KATHMANDU UNIVERSITY

SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING
DEPARTMENT OF GEOMATICS ENGINEERING

A PROJECT PROPOSAL ON
SOIL EROSION ESTIMATION OF KAVREPALANCHOK USING RUSLE MODEL

Submitted by
SAILESH ADHIKARI [026204-19]

SUSMITA CHAUDHARY [026217-19]

BIPIN KHAREL [026230-19]

RABINA POUDYAL [026242-19]

SURAJ KUMAR TOLANGE [026256-19]

Supervisors
MR. KUSHAL SHARMA
MR. POSHAN NIRAULA

[14 August, 2022]

 TABLE OF CONTENTS

LIST OF FIGURES ....................................................................................................................... iii

LIST OF TABLES ......................................................................................................................... iv

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ......................................................................................................... v

LIST OF SYMBOLS ..................................................................................................................... vi

1 INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................................................... 1

1.1 Background ........................................................................................................................... 1

1.2 Problem Statement ................................................................................................................ 2

1.3 Objectives ............................................................................................................................. 3

1.4 Scope ..................................................................................................................................... 3

2 LITERATURE REVIEW ............................................................................................................ 3

3 METHODOLOGY ...................................................................................................................... 7

3.1 Study Area ............................................................................................................................ 7

3.2 Study Design/Workflow ....................................................................................................... 8

3.2.1 Soil Erosion Assessment ................................................................................................ 9

3.3 Data Sources ......................................................................................................................... 9

3.4 Hardware/Software Required................................................................................................ 9

4.PROJECT MANAGEMENT ....................................................................................................... 9

4.1 Gantt Chart .......................................................................................................................... 10

5.EXPECTED OUTCOMES ........................................................................................................ 11

6. REFERENCES ......................................................................................................................... 13
 LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1: Study Area Map............................................................................................................... 7

Figure 2: Methodological diagram.................................................................................................. 8

iii
 LIST OF TABLES

Table 1: Data Sources ..................................................................................................................... 9

Table 2: Gantt Chart...................................................................................................................... 10

Table 3: Logical Framework ......................................................................................................... 11

iv
 LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

DEM Digital Elevation Model

GIS Geographic Information System
ICIMOD International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development
LULC Landuse and Landcover
NARC Nepal Agricultural Research Council
NASA National Aeronautics and Space Administration
RDS Regional Database System
RUSLE Revised Universal Soil Loss Equation
SRTM Shuttle Radar Topography Mission
USLE Universal Soil Loss Equation

v
 LIST OF SYMBOLS

C Cover management factor

CLA Clay percentage
F Ratio between rill erosion and inter rill erosion
Fcsand Low soil erodibility factor
Fhisand  Factor that reduces soil erodibility for soil with high sand content.
Forgc Factor reducing soil erodibility for soil with high organic content
Fsi-cl Low Soil Erodibility with a high clay to slit ratio
K Soil erosivity factor
L Slope length factor
LS Topographic factor
m Slope length exponent
P Mean annual rainfall in mm
R Rainfall erosivity factor
W Week
S Slope gradient factor
SAN Sand percentage
SIL Silt percentage
SN1 Sand content subtracted from 1 and divided by 100
β  Slope angle (°)

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 1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background
Soil erosion, one of the leading causes of soil degradation is closely associated with agricultural
intensification, deforestation and human activities that did not take care of environmental
sustainability (Roslee & Sharir, 2019). According to Wubalem (2022), soil erosion by water is one
of the most critical natural degradation problems that remove surface top soil by depressive action
of rainfall intensity followed by runoff. This process removes fertile topsoil and transports it into
the water bodies, reducing the already limited cultivable land which eventually causes the
decrement in food production. Also, the transported sediments in water bodies are responsible for
degrading water quality and causing eutrophication of freshwater bodies (Pimentel, 2006). The
procedure of soil erosion is adapted to the biophysical environment, which consists of soil, rainfall,
terrain, land cover, and their interactions (Kayet et al., 2018).

In Nepal, it is about 45.5% of the total land that suffers from water erosion, majorly through sheet
and rill erosion (Koirala, Thakuri, Joshi, & Chauhan, 2019). Various studies conducted in Nepal
show that the variation in the soil loss through surface erosion from agricultural land in the hills is
from less than 2 tonne per hectare per year to as high as 105 tonne per hectare per year (Chalise,
Kumar, & Kristiansen, 2019). In 1992 and 1993, a study of Soil erosion in Likhu Khola River
using methods of using field plots was done and this registered the following data of rate of soil
loss: tonne per hectare per year under grassland and slightly degraded secondary forest, 11 tonne
per hectare per year under no cultivation, and 2.7–8.2 tonne per hectare per year under rain-fed
cultivation (Shrestha, n.d.). Our study uses RUSLE model with GIS that can be used for estimation
of the spatial distribution of soil erosion; however, the model is limited to predicting the sheet and
rill erosion and not being able to estimate the rate of gully erosion (Wang, Huang, Du, Hu, & Han,
2013). RUSLE method is widely used technique for estimating soil erosion loss that provides a
guideline for the development of conservation plans and controlling erosion under different land-
cover conditions, such as croplands, rangelands, and disturbed forest lands (Millward & Mersey,
1999).

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Several models exist to predict the extent of water-induced erosion which range from empirical
(USLE/RUSLE) to physical or process-based model and they vary considerably in ramification
and data input. The Universal Soil Loss Equation (USLE) is an erosion model designed to compute
longtime average soil losses from sheet and rill erosion under specified conditions. It has been
used to in predict the average rate of soil loss due to water erosion from agricultural land and was
updated and computerized to create an erosion prediction tool called the Revised Universal Soil
Loss Equation (RUSLE) in the early 1990s. Today the most common methods used for soil erosion
assessment is the Revised Universal Soil Loss Equation (RUSLE), which has been used at different
geospatial scales by dividing a region of appeal keen into sub-areas with similar parameters and
connected with GIS framework (Renard et al., 1997). The RUSLE represents how factors like
climate, soil, topography, and landuse are responsible for rill and inter-rill soil erosion caused by
raindrop impacts (Koirala et al., 2019). RUSLE computes the average annual erosion expected by
multiplying several factors together: rainfall erosivity (R), soil erodibility (K), slope length and
steepness (LS), cover management (C), and support practice (P).

1.2 Problem Statement

The research area's potential concern, soil erosion could have an impact on both the study region
(Kavrepalanchok) and the environment around it. Sedimentation to lowland areas and the
emergence of mudflows at the highest level are the most prominent problems related to soil
erosion. Due to changes in stream characteristics like drainage depth and water flow velocity,
increased deposition occurs which would have an impact on the hydrological system of the stream.
The area's lower ground would see a flash flood in an extreme circumstance. According to the
survey conducted by Giri & Dahal (2021) regarding climate change on agriculture in
Kavrepalanchok, the soil of the study area was found to be inherently fragile and prone to
degradation with wind, landslide, and water runoff causing losses of the huge amount of topsoil
during the pre-monsoon and monsoon season in the study area. Even though soil erosion by water
is believed to be among the major land degradation processes, the spatial variability of
susceptibility of soils of the study area to erosion has not been assessed and mapped. Therefore,
there’s a need for the study to produce important result on the erosion and soil loss data. Hence,
the present study which aims to assess the extent and mapping soil erosion risk area using GIS
with RUSLE model can easily identify areas that are at potential risk of extensive soil erosion in

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the study area. This study can help providing a framework for the decision makers for planning
activities to control erosion and contributes toward filing a gap of soil loss information of a
particular district. Furthermore, this work could also be used as source of information for those
researchers who want to do similar research for the future.

1.3 Objectives
The primary objective of the study is to find out the potential soil erosion rate of Kavrepalanchok
using RUSLE model.
The secondary objectives include:
i. Analysis of soil erosion rate by slope and landuse/landcover.
ii. Categorization of area into different erosion classes based on the erosion severity.

1.4 Scope
The present study is actually a local level study and thus focuses mainly on the issues related with
the extent and dynamics of soil erosion with in the study area. The study focuses on quantifying
the amount soil loss in Kavrepalanchok district. Hence, this study is expected to provide important
data for policy makers, land-use planners, and natural resource managers to formulate and
implement effective soil conservation strategies.

2 LITERATURE REVIEW
Timely and accurate estimation of soil erosion loss or risk assessment has become essential in
many countries so as to estimate how quickly soil is eroded before the conservation strategy is
compromised. Based on the complexity of the models, the physical processes they imitate, the
equations they utilize, and the accuracy they aim for, different simulation models—empirical,
stochastic, and deterministic (either physically based or conceptual)—were developed in response
to this demand (Efthimiou, Lykoudi, & Karavitis, 2014).

The Universal Soil Loss Equation (USLE), created by Wischmeier and Smith (1978) on the basis
of the lumped approach to catchment scale, is one of the most extensively used empirical models
because of its relative resilience, simplicity, and representation of a standardized methodology.
Additionally, it is thought to be the best technique for estimating soil loss in the absence of

3
measurements. Since the initial USLE publication, more research, tests, data, resources becoming
accessible, and a deeper understanding of the erosion process have all contributed to the
development of the Revised Universal Soil Loss Equation (Renard et al., 1991). The equation's
essential structure has not changed; however, changes have been made to some of the factors. New
and revised changes (the R factor broadened to encompass the Western US) are among these
modifications (filling of data gaps and a more refined smoothing of the R iso-erodent map of the
Eastern U.S. has also been performed). The slope length (L) and steepness (S) factors have been
revised to account for the relationship between rill and inter-rill erosion, iso-erodent maps and
corrections made to account for rainfall on ponded water, a time-varying (seasonal) approach for
the soil erodibility factor (K), a new equation to reflect slope length and steepness, a sub-factor
approach for evaluating the cover-management factor (the C factor no longer represents seasonal
soil-loss ratios The factor P has been modified to incorporate conditions for rangelands,
contouring, strip-cropping, and terracing. It now reflects a continuous function of previous land
use, surface cover, crop canopy, surface roughness, and soil moisture (Renard et al., 1991).

The typical approach to implementing the RUSLE is to estimate each of the model's factors, which
is based on a number of literatures. Previous researchers have devised a number of methods for
predicting these variables, including the use of climate data, soil and geological maps, remotely
sensed satellite images, empirical formulas, and digital elevation models (DEM). The average soil
loss (A) due to water erosion per unit area per year (Mg ha−1 per year) was quantified, using
RUSLE by the following equation:
A=R×K×L×S×C×P

Where A=soil loss (mg ha−1 year−1), R=rainfall erosivity factor (mm ha−1 year−1), K=soil
erodibility factor (mg ha−1 year−1), LS=slope-length and slope steepness factor (dimensionless),
C=land management factor (dimensionless), and P=conservation practice factor (dimensionless).

a. R Factor
The rainfall-runoff erosivity factor (R factor) describes the probable erosion capability of rainfall
on soil (Renard et al., 1991) which is related to amount, intensity and duration of rainfall along
with size and velocity of raindrops. The rainfall erosivity used in the RUSLE must quantify an

4
effect of raindrop impact and expect the amount and rate of runoff associate with rainfall and its
unit is expressed in MJ mm ha -1 h -1 yr-1(Wischmeier et al., 1978).
R= 38.5+0.35P
Where R = rainfall erosivity factor, P= Mean annual rainfall in mm

b. K factor
The K factor describes the susceptibility of a type of soil to erosion. Soil texture, structure,
permeability, and organic matter content can affect the K factor. The equation needed, as given by
the reference, to calculate the soil loss (Kouli, Soupios, & Vallianatos, 2009).
K=Fcsand ∗ Fsi − cl ∗ Forgc ∗ Fhisand ∗ 0.1317,
SIL
Fcsand=[0.2 + 0.3exp(−0.0256 SAN(1 − 100))],
SIL
Fsi-cl=[CLA+SIL]0.3 ,
0.25C
Forgc=[1.0 − C+exp(3.72−2.95C)],
0.70SN1
Fhisand=[1.0 − SN1+exp(−5.51+22.9SN1)],

where C is the amount of organic carbon; SAN, SIL, and CLA are percentages of sand, silt, and
clay, respectively; and SN1 is the amount of sand after subtracting 1 and dividing by 100. Fcsand
is short for low soil erodibility factor. Low soil erodibility factor with a high ratio of clay to silt is
known as Fsi-cl. For soils with a high organic content, Forgc is a factor that lowers soil erodibility.
For soil with a high sand concentration, Fhisand is a component that lowers soil erodibility.

c. LS factor
Topographic factor consists of two factors (L- Slope length factor and S- Slope Steepness factor)
which both are determined from the DEM. The slope-steepness factor (S) is the ratio of soil loss
from the field slope gradient to that from a 9% slope under, otherwise identical conditions. Slope
length factor (L) can be defined as the distance from the point of origin of overland flow to the
point where either the slope gradient decreases enough that deposition begins, or the runoff water
enters a well-defined channel that may be part of a drainage network or a constructed channel. The
combined LS factor in RUSLE represents the ratio of soil loss on a given slope length and
steepness to soil loss. These are calculated from the DEM and combined to result in the
topographical factor grid using relation (Atoma, 2018)

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 λ
L =(22.13)m ,

where L=slope length factor, λ=slope length (m), m=slope-length exponent

F
m= 1 + F′ ,
sin /0.0896
F=3(sin) , where F=ratio between rill erosion and inter rill erosion, β=slope angle (°). L is
0.8 + 0.56

to be calculated in ArcGIS as,

(m+1)
( flowacc + 625)(m+1) −flowacc
flowacc + 625L = ,
25(m+2) ∗22.13m

For slope gradient factor,

S = Con((Tan(slope ∗ 0.01745) < 0.09),
(10.8 ∗ Sin (slope ∗ 0.01745) + 0.03),
(16.8 ∗ Sin(slope ∗ 0.01745) − 0.5)),
LS= L∗S,

d. C factor
The Cover Management Factor (C) is a reduction factor to soil erosion vulnerability which
parameterizes the shielding effect of vegetation which absorbs and dissipates the kinetic energy of
precipitation as well as the runoff effects (Efthimiou et al., 2014). C factor can be calculated based
on the Land Cover Map classification. Every land use can be assigned with a C coefficient value
considering a literature review.

e. P factor
When cultivation techniques like contour cultivation, strip cropping, and terracing are applied,
they reduce erosion by a percentage of what it would be without them, which is known as the
support (or conservation) practice factor (P) (Efthimiou et al., 2014). Improved tillage practices
(example: crop rotation, organic fertilizing etc.) contribute to erosion control as well. if no relative
information concerning such practices are available, assuming that no preventing measures are
taken, the P factor can be assigned a value equal to 1.0 throughout the study area.

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 3.METHODOLOGY
3.1 Study Area
The study area is Kavrepalanchok district, Nepal, located between the coordinate of
latitude: 27.5285° N and the coordinate of longitude: 85.6435° E in the mid-hilly part of Nepal
near Kathmandu valley. It is extended in an area of 1396 km². It is located in the central
development region of Nepal with elevation range from 280 meters to 3018 meters (Bethanchok
Narayan Danda). It is a part of Bagmati province and has a population of 381,937. Annual population
growth of the district is about 2% with population density of 129 per sq.km. It is bordered to the
east by Ramechhap and Dolakha, west by Kathmandu valley, north by Sindhupalchok and south
by Sindhuli and Makawanpur.

Figure 1: Study Area Map

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3.2 Study Design/Workflow
The following input data are required as GIS datasets: average annual precipitation (raster dataset),
digital soil map with information regarding the top soil layer, Digital Elevation Model (DEM),
digital land use data about land use classes and objects that inhibit erosion (barriers). Once
provided with this set of data, the RUSLE model links erosion factors influencing soil erodibility
(K factor), erosivity (R factor), land cover and management (C factor), slope length (L factor) and
slope (S factor). By multiplying these factors, the mean relative soil loss in tons per hectare per
year can be calculated. The flowchart showing the detailed procedures and data needed are
summarized in Figure 2.

Figure 2: Methodological diagram

8
3.2.1 Soil Erosion Assessment
After analyzing each of the five factors responsible for erosion phenomenon in our study area, we
can integrate the results of these analyzes into a general model and of quantified soil losses. Each
information layer is represented by a "raster" image, where each cell's value corresponds to the
parameter's sensitivity to erosion. For each parameter, a separate value that can be defined serves
as a representation of this level of sensitivity. The five factors: R, K, LS, C, and P is multiplied in
the "raster calculator" of the ArcGIS Spatial Analyst module to generate the data of average annual
soil loss. A "raster" layer that represents the amount of potentially erodible soil in tonnes per
hectare per year throughout the entire study area is the end result of this multiplication.

3.3 Data Sources

To achieve the objectives designed in the section 1.3, the following relevant information and
data were collected and generated from various sources.
Table 1: Data Sources

Datasets Data source

DEM SRTM DEM www.usgs.gov

Soil Map Soil Map | NARC

Land Cover Map ESRI Landsat and Sentinel

Rainfall Map Home | NASA Global Precipitation Measurement Mission

3.4 Hardware/Software Required

Laptop will be used as hardware for this project. ArcGIS 10.8 software will be used for mapping
and analysis procedure.
4.PROJECT MANAGEMENT

9
4.1 Gantt Chart
Table 2: Gantt Chart

Tasks July August September October November

W W W W W W W W W W W W W W W W W
2 3 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3

Consultation, Concept
paper submission

Literature Review

Proposal Writing

Proposal Defense

Data Collection and

Factor Maps generation

Mid Term Presentation

Final Map and erosion

rate generation

Map Analysis

Report Writing

Final Presentation

Work Completed

Work Remaining

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4.2 Logical Framework Analysis
Table 3: Logical Framework

SN Activities Who When How Risk Remedy

1 Planning Susmita, July1st Discussion Little Consultation

Bipin and week -4th knowledge with Seniors,
Rabina week about Department
resources teachers and
research Paper

2 Site Selection and Sailesh, July 3rd Discussion Functionality Supervisor’s

Pre-feasibility Suraj and with of the model recommendation
week
study of study Rabina teachers in our study
area and area
supervisor

3 Proposal Every one August 1st Literature Everyone Books, Articles,

of the week Review and preparing for Research Papers
Preparation
team Group their and supervisors
Discussion particular
portions

4 Proposal Defense Every one August Presentation Some errors Consultation

and submission of the 2nd week in formatting with supervisors
team. and seek to their
recommendation

4 Data Collection Sailesh, Aug 4st Secondary RUSLE not Not a particular
and analysis of Susmita Week- Data and accounting solution to this
factor maps and Bipin September GIS for all kinds model (It is
3rd Week operations of erosion itself a revised

11
 form of previous
USLE model)

5 Mid-term Every one September Presentation Some errors Consultation

presentation of the 4th Week in formatting with supervisor
team and and seek to their
presentation recommendation

6 Final Map and Suraj, September GIS model Cartographic Reviewing

erosion rate Rabina 4th Week - and Raster errors Cartographic
generation and October Calculator principles
Susmita 1st week

7 Map Analysis Sailesh, October Analysis by Errors may Tutorials and

Bipin and 2nd week- landuse/ occur during Consultation
Susmita 4th week landcover GIS (spatial with supervisor
and slope analysis)
operations

8 Report Writing Every one October Literature Some errors Consultation

of the 3rd week- Review, in report with supervisor
team November Discussion format
2nd week with
teachers and
supervisor

9 Final Presentation Every one November Presentation Not proper Consultation

of the 3rd week arrangement with supervisor
team. of the and seek to their
contents recommendation

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 5.EXPECTED OUTCOMES
The present study attempts to estimate the soil loss of Kavrepalanchowk through the application
of the Revised Universal Soil Loss Equation (RUSLE) model. The following outcomes are to be
achieved by this method.
i. Different soil erosion factor maps generation.
ii. Map depicting soil erosion rate of Kavrepalanchok.
In addition, it analyzes the effect of Land Use and Land Cover (LULC) and slope (β) exposition
on soil erosion. The entire area then can be categorized into different erosion classes based on the
erosion severity, indicating conservation priority regions. Though RUSLE can be used to estimate
the average long-term risk of erosion on arable land, it is not designed for modeling soil erosion
and sediment transport under individual rainfall events. However due to the relatively simple
empirical approach of RUSLE, the typical erosion processes such as splash erosion, soil transport
and soil deposition are not considered.

6. REFERENCES
Atoma, H. (2018). 38 Atoma CN Article. Assessment of Soil Erosion by Rusle Model Using Remote
Sensing and Gis Techniques: A Case Study of Huluka Watershed, Central Ethiopia.

Chalise, D., Kumar, L., & Kristiansen, P. (2019, March 1). Land degradation by soil erosion in
Nepal: A review. Soil Systems, Vol. 3, pp. 1–18. MDPI AG.
https://doi.org/10.3390/soilsystems3010012

Efthimiou, N., Lykoudi, E., & Karavitis, C. (2014). Soil erosion assessment using the RUSLE
model and GIS. In European Water (Vol. 47).

Giri, M., & Dahal, D. R. (2021). Impact of Climate Change on Agriculture in Kavre District,
Nepal. Journal of APF Command and Staff College, 4(1), 106–119.

Koirala, P., Thakuri, S., Joshi, S., & Chauhan, R. (2019). Estimation of Soil Erosion in Nepal using
a RUSLE modeling and geospatial tool. Geosciences (Switzerland), 9(4).
https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences9040147

Kouli, M., Soupios, P., & Vallianatos, F. (2009). Soil erosion prediction using the Revised
Universal Soil Loss Equation (RUSLE) in a GIS framework, Chania, Northwestern Crete,
Greece. Environmental Geology, 57(3), 483–497. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00254-008-1318-
9

Millward, A. A., & Mersey, J. E. (1999). Adapting the RUSLE to model soil erosion potential in
a mountainous tropical watershed. In Catena (Vol. 38). Retrieved from
www.elsevier.comrlocatercatena
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Renard, K. G., Foster, G. R., Weesies, G. A., Mccool, D. K., & Yoder, D. C. (1997). Predicting
soil erosion by water: a guide to conservation planning with the Revised Universal Soil Loss
Equation (RUSLE).

Renard, K. G., Foster, G. R., Weesies, G. A., & Porter, J. I. (1991). RUSLE Revised universal soil
loss equation. Retrieved from www.swcs.org

Shrestha, D. P. (n.d.). ASSESSMENT OF SOIL EROSION IN THE NEPALESE HIMALAYA, A

CASE STUDY IN LIKHU KHOLA VALLEY, MIDDLE MOUNTAIN REGION Southeast Asia
EU mobility project on watershed management for disaster prevention View project
Desertification mitigation and remediation of land View project. Retrieved from
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/255578442

Wang, L., Huang, J., Du, Y., Hu, Y., & Han, P. (2013). Dynamic assessment of soil erosion risk
using landsat TM and HJ satellite data in danjiangkou reservoir area, China. Remote Sensing,
5(8), 3826–3848. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs5083826

Wischmeier, W. H., & Smith, D. D. (1978). Predicting rainfall erosion losses : a guide to
conservation planning.

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