GCSE Sep / Comb

CHEMISTRY
C08 – Rates and Equilibrium
Name

In this topic  Use collision theory to predict how rate changes for a
we will be reaction
covering:  explain why changes to the conditions affect rate
 describe different methods to measure rate depending on
the products
 explain how catalysts increase the rate of a reaction and
give examples from industry
 state that some reactions are reversible and give examples
 describe energy change for a reversible reactions
 state what is meant by dynamic equilibrium
 state Le Chatelier’s Principle at what it means for reversible
reactions
 explain why changes to the conditions affect equilibrium
position
Questions I
have about
this topic:

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8.1 – Rate of Reaction

I can… Date 
State two ways we can find out the rate of a reaction
Draw a graph to show the change in amount of reactant or product over
time
Find the rate of a reaction by drawing a tangent to a graph and
calculating the gradient
State three different ways to set up apparatus to measure rate:
 measure mass lost from a reaction that releases carbon dioxide
 measure volume of gas released from a reaction that makes
hydrogen
 follow a reaction that becomes cloudy, either with a light sensor or
using the ‘disappearing cross’ method
Give examples of reactions which would make a good example for each
type of rate measurement stated above

Notes
Two ways we can work out the rate of a chemical reaction:
 measure how quickly the reactants are used up.
 measure how quickly the products are formed.
Using each method produces a similar graph:
product
reactant

time time

We can find the rate at any point by determining the gradient of the curve. We do this by
drawing a tangent to the graph.
For example, if we draw a tangent at time = 0 for the product graph, it might look like this:

diff in x diff in y
gradient =
product

diff in y

diff in x

time

There are different methods for measuring rate which we will meet one at a time as we
look at different factors that affect rate.

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8.2 – Collision Theory

I can… Date 
State that collision theory states that in order for particles to react they
must collide with sufficient energy
State that the energy required for colliding particles to react is known as
the activation energy
We can increase rate by increasing the collision frequency of particles
We can increase rate by increasing the number of particles with the
activation energy

Notes
Collision Theory states that, in order for particles to react they must:
 collide
 have sufficient energy

In order for colliding particles to react they must have

a certain amount of energy. This is different for each
reaction. We call it the activation energy, see diagram:

If we want the rate of reaction to increase we must

increase:
 the collision frequency
 the fraction of particles that have the activation energy
 or both!

We can increase the collision frequency by

 increasing the surface area of any lumps of solid reactants
 increasing the concentration of a reactant in solution
 increasing the pressure of reactants that are gases

We can increase the fraction of particles that have the activation energy by:
 increasing their temperature (This also increases the collision frequency)
 adding a catalyst

Homework 1
1. A scientist wants to increase the speed of the reaction between strips of magnesium
ribbon and 1 mol/dm3 hydrochloric acid. Make some suggestions of changes he could
make to his reaction.
2. When ammonia is made industrially, the reaction takes place at 450oC, at 200 times
atmospheric pressure and with an iron catalyst. Explain why each of these conditions are
used.
8.3 – The Effect of Temperature
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 I can… Date 
Explain why an increase in temperature increases the rate of a reaction
Describe some uses of temperature effects

Notes
 When a particle is heated it vibrates or moves around faster. It gains more kinetic
energy. Faster moving particles are more likely to bump into one another. We say
that the collision frequency is increased. This increases the rate, but only slightly. The
principal factor in increasing the rate is the number of particles exceeding the
activation energy.
 The activation energy is set for each reaction. Some reactions, like sodium reacting
with water, have a very low activation energy: as soon as the sodium touches the
water it reacts. Other reactions have very high activation energies: try setting fire to a
diamond!
 When the temperature of a reaction increases by 100C, the number of particles
exceeding the activation energy roughly doubles. This roughly doubles the rate. This
is a far more important factor than the increased collision frequency.
 If we plot a graph of rate vs temperature, we see the graph sloping upwards steeply.
(It is called an exponential curve).
rate

temperature
Examples:
o food is kept cold to slow the rate of food going off. Food kept in the freezer
lasts much longer than food kept in the fridge.
o pressure cookers are used to cook food more quickly. The pressure cooker is a
sealed container: as the water boils the pressure builds up. At twice
atmospheric pressure (2 atmospheres) water boils at 1200C. This cooks the
food four times more quickly. If potatoes take 20 minutes to cook in a normal
saucepan, they should take only 5 minutes in a pressure cooker.
o Many industrial reactions take place at higher temperatures. This increases the
rate of production, which increases profit. However, it costs more money to
work at higher temperatures: energy costs money and the equipment must be
built to a higher standard.
8.4 – The Effect of Concentration and Pressure
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I can… Date 
Explain why an increase in pressure increases the rate of a chemical
reaction
Explain why an increase in concentration increases the rate of a chemical
reaction
Describe some uses of temperature effects

Notes
 Increasing the concentration of a solution makes the reaction go faster.
o For example, if I dissolve some magnesium in 25cm3 of 1 mol/dm3 hydrochloric
acid it takes about 50 seconds. If I dissolve the same amount of magnesium in
25cm3 of 2 mol/dm3 hydrochloric acid it only takes 25 seconds.
o This is because there are more particles of acid in the same volume. This
increases the collision frequency.

 Increasing the pressure of a gas is very similar. As we squeeze more gas into the same
sized space, the particles get closer together. As the particles get more crowded, the
collision frequency increases and this increases the rate

 Notice the similarity between the two diagrams on this page.

 Remember: we can only increase the concentration of a solution and we can only
increase the pressure of a gas.
8.5 – The Effect of Catalysts

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 I can… Date 
Define a catalyst
Explain how a catalyst works, in terms of activation energy
Explain why a good catalyst for one reaction cannot be used for a
different reaction
Explain why catalysts are useful in industry
State some common uses of catalysts

Notes
 A catalyst is a substance that
speeds up a chemical reaction but
which is not used up in the process.
 It works by finding an alternative
route for the reaction with a
lower activation energy.
 Catalysts are often expensive metals,
like copper gold or platinum. For this
reason we use as little as possible.
By spreading the catalyst thinly over a
mesh or dividing it into fine beads, the
surface area of the catalyst is made as
big as possible, thus increasing its efficiency and lowering the cost.
 Industrial reactions use catalysts wherever possible because:
o the reactions are faster
o they can do the reaction at lower temperatures, which reduces energy costs
and reduces CO2 emissions which lessens the impact on the environment
 Some common examples of catalysts are:
o the catalytic converter in the exhaust of a car, which converts toxic gases like
NO and CO into N2 and CO2. The catalyst is made up of a platinum and
palladium coating on a honeycomb mesh.
o manganese(IV) oxide is used to catalyse the decomposition of hydrogen
peroxide into oxygen gas:
2H2O2  2H2O + O2
o iron is used to catalyse the Haber Process in which nitrogen and hydrogen
gases are turned into ammonia, NH3:
N2 + 3H2  2NH3

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Factors that affect Rate - Summary

I can… Date 
State five ways of increasing the rate of a chemical reaction
Explain why each factor increases rate, using the terms particles, collision
frequency, kinetic energy and activation energy

Notes
Increasing temperature increases the rate of a chemical reaction because:
 the particles have more kinetic energy
 this increases the collision frequency, and
 many more particles have energy that is greater than
the activation energy

rate
- An increase of 10oC roughly doubles the rate of reaction.
- a graph of rate vs temperature is a curve: temperature

Increasing pressure increases the rate for gas reactions because:

 there are more particles in the same volume
 this increases the collision frequency
- Pressure is usually measured in atmospheres:
1 atmosphere = normal atmospheric pressure

Increasing concentration increases the rate of reactions

rate

in solution because:
 there are more particles in the same volume concentration
 this increases the collision frequency
- Rate of reaction is directly proportional to concentration
- This means that a graph of rate vs concentration is a straight line.

Increasing the surface area increases the rate for solids reacting because:
 there are more particles that are available to react
 this increases the collision frequency

Adding a catalyst increases the rate of

reaction because:
 the catalyst provides an alternative
route with a lower activation energy
 more colliding particles have energy
that is greater than the activation energy
- Not every reaction has a catalyst
- Catalysts are very useful, because they speed
up the reaction and they also
Measuring Rate - Summary
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There are three main ways to measure the rate of a chemical reaction in a lab:

1. Measuring the decrease in mass

Some reactions releases gases. As the gas is lost from
the reaction mixture, the mass decreases:
Eg., when calcium carbonate reacts with acid,
carbon dioxide is lost:
CaCO3 + 2HCl  CaCl2 + H2O + CO2

2. Measuring the increase in volume of a gas

Sometimes it is more convenient to measure the volume of gas given off. Hydrogen gas
has a very low mass, so it is easier to measure the volume of hydrogen, using a gas
syringe or an upturned measuring cylinder:
E.g., the reaction of magnesium and acid produces hydrogen:
Mg + 2HCl  MgCl2 + H2

3. Measuring the decreasing light passing through a solution

When a reaction produces an insoluble solid, the mixture gradually becomes cloudy. We
can measure rate by setting up a light meter to measure how much light is passing
through the mixture.
Alternatively, put the flask of reaction mixture on a piece of paper with a cross on it.
Look down through the mixture and time how long it takes until you can no longer see
the cross.
E.g., when sodium thiosulfate reacts with
hydrochloric acid, insoluble sulfur is formed:

Na2S2O3 + 2HCl  2NaCl + S + SO2 + H 2O

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Homework 2

1. 1.0g of magnesium ribbon was dissolved in 40 cm3 of 1.0 mol/dm3

hydrochloric acid. The gas was collected in a gas syringe as shown
in the diagram. The volume of gas collected was recorded every
10 seconds. The data was recorded in a table:
Time / s Volume of gas / cm3
0 0
10 17
20 29
30 37
40 44
50 50
60 55
70 58
80 61
90 63
100 64

a) Draw a graph of these data. [4]

b) Use your graph to calculate the initial rate of the reaction, when time = 0. [2]
c) A second experiment was carried out in which 1.0g of powdered magnesium was
dissolved in 20 cm3 of 1.0 mol/dm3 hydrochloric acid. The gas was collected every
10 seconds, as before.
Sketch a second line on the same axes as your graph, showing a possible result for
the second experiment. [2]
d) Explain the main features of your new graph. [2]

2. Iron is used as a catalyst in the Haber Process, in which ammonia is made from nitrogen
and hydrogen gases.
a) What is a catalyst? [2]
b) How does a catalyst work? [2]
o
c) The Haber Process is carried out at 450 C. Explain why the rate of formation of
ammonia is faster at this high temperature. [4]
d) The gas mixture is compressed to 200 atmospheres during the reaction.
Explain why the reaction is faster at this high pressure. [3]
Explain why pressures higher than 200 atmospheres are not normally used. [2]

3. When marble chips are dissolved in 1.0 mol/dm3 hydrochloric acid, the initial reaction
rate is 0.80 g/min.
a) Suggest what the initial reaction rate would be if the same mass of chips were
dissolved in 2.0 mol/dm3 hydrochloric acid. [1]
b) Explain the reasoning behind your answer. [1]

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8.6 – Reversible Reactions and Energy

I can… Date 
State what is meant by the term reversible reaction.
Give some common examples of reversible reactions.
State how energy change is affected by reversible reactions.

Notes
 A reversible reaction is one that can go forwards and backwards.
(Most reactions are irreversible: frying an egg, baking a cake and burning wood are all
examples of irreversible reactions.)
Indicators use reversible reactions. Acid turns blue litmus red, alkalis turn red litmus
blue again – we can do this over and over again.
To show a reversible reaction in an equation, we use a different arrow:
red litmus ⇌ blue litmus

 Another common example of a reversible reaction occurs with copper(II) sulfate and
water.
Hydrated copper(II) sulfate crystals are blue. When we heat them they release water
and turn in white anhydrous copper(II) sulfate.
CuSO4.5H2O ⇌ CuSO4 + 5H2O

hydrated copper(II) sulfate anhydrous copper(II) sulfate

(blue) (white)
If we add water to the white anhydrous copper(II) sulfate, it turns blue again.

 When the blue hydrated copper(II) sulfate crystals are heated, they absorb energy:
the reaction is endothermic.
When we add water to the white anhydrous copper(II) sulfate, heat is released back
into the environment: the reaction is exothermic.
This is a general principle. Any reaction which is endothermic one direction will be
exothermic in the reverse direction.
In addition, the amount of energy absorbed and released is always the same.

ENDO: 50 kJ of energy absorbed 

CuSO4.5H2O ⇌ CuSO4 + 5H2O
 EXO: 50 kJ of energy released

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8.7 – Dynamic Equilibrium

I can… Date 
State what is meant by a closed system
Explain what is meant by the term equilibrium
State Le Chatelier’s Principle.
State how Le Chatelier’s Principle applies to changes in temperature,
pressure and concentration for systems in a state of dynamic equilibrium
Predict how the shift in equilibrium position will affect the yield of
products for changes in temperature, pressure and concentration.

Notes
 Usually we do a reaction in equipment like beakers and flasks, energy can get in and
out, gases come and go – the system is open.
 In a closed system, nothing – chemicals or energy – can get in or out.
 If we left a reversible reaction going in a closed system for long enough, it would
reach a state known as equilibrium. At equilibrium:
o the concentration of reactants and products remain constant
o the rates of the forward and the reverse reactions are the same
 Once a system reaches a state of equilibrium, the equilibrium position is affected by
changes in temperature, pressure and the concentrations of the substances involved.
 Le Chatelier’s Principle states that any changes to the conditions result in a shift to
the equilibrium position which minimises the change.
 In other words, the equilibrium attempts to undo the changes made to it:
o an increase in concentration of the reactants will result in the equilibrium
position shifting towards the products. This will increase the yield of the
products.
o an increase in pressure shifts the equilibrium towards the side with the least
moles of gas. For example, NO2 is in equilibrium with N2O4:
2NO2(g) ⇌ N2O4(g)
If we increase the pressure, the equilibrium position shifts to the right, because
there is only 1 mole of gas on the right. Since NO2 is brown and N2O4 is nearly
colourless, increasing the pressure makes the mixture of gases lighter in
colour.
o an increase in temperature gives the system more energy. The system
responds by absorbing more energy, i.e., by increasing the endothermic
reaction. In the equilibrium between NO2 and N2O4, the forward reaction is
exothermic and the reverse reaction is endothermic. Heating the gas mixture
up favours the endothermic reaction and makes more NO2, so the mixture of
gases becomes a darker brown.

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