SAN JOSE COMMUNITY COLLEGE

Malilipot, Albay

MODULE IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION 3

Sports/Ballgames

Sports, physical contests pursued for the goals and challenges they entail. Sports are part of every
culture past and present, but each culture has its own definition of sports. The most useful definitions
are those that clarify the relationship of sports to play, games, and contests. “Play,” wrote the German
theorist Carl Diem, “is purposeless activity, for its own sake, the opposite of work.” Humans work
because they have to; they play because they want to. Play is autotelic—that is, it has its own goals. It is
voluntary and uncoerced. Recalcitrant children compelled by their parents or teachers to compete in a
game of football (soccer) are not really engaged in a sport. Neither are professional athletes if their only
motivation is their paycheck. In the real world, as a practical matter, motives are frequently mixed and
often quite impossible to determine. Unambiguous definition is nonetheless a prerequisite to practical
determinations about what is and is not an example of play.

There are at least two types of play. The first is spontaneous and unconstrained. Examples abound. A
child sees a flat stone, picks it up, and sends it skipping across the waters of a pond. An adult realizes
with a laugh that he has uttered an unintended pun. Neither action is premeditated, and both are at
least relatively free of constraint. The second type of play is regulated. There are rules to determine
which actions are legitimate and which are not. These rules transform spontaneous play into games,
which can thus be defined as rule-bound or regulated play. Leapfrog, chess, “playing house,” and
basketball are all games, some with rather simple rules, others governed by a somewhat more complex
set of regulations. In fact, the rule books for games such as basketball are hundreds of pages long.

As games, chess and basketball are obviously different from leapfrog and playing house. The first two
games are competitive, the second two are not. One can win a game of basketball, but it makes no
sense to ask who has won a game of leapfrog. In other words, chess and basketball are contests.

A final distinction separates contests into two types: those that require at least a minimum of physical
skill and those that do not. Shuffleboard is a good example of the first; the board
games Scrabble and Monopoly will do to exemplify the second. It must of course be understood that
even the simplest sports, such as weightlifting, require a modicum of intellectual effort, while others,
such as baseball, involve a considerable amount of mental alertness. It must also be understood that the
sports that have most excited the passions of humankind, as participants and as spectators, have
required a great deal more physical prowess than a game of shuffleboard. Through the ages, sports
heroes have demonstrated awesome strength, speed, stamina, endurance, and dexterity.

Sports, then, can be defined as autotelic (played for their own sake) physical contests. On the basis of
this definition, one can devise a simple inverted-tree diagram. Despite the clarity of the definition,
difficult questions arise. Is mountain climbing a sport? It is if one understands the activity as a contest
between the climber and the mountain or as a competition between climbers to be the first to
accomplish an ascent. Are the drivers at the Indianapolis 500 automobile race really athletes? They are if
one believes that at least a modicum of physical skill is required for winning the competition. The point
of a clear definition is that it enables one to give more or less satisfactory answers to questions such as
these. One can hardly understand sport if one does not begin with some conception of what sports are.

History
No one can say when sports began. Since it is impossible to imagine a time when children did not
spontaneously run races or wrestle, it is clear that children have always included sports in their play, but
one can only speculate about the emergence of sports as autotelic physical contests for
adults. Hunters are depicted in prehistoric art, but it cannot be known whether the hunters pursued
their prey in a mood of grim necessity or with the joyful abandon of sportsmen. It is certain, however,
from the rich literary and iconographic evidence of all ancient civilizations that hunting soon became an
end in itself—at least for royalty and nobility. Archaeological evidence also indicates that ball games
were common among ancient peoples as different as the Chinese and the Aztecs. If ball games were
contests rather than noncompetitive ritual performances, such as the Japanese football game kemari,
then they were sports in the most rigorously defined sense. That it cannot simply be assumed that they
were contests is clear from the evidence presented by Greek and Roman antiquity, which indicates that
ball games had been for the most part playful pastimes like those recommended for health by the Greek
physician Galen in the 2nd century CE.
 TEAM SPORTS VS. INDIVIDUAL /DUAL SPORTS

When it comes to team sports vs. individual sports, both sides win. Educators can use activities from
either one to teach students valuable lessons on discipline, mental toughness, cooperation with others
and the satisfaction of achieving personal goals.

Individual sports emphasize the training and dedication needed to succeed in sports where each player
has only themselves to count on. Team sports emphasize cooperation with others, working together as a
team and finding ways to win through managing the strengths and weaknesses of other players.

As part of its extensive continuing education program for educators, Fresno Pacific University offers a
course in Teaching Individual Sports that allows teachers to earn graduate-level credits while becoming
better at using sports to teach kids valuable life lessons.

INDIVIDUAL SPORTS EXAMPLES

Individual sports give competitors plenty of options to maximize their skills. For anyone seeking
inspiration, the Olympics offer an example of the many ways individuals can compete at the highest
levels in solo sports.

A list of popular solo sports includes:

 Swimming

 Diving

 Badminton

 Weightlifting

 Bowling

 Running

 Track

 Kickboxing
  Golf

 Archery

 Wrestling

 Tennis

Most schools offer individual sports because they cost less than team sports.

ADVANTAGES OF INDIVIDUAL SPORTS

Participating in either team or individual sports provides an excellent opportunity for students to
improve their health and stay in shape. Sports also improve agility, endurance, hand-eye coordination
and fine and gross motor skills. But team sports vs. individual sports differ in terms of advantages and
disadvantages.

In individual sports, people must learn to depend on themselves. While training in their sport, they set
personal goals and work each day to meet them. Solo athletes must push themselves to achieve
both short-term and long-term goals. They have no one else to pull them through when things get
difficult.

This offers advantages for teachers and coaches. They can offer personalized training to solo athletes,
working to maximize strengths and eliminate weaknesses. Coaches can get to known solo athletes
better than in team sports. For the athletes, solo sports offer a way to reduce stress and lead to better
organizational and decision-making skills.
DISADVANTAGES OF INDIVIDUAL SPORTS
Individual sports can prove more challenging emotionally and mentally. When solo athletes fail to reach
their goals, it can have a demoralizing effect. Without the support of a team, solo athletes can develop
an unhealthy relationship with losing. All this can make solo sports “lonely and secluding,” according to
the Northern Spinal and Sports Injury Clinic. Success in individual sports requires a certain mindset that
some may find difficult to attain.

EXAMPLES OF TEAM SPORTS

Because society focuses primarily on team sports, they are much better known. Worldwide, the most
popular sport by a large margin is football, known in the U.S. as soccer. It is rapidly growing in
popularity. Other popular team sports across the country include basketball, baseball, softball and
football. Many track and field events also feature teams running relays.

ADVANTAGES OF TEAM SPORTS

The biggest advantage of team sports involves learning to work with others to achieve a common goal.
As each player learns their role and the abilities of those around them, they become less focused on
themselves and more focused on what the team can achieve. They celebrate wins together and share
the burden of a loss.

For many people, especially students, team sports are simply more fun. People are, after all, social
animals. Team sports also teach students to value each teammate’s ability and understand how each
person contributes to the overall goal. This helps students develop into more supportive, understanding,
patient and kind people.
DISADVANTAGES OF TEAM SPORTS
More injuries typically happen in team sports vs. individual sports. With many players moving around
the field or court, the chances of getting hurt are higher. Members of teams can also become
competitive to earn individual awards rather than focusing on team goals. Coaches also have less time to
focus on individual training in team sports.

TABLE TENNIS
Table tennis, also called (trademark) Ping-Pong, ball game similar in principle to lawn tennis and played
on a flat table divided into two equal courts by a net fixed across its width at the middle. The object is to
hit the ball so that it goes over the net and bounces on the opponent’s half of the table in such a way
that the opponent cannot reach it or return it correctly. The lightweight hollow ball is propelled back
and forth across the net by small rackets (bats, or paddles) held by the players. The game is popular all
over the world. In most countries it is very highly organized as a competitive sport, especially
in Europe and Asia, particularly in China and Japan.

History
The game was invented in England in the early days of the 20th century and was originally called Ping-
Pong, a trade name. The name table tennis was adopted in 1921–22 when the old Ping-Pong Association
formed in 1902 was revived. The original association had broken up about 1905, though apparently the
game continued to be played in parts of England outside London and by the 1920s was being played in
many countries. Led by representatives of Germany, Hungary, and England, the Fédération
Internationale de Tennis de Table (International Table Tennis Federation) was founded in 1926, the
founding members being England, Sweden, Hungary, India, Denmark, Germany, Czechoslovakia, Austria,
and Wales. By the mid-1990s more than 165 national associations were members.

The first world championships were held in London in 1926, and from then until 1939 the game was
dominated by players from central Europe, the men’s team event being won nine times by Hungary and
twice by Czechoslovakia. In the mid-1950s Asia emerged as a breeding ground of champions, and from
that time the individual and team events (for both men and women) have been dominated by athletes
from China. The popularity of the game in China was notable for giving rise to so-called “Ping-Pong
diplomacy,” a period during the 1970s in which Cold War tensions between China and the United
States were eased via a series of highly publicized table tennis matches between athletes from the two
countries. The first such event—held in Beijing in 1971—is widely credited with paving the way for U.S.
Pres. Richard Nixon’s historic visit to China the following year. In 1980 the first World Cup was held,
and Guo Yuehua of China won the $12,500 first prize. Table tennis became an Olympic sport in 1988,
with singles and doubles competition for men and women.

Equipment, rules, and play of the game

Table tennis equipment is relatively simple and inexpensive. The table is rectangular, 9 by 5 feet (2.7 by
1.5 metres), its upper surface a level plane 30 inches (76 cm) above the floor. The net is 6 feet (1.8
metres) long, and its upper edge along the whole length is 6 inches (15.25 cm) above the playing
surface. The ball, which is spherical and hollow, was once made of white celluloid. Since 1969
a plastic similar to celluloid has been used. The ball, which may be coloured white, yellow, or orange,
weighs about 0.09 ounce (2.7 grams) and has a diameter of about 1.6 inches (4 cm). The blade of
a racket, or bat, is usually made of wood, is flat and rigid, and may be covered with a thin layer of
ordinary stippled, or pimpled, rubber, which may be laid over a thin layer of sponge rubber and may
have the pimples reversed. Whatever combination is used, each of the two sides of a paddle must be
different in colour. The racket may be any size, weight, or shape.

A match consists of the best of any odd numbers of games, each game being won by the player who first
reaches 11 points or who, after 10 points each, wins two clear points ahead. A point is scored when the
server fails to make a good service, when either player fails to make a good return, or when either
player commits a specified infraction (e.g., touches the playing surface with a free hand while the ball is
in play). Service changes hands after every two points until 10-all is reached, when it changes after every
subsequent point.

The serve is made from behind the end of the table, the server tossing the ball upward from the palm of
the free hand and striking it as it descends so that it first bounces on the server’s own court and then,
passing over the net, bounces on the opponent’s court. In serving, no spin may be imparted to the ball
by the fingers. This was not always so. Finger spin, especially in the United States, reached a stage where
the experts could produce untakable services and the game became farcical. Finger spin was universally
banned in 1937.

Interest to the spectator lies in observing the ability of one player to defeat another by well-thought-out
strategy. Increasing the speed of the game, slowing it down, varying the direction of or imparting
different spin or pace to the ball, and employing gentle drop shots over the net when the opponent is
out of position are some of the tactics that may be used to support the strategy planned.

Slow or defensive play at one time was so dominant that, at the 1936 world championships in Prague,
an hour was needed to decide a single point. Play is now restricted. If a game is unfinished 15 minutes
after it has begun, the rest of that game and the remaining games of the match proceed under
the Expedite System. Thereafter, if the service and 13 following strokes of the server are returned by the
receiver, the server loses the point. The service changes after each point.

Table tennis may be played with one player at each end of the table or with two players at each end
who may be both men or both women or one of each. Worldwide, the women’s game is comparable in
organization to the men’s, and women take part in world championships and all other organized events.
Table tennis as well as being fully organized is also extremely popular as a recreational game and is so
played in all types of sports clubs, social clubs, and game rooms, in the home, and even outdoors when
conditions are reasonably calm.

CELLULOID BALL

The first synthetic plastic material, developed in the 1860s and 1870s from a homogeneous colloidal

dispersion of nitrocellulose and camphor. A tough, flexible, and moldable material that is resistant to
water, oils, and dilute acids and capable of low-cost production in a variety of colours, celluloid was
made into toiletry articles, novelties, photographic film, and many other mass-produced goods. Its
popularity began to wane only toward the middle of the 20th century, following the introduction of
plastics based on entirely synthetic polymers.
Some historians trace the invention of celluloid to English chemist Alexander Parkes, who in 1856 was
granted the first of several patents on a plastic material that he called Parkesine. Parkesine plastics were
made by dissolving nitrocellulose (a flammable nitric ester of cotton or wood cellulose) in solvents such
as alcohol or wood naphtha and mixing in plasticizers such as vegetable oil or camphor (a waxy
substance originally derived from the oils of the Asian camphor tree, Cinnamonum camphora). In 1867
Parkes’s business partner, Daniel Spill, patented Xylonite, a more-stable improvement upon Parkesine.
Spill went on to found the Xylonite Company (later the British Xylonite Company Ltd.), which produced
molded objects such as chess pieces from his material.

In the United States, meanwhile, inventor and industrialist John Wesley Hyatt produced a plastic that
was more commercially successful by mixing solid nitrocellulose, camphor, and alcohol under pressure.
The solid solution was kneaded into a doughlike mass to which colouring agents could be added either
in the form of dyes for transparent colours or as pigments for opaque colours. The coloured mass was
rolled, sheeted, and then pressed into blocks. After seasoning, the blocks were sliced; at this point they
could be further fabricated, or the sheeting and pressing process could be repeated for various mottled
and variegated effects. The plastic, which softened at the temperature of boiling water, could be heated
and then pressed into innumerable shapes, and at room temperature it could be sawed, drilled, turned,
planed, buffed, and polished. In 1870 Hyatt and his brother Isaiah acquired the first of many patents on
this material, registering it under the trade name Celluloid in 1873. The Hyatts’ Celluloid Manufacturing
Company produced celluloid for fabrication into a multitude of products, including combs, brush
handles, piano keys, and eyeglass frames. In all these applications celluloid was marketed as an
affordable and practical substitute for natural materials such as ivory, tortoiseshell, and horn. Beginning
in the 1880s celluloid acquired one of its most prominent uses as a substitute for linen in detachable
collars and cuffs for men’s clothing. Over the years a number of competing plastics were introduced
under such fanciful names as Coraline, Ivoride, and Pyralin, and celluloid became a generic term.

In 1882 John H. Stevens, a chemist at the Celluloid Manufacturing Company, discovered that amyl
acetate was a suitable solvent for diluting celluloid. This allowed the material to be made into a clear,
flexible film, which other researchers such as Henry Reichenbach of the Eastman Company
(later Eastman Kodak Company) further processed into film for still photography and later for motion
pictures. Despite its flammability and tendency to discolour and crack with age, celluloid was virtually
unchallenged as the medium for motion pictures until the 1930s, when it began to be replaced
by cellulose-acetate safety film.

Other disadvantages of celluloid were its tendency to soften under heat and its unsuitability for new,
efficient fabrication processes such as injection molding. In the 1920s and 1930s celluloid began to be
replaced in most of its applications by more versatile materials such as cellulose acetate, Bakelite, and
the new vinyl polymers. By the end of the 20th century, its only unique application of note was in table-
tennis balls. Early celluloid objects have become collector’s items and museum artifacts, valued as
specimens of an artificial plastic based on naturally occurring raw materials.
Table tennis racket

Table tennis racket

A table tennis racket (also known as a "paddle" or "bat") is used by table tennis players. It is usually
made from laminated wood covered with rubber on one or two sides depending on the player's grip.
Unlike a conventional "racket", it does not include strings strung across an open frame. The USA
generally uses the term "paddle" while Europeans and Asians use the term "bat" and the official ITTF
term is "racket".[1]

One side must be red, blue, green, pink or yellow and the other black

Table tennis regulations approved by the International Table Tennis Federation (ITTF) allow different
surfaces on each side of the paddle for various amounts of spin (including nullifying it) or speed. For
example, a player may have a spin-heavy rubber on one side of his paddle, and no spin on the other
side. The player can flip the racket in play for different types of returns. To help a player distinguish
between different types of rubber used by his opponent, regulations specify that one side of a paddle
must be red, blue, yellow, pink or green while the other must be black, allowing a player to see what
side of a paddle hits the ball mid-play. The player has the right to inspect his opponent's racket before a
match to see the type and color. Current rules state that, unless damaged in play, the paddle cannot be
exchanged for another at any time during a match.

The rubber coating may be of pimpled rubber, with the pimples outward, or it may be composed of a
sponge layer, covered by rubber that may have the pimples pointed inwards or outwards. Some paddles
are not covered with rubber ("naked") to make it spin resistant. However, it is against the rules to use
these types of racket in competition as they are not approved by the ITTF. Some types of rubbers are
also not approved. Approved rubbers have the ITTF emblem on the base of the rubber.

Assembly
Players have many options and variations in rubber sheets on their racket. Although a racket may be
purchased assembled with rubber by the manufacturer, most serious tournament players will use a
custom racket. A player selects a blank blade (i.e., a racket without rubber) based on his or her playing
style. The type of wood or synthetic layers used to make up the blade will determine the blade's speed.
The different types of rubber sheets affect the level of spin, speed, and other specific playing
characteristics. Racket construction and new rubber technology contribute significantly to the amount of
deviation from the expected ball flight path.

Glues and gluing

Normally, a sheet of rubber is glued to a blade using various table tennis brand glues such as Butterfly,
Donic, and DHS. Some glues may work even if they are not designed specifically for table tennis rackets,
such as rubber cement and tear mender. The rubber is not removed until it wears out or becomes
damaged. In the 1980s, some players developed a new technique with a special glue called speed
glue to apply the rubber every time they played. The glue would help provide more spin and speed by
providing a "catapult" effect. Speed glue and all other compounds containing high VOC content were
allowed for the last time in the 2008 Summer Olympics and are currently disallowed by ITTF regulations.

THE TABLE
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