chain which is utilized to vehiculate data, like
workstations, WAN links, routers, LAN, servers and eventually may be limited for large networks,
by the speed of light.
Latency = Propagation Time + Transmission Time + Queuing Time + Processing Delay
Propagation Time: It is the time required for a bit to travel from the source to the destination. Propagation
time can be calculated as the ratio between the link length (distance) and the propagation speed over the
communicating medium. For example, for an electric signal, propagation time is the time taken for the signal
to travel through a wire.
Propagation time = Distance / Propagation speed
Example:
Input: What will be the propagation time when the distance between two points is
12, 000 km? Assuming the propagation speed to be 2.4 * 10^8 m/s in cable.

Output: We can calculate the propagation time as-

Propagation time = (12000 * 10000) / (2.4 * 10^8) = 50 ms
Transmission Time: Transmission time is a time based on how long it takes to send the signal down the
transmission line. It consists of time costs for an EM signal to propagate from one side to the other, or costs
like the training signals that are usually put on the front of a packet by the sender, which helps the receiver
synchronize clocks. The transmission time of a message relies upon the size of the message and the bandwidth
of the channel.
Transmission time = Message size / Bandwidth
Example:
Input:What will be the propagation time and the transmission time for a 2.5-kbyte
message when the bandwidth of the network is 1 Gbps? Assuming the distance between
sender and receiver is 12, 000 km and speed of light is 2.4 * 10^8 m/s.

Output: We can calculate the propagation and transmission time as-

Propagation time = (12000 * 10000) / (2.4 * 10^8) = 50 ms
Transmission time = (2560 * 8) / 10^9 = 0.020 ms

Note: Since the message is short and the bandwidth is high, the dominant factor is the
propagation time and not the transmission time(which can be ignored).
 64

Queuing Time: Queuing time is a time based on how long the packet has to sit around in the router. Quite
frequently the wire is busy, so we are not able to transmit a packet immediately. The queuing time is usually
not a fixed factor, hence it changes with the load thrust in the network. In cases like these, the packet sits
waiting, ready to go, in a queue. These delays are predominantly characterized by the measure of traffic on
the system. The more the traffic, the more likely a packet is stuck in the queue, just sitting in the memory,
waiting.
Processing Delay: Processing delay is the delay based on how long it takes the router to figure out where to
send the packet. As soon as the router finds it out, it will queue the packet for transmission. These costs are
predominantly based on the complexity of the protocol. The router must decipher enough of the packet to
make sense of which queue to put the packet in. Typically the lower-level layers of the stack have simpler
protocols. If a router does not know which physical port to send the packet to, it will send it to all the ports,
queuing the packet in many queues immediately. Differently, at a higher level, like in IP protocols, the
processing may include making an ARP request to find out the physical address of the destination before
queuing the packet for transmission. This situation may also be considered as a processing delay.
BANDWIDTH – DELAY PRODUCT
Bandwidth and delay are two performance measurements of a link. However, what is significant in data
communications is the product of the two, the bandwidth-delay product.
Let us take two hypothetical cases as examples.
Case 1: Assume a link is of bandwidth 1bps and the delay of the link is 5s. Let us find the bandwidth-delay
product in this case. From the image, we can say that this product 1 x 5 is the maximum number of bits that
can fill the link. There can be close to 5 bits at any time on the link.

Case 2: Assume a link is of bandwidth 3bps. From the image, we can say that there can be a maximum of 3 x
5 = 15 bits on the line. The reason is that, at each second, there are 3 bits on the line and the duration of each
bit is 0.33s.
 65

For both examples, the product of bandwidth and delay is the number of bits that can fill the link. This
estimation is significant in the event that we have to send data in bursts and wait for the acknowledgement of
each burst before sending the following one. To utilize the maximum ability of the link, we have to make the
size of our burst twice the product of bandwidth and delay. Also, we need to fill up the full-duplex channel.
The sender ought to send a burst of data of (2*bandwidth*delay) bits. The sender at that point waits for the
receiver’s acknowledgement for part of the burst before sending another burst. The amount:
2*bandwidth*delay is the number of bits that can be in transition at any time.
JITTER
Jitter is another performance issue related to delay. In technical terms, jitter is a “packet delay variance”. It
can simply mean that jitter is considered as a problem when different packets of data face different delays in
a network and the data at the receiver application is time-sensitive, i.e. audio or video data. Jitter is measured
in milliseconds(ms). It is defined as an interference in the normal order of sending data packets. For example:
if the delay for the first packet is 10 ms, for the second is 35 ms, and for the third is 50 ms, then the real-time
destination application that uses the packets experiences jitter.
Simply, jitter is any deviation in, or displacement of, the signal pulses in a high-frequency digital signal. The
deviation can be in connection with the amplitude, the width of the signal pulse or the phase timing. The major
causes of jitter are electromagnetic interference(EMI) and crosstalk between signals. Jitter can lead to
flickering of a display screen, affects the capability of a processor in a desktop or server to proceed as expected,
introducing clicks or other undesired impacts in audio signals, and loss of transmitted data between network
devices.
Jitter is negative and causes network congestion and packet loss.
• Congestion is like a traffic jam on the highway. In a traffic jam, cars cannot move forward at a
reasonable speed. Like the traffic jam, in congestion, all the packets come to a junction at the same
time. Nothing can get loaded.
• The second negative effect is packet loss. When packets arrive at unexpected intervals, the
receiving system is not able to process the information, which leads to missing information also
called “packet loss”. This has negative effects on video viewing. If a video becomes pixelated and
is skipping, the network is experiencing jitter. The result of the jitter is packet loss. When you are
playing a game online, the effect of packet loss can be that a player begins moving around on the
screen randomly. Even worse, the game goes from one scene to the next, skipping over part of the
gameplay.
 66

In the above image, it can be noticed that the time it takes for packets to be sent is not the same as the time in
which he will arrive at the receiver side. One of the packets faces an unexpected delay on its way and is
received after the expected time. This is jitter.
A jitter buffer can reduce the effects of jitter, either in a network, on a router or switch, or on a computer. The
system at the destination receiving the network packets usually receives them from the buffer and not from
the source system directly. Each packet is fed out of the buffer at a regular rate. Another approach to diminish
jitter in case of multiple paths for traffic is to selectively route traffic along the most stable paths or to always
pick the path that can come closest to the targeted packet delivery rate.