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Sera LeBlanc
Australian College of Applied Psychology
Joseph R. Ferrari
DePaul University
1
2 / College Student Journal
(e.g., Klassen, et al., 2008; Howell & Watson, positively related to self-control, suggesting
2007) believe procrastinators have problems that students with lower levels of self-esteem
regulating their behaviors and are engaging will have lower levels of self-control.
in undercontrol. Relatedly, a metanalysis
(Ferrari, 2010) investigating cause and effect, Method
determined chronic everyday procrastination Participants
was strongly predicted by trait characteristics
Data were collected from undergraduate
such as self-control (i.e. distractibility, organi-
students enrolled in various departments at a
zation, and achievement) and impulsiveness.
major-state funded, urban university in Tur-
Thus, a strong body of evidence supports the
key. For the sample selection, proportional
strong inverse relationship between self-con-
sampling created five subgroups from five
trol and forms of procrastination, suggesting
faculties selected for the sample in the same
lower levels of self-control are related to
proportion, as they exist in the general pop-
higher levels of academic procrastination
ulation. The sample of 426 undergraduate
(e.g., Uzun Ozer, et. al., 2014).
students included 218 female and 208 male
These facts demonstrate the need for
students. The participants consisted of 107
close examination of academic procrastina-
first year students, 78 sophomore, 160 junior,
tion among emerging adults (i.e., university
and 81 senior students. The mean age of our
students) because of its frequency and debil-
emerging adult participants was 21.3 years
itating impact. Yet, detailed models explain-
old (SD = 1.5) with an age range between 18
ing the contributing dynamics of academic
and 25.
procrastination are limited; thus, numerous
questions remain with regards to root causes Data Collection Instruments
and operating mechanisms. In this study we
explored causal correlates, putting forth a pre- In the present study, variables were as-
liminary model investigating the relationship sessed utilizing self-report reliable and valid
between academic procrastination, self-es- questionnaires, namely.
teem and self-control in greater depth. Tuckman procrastination scale (TPS;
Taken together, low self-esteem exists in Tuckman, 1991) assesses college students’
the presence of low self-control may serve academic procrastination tendencies. It is 16
as a powerful mediator between maladaptive 16 items reliable (α = 0.89; Tuckman, 2007)
behaviours that increase the frequency of and valid (r = -.47 with the General Self-Ef-
academic procrastination among emerging ficacy Scale) and demonstrated high internal
adults in university settings. Thus, the current consistency (0.88), retest stability (0.82).
study built upon existing literature by pro- In the Turkish adaptation study, Uzun Özer,
viding a better understanding of the link be- Sackes, and Tuckman (2013) found the scale
tween self-esteem, self-control and academic to be reliable and valid (α = 0.90; r = 22 with
procrastination. self-efficacy and r = 23 with self-esteem).
Considering previous research (see Fer- Self Control Schedule (SCS; Rosenbaum,
rari, 2010; Ferrari & Emmons, 1995; Ferrari 1980) assessed students’ tendencies to exert
& Tibbett, 2017), it was hypothesized that self-control methods to resolve behavioral
self-control would be negatively correlated problems. The scale consists of 36 items.
with academic procrastination. Similarly, In the Rosenbaum’s study, an alpha coeffi-
self-esteem was hypothesized to be negatively cient was computed on six different samples
associated with academic procrastination and ranging from 0.78 to 0.86, indicating a high
4 / College Student Journal
internal consistency among items. The SCS’s fit index, the standardized root mean square
evidence for validity was provided by correla- residual, and the root mean square error of
tions with Croskey’s Measure of Communi- approximation (Hu & Bentler, 1999).
cation Apprehension (r = -.37; Rosenbaum,
1980). In a Turkish adaptation study, Siva Latent Variables
(1991) found the scale to be reliable and valid To test the model, indicators of the la-
(α = 0.79; test-retest r = 0.80; r = -22 with tent construct were observed. The observed
locus of control). indicators of the latent variables of procras-
Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (RSES; tination, self-control and self-esteem were
Rosenberg, 1965) assessed participants’ glob- parceled following the recommendation of
al self-esteem or self-worth. It is a 10 items Russell, Kahn, Spoth, and Althmaier (1998).
scale demonstrating high internal consistency Four parcels were created for each scale items
(α = .80). Evidence for convergent validity seperately. Item parcelling was chosen for the
was provided by positive correlations with the variables in order to reduce the number of
Copersmith Self-Esteem Inventory (r = .60) parameters that would result from using indi-
and the Health Self Image Questionnaire (r vidual items thereby improving the estimation
= .83). In a Turkish adaptation studies, Celik of the effect (Russell et al., 1998). Bandalos
(2004) reported the scale to be reliable and (2008) and Nasser and Wisenbaker (2003)
valid (α = 0.84; r = -22 with locus of control). also asserted that parcel scores are more like-
ly to be distributed normally than those of sin-
Procedures gle items. Thus, ‘the resulting reduction in the
Demographic questionnaires including an complexity of measurement models should
explanation of the study and a set of scales lead to more realistic models’ (Nasser and
were administered to the participants during Wisenbaker, 2003; p.730). The correlations
regular classroom hours. After obtaining per- among the study variables were small to mod-
missions from the Human Research Ethical erate in magnitude (r = -.20 and r = -.48). As
Committee and the instructor of each class, expected, self-esteem and self-control were
volunteer students were asked to respond to negatively associated with procrastination.
the scales.
Measurement Model
Results A test of the measurement model resulted
To test our hypothesized model, the in a good fit to the data, scaled X2 (50, N =
mediational role of self-esteem on the rela- 426) = 134.67, p < 0.001, CFI = .96, IFI = .96,
tionship between self-control and procras- RMSEA = .63. All of the variables were sig-
tination, a confirmatory factor analysis was nificantly loaded on their perspectives latent
first conducted to ensure the model was an variables and appear to have been adequately
acceptable fit to the data. Then the structural measured by their perspective indicators.
model was tested to assess the hypothesized
relationship. The Maximum Likelihood Structural Model
method in AMOS 25 (Byrne, 2016) was The structural model used to test the
utilized to examine the measurement and hypothesis (see Figure 1) showed an excel-
structural model. Four indecies were used to lent fit to the data, scaled X2 (50, N = 426)
assess the goodness of fit of the models on = 102.98, p < 0.001, CFI = .97, IFI = .97,
the basis of the traditional crriteria for good RMSEA = .50. Self-control and self-esteem
fit: the comparative fit index, the incremental predicted procrastination. Seven percent of
A Mediational Model of Academic Procrastination /5
Figure 1. Standardized parameter estimates of the structural model. Ps are the parcels
for latent variables. Numbers next to arrows indicate the relationships between the latent
and measured variables.
The present findings suggest individuals’ the potential to generate meaningful infor-
cognitions about themselves lead to their mation for understanding student procrasti-
behavioral control, which in turn directly pre- nation associated with factors contributing
dicted procrastination. Specifically, findings to cognitive and behavioral patterns. Hence,
revealed that students’ low levels of self-es- the results of the present study may provide
teem led to decrease self-control, which re- valuable cues for both university counselors
sulted in an increase in procrastination. The and staff to develop new programs that may
results were consistent with the previous find- reduce the negative effects of procrastination.
ings demonstrating a relationship between From an applied standpoint, the current
self-esteem and self-control (Steel, Brothen, findings suggest interventions targeting both
& Wambach, 2001; Tice & Bratslavsky, the cognitive and behavioral components of
2000). The findings also supported the theory procrastination may be effective. In support,
that contingencies of self-worth may serve interventions focused on enhancing self-con-
a self-regulatory function. Accordingly, in- trol by creating routines, timetables and
creased self-worth in an academic setting may predetermined activities have demonstrated
serve to enhance self-control, which in turn efficacy (Ferrari, 2010).
decreases academic procrastination (Roth- From a cognitive behavioral perspective,
man, Baldwin, & Hertel., 2004). cognitive restructuring, combined with be-
Another important finding of the present havioural experiments, has demonstrated
study may be the behavioral control features effictiveness and has been associated with
of self-control. As suggested earlier (e.g., concurrent increases in self-esteem (Van
Fitzsimons & Bargh, 2004), self-esteem Eerde, 2003). In conclusion, taking an idio-
mechanisms may provide students with con- graphic approach, combining behavioral and
trolling thoughts, feelings and behavior. In cognitive components and exploring alterna-
line with self-control theory, it has been seen tive methods of delivery, may be a promising
as willpower or effortful control in cogni- avenue for future research, as they are theo-
tive-affective processing systems, which is a retically supported and adventageous from
dynamic of delay of gratification (Mischel & a practical standpoint, due to scalability and
Ayduk, 2004). cost effectiveness.
Several implications may be drawn from A limitation of the current study was the
the findings of the present study for counsel- use of a homogenous, university sample.
ors and educators. The present study explored Further research with larger and more de-
the relationships between behavioral factors mographically diverse populations would
such as self-control and its ability to mediate strengthen the findings of the current study.
personal cognitive factors among a represen- Therefore, it is suggested to conduct future
tative sample of university students enrolled studies with samples from different universi-
in various departments at a major state funded ties and in different regions.
university. Therefore, the present study has
A Mediational Model of Academic Procrastination /7
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