● But according to another psychologist, Samuel Gosling
Module 1:
UNDERSTANDING AND EVALUATING MASS
COMMUNICATION THEORY
Baran & David (2015)
● Facebook debuted on the internet in 2003. Within 5
years, it grew to 100 million users. In October 2012, the
company announced it has 1 billion members visiting
monthly, networking in over 70 languages (Delo, 2012)
● Facebook released a video likening its brand to bridges,
airplanes, and the universe
● Like social networking, facebook brings people
together
● Maybe the point was that facebook users represent a
universe unto themselves
● So, what else do we want to know about these 1 billion
users? How many friends does a typical facebooker
have? About 130 (Skelton, 2012) Now, this raises
another question. What exactly is a friend? If you can
have 130 of them, are they really friends? Of course
they are, argue psychologists Ashwini Nadkarni and
Stefan Hofmann
● Psychologists Ashwini Nadkarni and Stefan Hofmann
argue that facebook fosters a sense of belonging and
lets people express themselves as they’d like
● Psychologists Laura Buffardi and Keith Campbell
(2008) claim that narcissists and people with low self-
esteem spend more time on facebook than do others
and his research team, maybe personality differences
have little to do with why people use facebook, as they
discovered that rather than using the site to compensate
for aspects of their offline personalities, users simply
carry those everyday characteristics over to their online
selves
● Facebook is a useful medium to lots of people.
● Most users don’t give much thought to what they are
doing and why
DEFINING AND REDEFINING MASS
COMMUNICATION
● The number and variety of mass communication and
media theories have steadily increased
● Media theory emerged as a more or less independent
body of thought in both social sciences and humanities
● Mass communication occurs when an organization
employs a technology as a medium to communicate
with a large audience. The professionals at the New
York Times (an organization) use the printing press and
the newspaper (technology and medium) to reach their
readers (a large audience)
● Mass communication environment is changing quite
radically
● Remember that much has changed and is changing in
how people use technologies to communicate
● Think of mediated communication as existing on a
continuum that stretches from interpersonal
 communication at one end to traditional forms of mass
communication at the other
● The telephone, for example, sits at one end. It is
obviously a communication technology, but one that is
most typical of interpersonal communication: At most,
a very few people can be involved in communicating at
any given time, and they have a great deal of
involvement with and control over that communication.
The conversation is theirs, and they determine its
content
● However, in a big-budget hollywood movie or a
network telecast of the super bowl sits at the opposite
pole. Viewers have limited control over the
communication that occurs. Their control and
involvement cannot directly change the content of the
messages being transmitted, hence, message content is
centrally controlled by media organizations
● The rise of social networking and YouTube
demonstrates an ever-growing willingness to use media
to share content and perspectives on content
● New media companies are competing to provide
innovative and useful technologies that deliver more
attractive services; these technologies and services will
give us new ways to create and control media content
that is important to us
SCIENCE AND HUMAN BEHAVIOR
● Our society generally respects and believes the
scientists
● Science is one of the fundamental reasons why we
enjoy our admirable standard of living and have a
growing understanding of the world around us
● Physical scientists and engineers are the dreamers,
fixers, the guardians
● Social scientists are the naysayers, the grinches of the
world
● Physical science has allowed us to gain increasing
control over the physical world.
● Social sciences seem much less useful and their theories
less practical and more controversial
● One important basis for our society’s reluctance to
accept the theories of the social scientists is the logic of
causality
● The implementation of the scientific method is difficult
for those studying the social world for four reasons:
1. Most of the significant and interesting forms of
human behavior are difficult to measure
2. Human behavior is exceedingly complex
3. Humans have goals and are self-reflexive
4. The simple notion of causality is sometimes
troubling when it is applied to ourselves
DEFINING THEORY
● Theories are stories about how and why events occur.
Scientific theories begin with the assumption that the
universe, including the social universe created by acting
human beings, reveals certain basic and fundamental
 properties and processes that explain the ebb and flow 1. Postpositivism
of events in specific processes (Turner, 1998) 2. Cultural theory
● John Bowers and John Courtright offered a traditional 3. Critical theory
scientific definition: Theories are sets of statements 4. Normative theory
asserting relationships among classes of variables
● According to Charles Berger, A theory consists of a set POSTPOSITIVIST THEORY
of interrelated propositions that stipulate relationships ● The idea that knowledge could be gained only through
among theoretical constructs and an account of the empirical, observable, measurable phenomena
mechanism/s that explain the relationships stipulated in examined through the scientific method
the propositions ● After a century of trial and error, social scientists
● Kenneth Bailey’s conception of theory accepts a wider committed to the scientific method developed
array of ways to understand the social world: postpositivist theory; this type of theory is based on
Explanations and predictions of social phenomena empirical observation guided by scientific method, but
relating the subject of interest to some other phenomena it recognizes that humans and human behavior are not
● Stephen Littlejohn and Karen Foss defined theory as as constant as elements of the physical world
any organized set of concepts, explanations, and ● Goals of postpositivist theory are the same as those set
principles of some aspect of human experience by physical scientists for their theories:
● Emory Griffin also takes this broader view, writing that 1. Explanation
a theory is an idea that explains an event or behavior, it 2. Prediction
brings clarity to an otherwise jumbled situation: it 3. Control
draws order out of chaos. It synthesizes the data, ● For example, researchers want to explain the
focuses our attention on what’s crucial, and helps us operation of political advertising, predict which
ignore that which makes little difference commercials will be most effective, and control the
● Katherine Miller said that different schools of thought voting behavior of targeted citizens would rely on
will define theory in different ways depending on the postpositivist theory
needs of the theorist and on beliefs about the social ● Its epistemology argues that knowledge is advanced
world and the nature of knowledge through the systematic, logical search for regularities
● Scholars have identified four major categories of and causal relationships employing the scientific
communication theory: method
 ● Postpositivist communication theory then is theory
developed through a system of inquiry that resembles as
much as possible the rules and practices of what we
traditionally understand as science
CULTURAL THEORY
● The goal is to understand how and why that behavior
occurs in the social world
● Cultural theory seeks to understand contemporary
cultures by analyzing the structure and content of their
communication; it finds its origin in hermeneutic
theory- the study of understanding, especially began as
the study or interpretation of actions or texts
● Hermeneutics originally began as the study or
interpretation of the bible and other sacred works
● There are different forms of cultural theory. For
example, social hermeneutics has as its goal the
understanding of how those in an observed social
situation interpret their own place in that situation
● Ethnographer Michael Moerman explained how social
hermeneutic theory makes sense of alien or unknown
cultures.
● Social hermeneutics theory tries to understand how
events in the alien world make sense to the aliens, how
their way of life coheres and has meaning and value for
the people who live it
● Another branch of cultural theory looks for hidden or
deep meaning in people’s interpretation of different
symbol systems- e.g. media texts
● Cultural theory is sometimes referred to as interpretive
theory; it seeks to interpret the meaning of texts for the
agents that produce them and the audiences that
consume them
● Any text, any product of social interaction can be a
source of understanding; understanding can in turn
guide actions
● The ontology of cultural theory says that there is no
truly real, measurable social reality, instead, people
construct an image of reality based on their own
preferences and prejudices and their interactions with
others
● The epistemology of cultural theory is how knowledge
is advanced, relies on the subjective interaction between
the observer and his/her community
● Knowledge is local; it is specific to the interaction of
the knower and the known
● According to Katherine Miller, these are a lens through
which social phenomena are observed
● A researcher interested in understanding teens’
interpretations of social networking websites like
facebook, or one who is curious about meaning-
making that occurs in the exchange of information
among teen fans of an online simulation game,
would rely on cultural theory
CRITICAL THEORY
● They start from the assumption that some aspects of the
social world are deeply flawed an in need of
transformation
● Their aim is to gain knowledge is that social world so
they can change it
● The goal is inherently and intentionally political
because it challenges existing ways of organizing the
social world and the people and institutions that
exercise power in it
● Critical theory is openly political; it assumes that by
reorganizing society, we can give priority to the most
important human values
● Critical theorist study inequality and oppression
● Their theories do more than observe, describe or
interpret; they criticize
● Critical theory view media as sites of struggles over
social, economic, symbolic, and political power
(Meyrowitz, 2008)
● Its epistemology argues that knowledge is advanced
only when it serves to free people and communities
from the influence of those more powerful than
themselves
● They call this emancipatory knowledge; its ontology,
however, is a bit more complex
● According to critical theory, what is real, what is
knowable, in the social world is the product of the
interaction between structure and agency
● When elites control, they define reality
● When people are emancipated, they define reality
through their behaviors and interactions
● Researchers interested in the decline of the power of
the labor movement in industrialized nations or
those interested in limiting the contribution of
childrens’ advertising to the nation’s growing
consumerism would rely on critical theory
● They see media as an essential tool employed by
corporate elites to constrain how people view their
social world and to limit their agency in it
NORMATIVE THEORY
● Its aim is neither the representation nor the reformation
of reality, instead, its goal is to set an ideal standard
against which the operation of a given media system
can be judged
● A normative media theory explains how a media system
should operate in order to conform to or realize a set of
ideal social values
● Its ontology argues that what is known is situational. In
other words, what is real is knowable about a media
system is real or knowable only for the specific social
system in which that media system exists
● Its epistemology is how knowledge is developed and
advanced, based in comparative analysis- we can only
judge the worth of a given media system in a
comparison to the ideal espoused by the particular
social system in which it operates
 ● Theorists interested in the press’ role in a
democracy would most likely employ normative
theory, as would those examining the operation of
the media in an islamic republic or an authoritarian
state
EVALUATING THEORY
● French philosopher Andre Gide wrote, “No theory is
good unless it permits, not rest, but the greatest work.
No theory is good except on condition that one uses it
to go on beyond”
● In other words, good theory pushes, advances, improves
the social world
● When evaluating postpositivist theory, we need to ask
these questions:
1. How well does it explain the event, behavior, or
relationship of interests?
2. How well does it predict future events,
behaviors, or relationships?
3. How testable is it? In other words, is it specific
enough in its assertions that it can be
systematically supported or rejected based on
empirical observation?
4. How parsimonious is it? In other words, is it the
simplest explanation possible of the
phenomenon in question? Some call this
elegance. Keep in mind that communication
theories generally tend to lack parsimony. In
fact, one of the reasons many social scientists
avoid the study of communication is that the
communication phenomena are hard to explain
parsimoniously
5. How practical or useful is it? If the goals of
postpositivist theory are explanation, prediction,
and control, how much assistance toward these
ends is provided by the theory?
● When evaluating cultural theory, we need to ask these
questions:
1. How much new or fresh insight into the event,
behavior, or relationship of interest does it
offer? In other words, how much does it
advance our understanding?
2. How well does it clarify the values inherent in
the interpretation, not only those embedded in
the phenomenon of interest, but those of the
researcher or theorist?
3. How much support does it generate among
members of the scholarly community also
investigating the phenomenon of interest?
4. How much aesthetic appeal does it have? In
other words, does it enthuse or inspire its
adherents?
● When evaluating critical theory, we need to ask the
same questions we do of cultural theory, but we must
add a fifth:
1. How useful is the critique of the status quo? In
other words, does it provide enough
understanding of elite power so that power can
 be effectively challenged? Does the theory
enable individuals to oppose elite definitions of
the social world?
● When evaluating normative theory, we need to ask the
following questions:
1. How stable and definitive are the ideal standards
of operation against which the media system (or
its parts) under study will be measured?
2. What, and how powerful, are the economic,
social, cultural, and political realities
surrounding the actual operation of a system (or
its parts) that must be considered in evaluating
that performance?
3. How much support does it generate among
members of the scholarly community also
investigating a specific media system (or its
parts)?
FLEXIBLE SOCIAL SCIENCE
● Sociologist Kenneth Bailey wrote, “To this day you
will find within social science both those who think of
themselves as scientists in the strictest sense of the
word and those with a more subjective approach to the
study of society, who see themselves more as humanists
than as scientists”
● To some observers, especially committed
postpositivists, this seems unsystematic. It also
generates disagreement among social scientists, not
about the issue under examination, say the influence of
video violence on children's behavior, but about the
appropriateness of the methods used, the value of the
evidence obtained, or the influence of values on the
work
MASS COMMUNICATION THEORY
● Theories have evolved in part as a reaction to changes
in mass media technology and the rise of new mass
media organizations that exploited this technology
● Proponents for the four types of theories developed
different but sometimes related theories
● Whenever new forms of media have been developed
they have been praised by some and condemned by
others
● Debate over the usefulness of new forms of media have
spawned numerous theories
FOUR TRENDS IN MEDIA THEORY
1. The mass society and mass culture trend in media
theory
➔ Can be regarded as a collection of conflicting
notions developed to make sense of what is
happening whenever there is large-scale and/or
disruptive social change
➔ An essential argument of mass society theory is
that media subvert and disrupt the existing
social order
2. The limited-effects trend in media theory
 ➔ Throughout the 1950s, limited-effects notions
about media continued to gain acceptance
within academia. These ideas dominated the
new field of mass communication research
➔ Media were not nearly as powerful as had been
feared or hope, instead, these researchers found
that people had numerous way of resisting
media influence (Lazarsfeld)
3. The critical cultural trend in media theory
➔ ➔ Communication is still commonly understood as
4. The meaning-making trend in media theory
➔ At the heart of many, this theory focus on a
more or less active audience that uses media
content to create meaningful experiences
SUMMARY
● Social science is sometimes controversial because it
suggests causal relationships between things in the
social world and people’s attitudes, values, and
behaviors
● In physical sciences, causal relationships are often
easily visible and measurable
● While these types of theory have a commitment to an
increased understanding of the social world, they differ
in their goals, their ontology (the nature of reality, what
is knowable), their epistemology (how knowledge is
created and expanded), and their axiology (the proper
role of values in research and theory building)
3 CONSTRUCTING THEORIES IN COMMUNICATION
RESEARCH
Robert T. Craig
1. Metatheory - is a branch of theory that articulates and
critiques the assumptions underlying particular theories
or kinds of theory
An ontological issue: what is a communication
theory?
a process in which some content is transmitted
from a sender through a medium or channel to a
receiver; although a transmitted message may be
called a communication, it acquires that status
only by virtue of being transmitted
➔ From a transmission view it thus makes perfect
sense to say that two parties in conflict are
communication successfully if they decode each
other’s message correctly
➔ The transmission model has been critiqued by
communication theorists who propose instead
versions of what can be called a constitutive
model of communication
An epistemological issue: universal or culture-specific
theories?
➔
2. Empirical-scientific approaches -
 ➔ However, today, audiences can already make
choices, contribute, and share content - media
DISCUSSION NOTES users
● Communication is a process ● According to McQuail audiences are critical, empirical,
➔ Within which messages are transmitted cultural
(transmission model) ● Communication as a discipline (Craig, 1999; Littlejohn,
➔ Through which meaning is created (ritual Foss & Oetzel, 2017))
model) ➔ Communication has multidisciplinary origins
➔ Through which people are persuaded (publicity and at some point exhibits fragmentation
model) ➔ Communication is the social process that
➔ Within which interpretations occur (reception constitutes reality, not a factor in the process
model) ➔ “The goal should not be a state in which we
● The mass in mass communication have nothing to argue about, but one in which
➔ Communicating to many we better understand that we all have something
➔ Unidirectional flow very important to argue about” (Craig, 1999);
➔ Asymmetrical relationship between sender and dialogical-dialectical coherence
receiver ➔ Should not be stagnant; should evolve
● What is mass media? ● Theorizing new media (Lievrouw, 2009)
➔ Technologies that carry messages to a large ➔ The road to the convergence perspective in
number of people (Baran, 2014) NO communication theory
➔ Not a neutral entity; has the capacity to reshape 1. Bridging the interpersonal and the mass
the culture aspects of communication
● How is the audience viewed? - Decision and diffusion
➔ Media audience - a group of receivers of perspectives in communication
information theory
➔ A consumer market - Viewing audience as active
➔ A cultural group with tastes and preferences agents
➔ A market of technology 2. Making sense of how new media
reshaped the way we communicate
 - Emergence of computer-
mediated communication as a
subfield
- Accounting for presence,
interactivity
3. Delving into the cultural and critical
aspects of new media technologies
- Media as both material and
symbolic
- Viewing new media as cultural
product
● Key aspects of mediated communication
1. Technological
2. Social
Defining theory: characterizations and evaluation
● Theory is an organized set of concepts, explanations,
and principles that depicts some aspect of human
experience (Littlejohn et al, 2017)
● A set of systematic, informed hunches about the way
things work (Griffin et al, 2019)
● Grand theory - all encompassing
● Middle-range theory - based on empirical facts;
sufficiently abstract yet clear; specific
Defining model
● Model is a representation of phenomenon (Craig, 2013)
● Model is a description and visualization of a process
Defining paradigm
● Fundamental models or frames of reference we use to
organize our observations and reasoning (Bobbie, 2010)
● A cluster of beliefs and dictates which for scientists in a
particular discipline influence what should be studied,
how research should be done and interpreted (Bryman,
1988)
Dimensions of a theory
● Philosophical assumptions
➔ Ontology - nature
➔ Epistemology - validity
➔ Axiology - values
● Concepts - building blocks of theory
● Explanations - dynamic connections made by the theory
● Principles - guidelines for actions
Evaluation of theory
● Theoretical scope - is the theory sufficiently general?
● Appropriateness - is the theory logically consistent?
● Heuristic value - does it generate new ideas?
● Validity - are the concepts observable/measurable?
● Parsimony - is the theory simple enough to be
understood well?
● Openness - can the theory be challenged and/or built
upon?
Organizing theories: categorization and overlaps
● Interpersonal
● Group
 ● Organizational
● Mass
● Culture/Society
Basic paradigms
1. Positivism
➔ Ontology - objective; knowable
➔ Epistemology - dualism-objectivity
➔ Methodology - experimental-manipulative
2. Interpretivism
➔ Ontology - multiple, created truths
➔ Epistemology - non-dualism; non-objectivity
➔ Methodology - empathetic interaction
3. Postpositivism
➔ Ontology - critical realism
➔ Epistemology - modified dualism-objectified
➔ Methodology - modified experimental-
manipulative
Major categories of communication theory
● Postpositivism - theory based on empirical observation
guided by the scientific method
● Cultural - theory seeking to understand contemporary
cultures by analyzing the structure and content of their
communication
● Critical - theory is seeking transformation of a
dominant social order in order to achieve desired values
● Normative - theory explaining how a media system
should be structured and operate to conform to a set of
ideal social values
Communication traditions
● Socio-psychological - expression, interaction and
influence
● Cybernetic - information processing
● Rhetoric - practical art of discourse
● Semiotics - intersubjective mediation by signs
● Socio-cultural - reproduction of social order
● Critical - discursive reflection
● Phenomenological - experience of otherness; narratives
Constructing frameworks
Trends in media research
● Mass society and mass culture - media can be easily
corrupted; for propaganda
● Limited effects - media has little direct influence to
people
● Critical-cultural - media is a space for oppression; the
power that the media hold in perpetuating
● Meaning-making - interactions through media
Questions and contexts
● How do you view the actors in a communication
process?
● How do you see the context of the communication
problem?
 ● Where do you stand as a researcher? What perspectives
inform your inquiry?
Levels of a framework
1. Theoretical level - taking the theory for what it is;
theory vs. the current topic
2. Conceptual level - application of theory to the topic;
look for the equivalences
3. Operational level - usually for quantitative research;
explaining the concepts in measurable terms
SPECIAL NOTES
● Theorists are products of their time
● Theories help us build up an existing foundation of
knowledge
● Theory helps us in identifying gaps in our knowledge
and attempting to fill those gaps with intuitive,
impressionistic, or extensional generalizations, among
other approaches. Karl Jaspers once observed that It is
only when using methodologically classified sciences
that we know what we know and what we do not know.
In this way, theory serves as a crucially important guide
for the design of fruitful research projects. In response
to Jocel earlier, I think we better understand a theory by
using it in a research, for example, in our group in cres
101, we use uses and gratifications theory because we
want to study the effects of election-related contents on
tiktok to the voting attitudes of filipino youth voters,
with that we can understand easier what is uses and
gratifications theory; by proving that audiences and
users really play an active role and provides user-
generated content rather than being a passive consumer
of media
● I am personally interested in media phenomena
specifically social media, like how twitter could
possibly shape or contribute to the socio-political
knowledge of its users, or how a certain social media
becomes an effective place or not for citizen
journalism; it is also in my interest to at least contribute
in helping to combat the spread of fake news, with all
these, I think uses and gratifications theory along with
spiral of silence theory can help me progress with the
interests i have as these theories mainly focus on the
media users as merely active rather than passive also
opinions are dependent on the majority opinion of the
group just like what is happening in social media
nowadays, people with less knowledge of what is
happening around the world tends to just believe with
what the majority of people believe in and so i wanted
to draw the line where we as media consumers and
users should be accountable in not just consuming a
particular content, but also in contributing to the
credible contents online
Module 2:
POST-POSITIVIST THEORIES
● Cognitive dissonance -
● Uses and gratifications -
 ● Cultivation -
● Diffusion of innovations -
● Agenda-setting -
● Social issue: electoral politics (national or local), covid-
19 vaccine development and rollout, disaster risk and
response concerning typhoons
Module 3:
CULTURAL THEORIES
Discussant Script
Good afternoon, everyone! So for this afternoon’s discussion
we are your discussants, with me are Alex and Sid! O diba
sorry kung yung discussants last time ay mga naka red, kami
naman may matchy matchy na zoom background para kabog di
ba! Pero siyempre may significance yan that will be revealed
by Alex and Sid later! Hindi sa pinepressure namin yung
susunod na discussants ha eme so ayun I’m Mark, and I’ll
briefly go back to each theory discussed a while ago by our
presenters.
First, Semiotics is the system of reading signs and focusing on
how different cultures or societies interpret them. According to
Barthes, signs have both a signifier (the material existence of
the sign as we perceive it through our senses) and a signified
(the meaning that is interpreted).
Second, Symbolic interactionism is a micro-level theory that
examines how the social world develops and sustains itself
through continuous and varied interactions between people. As
a result, it rejects idealist and materialist assumptions about
ontological precedence.
Third, The media can be used to create a social reality in which
users can interact and relate with one another and share this
reality with the public.
Fourth, Framing analysis is a micro-level theory that examines
how people learn to construct meaning in their social world and
how that meaning is transmitted and shared through the media.
Lastly, The narrative paradigm builds on the fact that humans
are inherently storytellers and enjoy being told stories. History
demonstrates a long-held tradition of perceiving our world
through narratives, from cave paintings to bedtime stories.
Ayarn, so Alex and Sid share your insights/comments or
questions tapos pag walang nag raise ng hand magtawag kayo
hindi pwedeng walang engagement itong discussion natin eme!
I learned that these theories are anchored with the social
construction of reality. I also learned that framing theory is
somehow interconnected with the agenda-setting theory but
they cannot work together. They have the connection in a way
that agenda-setting focuses on the media effects and that
framing theory is about how the effects were transmitted
through the media.
Module 4:
CRITICAL-CULTURAL THEORIES
Discussion Notes
● Marxist Theory
1. Commodification of audience attention to sell to
advertisers (Smythe, 1977)
2. Alienation of users of social media from their
own selves due to the commodification of their
data (Reveley, 2013)
3. Digital divide refers to the unequal access of
advanced ICT resources and facilitates among
classes leading to the problem of information
inequality (McQuail, 2010)
4. Social movements and how they utilize media in
waging a social revolution or lobbying social
reforms can be investigated through Marxist
perspective
5. Media concentration refers to how the media
economy is overwhelmed with the increasing
number of concentrated media ownership by the
elite few
● Feminist Theory
1. The concept of intersectionality
● Queer Theory
1. Sexuality is a social construct
2. Gender is a social construct
3. Gender studies
4. Normative structures
5. International relations
● Postcolonial Theory
1. Racial issue
2. The experience of the Philippines as a former
colony greatly shapes the identity of the
Filipinos today
3. Constitutes a movement asserting our positions
against hegemony
● It’s good that we had a chance to discuss these theories
as mass communication students. Power is really
difficult to define and locate where it is located and
where it originated. With these theories, we do not only
see how things work but we also learn how to examine
and evaluate media texts that are really essential in a
way that it impacts us and the society we live in. And I
think these theories exist to challenge the status quo and
by exposing elite manipulation to the media.
Module 5:
INDIGENOUS PERSPECTIVES
● Pantayong Pananaw
1. Pantayo - sumasalamin sa panloob na
pagkakaugnay-ugnay at pag-uugnay ng mga
 katangian, halagahin, kaalaman, karunungan,
hangarin, kaugalian, pag-aasal, at karanasan ng
isang kabuuang pangkalinangan
2. Pangkami - nakikipag-usap mula sa labas tungo
sa mga tagaloob
● Pagkataong Pilipino

● As theory is an ever-ending cycle, I think that

understanding indigenous perspectives is just a right
thing to do for us to be able to contribute in theorizing
and operationalizing our thoughts in improving what
we already have in our context. Lastly, I believe to what
has been agreed in class that we can't have a pure
Filipino identity yet after everything that has been
inculcated to us, I guess all we have to do now is to find
the line where we can benefit from being both a colony
and an indigenous Filipinos.