Agr Bio Phy Che Eco

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1. GS3: Major Crops and Cropping Patterns
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1. GS3: Major Crops and Cropping Patterns ................................................................................................... 1
1.1 Cropping Pattern .................................................................................................................................... 4

1.1.1 Factors that influence cropping pattern ........................................................................................................................ 5
Relief ........................................................................................................................................................................................................... 5
Climate ....................................................................................................................................................................................................... 5
Soil ............................................................................................................................................................................................................... 7
Economic Factors ................................................................................................................................................................................... 7
Social factors ........................................................................................................................................................................................... 8
1.1.2 Crop Classification ................................................................................................................................................................. 8
Classification based on the type of crop ...................................................................................................................................... 8
Classification based on suitable climatic regions ................................................................................................................... 10
Classification based on growing season .................................................................................................................................... 10
Classification based on life of crops/duration of crops ........................................................................................................ 10
Classification based on water availability ................................................................................................................................... 10
Classification based on length of photoperiod required for floral initiation ............................................................... 11
1.2 Major Food Crops of India ................................................................................................................... 11

1.2.1 Rice (Oryza sativa) ............................................................................................................................................................... 11
Rice Crop (Paddy) Season ................................................................................................................................................................ 11
Conditions for Growth ....................................................................................................................................................................... 12
Methods of Rice Cultivation ............................................................................................................................................................ 13
Japanese method................................................................................................................................................................................. 14
Rice Production and Productivity .................................................................................................................................................. 14
Factors that contribute to low rice productivity in India ..................................................................................................... 14
Top Rice Producing States in India ............................................................................................................................................... 16
Basmati Rice ........................................................................................................................................................................................... 17
Trade ......................................................................................................................................................................................................... 18
1.2.2 Wheat ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 18
Wheat Production ............................................................................................................................................................................... 19
Wheat Producing States in India ................................................................................................................................................... 19
1.2.3 Maize........................................................................................................................................................................................ 22
Production .............................................................................................................................................................................................. 22
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1.2.4 Millets ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 23

Jowar (Sorghum) .................................................................................................................................................................................. 23
Bajra (bull rush millet) ........................................................................................................................................................................ 24
Ragi ........................................................................................................................................................................................................... 24
Barley ........................................................................................................................................................................................................ 25
1.3 Pulses ..................................................................................................................................................... 25

Gram ......................................................................................................................................................................................................... 26
Tur or arhar (pigeon pea or recri gram) ..................................................................................................................................... 26
1.4 Major Cash Crops of India ................................................................................................................... 27

1.4.1 Cotton...................................................................................................................................................................................... 27
Unfavourable factors .......................................................................................................................................................................... 28
Crop season ........................................................................................................................................................................................... 28
Types of Cotton .................................................................................................................................................................................... 29
Cotton Crop Area ................................................................................................................................................................................ 29
Bt Cotton ................................................................................................................................................................................................. 31
1.4.2 Jute ........................................................................................................................................................................................... 31
Jute Crop ................................................................................................................................................................................................. 32
Ideal Conditions for Jute Cultivation ........................................................................................................................................... 32
Cropping season .................................................................................................................................................................................. 32
Processing of Jute................................................................................................................................................................................ 32
Production .............................................................................................................................................................................................. 32
Jute industry .......................................................................................................................................................................................... 33
Schemes to support jute industry ................................................................................................................................................. 34
Jute Packaging Materials Act (JPMA)........................................................................................................................................... 34
1.4.3 Sugarcane............................................................................................................................................................................... 34
Sugar Crops ........................................................................................................................................................................................... 36
Sugarcane Crop Area ......................................................................................................................................................................... 37
Production .............................................................................................................................................................................................. 39
1.4.4 Tobacco................................................................................................................................................................................... 41
Types of Tobacco ................................................................................................................................................................................. 42
Production .............................................................................................................................................................................................. 42
Trade ......................................................................................................................................................................................................... 43
1.5 Oilseed (Cash Crop) Crops in India ..................................................................................................... 43

1.5.1 Groundnut.............................................................................................................................................................................. 44
Production and Distribution ............................................................................................................................................................ 44
1.5.2 Sesamum ................................................................................................................................................................................ 45
1.5.3 Rapeseed and mustard ..................................................................................................................................................... 45

1.5.4 Linseed .................................................................................................................................................................................... 46
Castor seed ............................................................................................................................................................................................ 46
1.5.5 Soyabean and sunflower .................................................................................................................................................. 47
1.5.6 India’s edible oil industry ................................................................................................................................................. 47
In 1970s ................................................................................................................................................................................................... 47
Present ..................................................................................................................................................................................................... 48
Imported Oil .......................................................................................................................................................................................... 48
Edible oil consumption ...................................................................................................................................................................... 49
1.6 Plantation Crops in India ..................................................................................................................... 49

1.6.1 Tea ............................................................................................................................................................................................ 49
Production and distribution ............................................................................................................................................................ 51
Trade ......................................................................................................................................................................................................... 53
1.6.2 Coffee ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 53
Trade ......................................................................................................................................................................................................... 55
1.6.3 Rubber ..................................................................................................................................................................................... 55
1.6.4 Arecanut ................................................................................................................................................................................. 55
1.6.5 Coconut................................................................................................................................................................................... 56
1.7 Spices ..................................................................................................................................................... 56

1.7.1 Pepper ..................................................................................................................................................................................... 56
1.7.2 Cardamom ............................................................................................................................................................................. 57
1.7.3 Chillies ..................................................................................................................................................................................... 57
1.7.4 Ginger ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 57
1.7.5 Turmeric .................................................................................................................................................................................. 58
1.8 Horticulture ........................................................................................................................................... 58

1.8.1 Vegetables ............................................................................................................................................................................. 58
Onion ........................................................................................................................................................................................................ 58
Onion price volatility .......................................................................................................................................................................... 59
Potato ....................................................................................................................................................................................................... 60
Tomato..................................................................................................................................................................................................... 60
Carrot ........................................................................................................................................................................................................ 61
1.8.2 Fruits and Nuts ..................................................................................................................................................................... 61
Mango ...................................................................................................................................................................................................... 61
Apple ........................................................................................................................................................................................................ 61
Banana ..................................................................................................................................................................................................... 62
Orange ..................................................................................................................................................................................................... 63
Grape ........................................................................................................................................................................................................ 63
Cashew ..................................................................................................................................................................................................... 63
Peach ........................................................................................................................................................................................................ 64
Pear ........................................................................................................................................................................................................... 64
Apricot...................................................................................................................................................................................................... 64
Strawberry .............................................................................................................................................................................................. 64
Important Points
• Important points and sentences are bolded and must remember important points and sentences are
bolded and coloured.
Basics
• This section will be a cake walk if you have understood Climatology, Climatic Regions and Indian
Climatology well.
• For understanding the concepts related to Agro-based industries, it is important to have a good
understanding of the cropping patterns of the major crops.
Data
• Statistics of various crops for the financial year 2018-19 are not released by the government (I couldn’t find
them in any reports). So, I have used the data from Agricultural Statistics at a Glance 2018.
• There is a lot of congruence between the Agricultural Statistics at a Glance 2018 and the data included by
various newspaper reports for FY 2018-19.
Changes
• Same: The core concepts remain the same from the old notes.
• Updated: All the crop related data is updated (Agricultural Statistics at a Glance 2018)
• New: Horticulture > Vegetables.
1.2 Cropping Pattern
• When plants of the same kind are cultivated at one place on a large scale, it is called a crop.
• Cropping pattern refers to the spatial (location, area) and temporal (time) arrangement of crops.
• A change in cropping pattern would indicate a spatial or temporal variation of crops.
• Spatial variation of cropping pattern includes the change in the spatial distribution or cropping area of
crops.
✓ E.g. Earlier, rice crop was confined to eastern coastal plains and delta regions. But now it is grown
widely even in the north-western parts of the country due to expansion of irrigation.
✓ E.g. Cropping area of rice is increasing with irrigation, whereas cropping area of millets is decreasing.
• Temporal variation of cropping pattern refers to change in crops in a cropping area with time.
✓ E.g. Seasonal change in cropping pattern: Rice is preferred in Punjab and Haryana during the Kharif
season whereas wheat is preferred in the rabi season.
✓ E.g. Change in cropping pattern due to climate change: Increasing aridity in certain parts of South
India has resulted in the shift in cropping pattern from rice to millets.
1.2.1 Factors that influence cropping pattern
• Cropping pattern depends on many physical, social and economic factors.

• Physical (geographical) factors include relief, climate (temperature, rainfall), soil, irrigation, environmental
degradation (rice crop is severely depleting groundwater in parts of Punjab and Haryana), etc.
• Economic factors include infrastructure (irrigation, power), size of land holdings, population density, credit,
support price, insurance, market, etc.
• Social/political factors include land reforms, labour availability, historical setting, etc.
Relief
• Rice is the main crop on the irrigated hill terraces (terraced cultivation).
• In well-irrigated plains, rice and sugarcane dominate.
• Wheat (temperate crop) grows well in plain regions with moderate temperature and rainfall.
• Crops like tea and coffee can be grown only on well-drained slopes that receive a good amount of
rainfall.
Climate
• The short-term change in cropping pattern mainly occurs due to change in seasons.
• For example, in Punjab, rice is grown during the rainy season, but wheat takes over during winter.
• In rainfed areas, rice is cultivated extensively when the monsoons are good. But when monsoons are weak,
millets are grown instead of rice.
• Cotton in Maharashtra, tea in Assam and jute in West Bengal remain the dominant crops due to highly
favourable climatic conditions for cultivation.
Temperature
• Sugarcane gives good yield in south India than in northern plains as it needs a warm climate.
• Some crops require a higher temperature and are sown in the summer season.
• Most of the growth period falls under the rainy season.
• These are known as Kharif crops (rice, cotton, maize, etc.).
• There are other crops which require lower temperature and moisture and are sown in the winter season
(wheat). These are known as Rabi crops.
Rainfall
Areas of Heavy Rainfall
• More than 150 cm of annual rainfall.

• East India and the western coastal plains.
• 150 cm annual rainfall isohyets are suitable for the cultivation of rice.
• The animal population is fairly high due to the availability of fodder and grazing area.
• Crops: Rice, tea, coffee, sugarcane, jute etc.
Areas of Medium Rainfall
• 75 to 150 cm of annual rainfall.

• 75 cm annual rainfall isohyets are suitable for maize, cotton and soyabean.
• These areas are rich in natural resources. E.g. Eastern part of Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Odisha, eastern parts of
Madhya Pradesh and Vidarbha region of Maharashtra.
• Wheat is the principal rabi crop.
• Millets are the natural priority.
• Crops: Wheat, maize, cotton, soyabean, millets, etc.
Areas of Low Rainfall
• 25 to 75 cm of annual rainfall (Semi-arid stretches of India).

• Major crops in this belt are
1. millets, jowar, and bajra in the northern,
2. jowar in central and
3. ragi in the southern part.
• Wheat is the main rabi crop which is grown in irrigated areas.
• Mixed cropping is very common in which pulses are mixed with cereals.
• Cropping has been developed in such a way that no one crop dominates.
• Crops: Millets, oilseeds (Groundnut, sunflower, rapeseed and mustard etc.), pulses etc.
Soil
• Regur soils are ideal for cotton cultivation.

• Cotton is the obvious choice in such soils when the climate is also favourable.
• Clayey soils are good at retaining soil moisture for longer duration and hence they are ideal for rice
cultivation wherever irrigation is adequate.
• Well-drained loamy soils are best for wheat.
• Coarse grains such as jowar, bajra, maize, ragi, barley etc. are grown in inferior soils (light sandy soils, light
black soils, red and laterite soils etc.)
• Delta soils of West Bengal are renewed by floods every year and are very fertile. They are ideal for jute
cultivation. The farmers grow 2-3 crops in a year.
• Soils of the Darjeeling hills contain sufficient quantities of humus, iron, potash and phosphorus which are
necessary for a tea bush to grow.
Economic Factors
Irrigation
• Water intensive crops like rice and sugarcane are profitable only if there are good irrigational facilities.
• Hence rice and sugarcane cropping areas are restricted to well-irrigated areas like the delta regions of
Cauvery, Krishna and Godavari.
• North Indian plain regions are well irrigated and support 2-3 crops of rice a year.
Free Power, Minimum Support Price (MSP) and other subsidies
• Rice and wheat which are offered MSP are preferred by farmers.
• Free power had led to an increase in cropping area of rice and sugarcane. This has however led to severe
depletion and contamination of groundwater. E.g. Rice growing parts of Haryana and Punjab.
• Subsidies on fertilizers have led to farmers opting for rice and wheat over other crops.
Value
• Millets in the hilly areas of HP and Uttarakhand are replaced by high-value horticulture crops like apple.
Demand and Supply
• Rice is the preferred crop in the densely populated regions as there is a ready market.
• Diversification of crops due to surplus food grain production post-Green Revolution has led to significant
changes in cropping pattern.
• Other than rice and wheat, oilseeds and pulses also became more prominent.
Size of Land Holdings
• In the case of smallholdings, the priority of the farmers would be to grow food grains for his family
members (subsistence farming).
• Farmers with large holdings can opt for cash crops and help in crop diversification, leading to changes in
the cropping pattern (commercial farming).
• But in spite of crop diversification potential, large holdings are used mostly for monoculture of rice, wheat
etc.
Social factors
Historical setting
• Sugarcane is grown more extensively in North India even though the conditions are most favourable in
South India.
• This is because the sugarcane cultivation was encouraged by the British as an alternative to indigo
which lost its significance and market in states like Uttar Pradesh due to the introduction of artificial dyes.
1.2.2 Crop Classification
• Crops can be classified based on the type of crop, suitable climatic regions, growing season, the life of
crops/duration of crops, etc.
Classification based on the type of crop
Food Crops • Cereals are grass-like plants with starchy edible seeds having high nutritional value.
• India produces a variety of cereals, which are classified as fine grains (rice, wheat)
and coarse grains (jowar, bajra, maize, ragi), etc.
• Major millets: Sorghum or Jowar, Pearl Millet or Bajra and Finger millet or ragi.
• Minor millets: Foxtail millet, Little millet, Common millet, Barnyard millet etc.
• Millets are the staple food of poor people.
• Pulses: red gram, black gram, green gram, cowpea, bengalgram, horsegram,
dewgram, soyabean, peas or gardenpea, garden bean etc.
• Pulses are a major source of protein.
• Starch Crops or Tuber Crops: Potato, cassava, sweet potato, raddish etc.
Cash Crops • Cotton, jute, sugarcane, tobacco, oilseeds, groundnut, linseed, sesamum, castor
seed, rapeseed, mustard, etc.
• Oil Seeds: Groundnut or peanut, sesamum, sunflower, castor, linseed, rapeseed &
mustard etc.
• Fiber crops: Cotton; Stem fiber: Jute, mesta, sun hemp, sisal hemp etc.
Plantation Crops • Tea, coffee, coconut, arecanut, rubber and spices — ginger, garlic, chili, cumin
onion, coriander, cardamom, pepper, turmeric etc.
Horticulture Crops • Vegetables: Onion, tomato, etc.
• Fruits: Apple, Orange, Mango, banana, citrus fruits, etc.
Classification based on suitable climatic regions
Tropical Temperate
Crops grow well in warm & hot climate Crops grow well in cool climate
E.g. Rice, Sugarcane, Jowar etc. E.g. Wheat, Oats, Gram, Potato, Apple etc.
Classification based on growing season
Kharif/Rainy/Monsoon crops Rabi/winter/cold seasons crops Summer/Zaid crops
• The crops grown in monsoon • The crops grown in winter season • Crops grown in summer
months
• Sown before monsoon and • Sown before retreating monsoon • Sown and harvested in
harvested at the end of the and harvested before summer. summer
monsoon
• Cropping period: June to Oct-Nov • Oct to March • March to June
• Require warm, wet weather at • Crops grow well in cold and dry • Require warm dry weather
major period of crop growth weather for major growth period
• E.g. Paddy (Rice), Cotton, Jute, • E.g. Wheat, Gram, Peas, Barley, • E.g. Watermelon,
Jowar, Bajara (pearl millet), Oats, Linseed, Mustard, Pumpkins, Gourds,
Finger millet (ragi), Maize, Sunflower etc. Vegetables etc.
Sorghum, Tur, Moong, Urad,
Soyabean, Groundnut etc.
Classification based on the life of crops/duration of crops
• Seasonal crops: A crop completes its life cycle in one season (3-4 months). E.g. rice, Jowar, wheat etc.
• Two seasonal crops: Crops complete their life cycle in two seasons (6-8 months). E.g. Cotton, turmeric,
ginger.
• Annual crops: Crops require one full year to complete their life cycle. E.g. sugarcane.
• Biennial crops: Crops requires two years to complete their life cycle E.g. Banana, Papaya.
• Perennial crops: crops live for several years. E.g. Fruit crops, mango, guava etc.
Classification based on water availability
• Rainfed: Cultivation of crop mainly based on the availability of rainwater. E.g. Jowar, Bajara, Mung etc.
• Irrigated crops: Crops cultivated with the help of irrigation water. E.g. Chili, sugarcane, Banana, papaya etc.
Classification based on length of photoperiod required for floral initiation
 Photoperiodism: Most plants are influenced by the relative length of the day & night, especially for floral
initiation.
• Short-day plants: Flower initiation takes place when days are short less than ten hours. E.g. rice, Jowar,
green gram, black gram etc.
• Long day's plants: require long days are more than ten hours for floral initiation. E.g. Wheat, Barley, etc.
• Day-neutral plants: Photoperiod does not have much influence for phase change for these plants. E.g.
Cotton, sunflower, etc.
1.3 Major Food Crops of India
• Indian Geography, types of soils in India and Indian climatology forms the foundation for understanding
cropping pattern and major crops of India.
1.3.1 Rice (Oryza sativa)
• Rice is a preferred staple food in Southern and North-Eastern India.

• Rice growing areas are well suited for mixed farming (Crops + Livestock) (Don’t get confused between
mixed farming and mixed cropping – two or more crops grown simultaneously on the same piece of land).
• Unpolished rice is rich in Vitamin A, B and calcium. Polished rice lacks these vitamins.
Rice Crop (Paddy) Season
• Rice is ideally a kharif crop (wet and warm climate is ideal for rice cultivation).
• It is grown only in well-irrigated areas in rabi season (yield is less in rabi season compared to kharif).
• Most of the rice-growing regions lie barren during summer (April-May).
• It can be grown as a summer crop in deltaic regions where water is available through the year.
Three crop seasons (year-round irrigation; grown as kharif, rabi and summer or zaid crop)
Crop season Sowing Harvesting
Kharif crop (Rainy season) June-July Sep-Oct
Rabi crop (Winter dry season) Oct-Nov Feb-Mar
Summer dry Mar-Apr Jun-Jul
• E.g. Deltaic regions of West Bengal, Krishna-Godavari delta, parts of UP, Bihar etc.
Two crop seasons (irrigation not available in summer)
Kharif crop (Rainy season) July-Aug Oct-Nov
Rabi crop (Winter dry season) Dec-Jan Mar-Apr
• E.g. South India, Coastal plains, Assam plains, etc.
Single crop season (rice not grown in dry summers and cold winters)
Kharif crop July-Sep Nov
• E.g. North-Western states.

• Rabi season is dominated by wheat.
Conditions for Growth
Climate
• Rice crop needs plenty of heat, rain and labour.

• It can be grown between 0 to 2,500 meters above sea level.
• Rice cannot tolerate the cold climate that exists above 2,500 meters.
• Generally, cold climate is less favourable for rice cultivation (rabi yield is lower compared to kharif yield)
• Rice is a tropical kharif crop that requires:
1. warm climate
➢ Rice is grown throughout the year in hot and humid deltaic regions of eastern and southern India.
➢ In the northern, north-western and hilly parts of the country, the winters are too cold for rice
cultivation, and only one crop is grown (in summer) in those areas.
2. semi-aquatic conditions (rainfall or irrigation throughout the season; the soil should never be dry
during the growing season).
➢ The fields must be flooded under 10-12 cm deep water at the time of sowing. This requirement of
rice makes it primarily a crop of plain areas.
➢ Rice grown in well-watered lowland plain areas is called wet or lowland rice (good yield).
➢ Rice can be grown in areas just below sea level like in Kuttanad region of Kerala.
➢ Terraced cultivation of rice in followed in sloped regions. E.g. Hills of NE states (shifting cultivation
or jhumming).
➢ The supply of water to the hill terraces is low, and the rice grown in hilly areas is called dry or
upland rice (comparatively low yield as hilly soils cannot retain moisture for long).
• Average annual rainfall above 150 cm is good for the crop.

• The 100 cm isohyet (imaginary line joining the points of equal rainfall) forms the limit of rice in rainfed
areas.
• Rice is grown in Punjab, Haryana and western U.P (rainfall less than 100 cm) with the help of intensive
irrigation.
Soil
• Rice is a dominant crop of river valleys, flood plains, deltas and coastal plains.
• Loamy soils require frequent irrigation and more water as the water holding capacity is low. E.g. Delta
regions, Punjab, Haryana and North Indian plains.
• Clayey soils, on the other hand, have good water holding capacity — E.g. Coastal plains of south India,
irrigated regions of Karnataka, Telangana etc.
• Rice can tolerate acidic as well as alkaline soils.
Labour requirement
• Rice cultivation is traditionally labour intensive.

• Rice is primarily grown in areas of high population density (labour and ready market). E.g. West Bengal.
• In Punjab and Haryana, rice cultivation depends on the migrant labourers from Bihar and eastern U.P.
Methods of Rice Cultivation
Broadcasting method
• Seeds are sown (broadcast) by hand.

• Practiced in
1. dry and/or less fertile soils, and
2. areas with labour shortages.
• Easiest method requiring minimum input.
• Yields are minimum.
Drilling method
• One person ploughs the land and the other person sows the seeds.
• Confined to dry regions of peninsular India.
• Yields are low.
Transplantation method
• Advanced method of rice cultivation in India.

• Less scope for mechanization and is labour intensive.
• Practiced in areas of fertile soil with abundant rainfall or irrigation.
• Seeds are sown in nursery and seedlings are prepared.
• After a month the seedlings are uprooted and transplanted to a different field.
• This is a difficult method that requires heavy inputs.
• But it gives some of the highest yields.
Japanese method
• Highly mechanized and most advanced rice cultivation.

• Mostly followed in developed countries like Japan, South Korea etc.
• Seedlings are transplanted in rows with the help of machines.
• Weeding and fertilizing are fully mechanized.
• Heavy dose of fertilizers is required.
• Very high yields are obtained.
Rice Production and Productivity
• India produced ~113 MT of milled rice (Paddy minus husk and bran) in 2017-2018.
• The production of milled rice for 2018-19 is estimated to be 116.4 MT. (Paddy production is 169 MT)
• India is the 2nd largest producer and consumer of rice in the world after China (148 MT).
• The next largest rice producers are Indonesia (36 MT), Bangladesh (35 MT), Vietnam (27 MT), and Myanmar.
• Low productivity: The average yield of rice in India is ~2.6 tonne/ha (average yield of paddy is 3.8
tonne/ha) as against the global average of 4.374 tonne/ha. China (6.5), Australia (10), US (7.5) lead in
productivity.
• China’s rice productivity is greater as all of China’s rice area is irrigated, whereas less than half of India’s rice
area is irrigated.
• Egypt leads the world in rice yields — at Egypt’s yield rate, India could almost triple its rice output.
Factors that contribute to low rice productivity in India
60% of the rice area is Rainfed
• About 60% of the total rice area in the country is concentrated in rainfed eco-system and it is contributing
about 45% to the national production of rice, but rainfed eco-system is handicapped with varied natural,
socio-economic, organizational and technological constraints resulting in low productivity.
Not enough HYVs for Rainfed eco-system
• 90% of high yielding varieties (HYV) varieties are for irrigated eco-system and very few improved varieties
are available for rainfed eco-system.
Wide disparity in fertilizer use
• High yielding varieties are fertilizer responsive/oriented. Yet, the farmers are using much less fertilizer per
unit cropped area than their counterparts in South and South-East Asian Countries.
• There is also a wide disparity in fertilizer use within the country. The States like Tamil Nadu and Punjab
use as high as 100-150 kg/ha as against 20 kg/ha in Assam, Orissa and Madhya Pradesh.
• In Eastern Region, rice area is about 59% but fertilizer consumption is low, resulting in poor productivity.
Vagaries of monsoon
• Out of 43 Mha of total rice in India, upland rice occupies about 7 Mha, in Eastern India. In upland rainfed
crop suffers due to soil moisture stress at critical crop growth stage due to vagaries of monsoon.
• Delay in monsoon onset often results in delayed and prolonged transplanting and sub-optimum plant
population (mostly in rainfed lowlands).
• In the low rainfall regions, the crops suffer from iron and zinc deficiency in some soils.
• In the high rainfall regions diseases break out due to imbalance nutrients availability in the soils.
Floods
• About 15% area of the total area under rice in the country is subjected to flooding particularly in Eastern
Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, West Bengal, Orissa, Assam, Tripura and Manipur during south-west monsoon period.
Inundation
• In Eastern states rice is grown mostly during Kharif season and it often suffers due to high rainfall.
• Besides, rice crop gets inundated during early part of the crop growth stage, low light intensity due to
clouds for a longer duration resulting in higher sterility and pests/diseases.
• Poor crop plant population in case of broadcast sowing method resulting in uneven germination (upland
and direct seeded lowland).
Top Rice Producing States in India
Area – Million Hectares (Mha); Production in 2017-18 (in Million Tonnes); Yield – tonnes/hectare
State Area Production Yield
1 West Bengal 5.1 (11.7%) 15 (13.3%) 2.9 Low productivity
2 Punjab 3.1 (7%) 13.4 (11.9%) 4.4 Highest productivity
3 Uttar Pradesh 5.8 (13.3%) 13.3 (11.8%) 2.3 Low productivity
4 Andhra Pradesh 2.2 (4.9%) 8.2 (7.2%) 3.8 High Productivity
5 Bihar 3.3 (7.5%) 7.9 (7%) 2.4 Low productivity
6 Tamil Nadu 1.9 (4.2%) 7.3 (6.5%) 3.9 High Productivity
7 Odisha 3.7 (8.5%) 6.5 (5.8%) 1.8 Low productivity
8 Telangana 2 (4.5%) 6.3 (5.5%) 3.2 Good productivity
9 Assam 2.5 (5.6%) 5.2 (4.6%) 2.1 Low productivity
10 Chhattisgarh 3.8 (8.6%) 4.7 (4.2%) 1.3 Lowest productivity
11 Haryana 1.4 (3.3%) 4.5 (4%) 3.2 Good productivity
12 Madhya Pradesh 2 (4.7%) 4.1 (3.7%) 2.0 Low productivity
All India 43.8 Mha 112.9 MT 2.6 Low productivity overall
• 13.3% of India’s land is under rice cultivation. (The total land area of India is 328 Mha (3.28 million km2))
State +ve factors -ve factors
West Bengal • Large scale alluvial deposits • Floods

• Year round irrigation • Yield is low
• Abundant labour force • Eastern India was overlooked during the
• 3 crops can be grown a year first Green Revolution (Poor adaptation
of HYV, fertilizers and mechanization).
Punjab • Full use of Green Revolution • Cropping pattern has undergone an

• Perennial irrigation by canals and tube unprecedented change due to irrigation
wells • Land degradation – salinity, alkalinity &
• HYV seeds and fertilizers desertification
• Highest yield • Ground water depletion
• Wheat is preferred in Rabi season
Uttar Pradesh • Full use of Green Revolution • Land degradation – salinity, alkalinity &
• Perennial irrigation by canals and tube desertification
wells • Ground water depletion

• HYV seeds and fertilizers • Wheat is preferred in Rabi season
• Very low yield
Andhra Pradesh • Fertile Godavari-Krishna Delta and the • Cyclone prone area.
adjoining coastal plains. • Floods in the delta regions
• Full use of Green Revolution.
• High yield
Bihar • Same as in Uttar Pradesh • Same as in Uttar Pradesh
Tamil Nadu • Fertile Cauvery Delta • Drought and water disputes

• High Yield
Basmati Rice
• Basmati is long grain aromatic rice grown for many centuries in the specific geographical area, at the
Himalayan foothills of Indian sub-continent.
• The rice is known for its soft texture upon cooking, delicious taste, superior aroma and distinct flavour.
• India accounts for over 70% of the world's basmati rice production and 65% of the world’s export.
• The areas of basmati rice production in India are in the states of Punjab, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh,
J&K, Delhi, Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh and Bihar.
• The Agricultural & Processed Food Products Export Development Authority (APEDA – Department of
Commerce) has been mandated with the export promotion of Basmati rice.
• APEDA has been able to register Basmati Rice as a Geographical Indication (GI) in February 2016.
Trade
• Domestic rice production meets the domestic demand. There is very little surplus for external trade.
• However, India now occupies first position in rice exports.
• Thailand, Vietnam and Pakistan are the other major exporters of rice.
• India is the biggest exporter of basmati rice.
• Punjab, Haryana and western Uttar Pradesh produce best qualities of Basmati rice.
• Punjab, Haryana, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh are surplus states.
• They supply to deficit states – West Bengal, Maharashtra, Gujarat, Kerala and Delhi.
1.3.2 Wheat
• Wheat is the second most important staple food for Indian population.
• Wheat is the preferred staple food in Northern and North-Western India.
• It is a rich source of calcium, thiamine, riboflavin and iron.
Climate
• Wheat is a temperate crop which requires a cool climate with moderate rainfall.
• It shows great adaptability & can be grown in tropics as well (however, yields are low in tropics).
• It is a rabi crop (winter crop – requires cool and less moist climate).
• 75 cm of temporally (time) well distributed rainfall is ideal.
• 100 cm is the highest limit.
• The isohyet of 100 cm separates wheat growing areas from rice growing areas.
• In the kharif season, rice replaces wheat in the ‘winter wheat belt’ region – Punjab, Haryana etc.
• Light drizzles and cloudiness (E.g. Weather brought by the remnants of temperate cyclones called as
Western Disturbances) at the time of ripening help in increasing the yield.
• Frost at flowering time can cause heavy damage.
Wheat Growing Regions Sowing months Harvesting months
1. Karnataka, Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh September-October January-February

and West Bengal (central and southern agro climatic
regions)
2. Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, Haryana and Rajasthan (North- October-November February-March
eastern plain and North-western plain agro climatic regions)
3. Himachal Pradesh and Jammu & Kashmir November- April-May

December
Soil and fertilizer requirement
• Well drained fertile, friable barns (mostly alluvial) and clay loams (good proportion of sand) are the best
for wheat cultivation.
• It also grows well in the black soil of the Deccan plateau.
• So, wheat cultivation is more flexible than rice cultivation as the limiting factors are low.
• The N:P:K fertilizer ratio of 4:2:1 is required for optimum productivity.
Wheat Production
• India (99 MT) is the second largest producer of wheat in the world next only to China (134 MT in 2017).
• Russia (86 MT), USA (47 MT), France (37 MT) and Australia are other major producers.
• India has done better in wheat by achieving yields closer to the global average.
• It has recorded an average yield of 3.0 tonne per hectare as against the global benchmark of 3.0 tonne/ha.
• However, it's still far from countries like France (5.3 tonne), US (3.5 tonne) and China (5.3).
Wheat Producing States in India
• Wheat production is mainly confined to North-Western parts of the country.

• Punjab, Haryana and the western parts of U.P. have earned the distinction of being called the ‘Granary of
India’.
Area – Million Hectares; Production in 2017-18 (in Million Tonnes); Yield – tonnes/hectare
State Area Production Yield
1 Uttar Pradesh 9.75 (33%) 31.9 (32%) 3.3 Yield decreases as rainfall increases eastwards
2 Punjab 3.51 (11.8%) 17.9 (18%) 5.0 Highest Yield due to Optimal Climate
3 Madhya Pradesh 5.32 (18%) 15.9 (16%) 3.0 Yield is low due to poor irrigation
4 Haryana 2.53 (8.6%) 11.2 (11%) 4.4 High Yield due to Optimal Climate
5 Rajasthan 2.81 (9.5%) 9.2 (9.2%) 3.2 Yield decreases as aridity increases
6 Bihar 2.04 (6.9%) 5.7 (5.8%) 2.8 Yield decreases as rainfall increases eastwards
7 Gujarat 1.06 (3.6%) 3.1 (3.1%) 2.9 Yield decreases as aridity increases
8 Maharashtra 0.92 (3.1%) 1.62 (1.6%) 1.7 Less favourable climatic conditions
All India 29.58 99.7 3.3
• ~9% of total land area of India is under wheat cultivation.
State +ve Factors -ve Factors
Uttar • Fine alluvial soil deposited by the mighty Ganga and • Wheat production to the east of
Pradesh its tributaries Varanasi declines due to high
• Close network of canals, supplemented by large rainfall
number of tube wells
• the doabs are the best wheat producing areas. E.g.
Ganga-Ghagra doab and Ganga-Yamuna doab.
Punjab • Green Revolution was utilized to the fullest. • Land degradation

• Excellent irrigation system provided by a close • Ground water depletion
network of canals and the tube wells.
• Light rainfall associated with the western

disturbances in winter.
• Fertile alluvial soil brought by the rivers.
• Punjab farmers are progressive and willing to adopt
new farm technologies.
Madhya • Climate well suited for wheat cultivation in winter. • Less fertile soils
Pradesh • Less developed irrigational facilities
Haryana • Same as in Punjab • Same as in Punjab
Rajasthan • Indira Gandhi Canal has made wheat cultivation • Vast stretches of sandy desert
possible in many parts of Rajasthan. • Scarcity of rainfall
• Paucity of irrigation facilities
• Land degradation
Bihar • Same as in UP • Same as in UP
1.3.3 Maize
• Maize is often known as Indian corn.

• It is used as both food and fodder. (USA produces maize mainly to beef up the cattle. Very little is used
as food (Climatic regions: Gulf type))
• Use of modern inputs such as HYV seeds, fertilisers and irrigation have contributed to the increasing
production of maize.
• It is a rainfed kharif crop which requires temperature between 21°C to 27°C.

• Maize can be grown under varied climatic and soil conditions. But the yields are highest in old alluvial soil.
• It is grown in semi-arid regions (25 – 75 cm) where rice and wheat production are not possible.
• It cannot be grown in areas of more than 100 cm rainfall.
• In Tamil Nadu it is a rabi crop and is sown a few weeks before the onset of winter rainy season in Sept.
and Oct (because the rains occur mostly in November and December in eastern TN).
• Well-drained and fertile loams free from coarse materials and rich in nitrogen are ideal.
• The cultivation of maize in India is characterized by inter-culture i.e. along with pulses, vegetables and oil
seeds.
Production
• USA, China and Brazil are the leading producers.

• In India, Maize cultivation is not concentrated in any specific region.
• It is sown all over India except eastern and north-eastern regions.
• Yield is high in southern states and declines towards central parts.
Production in 2017-18 (in Million Tonnes)
State Area – Million Hectares Production (MT) Yield – tonnes/hectare
1 Karnataka 1.3 (13.6%) 3.6 (12.4%) 2.8
2 Maharashtra 1.2 (12.2%) 3.5 (12.3%) 3.1
3 Madhya Pradesh 1.4 (14.3%) 3.5 (12.3%) 2.6
4 Tamil Nadu 0.3 (3.6%) 2.6 (9.2%) 7.7
5 Telangana 0.6 (6.7%) 2.6 (8.9%) 4.1
6 Bihar 0.7 (7.1%) 2.4 (8.44%) 3.6
7 Andhra Pradesh 0.3 (3.6%) 2.3 (8.02%) 6.9
All India 9.5 Mha 28.7 MT 3.0
1.3.4 Millets
• Jowar, bajra and ragi are the important millets grown in India.
• They provide food for the poor people.
• Though, these are known as coarse grains, they have very high nutritional value.
• For example, ragi is very rich in iron, calcium, other micronutrients and roughage.
• Millets are short duration (3-4 months;) warm weather grasses.
• They are grown in less fertile areas.
Jowar (Sorghum)
• Jowar has a high nutritional value.

• It is main food crop in semi-arid areas of central and southern India.
• Jowar is the third most important food crop with respect to area and production.
• It is a rain-fed crop mostly grown in the moist areas which hardly needs irrigation.
• Jowar is grown both as kharif as well as a rabi crop.
• It is sown in both kharif and rabi seasons in southern states.
• But it is a kharif crop in northern India where it is mostly grown as a fodder crop.
• South of Vindhyas it is a rainfed crop and its yield level is very low in this region.
• It does not grow where the rainfall exceeds 100 cm.

• Clayey deep regur and alluvium are the best suited soils for jowar.
• It can also be raised on gentle slopes upto 1,200 meters height.
Production
1 Maharashtra 2.2 (43.7%) 1.8 (36.5%) 0.8
2 Karnataka 1.1 (21.9%) 1.1 (22.9%) 1.0
3 Madhya Pradesh 0.3 (5.4%) 0.6 (11.5%) 2.1
All India 5 Mha 5 MT 1.0
• Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh and Rajasthan are the other major producers.
Bajra (bull rush millet)
• Bajra is the second most important millet.

• It is a rainfed kharif crop of dry and warm north-western and western parts of the country.
• It is a hardy crop which resists frequent dry spells and drought in this region.
• It is grown in areas of 40-50 cm of annual rainfall. Upper limit is 100 cm.
• Just like jowar, it is also used as food and fodder in drier parts of the country.
• Being a rainfed crop, the yield level of this crop fluctuates a lot from year to year.
• Bajra can be grown on poor light sandy soils, black and red soils.
• It is sown either as a pure or mixed crop with cotton, jowar and ragi.
Production and Distribution
1 Rajasthan 4.2 (57.4%) 3.8 (41.1%) 0.9
2 Uttar Pradesh 0.9 (12.5%) 1.8 (19.7%) 1.9
3 Gujarat 0.4 (5.4%) 0.9 (10.1%) 2.3
4 Madhya Pradesh 0.3 (4.2%) 0.8 (8.3%) 2.4
Ragi
• Ragi is mainly grown in drier parts of south India (Mostly drier parts of Karnataka).
• It requires warm climate and 50-100 cm rainfall.
• It is raised on a variety of soils. (Red, light black, sandy, well drained alluvial loams).
• It is a rainfed kharif crop which is sown between May and August and harvested between September and
January.
• Karnataka is the largest producer (73.23 per cent).
• Uttarakhand and Tamil Nadu are the other major producers.
Barley
• Besides food, it is used for manufacturing beer and whisky.

• It does not tolerate high heat and high humidity.
• Grows in areas with rainfall range of 75 cm to 100 cm.
• It is grown as a rabi crop in the Great Plains and valleys of the western Himalayas.
• It can be grown up to an altitude of 1,300 meters as in Uttarakhand.
• Production has declined over time (just like most of the millets).
• Rajasthan is the largest producer (40 per cent). Uttar Pradesh is the second largest.
1.4 Pulses
• Pulses include a number of crops which are mostly leguminous.

• Major pulses that are grown in India are tur (arhar), urad, moong, masur, peas and gram.
• These are the major source of protein in a vegetarian diet.
• Being leguminous crops, all these crops except arhar help in restoring soil fertility by fixing nitrogen from
the air. Therefore, these are mostly grown in rotation with other crops.
• India is the largest producer as well as the consumer of pulses in the world.
• Pulses need less moisture and survive even in dry conditions.
• Major pulse producing states in India are Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan, Maharashtra and
Karnataka.
State Area – Million Hectares Production (MT)
1 Madhya Pradesh 7.5 (24.9%) 8.1 (32.1%) Pulses are mostly grown in the
2 Rajasthan 5.3 (17.8%) 3.4 (13.4%) dry regions of these states where
3 Maharashtra 4.4 (14.5%) 3.3 (13.1%) the cultivation of rice, wheat and
4 Uttar Pradesh 2.3 (7.6%) 2.2 (8.8%) maize is not feasible.
5 Karnataka 3 (10.1%) 1.9 (7.4%)
All India 30 Mha 25.2 MT
Gram
• Gram is the most important of all the pulses.

• It prefers mild cool (20°-25°C) and comparatively dry climate (40-50 cm).
• It is a rabi crop and is cultivated in subtropical areas.
• It grows well on loamy soils.
• It is cultivated as pure or mixed with wheat, barley, linseed or mustard.
• Mixed cropping helps to check the gram blight to some extent.
• It is a rainfed crop cultivated during rabi season in central, western and north western parts of the country.
• Just one or two light showers or irrigations are required to grow this crop successfully.
• It has been displaced from the cropping pattern by wheat in Haryana, Punjab and northern Rajasthan
following the green revolution.
• The yield of this crop continues to be low and fluctuates from year to year even in irrigated areas.
Production
• Gram like millets has suffered a lot at the hands of wheat.

1 Madhya Pradesh 3.6 (34%) 4.6 (40.9%) 1.3
2 Maharashtra 2 (18.9%) 1.8 (15.9%) 0.9
3 Rajasthan 1.6 (14.9%) 1.7 (14.9%) 1.1
4 Karnataka 1.3 (12%) 0.7 (6.4%) 0.6
5 Andhra Pradesh 0.5 (4.9%) 0.6 (5.2%) 1.1
Tur or arhar (pigeon pea or recri gram)
• Tur is the second most important pulse.

• It is chiefly grown as a kharif crop.
• In areas of mild winters, it is grown as a rabi crop.
• It is grown as a dry crop mixed with other kharif crops like jowar, bajra, ragi, maize, cotton,
groundnut, etc. and is seldom grown as a single crop.
• Its conditions of growth are more or less similar to those of other pulses and millets.
1 Maharashtra 1.2 (27.7%) 1.1 (25.2%) 0.9
2 Madhya Pradesh 0.7 (14.6%) 0.8 (19.7%) 1.3
3 Karnataka 0.9 (20%) 0.8 (18.1%) 0.9
4 Gujarat 0.3 (6.1%) 0.3 (7.9%) 1.2
5 Uttar Pradesh 0.3 (6.4%) 0.3 (7.8%) 1.2
All-India 4.4 Mha 4.3 MT 1.0
1.5 Major Cash Crops of India
• Cash crops: crops that are grown for sale in the market. E.g. cotton, jute, sugarcane, tobacco, oilseeds etc.
• Cash crops are the major contributors to agricultural GDP of India.
• They occupy only 15 per cent of the cropped area but account for over 40 per cent of the agricultural
production by value.
1.5.1 Cotton
• Cotton is the most important fibre crop.

• Its seed is used in vanaspati industry and as part of fodder for milch cattle.
• Cotton is a tropical crop grown in kharif season in semi-arid areas of the country.
• Cotton is chiefly a tropical and sub-tropical crop.

• It requires uniformly high temperature (21°C to 30°C), light rainfall (50-100 cm) or irrigation, 210 frost-free
days and bright sun-shine for its growth.
• Most of the irrigated area under cotton is in Punjab, Haryana, Gujarat and Rajasthan.
• High amount of rainfall in beginning (helps in sprouting of seeds) and sunny and dry weather at
flowering and ripening time (moist weather during ripening leads to pest attacks) are very useful for a
good crop.
Soil
• Deep black soils (regur-lava soil) of the Deccan Plateau, Malwa Plateau and those of Gujarat are best
suited for cotton cultivation.
• It also grows well in alluvial soils of the Sutlej-Ganga Plain and red and laterite soils of the peninsular
region.
• Cotton quickly exhausts the fertility of soil.
Labour
• Since picking of cotton is not yet mechanized, a lot of cheap and efficient labour is required.
• Normally the picking season is spread over a period of about three months.
Unfavourable factors
• The growth is retarded below 20 °C.

• Frost is enemy number one of the cotton plant.
• It is grown in areas having at least 210 frost free days in a year.
• Moist weather and heavy rainfall at the time of boll-opening and picking (rains lead to fibre damage) are
detrimental to cotton as the plant becomes vulnerable to pests and diseases.
• Almost 65 per cent of the area under cotton is rainfed with erratic and poorly distributed rains. It is also
subjected to severe attack of pests and diseases.
Crop season
• Cotton is a kharif crop which requires 6 to 8 months to mature.

• Its time of sowing and harvesting differs in different parts of the country.
Region Sowing time Harvesting time Note
Punjab and Haryana Apr-May Dec-Jan To prevent crop damage due to

winter frost
Peninsular region up to Oct Jan-May There is no danger of winter frost
Tamil Nadu Before the onset of April-May Adequate amount of rainfall for
(both as a kharif and retreating monsoon (Oct) sprouting of seeds.
as a rabi crop)
Jan-Feb in the regions of Aug-Sep TN remains dry during Aug-Sep. So the
irrigation picking period is free of rains
• Most of the crop is grown mixed with other kharif crops (maize, jowar, ragi, sesamum, castor, groundnut
etc.).
Types of Cotton
• Three broad types of cotton are generally recognized on the basis of the length, strength and structure of
its fiber.
• India grows both short staple (Indian) cotton as well as long staple (American) cotton called ‘narma’ in
north-western parts of the country.
Long staple cotton
• It has the longest fiber whose length varies from 24 to 27 mm.

• The fiber is fine and lustrous and is used for making superior quality cloth.
• It fetches the best price.
• About half of the total cotton produced in India is long staple.
• It is largely grown in Punjab, Haryana, Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu, Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat and Andhra
Pradesh.
Medium staple cotton
• The length of its fiber is between 20 mm and 24 mm.

• About 44 per cent of the total cotton production in India is of medium staple.
• Rajasthan, Punjab, Tamil Nadu, Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Karnataka and Maharashtra are its main
producers.
Short staple cotton
• This is inferior cotton with fiber less than 20 mm long.

• It is used for manufacturing inferior cloth and fetches less price.
• About 6 per cent of the total production is of short staple cotton.
• U.P, Andhra Pradesh, Rajasthan, Haryana and Punjab are its main producers.
Cotton Crop Area
• India lost a large proportion of cotton growing area to Pakistan during partition.
• India has the sole distinction of growing all the three cultivated species of cotton.
• In India, cotton is grown in three distinct agro-ecological zones, viz.,
1. Northern (Punjab, Haryana and Rajasthan),
2. Central (Gujarat, Maharashtra and Madhya Pradesh) and
3. Southern zone (Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and Karnataka).
• India has the largest area under cotton cultivation in the world.
• But in production it is world's third largest producer after China and the U.S.A.
• India exports inferior quality cotton mainly to U.K., where it is mixed with superior quality cotton there.
• India has been a big importer of superior quality long staple cotton mainly from the USA, Russia, Sudan
and Kenya.
1 Gujarat 2.6 (21.1%) 12.6 (36.2%) 0.8
2 Maharashtra 4.2 (33.9%) 6.6 (18.8%) 0.3
3 Telangana 1.9 (15.3%) 4.8 (13.6%) 0.4
4 Andhra Pradesh 0.6 (5.2%) 2 (5.8%) 0.5
5 Rajasthan 0.6 (4.7%) 1.9 (5.4%) 0.6
State Factors
Gujarat • Regur – black cotton soil

• 80-100 cm annual rainfall
Maharashtra • Regur – deep black cotton soil

• suffers from low productivity
Andhra Pradesh & Telangana • Conditions not as favourable as in Gujarat and Maharashtra
Bt Cotton
• Maharashtra has the largest area under Bt cotton, followed by Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat and Madhya
Pradesh.
• In North, Punjab and Haryana are known for Bt cotton cultivation.
• Bt stands for the bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis (not biotechnology).
• Bacillus thuringiensis produces a toxin called bt toxin which is detrimental for certain kind of pest
(bollworms) that infects cotton crop.
• This trait of Bacillus thuringiensis is induced into cotton by genetic modification.
• And the genetically modified cotton that has the ability to produce bt toxin is called as bt cotton.
• The Bt cotton was first tested in U.S.A. and it to cultivation there in 1995.
• China (1997) and India (2002) also followed the cultivation of Bt cotton.
• The initial field trials were encouraging as the crop required less pesticides and insecticides. The production
and the area under cotton also increased considerably.
• But with time yields decreased sharply due to other pest population which could not be controlled by bt
cotton. (Bt toxin controls only bollworm. Cotton attracts more than 100 different species of pests).
• Other concern with Bt cotton is that the bollworm may develop resistance like it happened in China.
1.5.2 Jute
• Jute is a long, soft, shiny vegetable fibre that can be spun into coarse, strong threads.
• Jute fibres are composed primarily of the plant materials cellulose and lignin.
• Jute is also called the golden fibre for its colour and high cash value.
• Jute is used for manufacturing gunny bags, ropes, rugs, tarpaulins, etc.
• There was great demand for jute because of its low price, softness and strength.
• The introduction of synthetic alternatives has resulted in decline of demand for jute.
Jute Crop
• Jute is the second most important fibre crop of India after cotton.
• Jute is a rain-fed crop with little need for fertilizer or pesticides.
• This is in contrast to cotton's heavy fertilizer and pesticides requirements.
Ideal Conditions for Jute Cultivation
• Hot (24 °C to 35 °C) and humid climate (minimum rainfall of 120 cm/year) with 80 per cent relative
humidity.
• Highly fertile alluvial soil (light sandy or clayey soils).
• Plenty of standing water is required for growth and processing of jute crop.
Cropping season
• Sowing and raising of saplings are carried out in the pre-monsoon season so as to take full advantage of
the monsoon season.
• Jute is generally sown in February and harvested in October (crop takes 8-10 months to mature).
• The plants are usually harvested (stalks are cut off close to the ground) before flowers turn into seed.
Processing of Jute
• The plants bundles are soaked in water for about 3 weeks for retting.
• Retting is done to loosen the fibre from the woody stalk.
• Stripping of the fibres from the stalk is done after retting.
• Extracted fibres are washed in clean water and dried for 2-3 days.
• The bailing of jute fibre (jute fibre to jute bundle) is done.
Production
• India lost large jute growing areas to East Pakistan (Bangladesh) during partition.
• There had been rapid increase in area, production and yield between 1950 to 1980.
• Negative trends were observed in area, production and yield from 1981 till present.
• This is due to changes in weather conditions, increase in rice cropped area and introduction of synthetic
alternatives (polythene, nylon, etc.) to jute etc.
• India is the world's largest producer of jute.
• Currently India accounts for about 56% of world’s jute production.
• Bangladesh is second largest with 25% of world’s jute production.
• Over 99 per cent of the total jute of India is produced in just five states of West Bengal, Bihar, Assam
(Brahmaputra & Surma valleys), Andhra Pradesh, and Odisha.
• West Bengal (close to 75%), Bihar (close to 15%) and Assam are the leading jute producers.
• Andhra Pradesh (delta area) and Odisha are other important producers.
State Area (Mha) Production (MT)
1 West Bengal 0.5 (71.6%) 1.6 (75.4%) • hot and humid climate; alluvial loamy soil
2 Bihar 0.1 (12.2%) 1.5 (14.3%) • cheap abundant labour
3 Assam 0.1 (10.8%) 0.8 (8.3%) • enough jute mills located in the Hugli basin
4 Andhra Pradesh 0 (0.7%) 0.1 (0.5%) • a few jute mills are also located in AP
5 Odisha 0 (0.9%) 0 (0.4%)
All India 0.7 Mha 10.1 MT
Why is jute crop confined to the flood plains and delta regions of India and Bangladesh?
1. Just like cotton, jute also exhausts the fertility of soil rapidly. It is necessary that the soil is replenished
annually by the silt-laden flood water of the rivers.
2. Crop takes 8-10 months to mature and requires plenty of water for growth and processing.
3. Large supply of cheap labour is necessary. Delta regions of the subcontinent have very high population
density and most of the population is poor.
Jute industry
• After partition, most of the jute producing areas went to Bangladesh.

• However, most of the jute mills remained in India.
• West Bengal and Andhra Pradesh are the two largest jute goods producers.
• At present, a total of 75 jute mills are functioning in India.
• 60 of these are located in West Bengal and 7 in Andhra Pradesh.
• Though the largest producer, India imports significant quantities of jute fibre from Bangladesh as the
local produce is not sufficient to feed the jute mills.
• India exports jute hessian to Bangladesh.
Schemes to support jute industry
• National Jute Board (Ministry of Textiles) has been implementing schemes for modernization of jute
industry.
• The Incentive Scheme for Acquisition of Plant & Machinery (ISAPM) scheme has been launched in 2013
with an incentive @20% of the cost of machineries to Jute mills.
• Whenever the market price of raw jute falls below a certain level, the Jute Corporation of India (JCI)
procures raw jute at Minimum Support Price (MSP).
Jute Packaging Materials Act (JPMA)
• Jute Packaging Materials Act (JPMA), 1987 makes it compulsory to pack 100 per cent of the food grains
and 20 per cent of the sugar in diversified jute (gunny) bags.
• Sugar industry has been vehemently opposing the JPMA act as sugar as a commodity is unsuitable for
packaging in jute bags due to issues like moisture contact and contamination by jute fibres.
• Cement and fertilisers were initially included in the JPMA but were later excluded due to seepage problems.
• Bangladesh has no compulsion to pack sugar in jute bags. This makes their sugar industry competitive
compared to India.
Why make it compulsory?
1. Gunny bags now account for about 63% of raw jute consumption.
2. Jute industry has over 3.7 lakh workers. Replacing jute bags with synthetic bags would mean loss of
employment for lakhs of workers and farmers.
3. There is no better alternative to jute crop in severely flood prone regions.
1.5.3 Sugarcane
• It has the largest value of production among all the commercial crops in India.
• It is the first choice of the farmers wherever geographical conditions favour its growth.
• Sugarcane is indigenous to India. It belongs to bamboo family.
• Thickened sugarcane juice is used to make sugar, gur (jaggery) and khandsari.
• Two-thirds of the total sugarcane produced in India is used for making jaggery and khandsari and the rest
goes to sugar factories.
• Molasses, bagasse and pressmud are the byproducts of sugar industry.
• Molasses provides raw material for manufacturing alcohol (ethanol).

• It is also an efficient substitute for certain petroleum products.
• Bagasse (cane residue) is used for manufacturing paper and also as fuel in the mills.
• Bagasse is more useful if it is used in paper manufacturing rather than as fuel. (it can help to save trees; as
fuel, it is very inefficient)
• Pressmud is used as soil amendment (compost) to increase fertility of the soil.
Climate
• Sugarcane is predominantly a tropical crop.

• Requires hot (21°-27°C) and humid (75-150 cm) climate.
 (Sugar beet (tuber crop) is the temperate alternative for sugarcane)
• It requires 10 to 18 months to mature depending upon the geographical conditions.
• Too heavy rainfall results in low sugar content & deficiency in rainfall produces fibrous crop.
• Temperature above 20°C combined with open sky in the second half of the crop season helps in acquiring
juice and its thickening.
• Short cool dry winter season during ripening and harvesting is ideal.
• Frost is detrimental to sugarcane.
• It must be harvested before frost season in northern parts where frost is a common phenomenon.
• On the other hand, hot dry winds like “Loo” are hostile to sugarcane. (Both frost and loo are absent in
South India. So south is ideal)
• Coastal plains and western side of Western Ghats are generally avoided as the gusty winds (monsoon
winds) damage the crop.
Soil
• Sugarcane can tolerate any kind of soil that can retain moisture.
• Sugarcane exhausts the fertility of the soil.
• Flat plain or level plateau is an advantage for sugarcane cultivation (facilitates irrigation and
transportation of cane to the sugar mills).
Labour
• Cheap abundant labour is a prerequisite for successful cultivation of sugarcane.
Sugar Crops
• Sugarcane and sugar beet.
Sugarcane
By-products of Sugar Industry

• Molasses, bagasse and pressmud.
• Molasses used for alcohol and yeast formation.
• Bagasse for paper making and fuel.
• Pressmud used as soil amendment.
• Trash (green leaf + dry foliage) — the waste is used for cattle feed.
Sugar beet
• Sugar beet is grown in temperate region.

• It is a tuber crop (Tubers are enlarged structures in some plant species used as storage organs for nutrients
- carrot, radish, potato are tuber crops). Sugar is extracted from the tuber juice.
• Sugar content in sugar beet is quite low compared to that in sugarcane.
• It is grown in temperate region where it can be economical compared to sugar imports.
With reference to the usefulness of the by-products of sugar industry, which of the following
statements is/are correct?
1. Bagasse can be used as biomass fuel for the generation of energy.

2. Molasses can be used as one of the feedstocks for the production of synthetic chemical fertilizers.
3. Molasses can be used for the production of ethanol.
Select the correct answer using the codes given below.
a) 1 only
b) 2 and 3 only
c) 1 and 3 only
d) 1, 2 and 3
Ethanol is alcohol.
Answer: c) 1 and 3 only
Sugarcane Crop Area
• Three distinct belts of sugarcane cultivation can be identified in India.
1. Sutlej-Ganga plain from • Low yield

Punjab to Bihar • High summer temperatures ranging from 30° to 35°C leads to low
growth and fibrous crop.
• Loo (dry scorching wind in May and June with a desiccating effect)
hampers the normal growth of the cane.
• In winter months (December and January) the crop is likely to be
damaged by severe cold and frost.

• Crushing cannot be done in winter. (only 8 month crushing season.
Factories remain idle for 4 winter months)
2. Black soil belt from • High Productivity

Maharashtra to Tamil • No winds like ‘loo’ during the summer.
Nadu along the eastern • Reasonably high temperature during winter.
slopes of the Western • Frost free climate throughout the year.
Ghats (to protect from • Yearlong crushing. (factories keep running throughout the year)
high speed monsoon
winds).
3. Coastal Andhra and the • Maritime winds in the coastal areas moderate climate and lead to better
Krishna Valley sugar content + all points of (2)
Production
• India has the largest area under sugarcane cultivation in the world.
• But in production India lags behind Brazil – world's largest producer of sugarcane.
• Productivity is quite low compared to Columbia, Peru, Indonesia, Egypt, etc.
• Shortages of fertilizers, improper and untimely us of fertilizers, uncertain weather conditions, inadequate
irrigation, poor varieties of cane, small and fragmented holdings and backward methods of cultivation are
some of the major causes of low yields in India (This is common for rice and sugarcane).
• Sugarcane Research Institute, Coimbatore introduced the system of ratooning to reduce the costs of
sugarcane cultivation.
• Ratoon crop is the second or any other successive crop obtained from the roots left over in the field from
the first crop. (Prelims point)
• In this system the sugarcane is cut leaving the root intact in the soil. This is widely practiced in different
parts of the country.
• Advantage of ratooning: Low cost of production, relatively shorter maturation period, low cost inputs and
time is saved as there is no need for fresh sowing and growing of roots.
• However, productivity decreases with each passing year and ratooning becomes uncommercial after one or
two years.
1 Uttar Pradesh 2.2 (47.2%) 177.1 (47%) 79.3
2 Maharashtra 0.9 (19.1%) 83.1 (22.1%) 92.2
3 Karnataka 0.4 (7.4%) 28.3 (7.5%) 80.8
4 Tamil Nadu 0.2 (3.8%) 16.5 (4.4%) 92.0
5 Bihar 0.2 (5%) 14 (3.7%) 59.2
• Gujarat, Haryana, Punjab, Andhra Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Madhya Pradesh and Telangana are the other
major producers.
South India offers more favourable climatic conditions for the growth of sugarcane, but the most
important sugarcane belt lies in north India. What is the reason for this paradoxical situation?
• Before the World War I, the northern plain area was mainly used for growing indigo.
• With the introduction of cheap aniline dyes, indigo lost its market by the time of WW I.
• Consequently, indigo’s place was taken by sugarcane cultivation in the north.
Other factors
• Sugarcane needs good irrigational facilities throughout the year. Such facilities were available in the north
due to perennial river systems.
• On the other hand, south has only non-perennial rivers. Also, irrigational facilities were previously non-
existent in most parts of the south.
• In the southern states, sugarcane had to face tough competition for land from a number of other cash
crops such as cotton, tobacco, groundnut, coconut, etc.
Do you agree that there is a growing trend of opening new sugar mills in southern states of India?
Discuss with justification (5 marks) (100 words) (2013 GS1)
More sugarcane cultivation = More sugar mills.

• Most favourable weather conditions (loo and frost absent).
• Development of extensive irrigational facilities in the past few decades.
• Yearlong crushing season. (In north, winter = very cold = There is no Crushing period in winter)
• High maritime influence = moderate climate = doesn’t reduce sugar content (very high temperature and
low rainfall leads to fibrous crop).
Uttar Pradesh • Vast alluvial plains

• Large scale use of irrigation and fertilizers
• Suitable climate (but not as suitable as south Indian climate)
• There is no Crushing period in winter.
Maharashtra • Superior sugar recovery due to year round crushing period.

• Yields are high compared to that in UP.
Karnataka • Most of the sugarcane is grown with the help of irrigation.
TN • High productivity (coastal region).
Andhra Pradesh • Coastal areas having fertile soil.
• Bihar, Gujarat (its recovery of 10.31 per cent of sugar is one of the highest among the major sugar cane
producing states of India), Haryana, Uttarakhand (mostly hilly and mountainous – not much suitable.
• However, parts of Haridwar, Nainital and Dehra Dun districts are plain areas or areas located at the
foothills), Punjab (wheat took over the sugarcane regions) are other important producers.
1.5.4 Tobacco
• Tobacco was brought to India by the Portuguese in 1508.

• Tobacco is mainly used for smoking and also for manufacturing insecticides.
• Returns from this crop are high.
Climate
• Tobacco is a plant of tropical and sub-tropical climates.

• It can withstand a wide range of temperature varying from 16° to 35°C.
• As a result, it can be grown in many agro climatic regions of India.
• Tobacco needs fairly well distributed rainfall with an annual average of about 100 cm.
• It can be grown from low lying plains up to a height of 1,800 meters.
• Frost is injurious to its growth.
• Bright rainless weather is helpful at the curing stage.
Soil
• For tobacco, soil is the most important geographical distribution factor rather than the climate.
• Well drained friable sandy loams are ideal for cultivation.
• Soils should be rich in mineral salts (facilitate full development of roots) but not in organic matter.
Labour
• Cheap and abundant labour is required at all stages of its cultivation.
Types of Tobacco
• Mainly two types of tobacco are grown in India.

1. Nicotiana Tobacum
2. Nicotiana Rustica
Nicotiana Tobacum Nicotiana Rustica
✓ Tropical climate is ideal ✓ Needs relatively cool climate
✓ Widely grown in many regions of India ✓ Mainly grown in northern and north-eastern parts
of the country
✓ Tall and has long broad leaves ✓ Comparatively shorter and has round and
puckered (contract into wrinkles) leaves
✓ Good quality ✓ Low quality compared to Nicotiana Tobacum
✓ Used for cigarette, hookah etc. ✓ Used for chewing and snuff
✓ 90 per cent of the total tobacco production in ✓ 10 per cent of the total production
India
Production
• India is the third largest tobacco producing country after China and Brazil.
• India is followed by USA, Malawi, Indonesia and Argentina.
State Area – Thousand Hectares Production Yield – tonnes/hectare

(Thousand Tonnes)
1 Gujarat 167 (41.8%) 375 (46.6%) 2.2
2 Andhra Pradesh 78 (19.5%) 177 (22%) 2.3
3 Uttar Pradesh 27 (6.8%) 119 (14.8%) 4.4
4 Karnataka 90 (22.5%) 65 (8.1%) 0.7
5 West Bengal 15.7 (3.9%) 26.7 (3.3%) 1.7
6 Telangana 7 (1.8%) 19 (2.4%) 2.7
All India 399.6 THa 805.5 TT 2.0
Gujarat 90 per cent of Gujarat's tobacco comes from Kheda and Vadodara districts.
Andhra Pradesh Yield is higher than the yield of Gujarat and much lower than that of Uttar Pradesh
• Uttar Pradesh gives the highest yield – more than two times the national average.
Trade
• Brazil and USA are the leading producers and exporters of tobacco.
• Only 20 per cent of the total production of India is traded externally.
• Bulk of India's tobacco export consists of unmanufactured tobacco.
• Russia and U.K. purchase about two-third of our total tobacco exports.
• About 90 per cent of the tobacco export trade is handled by Chennai alone.
1.6 Oilseed (Cash Crop) Crops in India
• Major oilseeds include groundnut, linseed, sesamum, castor seed, rapeseed, mustard, sunflower and
soyabean.
• Oil extracted from oilseeds is used in diet and as raw material for manufacturing paints, varnishes,
hydrogenated oil, soaps, etc.
• Oil-cake which is the residue of oilseeds forms an important cattle-feed and manure.
• India has the largest area (18-20 % of the net sown area) and production of oilseeds in the world.
• There had been a gradual increase in area, production and yield of oilseeds, with the passage of time.
• The production of oilseeds has always fallen short of our demand and India has always been a net
importer of oilseeds.
• There is a very little scope for bringing additional area under oilseeds. Increasing productivity is the only
way to meet the domestic demand.
• Drylands of Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Maharashtra & Gujarat are the main producers of major
oilseeds accounting for over two-third of the area and three-fourths of the production.
• Other producers include Andhra Pradesh, UP, Haryana, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu (gives maximum yield in oil
seeds) West Bengal, Odisha, Assam, etc.
Major oilseeds producing states Area – Million Hectares Production (MT)
1 Madhya Pradesh 6.6 (27%) 7 (22.2%)
2 Rajasthan 4.1 (16.7%) 6 (19.1%)
3 Gujarat 2.8 (11.2%) 5.9 (18.7%)
4 Maharashtra 4.2 (17.1%) 4.3 (13.6%)
5 Uttar Pradesh 1.1 (4.4%) 1.2 (3.7%)
All India 24.7 Mha 31.3 MT
• West Bengal, Haryana, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and Telangana are the other major
producers of pulses.
1.6.1 Groundnut
• Groundnut is the most important oilseed of India.

• It accounts for nearly half of the major oilseeds produced in India.
• Groundnut kernels are rich in proteins and vitamins and have high calorific value.
• It contains 40-50% oil which is used as edible oil or hydrogenated vanaspati.
• The oil is used for manufacturing margarine, medical emulsions, soap etc.
• Its oil cake is used as an important rich cattle feed.
• It is often a rotation crop because of its atmospheric nitrogen fixing abilities.
• It is a tropical crop that requires 20°-30°C temperature and 50-75 cm rainfall.

• Isohyet of 100 cm marks the upper limit for groundnut cultivation.
• It is largely a rainfed kharif crop of drylands.
• But in southern India, it is cultivated during rabi season as well.
• It is highly susceptible to frost, prolonged drought, continuous rain & stagnant water.
• Dry winter is needed at the time of ripening.
• Well drained sandy loams, red, yellow and black cotton soils are well suited.
• Yield of groundnut is comparatively high in Tamil Nadu where it is partly irrigated.

• But its yield is low in Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka.
• India (17.4%) is the second largest producer of groundnut behind China (40%).
• Unlike rice and wheat, there is no fixed cropping area for groundnut.
• Groundnut is a rainfed crop and fluctuations in its production is usual.
• Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Gujarat and Rajasthan are the four main producers.
• These four states together account for over 70% of total production of India.
1 Gujarat 1.7 (34.2%) 3.9 (42.9%) 2.3
2 Rajasthan 0.6 (13%) 1.3 (13.7%) 2.0
3 Andhra Pradesh 0.7 (15%) 1 (11.3%) 1.4
4 Tamil Nadu 0.3 (6.8%) 1 (10.6%) 2.9
5 Karnataka 0.6 (12.5%) 0.6 (6.1%) 0.9
• India's exports have drastically fallen due increased domestic consumption.
1.6.2 Sesamum
• Sesamum contains 45 to 50 per cent oil.

• Sesamum oil is used for cooking and for manufacturing perfumery and medicines.
• India accounts for one-third of the world production and is the largest producer.
• Since it is a rainfed kharif crop the production fluctuates greatly with time.
• Sesamum is a kharif crop in north and rabi crop in south India.
• Sesamum is produced in almost all parts of the country.
• West Bengal is the largest producing state (one-third of the total production of India).
• The other major producers are Gujarat, Rajasthan, Maharashtra, etc.
1.6.3 Rapeseed and mustard
• The oil content of rapeseed and mustard is 25-45%.

• It is used for cooking, as preservative for pickles and lubricants.
• They are mainly grown as rabi crop in pure or mixed form with wheat, gram and barley.
• Like wheat and gram, they thrive only in cool climate of the Sutlej-Ganga plain.
• Very small quantity is grown in the peninsular India.
• Rajasthan (40%), Haryana (13.3%) and Madhya Pradesh are the leading producers.
1.6.4 Linseed
• Linseed has 35 to 47 per cent oil content.

• Linseed oil has a unique drying property and is used for manufacturing paints, varnishes, printing ink,
oilcloth, and water-proof fabrics.
• It is a rabi crop.
• This crop can be grown under varied geographical conditions.
• But it prefers cool (20°C) and moist climate (75 cm).
• It can be cultivated up to a height of 800 meters above sea level.
• Madhya Pradesh, Bihar (2nd), Uttar Pradesh, Chhattisgarh and Maharashtra are the main producers.
Castor seed
• Castor seed contains 50 per cent oil.

• The oil is used as hair oil, for lighting, manufacturing soap, leather tanning etc.
• Oil-cake is used as manure and leaves of the plant are fed to silkworms.
• It is a rainfed kharif crop in the north and a rabi crop in the south.
• Gujarat, Rajasthan and Telangana are the main producers.
1.6.5 Soyabean and sunflower
• Soyabean and sunflower are other important oilseeds grown in India.

• Soyabean is mostly grown in Madhya Pradesh and Maharashtra.
• These two states together produce about 90 per cent of total output of soyabean in the country.
• Sunflower cultivation is concentrated in Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and adjoining areas of Maharashtra.
• It is a minor crop in northern parts of the country where its yield is high due to irrigation.
1.6.6 India’s edible oil industry
• Indians used broadly these edible oils

1. ‘vegetable’ oils obtained from crushing local oilseeds
➢ mustard in northern and eastern India;
➢ groundnut in Gujarat, Maharashtra, Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh;
➢ sesame and groundnut in Tamil Nadu; and
➢ coconut in Kerala
2. ‘animal’ fat – ghee from milk.
3. dalda – hydrogenated vegetable oil.
➢ hydrogenation — adding hydrogen to convert “unsaturated” liquid fats into “saturated” solid
fats.
➢ hydrogenation is done to harden or raise the melting point of the oil.
➢ Just as ghee, dalda has higher melting and smoke point (at which the molecules start breaking
down).
➢ Advantages of dalda: Good shelf life of foods, quite cheap compared to edible oils.
➢ Disadvantages of dalda: saturated fats are very bad for health (http://www.pmfias.com/fats-
lipids-fatty-acids-healthy-fats-unhealthy-fats/).
• Oil seeds = Yellow Revolution (National Dairy Development Board (NDDB) played an important role).
In 1970s
• Groundnut accounted for almost 60 per cent of India’s edible oil consumption.
• Groundnut was followed by mustard, cottonseed, coconut, sesame, etc. (industry was based totally on
domestically produced oilseeds).
Present
• Groundnut oil’s share declined – hardly 1 per cent

• Mustard’s share declined to 10 per cent.
• Palm, soyabean and sunflower dominate (industry shifted towards imported oilseeds and oil).
1. palm oil (45 per cent)
2. soyabean (20 per cent)
3. sunflower (rest).
Imported Oil
• Virtually the whole of the country’s palm oil consumption is imported.

• Sunflower (92 per cent) and soyabean (71 per cent) are also imported.
• Solvent extraction is replaced by refineries importing crude palm, soyabean oil etc.
• Most of the refineries are located at Mundra, Kandla, Mangalore, Chennai, Krishnapatnam, Paradip and
Haldia.
All port cities. Why?
1) Easy to import oil – the main reason,
2) Refining and discarding the waste reduces transportation cost
• The future for indigenous production lies only in
1) mustard (because of its high oil content),
2) cotton-seed (thanks to the Bt revolution) and
3) rice bran (extensive rice cultivation).
Edible oil consumption
• India is the world’s second largest consumer of edible oil next to China.
Palm oil
• Most of it is used predominantly by the food industry. Why? Because it’s cheap and suits all types of frying.
• Vanaspati manufacturing, too, is now entirely based on palm oil.
• Being cheap also makes palm oil ideally suited for adulterating other oils (palm oil is a neutral oil, with no
aroma of its own and can easily mingle with other oils).
1.7 Plantation Crops in India
• Plantation crops are those crops which are grown on plantations covering large estates.
• They take 3-5 years to bear returns after they are sown.
• They continue to bear returns for the next 35-40 years after the first harvest.
• They cover small area in India but are of high economic value.
• Tea, coffee (beverage crops) & rubber are the principal plantation crops.
• Spices, palm plantations and coconut plantations are the other important ones.
1.7.1 Tea
• Tea is the dried leaf of a bush. It contains caffeine, tannin and theine (stimulants).
• Tea bush is indigenous to China. It was introduced the British in India in 1840.
• The first commercial tea plantations were set up in the Upper Assam (upper Brahmaputra valley).
• Lower Assam and Darjeeling were also opened up to tea plantations few years later.
• Later on, tea plantations were set up in Nilgiri Hills of South India, Terai along the foothills of the
Himalayas and in some places in Himachal Pradesh.
• Climate and soil drainage are the determining factors for tea cultivation.
• The tea plant grows well in tropical and sub-tropical climates endowed undulating topography of hilly
areas with deep and fertile well-drained soil, rich in humus and organic matter.
Climate
• Yield and the quality of tea are greatly influenced by the climatic conditions.
• It thrives well in hot (20°-30°C) and humid climate (150-300 cm).
• Frequent showers evenly distributed over the year ensure continuous growth of tender leaves.
• High humidity, heavy dew and morning fog favour rapid development of young leaves.
• Temperatures above 35°C and below 10°C are harmful for the bush.
• Alternate waves of warm and cool winds are very helpful for tea leaves.
• Tea is a shade-loving plant and develops more vigorously under shade.
• Tea bushes require warm and moist frost-free climate all through the year.
Soil
• Tea bush grows well in well drained, deep, friable loams.

• Virgin forest soils rich in humus and iron content are considered to be the best.
• Relatively large proportion of phosphorus and potash in the soil gives special flavour to tea as is the case
in Darjeeling.
• Stagnant water or waterlogging is injurious to its roots. It is, therefore, grown on hill slopes.
• However, it grows equally well in the valleys if the drainage is good.
Labour
• Tea is a labour-intensive industry. It requires abundant, cheap and skilled labour at every stage.
• It is one of the largest employers of women among the organized industries of India.
• Tea is processed within the tea garden to restore its freshness.
• Pruning (trim by cutting away dead or overgrown branches) of the plant is an essential part of tea
cultivation. It helps in maintaining the proper shape and height of tea bush.
• The aim of pruning is to have new shoots bearing soft leaves and to facilitate the plucking of leaves by
women labourers from the ground.
• Black tea leaves are fermented whereas green tea leaves are unfermented.
Production and distribution
• Tea plantations in India are found at elevations ranging from 600 to 1,800 meters above sea level.
• India is the second largest producer of tea in the world, next to China.
• In terms of volume China produces approximately 35 percent of the world’s tea, followed by India (21
percent), Kenya, Sri Lanka, and Turkey.
• Tea cultivation in India is highly concentrated in a few selected pockets.
North-Eastern India
• It is more or less a triangular area mainly in Assam and West Bengal.

• This is the most important tea producing region of India.
• About three-fourth production of India’s tea comes from here.
• Tea plantations are small in number but fairly large in size.
• Some tea gardens are also found in Tripura, Arunachal Pradesh and Manipur.
Assam
• Assam (51%) is the largest producer of tea in India.
Brahmaputra Valley
• The area provides the most ideal conditions for tea cultivation.
✓ Summer temperature of 30°C and winter temperature never falling below 10°C.
✓ Frost free weather throughout the year.
✓ 300-400 cm annual rainfall extended over 9 months.
• The Brahmaputra Valley extending from Sadiya to Goalpara comprises the main tea producing belt.
• It accounts for 44 per cent of India's tea.
• Tea estates are located on the raised grounds (upto 450 meters) so that annual inundations and stagnant
water during the rainy season do not harm the crop.
Surma Valley
• Surma Valley lying in Cachar district produces about 5 per cent of country's tea.
• The climates here is not as favourable as in the Brahmaputra valley.
• The tea gardens are scattered over small mounds or well drained flats along the Brahmaputra river and its
tributaries.
• Here the rainfall is 300-400 cm and no month is completely dry.
West Bengal
• West Bengal (23%) is the second largest producer.

• Entire tea of WB is produced in Darjeeling, Jalpaiguri and Koch Bihar.
• These districts are contiguous to the main tea producing belt of Assam.
Darjeeling district
• Darjeeling tea is the most valued tea because of its special aroma.
• Annual rainfall of 300 cm, moderate temperature, soils rich in potash and phosphorous give a special
flavour.
• But the yields are quite low compared to other tea producing areas in the NE.
• Tea estates are found within 900-1,800 m elevation.
• The temperature beyond 1,800 m elevation is low and does not support tea cultivation.
South India
• Nilgiri, Cardamom, Palani and Anaimalai hills in TN, Kerala and Karnataka extending from 9°N to 14°N
latitudes are the important tea producing areas.
• This region accounts for 25% production and about 44% of area under tea in India.
• Tea gardens are located on the hill slopes of the Western Ghats between 300 and 1,800 m altitude.
• The tea estates are quite large in number but quite small in size.
• The temperatures are uniformly high and the annual rainfall exceeds 400 cm.
• There is no fear of frost in south India and weather conditions are quite congenial.
• Therefore, the productivity is higher, although the quality of tea is inferior.
• In South India, Tamil Nadu is the largest producer of tea.
• Kerala is another important producer. Some tea is produced in Hassan and Chikmaglur districts of
Karnataka.
• Karnataka has the distinction of giving the highest yield of over 25 quintals per hectare.
North West India
• Some of tea is produced in Dehra Dun, Almora and Garhwal districts of Uttarakhand and in Kangra Valley
and Mandi district of Himachal Pradesh.
• Green tea is produced in Kangra valley of Himachal Pradesh.

• Tea in small quantity is also produced in Ranchi and Hazaribagh districts of Chota Nagpur plateau in
Jharkhand.
Trade
• China, Sri Lanka, Kenya and India are the largest tea exporters.
• Russia, U.K., the USA, are major importers of Indian tea.
• India’s exports are falling due to increasing domestic consumption and competition.
• 90 per cent of the tea bushes are in the age group of 40-50 years and are not capable of giving high yields.
• Kolkata is the chief port of tea export from India.
• The other major ports through which tea is exported are Chennai, Mangalore and Kochi.
1.7.2 Coffee
• Coffee is the next important beverage crop after tea.

• It is a tropical plantation crop.
• There are three varieties of coffee i.e. arabica, robusta and liberica.
• Coffee Arabica (49%) and Coffee Robusta (51%) are the two main varieties grown in India.
• Superior quality coffee, arabica, is in great demand in International market.
• Coffee plant requires hot (15°C and 28°C) and humid climate (150 to 250 cm).
• It does not tolerate frost, prolonged drought, high temperature (>30°C) and strong sunshine.
• Like tea, it is also generally grown under shady trees.
• Stagnant water is harmful. So, this crop is grown on hill slopes at elevations from 600 to 1,600 meters
above sea level.
• Northern and eastern aspects of slopes are preferred as they are less exposed to strong afternoon sun
and the south-west monsoon winds.
• Well drained, rich friable loams rich in humus and minerals like iron and calcium are ideal for coffee
cultivation.
• Coffee cultivation requires plenty of cheap and skilled labour.
• Coffee is indigenous to Abyssinia Plateau (Ethiopia).
• Initially its cultivation was introduced on the Baba Budan Hills and even today its cultivation is confined to
the Nilgiri highlands in Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu.
• Almost the entire production is shared by three states namely Karnataka (71%), Kerala (22%) and Tamil
Nadu (6.5%).
• In Karnataka, plantations are about 1,370 meters above sea level where rainfall is 125-150 cm.
• Kodagu and Chikmagalur account for over 80% of the state's total output.
• Most of the coffee plantations in Kerala are at an altitude of 1,200 m where annual rainfall is over 200 cm.
• About half of Tamil Nadu's coffee is produced in Nilgiri district.
• India is the seventh largest producer of coffee.
• Brazil, Vietnam, Colombia (15%) and Indonesia (7%) are the important producers.
Trade
• Brazil, Colombia, Indonesia, Ethiopia and India are the leading exporters of coffee.
• India exports coffee to a large number of countries including U.K., the U.S.A., Russia, Australia, Iraq and a
large number of countries of continental Europe.
1.7.3 Rubber
• It is an equatorial crop, but under special conditions, it is also grown in tropical and sub-tropical areas.
• Rubber is obtained from the latex of Hevea brasiliensis and many other tropical trees.
• Hevea brasiliensis is a quick growing tall tree (20-30 meter height).
• It begins to yield latex in 5-7 years after planting.
• It requires moist and humid climate with rainfall of more than 200 cm and temperature above 25°C.
• Rubber is an important industrial raw material. Most to the rubber produced goes into automobile tyre
making.
• Hevea brasiliensis requires hot (25°-35°C) and humid climate (200 cm).
• The rainfall should be well distributed throughout the year.
• Deep well drained loamy soils are best suited for rubber plantations.
• Suitable soil and climatic conditions occur on the hill slopes at elevations ranging from 300 to 450
meters above sea level.
• The yields decline at higher elevations due to fall in temperature and less mature soils.
• Practically no rubber plantations are found above 700 m elevation.
• The first rubber plantations were set up in Kerala in1895.

• It is mainly grown in Kerala (90%), Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Tripura and Garo
hills of Meghalaya.
• India lags behind Thailand, Indonesia and Vietnam in natural rubber production.
• Small holdings account for 88 per cent of area and production of rubber in India.
• The average productivity realized by small holders is much higher than that produced by the large estates.
1.7.4 Arecanut
• Arecanut is used for chewing with betel leaves and in pan masala (supari).
• Areca stem is used for construction purposes and leaves for thatching.
• It is a tropical tree which, on maturity, attains a height of 20-25 meters.
• It flourishes well in warm (15° to 35°C) and humid climates (200-300 cm).
• It grows on a variety of soils ranging from well-drained laterite, red loamy to alluvial soils.
• Its cultivation can be done from sea level to 1,000 meters.
• India is the largest producer of arecanut in the world.
• Major states cultivating this crop are Karnataka (40%), Kerala (25%), Assam (20%), Tamil Nadu,
Meghalaya and West Bengal.
• Most of the arecanut is consumed within south Indian states and only a small quantity is exported mainly to
Nepal, UAR, Pakistan, Saudi Arabia etc.
1.7.5 Coconut
• Coconut is a perennial crop.

• It has a long period of economic life span of more than 60 years.
• It also has a long gestation period of 5-7 years.
• Coconut is predominantly a tropical crop.
• It requires warm (25° to 30°C) and fairly moist (125 to 130 cm) climate.
• India is the third largest coconut producing country next to Indonesia and Philippines.
• It is predominantly grown under rainfed condition in Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka (12%) and Andhra
Pradesh.
• Well drained rich loamy soils are best suited for its cultivation.
• It grows well on sandy loams along sea-coasts and in adjoining river valleys.
1.8 Spices
• Pepper, cardamom, chillies, turmeric, ginger etc. are some of the important spices produced in India.
• Well drained sandy, clayey or red loams and laterites are best suited soils for the cultivation of most of the
spices mentioned above.
• These soil conditions exist predominantly in the hilly regions of Kerala, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu.
• India is an exporter of spices. There has been a constant increase in area and production of spices in India.
1.8.1 Pepper
• Black pepper, “the king of spices” is the most important dollar earning spice.
• Warm (10°C-30°C) and humid (200-300 cm) climate is required for its cultivation.
• The plant grows as a vine and needs support of other trees for its growth.
• The plant can be grown on a variety of well drained soils.
• It thrives well on deep, friable, well drained loamy soils.
• It can be grown from almost sea level to an altitude of 1,200 m.
• India is the second largest producer of pepper in the world after Vietnam.
• Its distribution is highly concentrated in Western Ghats of Kerala (94%), Karnataka and Tamil Nadu.
1.8.2 Cardamom
• Cardamom – ‘queen of aromatic spices’ – is mainly used for medicines.

• It grows well in hot (15°C-32°C) and humid (150-300 cm) climates.
• Well drained forest loams, red & laterite soils with plenty of humus are ideal.
• Tropical rain forests at an altitude of 800-1,600 meters above sea level provide the most congenial
environment for its growth.
• It is a shade loving plant and is grown under shady trees.
• India produces a major part of the world's total cardamom.
• The entire production comes from three states viz., Kerala (53%), Karnataka (42%) and Tamil Nadu.
• In Kerala, the crop is largely concentrated in the Cardamom hills.
• India stands second after Guatemala in export of cardamom.
1.8.3 Chillies
• Chilli requires temperatures ranging from 10° to 30°C and moderate annual rainfall of 60 to 125 cm.
• Too scarce or too heavy rainfall is harmful.
• It can be grown on a wide variety of soils including black cotton soil, and different types of loamy soils.
• It can be grown upto elevations of 1,700 metres.
• Andhra Pradesh and Telangana are the largest producers of chillies.
1.8.4 Ginger
• It is grown in tropical and sub-tropical climates.

• It requires 10° to 25°C temperature and 125-250 cm rainfall.
• Well drained sandy, clayey or red loams and laterites are best suited soils for its cultivation.
• It can be grown from sea level to an altitude of 1,300 m above sea level.
• India (80%) is the largest producer of ginger in the world.
• Meghalaya, Andhra Pradesh, Kerala, etc. are the main producers.
1.8.5 Turmeric
• Turmeric is native to tropical South-East Asia.

• India is an important producer of turmeric in the world.
• Andhra Pradesh and Telangana (more than half) are the largest producers.
1.9 Horticulture
• India is the second largest producer of fruits and vegetables in the world after China.
• Horticulture sector contributes about 25-30 per cent of GDP from agriculture.
1.9.1 Vegetables
• India and China are the most important vegetable producers in the world.
• As most of the vegetables are perishable, they are grown around areas where there is ready market.
• Cereals are preferred over vegetables cultivation in regions with labour shortages.
Onion
• Onion can be grown in a wide range of climatic conditions such as temperate, tropical & subtropical.
• The best yield can be obtained in a mild weather without the extremes of cold, heat & excessive rainfall.
• Onion can be grown in all types of soils. However, the most suitable soils are deep alluvial soils with
good drainage, moisture holding capacity and organic matter.
• Onion crop is sensitive to highly acidic, alkali and saline soils and water logging condition.
Cropping season of onion crop
• Onions can be grown all-round the year & farmers across the country take two to three crops per year.
• The rabi crop (sown in October-November and harvested after April), can be stored for a longer period.
• Kharif (sown between May and July and harvested in Oct-Dec) and late kharif (sown in Aug-Sep and
harvested in January-March) are not amenable for storage as they have higher moisture content.
• Rabi onion has longer shelf life than the kharif onion and hence commands premium price.
Storage of onion
• Onion, being high in water content, is a delicate commodity to store.

• Farmers store their produce in moisture-proof and dust-proof structures to prevent the bulbs from
sprouting.
• Depending on the price, farmers release their produce, enabling steady supply for retail markets.
Major producers of onion in India
• India is the second largest onion growing country in the world.

• Maharashtra, Karnataka, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Bihar, Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal
account for almost 90 per cent of onion production in the country.
• Maharashtra is the largest onion producing state that contributes nearly 1/3rd of the country’s production.
• India is currently witnessing a spike in retail onion due to tight supply.
Onion price volatility
• Sometimes, there is a huge gap in demand and supply due to vagaries of monsoons, poor storage facilities,
stock hoarding, lack of real-time crop data, etc. This leads to high volatility in onion prices.
• A combination of factors has led to the increase in prices at end of 2019.
✓ The rabi crop has decreased due to drought in 2018 & delayed monsoon in 2019.
✓ Incessant rainfall in various onion producing states has delayed the kharif harvest season.
• To bring down the prices, the government had to resort to export ban.
Long term measures suggested to prevent volatility of onion prices
• Encouraging imports, not banning exports, is the remedy to augment supplies.

• Up to 40 per cent of the total produced onions can be damaged due to primitive storage facilities.
• The government has incurred losses due to 25% wastage in the buffer stock created for the first time.
• Hence, India must invest in scientific storage and processing facilities and set up onion dehydrating units.
• India should explore low-cost technology models from countries like Israel and Brazil for storing onion.
• In Israel, onions are stored in open ventilated warehouses with continuous forced air-ventilation.
• In Brazil, low-cost ventilated silos system is being used at farm level.
• Adoption of such measures will help in storage of onions during the bumper production seasons.
• The government's Tomato Onion Potato (TOP) scheme announced in the 2018-19 Budget expected to
address the problem of surplus in producing areas has not taken off.
• There is a need to remove onion from the purview of the Essential Commodities Act and undertake
agriculture marketing reforms to facilitate direct purchase from the farmer.
• To strategize a sustainable policy, the seasonal price and arrival pattern of onion must be researched.
• Government should undertake special campaign to promote processed onion and increase investment in
producing dehydrated variety of onions which has a long shelf life and has export potential.
Potato
• Potatoes are a major food crop throughout the world.

• They are a rich source of carbohydrate and have been an economical food choice for every household.
• Potato is a temperate crop grown under subtropical conditions in India.
• Potatoes are used for several industrial purposes such as for the production of starch and alcohol.
• They are an essential ingredient in the food processing industry.
Conditions for growth and production
• The potato can be grown almost on any type of soil except saline and alkaline soils.
• Soils, which are naturally loose, offer least resistance to the enlargement of the tubers is preferred.
• Loamy and sandy loam soils, rich in organic matter with good drainage and aeration are most suitable.
• Nutrient requirement of potato crop is quite high and hence the application of fertilizers is essential.
• Irrigation done through drip system is most economical giving highest productivity.
• Potatoes are grown almost in all states of India.
• However, they are grown only under such conditions where the temperature during the growing seasons is
moderately cool.
• Hence, potato is grown as a summer crop in the hills and as a winter crop in the tropical and
subtropical regions.
• The crop can be raised up to an altitude of 3000 m above the sea level.
• Top potato growing states are Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal, Bihar, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh and Punjab.
• Potato being a short duration and fast growing crop is an ideal for intercropping with other crops.
Tomato
• Tomato plant is short lived perennial herb.

• Tomato can be grown on a wide range of soils from sandy to heavy clay.
• However, well-drained, sandy or red loam soils rich in organic matter (slightly acidic) are ideal.
• The best fruit quality is obtained at a temperature range of 21-24°C.
• Temperatures below 10°C adversely affect the plant tissues.
• Temperatures above 32°C adversely affects the fruit development.
• The plants cannot withstand frost and high humidity.

• The crop requires a low to medium rainfall.
• As tomato is highly perishable, it is most often grown in the vicinity of the consuming areas.
• The top tomato producing states are Maharashtra, Bihar, Karnataka, Uttar Pradesh and Orissa.
Carrot
• Carrots are one of the rich sources of Vitamin A

• Carrot is a cool season crop (15°C to 20°C – temperate crop).
• Very high or very low temperatures are detrimental to the crop.
• Carrots can be grown in both hilly and plain regions.
• The ideal soils for commercial carrot farming are deep, loose, well drained soils rich in humus.
• The duration of carrot crop is around 3 months.
• The top carrot producing states in India are Haryana, Punjab, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Madhya Pradesh and
Tamil Nadu (Nilgiris).
1.9.2 Fruits and Nuts
Mango
• Mango (known as ‘King of Fruits’) is the native to the Indian monsoon lands.
• More than half of the world’s mangoes are produced in India. It is also the largest exporter.
• Alfonso mango is an important export variety.
• Mangoes are grown in areas with temperature from 20°C-30°C & rainfall 75-250 cm.
• It can grow in almost all soils of India.
• It is largely grown in groves near towns and villages where it has a ready market (highly perishable fruit).
• Uttar Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Bihar, West Bengal and Odisha are the main producers.
Apple
• Apple is a temperate fruit crop.

• It requires sunny climate with gentle winds. Partial sun reduces yields.
• It requires average temperature (~22°C) during the growing season.
• In the non-growing season, apple crop can tolerate very low temperatures.
• Low temperature, rain, fog and cloudy weather hampers growth at the time of maturity.
• Well distributed 100-125 cm rainfall throughout the growing season is optimal.
• Apple orchard regions should be free from hailstorms and frost.
• Well drained loamy soils rich in humus are most suitable for apple cultivation.
• These soil and climatic conditions are found on hill slopes at altitudes ranging from 1,500-2,700 m.
• In most areas’ apple orchards have replaced millet crops which are of low value.
• The Kashmir Valley, Kullu and Shimla districts in Himachal Pradesh and hilly areas of Uttarakhand are
important apple growing areas.
Banana
• Banana is a tropical and sub-tropical crop.

• Although cultivation is spread all over India, peninsular India provides ideal conditions for its cultivation.
• Tamil Nadu and Maharashtra account for about half of total production.
• Other major producers are Karnataka, Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh, Assam and Madhya Pradesh.
• Major producers in the world: India, Ecuador, Brazil and China.
• Major Exporters: Ecuador and Costa Rica are the leaders in banana exports.
• India’s banana exports are negligible as all of the fruit is consumed internally.
Suitable Climatic and Soil Conditions for banana cultivation
• It requires average temperature (~25°C) throughout in growth period.

• Chilling injury occurs at temperature below 12 °C.
• The rainfall should be fairly above 150 cm.
• In India, four monsoon months with an average 65-75 cm rainfall are most important for vigorous
vegetative growth of banana.
• Banana cultivation is not viable under high speed windy conditions.
• Regions that block high speed winds (e.g. leeward side of Western Ghats, leeward side of Brazilian
Highlands, etc.) are ideal.
• Coconut trees and banana plantations are cultivated on the same piece of land to protect banana
plantations from wind).
• Bananas can grow and fruit under poor soil conditions.
• But commercial production is viable only in well-drained loamy soil. Alluvial soils of river valleys are ideal.
• Bananas prefer tropical humid lowlands with slightly acid soil.
Economic Importance
• Banana cultivation is labour-intensive and hence it is an important job creator in banana-exporting

countries.
• Banana is a very popular fruit in India due to its low price and high nutritive value.
• Processed products, such as chips, banana puree, jam, juice, wine and halwa can be made from the fruit.
Orange
• Orange is widely grown both in north and south India.

• Soil is the important factor for orange than climate.
• Well-drained sandy soils which permit root penetration up to 2-4 meters are best suited for orange
cultivation.
• Most of orange orchards are rainfed.
• They are located at heights from 600 to 1,500 m.
• Although orange is grown in almost all the states, its cultivation is more prominently concentrated in the
hilly region of Uttarakhand.
• Kangra valley of Himachal Pradesh, Darjeeling in W. Bengal, Khasi and Jaintia Hills in Meghalaya, Kodagu
district of Karnataka are the important orange growing regions.
Grape
• Grape is a sub-tropical vine plant.

• It requires long summer and short winter.
• Moderately fertile well drained soil is required.
• Relatively low water supply during the growing period is good for the crop.
• Bright sunshine during maturity is essential.
• In northern India, it is grown in summer only.
• In south India the plant grows throughout the year and gives two crops a year.
• Grapes can be grown anywhere in India.
Cashew
• Cashew kernel is used as a dry fruit.

• Cashew requires average temperature (16°C and 25°C).
• It can grow in regions with a wide range of rainfall (50 to 350 cm).
• It is grown widely on the poor laterite soils on the west coast and on sandy soils on the east coast.
• At present, India holds first position in the world in the production of cashew.
• Coasts of Maharashtra (29.9%), Andhra Pradesh (15.7%), Odisha, Kerala, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu are the
major producers.
• India is the largest producer and second largest exporter of cashew in the world.
Peach
• Peach is temperate fruit that is highly perishable (more than apple).

• The main areas of peach cultivation are in Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand and Kashmir Valley.
Pear
• Pear is another temperate fruit, mainly grown in Kashmir, Kumaon region of Uttarakhand and Himachal
Pradesh in the north and the Nilgiri hills in the south.
• These areas offer suitable conditions of cold winters, cool summers, moderate rainfall, high percentage of
cloudiness and mist.
Apricot
• Apricot is also a temperate fruit which requires 130 to 200 cm rainfall.

• It is mainly grown in Kashmir valley, Himachal Pradesh and Kumaon region of Uttarakhand.
Strawberry
• Strawberry, almond and walnut are other important temperate fruits.

• The hilly areas of J & K., H.P. and Uttarakhand are the main producers.
• Strawberry fields are under semi-aquatic to aquatic conditions for at least three months.
• Nainital district is the largest producer of strawberry.
NCERT Biology Class 6-12 Compilation by Pmfias.com
PDF Contents
1. Cell ................................................................................................................................ 15
Cell Organelles ..................................................................................................................................................... 15

Plasma Membrane or Cell Membrane ............................................................................................................................................ 16
Additional Reading: Diffusion, Osmosis & Reverse Osmosis ........................................................................................................... 17
Reverse Osmosis (RO) ..................................................................................................................................................................... 18
Cell Wall .......................................................................................................................................................................................... 19
Cytoplasm........................................................................................................................................................................................ 20
Nucleus ............................................................................................................................................................................................ 20
Nucleoid .......................................................................................................................................................................................... 21
Prokaryotic Cells vs. Eukaryotic Cells .............................................................................................................................................. 21
Vacuoles .......................................................................................................................................................................................... 23
Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)............................................................................................................................................................ 23
Golgi Apparatus or Golgi Complex .................................................................................................................................................. 24
Lysosomes ....................................................................................................................................................................................... 24
Mitochondria................................................................................................................................................................................... 25
Plastids ............................................................................................................................................................................................ 25
Summary ............................................................................................................................................................. 26
Plant Cell vs. Animal Cell ...................................................................................................................................... 27
Questions ............................................................................................................................................................ 28
Q1. Statements ............................................................................................................................................................................... 28
Q2. Statements ............................................................................................................................................................................... 28
2. Biomolecules – Carbohydrates....................................................................................... 29
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Carbohydrates ..................................................................................................................................................... 29
PMF IAS – Learn Smart
Monosaccharides ............................................................................................................................................................................ 31
Oligosaccharides ............................................................................................................................................................................. 32
Polysaccharides ............................................................................................................................................................................... 33
Importance of Carbohydrates ............................................................................................................................... 34

Summary ............................................................................................................................................................. 35
3. Biomolecules – Amino Acids & Proteins ......................................................................... 35

Amino Acids ......................................................................................................................................................... 35
Proteins ............................................................................................................................................................... 36
Structure of Proteins ............................................................................................................................................ 37
Fibrous proteins .............................................................................................................................................................................. 38
Globular proteins ............................................................................................................................................................................ 38
Primary structure of proteins .......................................................................................................................................................... 38
Secondary structure of proteins...................................................................................................................................................... 38
Role of Proteins.................................................................................................................................................... 39
Enzymes .......................................................................................................................................................................................... 39
Summary ............................................................................................................................................................. 41
4. Biomolecules – Metabolites & Vitamins ........................................................................ 41
Primary & Secondary Metabolites ........................................................................................................................ 41

Minerals .............................................................................................................................................................. 42
Vitamins .............................................................................................................................................................. 42
Fat soluble vitamins ........................................................................................................................................................................ 43
Water soluble vitamins ................................................................................................................................................................... 43
Important Micronutrients..................................................................................................................................... 44
Food Sources of Vitamins & Minerals .................................................................................................................... 45
Deficiency Diseases .............................................................................................................................................. 46
Questions ............................................................................................................................................................ 47
5. Biomolecules – Fats: Trans Fat, Saturated & Unsaturated Fat ........................................ 48
Lipid..................................................................................................................................................................... 48
Fatty Acid............................................................................................................................................................. 49
Fats...................................................................................................................................................................... 49
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Adipose tissue ................................................................................................................................................................................. 50
Types of Fats ........................................................................................................................................................ 50 PMF IAS – Learn Smart

Saturated fat ................................................................................................................................................................................... 50
Unsaturated fat ............................................................................................................................................................................... 50
Healthy Fats – Omega-3 and Omega-6, Monounsaturated and Polyunsaturated ................................................... 51

Unhealthy Fats – Saturated Fat & Trans Fat ........................................................................................................... 52
Elimination Trans Fat from Food ..................................................................................................................................................... 53
6. Animal Tissues ............................................................................................................... 54

Epithelial Tissue ................................................................................................................................................... 54
Simple Epithelium ........................................................................................................................................................................... 55
Compound Epithelium .................................................................................................................................................................... 57
Connective Tissue................................................................................................................................................. 57
Loose Connective Tissue ................................................................................................................................................................. 58
Dense Connective Tissue ................................................................................................................................................................. 58
Specialized Connective Tissue – Cartilage, Bones, Blood, Areolar .................................................................................................. 59
Muscular Tissue ................................................................................................................................................... 59

Skeletal Muscle Tissue – Voluntary Muscles ................................................................................................................................... 60
Smooth Muscle Tissue – Involuntary Muscles........................................................................................................ 60

Cardiac Muscle Tissue – Involuntary Muscles ................................................................................................................................. 60
Nervous Tissue ................................................................................................................................................................................ 61
7. Human Digestive System ............................................................................................... 62
Alimentary Canal.................................................................................................................................................. 62
Buccal Cavity or Oral Cavity – Teeth, Tongue, Saliva ...................................................................................................................... 63
Foodpipe/Oesophagus .................................................................................................................................................................... 64
Stomach .......................................................................................................................................................................................... 64
Small intestine ................................................................................................................................................................................. 65
Large intestine ................................................................................................................................................................................. 66
Layers of Alimentary Canal .............................................................................................................................................................. 67
Digestive Glands................................................................................................................................................... 67
Salivary glands ................................................................................................................................................................................. 68
Liver ................................................................................................................................................................................................. 68
Pancreas .......................................................................................................................................................................................... 69
Digestion – Enzyme Action in Stomach .................................................................................................................. 69
3
Digestion – Enzyme Action in Small Intestine ........................................................................................................ 69
Absorption of Digested Products .......................................................................................................................... 70
Summary of Absorption in Different Parts of Digestive System ..................................................................................................... 71
Disorders of Digestive System ............................................................................................................................... 71
8. Respiration – Breathing & Exchange of Gases ................................................................ 72
Human Respiratory System .................................................................................................................................. 73

Mechanism of Breathing....................................................................................................................................... 75
Exchange of Gases ................................................................................................................................................ 76
Transport of Gases ............................................................................................................................................... 76
Transport of Oxygen ........................................................................................................................................................................ 76
Transport of Carbon dioxide ........................................................................................................................................................... 77
Regulation of Respiration ..................................................................................................................................... 77

Disorders of Respiratory System ........................................................................................................................... 78
9. Endocrine Glands & Hormones ...................................................................................... 78
Hypothalamus ...................................................................................................................................................... 79
Pituitary Gland ..................................................................................................................................................... 79
Pineal Gland ......................................................................................................................................................... 81
Thyroid Gland ...................................................................................................................................................... 81
Parathyroid Gland ................................................................................................................................................ 82
Thymus ................................................................................................................................................................ 82
Adrenal Gland ...................................................................................................................................................... 82
Pancreas .............................................................................................................................................................. 83
Testis ................................................................................................................................................................... 84
Ovary ................................................................................................................................................................... 85
Hormones of Heart, Kidney & Gastrointestinal Tract ............................................................................................. 85
Mechanism of Hormone Action ............................................................................................................................ 86
Summary ............................................................................................................................................................. 86
10. Neural Control & Coordination ...................................................................................... 88
Human Neural System .......................................................................................................................................... 89

Peripheral Neural System (PNS) ...................................................................................................................................................... 89
Central Neural System (CNS) ........................................................................................................................................................... 89
Human Brain ........................................................................................................................................................ 90
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Forebrain ......................................................................................................................................................................................... 90
Midbrain .......................................................................................................................................................................................... 91 PMF IAS – Learn Smart
Hindbrain......................................................................................................................................................................................... 91
Reflex Action & Reflex Arc .................................................................................................................................... 91

Types of Movements ............................................................................................................................................ 92
Muscular System – Muscle Types .......................................................................................................................... 93
Skeletal Muscles .............................................................................................................................................................................. 93
Visceral Muscles .............................................................................................................................................................................. 94
Cardiac Muscles............................................................................................................................................................................... 94
11. Skeletal System ............................................................................................................. 95
Joints ................................................................................................................................................................... 95
Major Joints ..................................................................................................................................................................................... 95
Disorders of Muscular & Skeletal System .............................................................................................................. 96
12. Nucleic Acids – DNA & RNA ........................................................................................... 97
Nucleus ................................................................................................................................................................ 97
Chromosomes ...................................................................................................................................................... 97
Nucleotide & Nucleoside ...................................................................................................................................... 98
Nucleic Acids ........................................................................................................................................................ 98
DNA & RNA .......................................................................................................................................................... 99
Biological Functions of Nucleic Acids – DNA & RNA ............................................................................................. 101
DNA Fingerprinting............................................................................................................................................. 101
Recombinant DNA .............................................................................................................................................. 101
Applications of recombinant DNA technology .............................................................................................................................. 102
13. Biotechnology...............................................................................................................102
Genetic Engineering ........................................................................................................................................... 103

Cloning .............................................................................................................................................................. 103
Recombinant DNA (rDNA) .................................................................................................................................. 104
Applications of Recombinant DNA Technology............................................................................................................................. 105
Cloning Vectors .................................................................................................................................................. 105

Competent Host – Methods to Induce Alien DNA into Host Cells ......................................................................... 106
Biotechnology & Its Applications ........................................................................................................................ 106
Cloning .......................................................................................................................................................................................... 107
5
Biotechnological applications in agriculture ................................................................................................................................. 108
Biotechnological applications in medicine .................................................................................................................................... 108
Genetically Engineered Insulin ...................................................................................................................................................... 109
Gene Therapy ................................................................................................................................................................................ 109
Molecular Diagnosis ...................................................................................................................................................................... 110
Transgenic animals ........................................................................................................................................................................ 111
Biotechnology: Ethical Issues .............................................................................................................................. 112

Summary ........................................................................................................................................................... 113
14. Cell Cycle & Cell Division ...............................................................................................114

Cell Cycle – Phases of Cell Cycle .......................................................................................................................... 114
Basic Phases of Cell Cycle – Interphase & M Phase or Mitosis ..................................................................................................... 115
Interphase ..................................................................................................................................................................................... 115
Mitosis Phase or M Phase ............................................................................................................................................................. 117
Cytokinesis – Actual Cell Division .................................................................................................................................................. 123
Significance of Mitosis ........................................................................................................................................ 125

Meiosis .............................................................................................................................................................. 125
Meiosis I ........................................................................................................................................................................................ 125
Interkinesis .................................................................................................................................................................................... 127
Meiosis II ....................................................................................................................................................................................... 128
Significance of Meiosis .................................................................................................................................................................. 129
Mitosis – Meiosis Comparison ............................................................................................................................ 129
15. Mendel’s Experiments on Inheritance ..........................................................................131
Factors – Genes .................................................................................................................................................. 133

Pair of Alleles – Homozygous & Heterozygous ..................................................................................................... 133
Dominant & Recessive Factor ............................................................................................................................. 134
Punnett Square for Monohybrid Cross ................................................................................................................ 134
Test Cross .......................................................................................................................................................... 135
Mendel’s Laws of Inheritance ............................................................................................................................. 136
First Law or Law of Dominance ..................................................................................................................................................... 137
Second Law or Law of Segregation ............................................................................................................................................... 137
Incomplete Dominance ...................................................................................................................................... 137

Co-dominance .................................................................................................................................................... 138
Inheritance of Two Genes – Dihybrid Cross ......................................................................................................... 139
Law of Independent Assortment ......................................................................................................................... 140
6
Summary ........................................................................................................................................................... 141

16. Chromosomal Theory of Inheritance.............................................................................142
Linkage & Recombination ................................................................................................................................... 143

Human Genome Project ..................................................................................................................................... 144
Applications & Benefits of Human Genome Project ..................................................................................................................... 144
Sex Determination ............................................................................................................................................. 145

Sex Determination in Humans ...................................................................................................................................................... 147
Genetic Disorders ............................................................................................................................................... 147

Pedigree Analysis .......................................................................................................................................................................... 147
Mutation ....................................................................................................................................................................................... 148
Mendelian Disorders ..................................................................................................................................................................... 148
Chromosomal Disorders ................................................................................................................................................................ 150
Summary ........................................................................................................................................................... 152
17. Microbes or Microorganisms ........................................................................................153
Diseases Caused by Microorganisms ................................................................................................................... 154

Diseases Caused by Bacteria ......................................................................................................................................................... 154
Diseases Caused by Viruses ........................................................................................................................................................... 156
Diseases Caused by Protozoans .................................................................................................................................................... 158
Diseases Caused by Fungi.............................................................................................................................................................. 158
Useful Microbes – Microbes in Human Welfare ................................................................................................... 159

Antibiotics & Vaccination .............................................................................................................................................................. 159
Chemicals, Enzymes & other Bioactive Molecules ........................................................................................................................ 160
Milk to Curd ................................................................................................................................................................................... 161
Microbes & Fermentation ............................................................................................................................................................. 161
Fermented Beverages ................................................................................................................................................................... 162
Microbes in sewage treatment ..................................................................................................................................................... 162
Microbes in production of biogas ................................................................................................................................................. 163
Microbes as biocontrol agents ...................................................................................................................................................... 163
Microbes as biofertilisers .............................................................................................................................................................. 164
Preservatives ..................................................................................................................................................... 165

Summary ........................................................................................................................................................... 166
18. Immune System in the Body .........................................................................................166
Basics................................................................................................................................................................. 166
7
Types of Blood Cells ...................................................................................................................................................................... 166
Types of white blood cells (leukocytes) ........................................................................................................................................ 167 PMF IAS – Learn Smart
Innate Immunity ................................................................................................................................................ 169

Innate immunity consists of four types of barriers ....................................................................................................................... 169
Acquired Immunity............................................................................................................................................. 170

Active & Passive Immunity ................................................................................................................................. 171
Vaccination & Immunization ............................................................................................................................... 172
Allergies ............................................................................................................................................................. 172
Auto Immunity ................................................................................................................................................... 173
Immune System in the Body ............................................................................................................................... 173
What are T–Cells? .............................................................................................................................................. 174
T– Cells & COVID–19 ..................................................................................................................................................................... 175
How does the Immune System deal with Coronavirus? ............................................................................................................... 176
How does immune reponse make people Sick? ........................................................................................................................... 176
Why are some infections mild & others life-threatening? ............................................................................................................ 177
What is Herd Immunity? ............................................................................................................................................................... 178
19. AIDS – Acquired Immuno Deficiency Syndrome ............................................................178
Causes of AIDS ................................................................................................................................................... 178

Mechanism of HIV Proliferation in Human Body .................................................................................................. 179
Prevention of AIDS ............................................................................................................................................. 180
20. Cancer ..........................................................................................................................181
Types of Tumors ................................................................................................................................................. 181

Causes of Cancer ................................................................................................................................................ 181
Cancer Detection & Diagnosis ............................................................................................................................. 182
Treatment of cancer ........................................................................................................................................... 182
21. Drugs Abuse .................................................................................................................183
Effects of Drug/Alcohol Abuse ............................................................................................................................ 184
22. Acute & Chronic Diseases .............................................................................................185
Communicable Diseases ..................................................................................................................................... 185

Organ-Specific & Tissue Specific Diseases ............................................................................................................ 186
Principles of Treatment ...................................................................................................................................... 186
8
Why are Antibiotics effective against Bacterial Infections but not Viral Infections? .............................................. 187
Principles of Prevention...................................................................................................................................... 188
Diseases in Indian Children ................................................................................................................................. 189
Gastroentitis .................................................................................................................................................................................. 189
Rickets ........................................................................................................................................................................................... 190
Conjunctivitis ................................................................................................................................................................................. 190
Scabies ........................................................................................................................................................................................... 190
Upper Respiratory Tract infection (URTI) ...................................................................................................................................... 190
Tuberculosis .................................................................................................................................................................................. 191
Typhoid.......................................................................................................................................................................................... 191
Bronchitis & Asthma...................................................................................................................................................................... 191
Some Other Diseases .......................................................................................................................................... 191

Diseases Caused by Worms ........................................................................................................................................................... 191
Old Age Diseases: Dementia ......................................................................................................................................................... 192
Pollution related diseases: Silicosis ............................................................................................................................................... 192
Zoonotic Diseases .......................................................................................................................................................................... 192
23. Blood ............................................................................................................................192
Blood Vessels ..................................................................................................................................................... 192

Body Fluids & Circulation .................................................................................................................................... 193
Plasma ........................................................................................................................................................................................... 193
Formed Elements .......................................................................................................................................................................... 193
Coagulation of Blood .......................................................................................................................................... 195

Lymph (Tissue Fluid) ........................................................................................................................................... 195
Blood Groups ..................................................................................................................................................... 196
ABO grouping ................................................................................................................................................................................ 196
Rh grouping ................................................................................................................................................................................... 197
Summary ........................................................................................................................................................... 198
24. Circulatory System ........................................................................................................198
Human Circulatory System ................................................................................................................................. 199

Heart ............................................................................................................................................................................................. 199
Cardiac Cycle ...................................................................................................................................................... 201

Electrocardiograph (ECG) .................................................................................................................................... 202
Double Circulation.............................................................................................................................................. 203
Regulation of Cardiac Activity ............................................................................................................................. 204
9
Disorders of Circulatory System .......................................................................................................................... 205
High Blood Pressure (Hypertension) ............................................................................................................................................. 205 PMF IAS – Learn Smart
Coronary Artery Disease (CAD) ..................................................................................................................................................... 205
Angina ........................................................................................................................................................................................... 205
Heart Failure.................................................................................................................................................................................. 205
Summary ........................................................................................................................................................... 205
25. Excretory System ..........................................................................................................206
Excretory Products & their Elimination ............................................................................................................... 207

Human Excretory System .................................................................................................................................... 208
Kidneys .......................................................................................................................................................................................... 208
Urine Formation ............................................................................................................................................................................ 210
Function of the Tubules ................................................................................................................................................................ 211
Mechanism of Concentration of the Filtrate ................................................................................................................................. 212
Regulation of Kidney Function ...................................................................................................................................................... 213
Micturition .................................................................................................................................................................................... 214
Role of other Organs in Excretion ................................................................................................................................................. 214
Disorders of the Excretory System ................................................................................................................................................ 215
Summary ........................................................................................................................................................... 216
26. Origin of Life on Earth ...................................................................................................217
Evolution of Life on Earth ................................................................................................................................... 218

Adaptive Radiation ........................................................................................................................................................................ 218
Biological evolution ....................................................................................................................................................................... 219
A Brief Account of Evolution ............................................................................................................................... 219

Origin & Evolution of Man .................................................................................................................................. 222
27. Biodiversity ..................................................................................................................224
Classification of Biodiversity ............................................................................................................................... 225

Taxonomic Categories ........................................................................................................................................ 226
Species........................................................................................................................................................................................... 227
Genus ............................................................................................................................................................................................ 227
Family ............................................................................................................................................................................................ 228
Order ............................................................................................................................................................................................. 228
Class .............................................................................................................................................................................................. 228
Phylum .......................................................................................................................................................................................... 228
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Kingdom ........................................................................................................................................................................................ 228
Taxonomical Aids ............................................................................................................................................... 228 PMF IAS – Learn Smart

Herbarium ..................................................................................................................................................................................... 229
Botanical Gardens ......................................................................................................................................................................... 229
Museum ........................................................................................................................................................................................ 229
Zoological Parks ............................................................................................................................................................................. 229
Key ................................................................................................................................................................................................. 229
28. Biological Classification.................................................................................................229

29. Biological Classification of Plants & Animals .................................................................231
Kingdom Monera ............................................................................................................................................... 233

Archaebacteria .............................................................................................................................................................................. 234
Eubacteria ..................................................................................................................................................................................... 234
Photosynthetic bacteria ................................................................................................................................................................ 234
Chemosynthetic bacteria .............................................................................................................................................................. 235
Heterotrophic bacteria .................................................................................................................................................................. 235
Mycoplasma .................................................................................................................................................................................. 235
Reproduction................................................................................................................................................................................. 235
Kingdom Protista................................................................................................................................................ 236

Chrysophytes ................................................................................................................................................................................. 236
Dinoflagellates............................................................................................................................................................................... 236
Euglenoids ..................................................................................................................................................................................... 237
Slime Moulds ................................................................................................................................................................................. 237
Protozoans .................................................................................................................................................................................... 237
Kingdom Fungi ................................................................................................................................................... 238

Phycomycetes ............................................................................................................................................................................... 240
Ascomycetes ................................................................................................................................................................................. 240
Basidiomycetes ............................................................................................................................................................................. 240
Deuteromycetes ............................................................................................................................................................................ 240
Kingdom Plantae ................................................................................................................................................ 240

Kingdom Animalia .............................................................................................................................................. 241
Viruses, Viroids & Lichens ................................................................................................................................... 241
Viroids ........................................................................................................................................................................................... 242
Lichens........................................................................................................................................................................................... 242
30. Plant Parts & Their Functions – Structural Organization in Plants .................................242
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The Root ............................................................................................................................................................ 243
The Stem............................................................................................................................................................ 244
The Leaf ............................................................................................................................................................. 245
Leaf Venation ................................................................................................................................................................................ 245
Modifications of Leaves ................................................................................................................................................................ 245
Transpiration ................................................................................................................................................................................. 245
Do Plants Also Respire? ................................................................................................................................................................. 246
The Flower ......................................................................................................................................................... 246

Androecium ................................................................................................................................................................................... 247
Gynoecium .................................................................................................................................................................................... 247
The Fruit ............................................................................................................................................................ 247

Transport of Water & Minerals In Plants ............................................................................................................. 248
Summary ........................................................................................................................................................... 248
31. Plantae .........................................................................................................................249
Algae – Thallophytes .......................................................................................................................................... 250

Chlorophyceae – Green Algae ....................................................................................................................................................... 252
Phaeophyceae – Brown Algae ....................................................................................................................................................... 252
Rhodophyceae – Red Algae ........................................................................................................................................................... 253
Uses of Algae ................................................................................................................................................................................. 253
Bryophytes......................................................................................................................................................... 254
Pteridophytes .................................................................................................................................................... 255
Cryptogamae ................................................................................................................................................................................. 256
Phanerogams – Plants with Seeds ....................................................................................................................... 256

Gymnosperms ............................................................................................................................................................................... 256
Angiosperms.................................................................................................................................................................................. 258
Summary ........................................................................................................................................................... 260
32. Plant Tissues .................................................................................................................262
Meristematic Tissue ........................................................................................................................................... 262

Permanent Tissue............................................................................................................................................... 263
Simple Permanent Tissue .............................................................................................................................................................. 263
Complex Permanent Tissue ........................................................................................................................................................... 266
33. Nutrition in Plants ........................................................................................................268
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Photosynthesis – Food Making Process In Plants ................................................................................................. 269
Chlorophyll Pigments .................................................................................................................................................................... 269 PMF IAS – Learn Smart
Light Reactions & Dark Reactions ................................................................................................................................................. 270
Factors Affecting Photosynthesis .................................................................................................................................................. 270
Saprotrophs – Fungi ........................................................................................................................................... 271

Symbiosis ........................................................................................................................................................... 272
Parasites ............................................................................................................................................................ 272
Mineral Nutrition ............................................................................................................................................... 272
Macronutrients & Micronutrients in Plants .................................................................................................................................. 272
Summary ........................................................................................................................................................... 274
34. Modes of Reproduction in Plants ..................................................................................275
Asexual Reproduction in Plants .......................................................................................................................... 275

Vegetative Propagation ................................................................................................................................................................. 276
Budding ......................................................................................................................................................................................... 276
Fragmentation ............................................................................................................................................................................... 277
Spore formation ............................................................................................................................................................................ 277
Sexual Reproduction in Plants – Unisexual & Bisexual ......................................................................................... 278

Pollination ..................................................................................................................................................................................... 279
Fertilization ................................................................................................................................................................................... 280
Fruits & seed formation ................................................................................................................................................................ 280
Seed dispersal ............................................................................................................................................................................... 280
Asexual reproduction vs Sexual reproduction...................................................................................................... 281
35. Basis for Animal Kingdom Classification........................................................................281
Levels of Organization ........................................................................................................................................ 282

Symmetry .......................................................................................................................................................... 282
Diploblastic & Triploblastic Organisation............................................................................................................. 283
Coelom .............................................................................................................................................................. 284
Segmentation..................................................................................................................................................... 285
Notochord ......................................................................................................................................................... 285
36. Classification of Animal Kingdom ..................................................................................285
Phylum Porifera ................................................................................................................................................. 285

Phylum Coelenterata (Cnidaria) .......................................................................................................................... 286
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Phylum Ctenophora ........................................................................................................................................... 287
Phylum Platyhelminthes ..................................................................................................................................... 288 PMF IAS – Learn Smart
Phylum Aschelminthes (Nemotoda) .................................................................................................................... 289
Phylum Annelida ................................................................................................................................................ 290
Phylum Arthropoda ............................................................................................................................................ 290
Phylum Mollusca ................................................................................................................................................ 292
Phylum Echinodermata ...................................................................................................................................... 292
Phylum Hemichordata ........................................................................................................................................ 293
Phylum Chordata ............................................................................................................................................... 294
Vertebrata ..................................................................................................................................................................................... 295
37. Division in Vertebrata ...................................................................................................295
Basic Concepts ................................................................................................................................................... 296

Viviparous & Oviparous Animals ................................................................................................................................................... 296
Warm Blooded vs. Cold Blooded Animals ..................................................................................................................................... 296
Hibernation ................................................................................................................................................................................... 297
Class Cyclostomata ............................................................................................................................................. 297

Class Pisces ........................................................................................................................................................ 298
Chondrichthyes ............................................................................................................................................................................. 299
Osteichthyes .................................................................................................................................................................................. 299
Class Amphibia ................................................................................................................................................... 300

Class Reptilia ...................................................................................................................................................... 301
Class Aves .......................................................................................................................................................... 301
Class Mammalia ................................................................................................................................................. 301
Summary ........................................................................................................................................................... 302
38. Reproduction in Animals ..............................................................................................304
Sexual Reproduction .......................................................................................................................................... 304

Internal & External Fertilization .......................................................................................................................... 305
Asexual Reproduction ........................................................................................................................................ 306
39. Human Reproductive System ........................................................................................306
Male Reproductive System ................................................................................................................................. 307

Female Reproductive System .............................................................................................................................. 308
Gametogenesis .................................................................................................................................................. 310
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Menstrual Cycle ................................................................................................................................................. 312
Fertilisation & Implantation................................................................................................................................ 313 PMF IAS – Learn Smart
In Vitro Fertilization ........................................................................................................................................... 315
Pregnancy & Embryonic Development ................................................................................................................ 315
Parturition & Lactation ....................................................................................................................................... 317
Summary ........................................................................................................................................................... 317
Words/phrases/sentences that can be important for prelims are bolded and coloured orange, green & blue.
There used to be around 2 questions from NCERT Science earlier. But since 2017 there is not even a sin-
gle question in prelims that was framed from Science NCERTs.
However, the knowledge from Science NCERTs can be very useful in understanding certain Science &
Tech Current Affairs & Contemporary Issues & certain concepts of Environmental Sciences.
The current trend revolves around Science & Tech Current Affairs & Contemporary Issues.
PMF IAS covers Science & Technology as a separate section: Science & Technology Notes + Current Af-
fairs Downloads
Before you read this document, analyse Science & Technology questions asked in the past 6-7 years’
UPSC CSE Prelims Question Papers.
UPSC does not ask very technical kind of questions from NCERTs.
UPSC focuses mostly on logical kind of questions that test your basics.
1. Cell
Robert Hooke Discovered & coined the term cell in 1665
Robert Brown Discovered Cell Nucleus in 1831
15
Schleiden & Schwann Presented the cell theory, that all the plants & animals are composed of
cells & that the cell is the basic unit of life. Schleiden (1838) & Schwann
(1839).
• With the discovery of the electron microscope in 1940, it was possible to observe & understand the complex
structure of the cell & its various organelles.
Cell Organelles
• Cell organelles are enclosed by membranes.
• The significance of membranes can be illustrated with the example of viruses.
• Viruses lack any membranes & hence do not show characteristics of life until they enter a living body &
use its cell machinery to multiply.
Plasma Membrane or Cell Membrane
• Cell membrane is also called the plasma membrane.

• It can be observed only through an electron microscope.
• Plasma membrane is the outermost covering of the cell that separates the contents of the cell from its
external environment.
Endocytosis through Plasma Membrane
16
• The plasma membrane is flexible & is made up of organic molecules called lipids & proteins.
• The flexibility of the cell membrane also enables the cell to engulf in food & other material from its external
environment.
• Such processes are known as endocytosis (endo → internal; cyto → of a cell).
• Amoeba acquires its food through such processes.
Diffusion through Plasma Membrane
• Plasma membrane is a selectively permeable membrane.

• It is porous & allows the movement of substances or materials both inward & outward.
• Some substances like CO2 or oxygen can move across the cell membrane by a process called diffusion.
• Thus, diffusion plays an important role in gaseous exchange between the cells as well as the cell & its external
environment.
Additional Reading: Diffusion, Osmosis & Reverse Osmosis
Solution
• In chemistry, a solution is homogeneous mixture composed of two or more substances.

• In such a mixture, a solute is a substance dissolved in another substance, known as a solvent.
• For example, in salt water, salt is the solute and water is the solvent.
Diffusion
• Diffusion is a spontaneous movement of a substance from an area of high concentration to an area of

low concentration.
• Diffusion through a permeable membrane moves a substance (solute) from a region of high solute con-
centration (hypertonic solution) to a region where its concentration is low (hypotonic solution).
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• In living organisms, diffusion plays an important role in gaseous exchange between the cells as well as
the cell and its external environment.
• Exchange of O2 & CO2 in alveoli (millions of tiny, balloon-shaped air sacs in lungs) is an example of diffu-
sion.
• In a person suffering from pneumonia, the air sacs may fill with fluid or pus. This prevents diffusion of O2
& CO2 in alveoli (breathing issues in Coronavirus patients).
Osmosis
• Water obeys the law of diffusion.

• Osmosis is the passage of water (diffusion of molecules of a solvent) from a region of low solute
concentration (hypotonic) through a semi-permeable membrane to a region of high solute concen-
tration (hypertonic).
• Semi permeable means that the membrane will allow small molecules and ions to pass through it but acts
as a barrier to larger molecules or dissolved substances.
• Thus, osmosis is a special case of diffusion through a selectively permeable membrane.

• Unicellular freshwater organisms and most plant cells tend to gain water through osmosis.
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• Absorption of water by plant roots is also an example of osmosis.
Reverse Osmosis (RO) PMF IAS – Learn Smart
• Reverse osmosis (RO) is a water purification technology that uses a semipermeable membrane to re-
move larger particles from drinking water.
• In reverse osmosis, an applied pressure is used to overcome osmotic pressure so that pure water flows
from a region of high solute concentration (hypertonic) through a semi-permeable membrane to a
region of low solute concentration (hypotonic).
Cell Wall
• Cell wall is absent in animals.

• Plant cells, in addition to the plasma membrane, have another rigid outer covering called the cell wall.
• The cell wall lies outside the plasma membrane.
• The plant cell wall is mainly composed of cellulose.
• Cellulose is a complex substance & provides structural strength to plants.
Plasmolysis
• When a living plant cell loses water through osmosis there is shrinkage or contraction of the contents of the
cell away from the cell wall.
• This phenomenon is known as plasmolysis (plasma → fluid; lysis → disintegration, decomposition).
• Only living cells, & not dead cells, are able to absorb water by osmosis.
Plants are at an advantage because of the Cell Wall
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• Cell walls permit the cells of plants, fungi & bacteria to withstand very dilute (hypotonic) external media
without shrinkage.
• In such media the cells tend to lose water by osmosis.
• The cell shrinks, building up pressure against the cell wall.
• The wall exerts an equal pressure against the shrunken cell.
• Cell wall also prevents the bursting of cells when the cells are surrounded by a hypertonic medium (medium
of high concentration).
• In such media the cells tend to gain water by osmosis.
• The cell swells, building up pressure against the cell wall.
• The wall exerts an equal pressure against the swollen cell.
• Because of their walls, plant cells can withstand much greater changes in the surrounding medium
than animal cells.
Cytoplasm
• It is the jelly-like substance present between the cell membrane & the nucleus.
• The cytoplasm is the fluid content inside the plasma membrane.
• It also contains many specialized cell organelles (mitochondria, golgi bodies, ribosomes, etc).
• Each of these organelles performs a specific function for the cell.
Nucleus
• It is an important component of the living cell.

• It is generally spherical & located in the centre of the cell.
• It can be stained & seen easily with the help of a microscope.
• Nucleus is separated from the cytoplasm by a double layered membrane called the nuclear membrane.
• The nucleus of the bacterial cell is not well organized like the cells of multicellular organisms. There
is no nuclear membrane.
• Nuclear membrane is also porous & allows the movement of materials between the cytoplasm & the inside
of the nucleus (diffusion).
• With a microscope of higher magnification, we can see a smaller spherical body in the nucleus. It is called
the nucleolus.
• Nucleus acts as control centre of the activities of the cell.
• The nucleus plays a central role in cellular reproduction, the process by which a single cell divides & forms
two new cells.
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• It also plays a crucial part, along with the environment, in determining the way the cell will develop & what
form it will exhibit at maturity, by directing the chemical activities of the cell. PMF IAS – Learn Smart
Protoplasm
• Protoplasm includes the cytoplasm & the nucleus.

• Protoplasm is called the living substance of the cell.
Chromosomes
• Nucleus contains thread-like structures called chromosomes.
• Chromosomes contain information for inheritance of features from parents to next generation in the form
of DNA (Deoxyribo Nucleic Acid)
• Chromosomes are composed of DNA & Protein.
• DNA molecules contain the information necessary for constructing & organizing cells.
• Functional segments of DNA are called genes.
• Gene is a unit of inheritance in living organisms.
• It controls the transfer of a hereditary characteristic from parents to offspring.
• The chromosomes can be seen only when the cell divides.
Chromatin material
• In a cell which is not dividing, this DNA is present as part of chromatin material.
• Chromatin material is visible as entangled mass of thread like structures. Whenever the cell is about to divide,
the chromatin material gets organised into chromosomes.
Nucleoid
• In some organisms like bacteria, the nuclear region of the cell may be poorly defined due to the absence
of a nuclear membrane.
• Such an undefined nuclear region containing only nucleic acids is called a nucleoid.
Prokaryotic Cells vs. Eukaryotic Cells
• Organisms whose cells lack a nuclear membrane, are called prokaryotes (pro = primitive or primary; kar-
yote ≈karyon = nucleus).
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• Organisms with cells having a nuclear membrane are called eukaryotes.
• Prokaryotic cells also lack most of the other cytoplasmic organelles present in eukaryotic cells.
• Many of the functions of such organelles are also performed by poorly organised parts of the cytoplasm.
• The chlorophyll in photosynthetic prokaryotic bacteria is associated with membranous vesicles (bag like
structures) but not with plastids as in eukaryotic cells.
 Prokaryotes → defined nuclear region, the membrane-bound cell organelles are absent.
 Eukaryotic Cells → have nuclear membrane as well as membrane-enclosed organelles.
Prokaryotes Eukaryotes
Protists, Fungi, Plants & Animals

Organisms Monera: Eubacteria and
Archebacteria
Eu = after
Meaning of name Pro = before
Karyon = nucleus
Karyon = nucleus
1.5 billion years ago

Evolution 3.5 billion years ago (older type of
cell)
Multicellular (more complex)

Uni-/multicellular Unicellular (less
complex)
fungi & plants (cellulose & chitin):

Cell wall almost all have cell walls (murein)
none in animals
many different ones with specialized

Organelles usually none
functions
mostly aerobic
Metabolism anaerobic & aerobic: diverse
complex chromosomes usually in

Genetic single circular double stranded DNA
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pairs; each with a single double
material
stranded DNA molecule & associ- PMF IAS – Learn Smart
ated protein contained in a nucleus
Nucleus
Location of genetic infor- Nucleoid region
mation
mitosis & meiosis using a spindle:

Mode of binary fission mostly; budding
followed by cytokinesis
division
Vacuoles
• Empty structure in the cytoplasm is called vacuole.

• It could be single & big as in an onion cell (plant cell).
• Cheek cells (animal cells) have smaller vacuoles.
• Large vacuoles are common in plant cells. Vacuoles in animal cells are much smaller.
• Vacuoles are storage sacs for solid or liquid contents.
• The central vacuole of some plant cells may occupy 50-90% of the cell volume.
• In plant cells vacuoles are full of cell sap & provide turgidity (swollen due to fluids) & rigidity to the cell.
• Many substances of importance in the life of the plant cell are stored in vacuoles.
• These include amino acids, sugars, various organic acids & some proteins.
• In single-celled organisms like amoeba, the vacuole contains the food items that the amoeba has consumed.
• In some unicellular organisms, specialized vacuoles also play important roles in expelling excess water
& some wastes from the cell.
Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)
• The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is a large network of membrane-bound tubes & sheets.
• It looks like long tubules or round or long bags (vesicles).
• The ER membrane is similar in structure to the plasma membrane.
• There are two types of ER –– rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER) & smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER).
Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum RER – Ribosomes
• RER looks rough under a microscope because it has particles called ribosomes attached to its surface.
• The ribosomes, which are present in all active cells, are the sites of protein manufacture.
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• The manufactured proteins are then sent to various places in the cell depending on need, using the ER.
Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum SER PMF IAS – Learn Smart
• The SER helps in the manufacture of fat molecules, or lipids, important for cell function.
Functions of Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)
• Some of these proteins & lipids help in building the cell membrane.
• This process is known as membrane biogenesis.
• Some other proteins & lipids function as enzymes & hormones.
• Although the ER varies greatly in appearance in different cells, it always forms a network system.
• Thus, one function of the ER is to serve as channels for the transport of materials (especially proteins)
between various regions of the cytoplasm or between the cytoplasm & the nucleus.
• The ER also functions as a cytoplasmic framework providing a surface for some of the biochemical activi-
ties of the cell.
• In the liver cells of the group of animals called vertebrates, SER plays a crucial role in detoxifying many
poisons & drugs.
Golgi Apparatus or Golgi Complex
• The golgi apparatus consists of a system of membrane-bound vesicles arranged approximately parallel to
each other in stacks called cisterns.
• These membranes often have connections with the membranes of ER & therefore constitute another
portion of a complex cellular membrane system.
• The material synthesized near the ER is packaged & dispatched to various targets inside & outside the cell
through the golgi apparatus.
• Its functions include the storage, modification & packaging of products in vesicles.
• In some cases, complex sugars may be made from simple sugars in the golgi apparatus.
• The golgi apparatus is also involved in the formation of lysosomes.
Lysosomes
• Lysosomes are a kind of waste disposal system of the cell.

• Lysosomes help to keep the cell clean by digesting any foreign material as well as worn-out cell orga-
nelles.
• Foreign materials entering the cell, such as bacteria or food, as well as old organelles end up in the lysosomes,
24
which break them up into small pieces.
• Lysosomes are able to do this because they contain powerful digestive enzymes capable of breaking down PMF IAS – Learn Smart
all organic material.

• During the disturbance in cellular metabolism, for example, when the cell gets damaged, lysosomes may
burst & the enzymes digest their own cell.
• Therefore, lysosomes are also known as the ‘suicide bags’ of a cell.
• Structurally, lysosomes are membrane-bound sacs filled with digestive enzymes. These enzymes are made
by RER.
Mitochondria
• Mitochondria are known as the powerhouse of the cell.

• The energy required for various chemical activities needed for life is released by mitochondria in the form
of ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate) molecules.
 If Mitochondria is the Power Plant. ATP is the Electricity.
• ATP is known as the energy currency of the cell.

• The body uses energy stored in ATP for making new chemical compounds & for mechanical work.
• Mitochondria have two membrane coverings instead of just one.
• The outer membrane is very porous while the inner membrane is deeply folded.
• These folds create a large surface area for ATP-generating chemical reactions.
• Mitochondria are strange organelles in the sense that they have their own DNA & ribosomes.
• Therefore, mitochondria are able to make some of their own proteins (ribosomes prepare proteins).
Metabolic pathways & ATP
• Metabolic pathways can lead to a more complex structure from a simpler structure (for example, acetic acid
becomes cholesterol) or lead to a simpler structure from a complex structure (for example, glucose be-
comes lactic acid in our skeletal muscle).
• The former cases are called biosynthetic pathways or anabolic pathways.
• The latter constitute degradation & hence are called catabolic pathways.
• Anabolic pathways, as expected, consume energy.
• Assembly of a protein from amino acids requires energy input.
• On the other hand, catabolic pathways lead to the release of energy.
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• For example, when glucose is degraded to lactic acid in our skeletal muscle, energy is liberated.
• This metabolic pathway from glucose to lactic acid which occurs in 10 metabolic steps is called glycolysis.
• Living organisms have learnt to trap this energy liberated during degradation & store it in the form of
chemical bonds.
• As & when needed, this bond energy is utilized for biosynthetic, osmotic & mechanical work that we perform.
• The most important form of energy currency in living systems is the bond energy in a chemical called aden-
osine triphosphate (ATP).
Plastids
• You might have noticed several small coloured bodies in the cytoplasm of the cells of Tradescantia leaf.
• They are scattered in the cytoplasm of the leaf cells. These are called plastids.
• They are of different colours. Some of them contain green pigment called chlorophyll.
• Green coloured plastids are called chloroplasts. They provide green colour to the leaves.
• Chloroplasts are important for photosynthesis in plants.
• Chloroplasts also contain various yellow or orange pigments in addition to chlorophyll.
• Plastids are present only in plant cells.
• There are two types of plastids:
1. chromoplasts (coloured plastids) &

2. leucoplasts (white or colourless plastids).
• Leucoplasts are primarily organelles in which materials such as starch, oils & protein granules are stored.
• The internal organization of the plastids consists of numerous membrane layers embedded in a material
called the stroma.
• Plastids are similar to mitochondria in external structure.
• Like the mitochondria, plastids also have their own DNA & ribosomes.
Summary
• Each cell acquires its structure & ability to function because of the organization of its membrane & organelles
in specific ways. The cell thus has a basic structural organization.
• This helps the cells to perform functions like respiration, obtaining nutrition, & clearing of waste material, or
forming new proteins.
• Thus, the cell is the fundamental structural unit of living organisms.
• It is also the basic functional unit of life.
26
• Cells are enclosed by a plasma membrane composed of lipids & proteins.
• The presence of the cell wall enables the cells of plants, fungi & bacteria to exist in hypotonic media without
bursting.
• The ER functions both as a passageway for intracellular transport & as a manufacturing surface.
• The golgi apparatus consists of stacks of membrane-bound vesicles that function in the storage, modifi-
cation & packaging of substances manufactured in the cell.
• Most plant cells have large membranous organelles called plastids, which are of two types – chromoplasts &
leucoplasts.
• Chromoplasts that contain chlorophyll are called chloroplasts & they perform photosynthesis.
• Leucoplasts help in the storage of oils, starch & protein granules.
• Most mature plant cells have a large central vacuole that helps to maintain the turgidity of the cell & stores
important substances including wastes.
• Prokaryotic cells have no membrane-bound organelles, their chromosomes are composed of only nucleic
acid, & they have only very small ribosomes as organelles.
• A white blood cell (WBC) in human blood is an example of a single cell which can change its shape.
• Bacterial cell also has a cell wall.
• In egg white material is albumin which solidifies on boiling. The yellow part is yolk. It is part of the single cell.
• Valonia ventricosa, a species of algae with a diameter that ranges typically from 1 to 4 centimetres is among
the largest unicellular species.
Plant Cell vs. Animal Cell
27
Animal Cell Plant Cell
Present PMF IAS – Learn Smart

Nucleus Present
It is very rare
Cilia Present
Rectangular (fixed shape)

Shape Round (irregular shape)
Plant cells have chloroplasts because

Chloroplast Animal cells don't have chloro-
they make their own food
plasts
Present
Cytoplasm Present
Present
Endoplasmic Reticulum Present
(Smooth & Rough)
Present
Ribosomes Present
Present
Mitochondria Present
One. large central vacuole taking up

Vacuole One or more small vacuoles (much
90% of cell volume.
smaller than plant cells).
Questions
• Can you name the two organelles we have studied that contain their own genetic material?
• What would happen to the life of a cell if there was no golgi apparatus?
• Where do the lipids & proteins constituting the cell membrane get synthesised?
• What is osmosis?
• Why are lysosomes known as suicide bags?
• Where are proteins synthesized inside the cell?
Q1. Statements
1. Diffusion & osmosis are similar processes.

2. In osmosis, the particles flow from hypertonic solution to hypotonic solution.
3. In Reverse Osmosis, the particles flow from hypotonic solution to hypertonic solution.
4. Osmosis is used in water purification process.
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5. Reverse osmosis is used by plant cells to avoid bursting due to plasmolysis.

Which of the above are true?
a. All
b. 3, 4 & 5 only
c. 1, 2 & 3 only
d. 1 & 2 only
Q2. Statements
1. Protoplasm = Cytoplasm + Nucleus + Plasma Membrane
2. Osmosis happens in dead cells as well.
3. Bacteria have cell walls.
4. Virus are non-living substances.
5. Animals have no cell walls & vacuoles.
Which of the above are true?
a. All
b. 3, 4 only
c. 2, 3 & 5 only
d. 1, 3 & 4 only
Answers: Q1 → C; Q2 → B
2. Biomolecules – Carbohydrates
• A biomolecule (biological molecule) is any molecule that is present in living organisms.

• They are mostly made up of carbon, oxygen, hydrogen & nitrogen.
• Proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, & nucleic acids (DNA & RNA) are Macromolecules (Macro-biomolecules).
• Vitamins, primary metabolites, secondary metabolites, etc. are also biomolecules.
• Most biomolecules are organic compounds.
 Metabolism: The chemical processes that occur within a living organism to maintain life.
 Metabolite: A substance formed in or necessary for metabolism.
 Primary metabolite: Metabolite that is directly involved in normal growth, development, & reproduction.
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Eg: ethanol, lactic acid, & certain amino acids.
 Secondary metabolite: Metabolites that are not directly involved in the normal growth, development, PMF IAS – Learn Smart
or reproduction of an organism.
 Unlike primary metabolites, absence of secondary metabolites does not result in immediate death, but
rather in long-term impairment. Eg: ergot alkaloids, antibiotics, etc.
 Alkaloid: any class of nitrogenous organic compounds of plant origin which have pronounced phys-
iological actions on humans. Eg: morphine obtained from opium poppy.
Carbohydrates
• Carbohydrates are one of the most important biomolecules that forms a major part of the living things.
• Carbohydrates are primarily produced by plants & form a very large group of naturally occurring organic
compounds.
• Some common examples of carbohydrates are cane sugar, glucose, starch, etc.
• Most of them have a general formula, Cx(H2O)y, & were considered as hydrates of carbon from where the
name carbohydrate was derived.
• For example, the molecular formula of glucose (C6H12O6) fits into this general formula, C6(H2O)6.
• But all the compounds which fit into this formula may not be classified as carbohydrates.
• Acetic acid (CH3COOH) fits into this general formula Cx(H2O)y → C2(H2O)2 but is not a carbohydrate.
• Exception: Rhamnose, C6H12O5 is a carbohydrate but does not fit in this definition of Cx(H2O)y.
• Chemically, the carbohydrates may be defined as optically active polyhydroxy (multiple HO groups) alde-
hydes or ketones or the compounds which produce such units on hydrolysis.
• Carbohydrates produce aldehydes & ketones on hydrolysis (the chemical breakdown of a compound due
to reaction with water).
 Hydrate: A compound in which water molecules are chemically bound to another compound or an ele-
ment. Eg: α-d-Glucose hydrate (C6H14O7).
 Aldehyde: an organic compound containing the group — CHO, formed by the oxidation of alcohols.
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Typical aldehydes include methanal (formaldehyde) & ethanal (acetaldehyde).
 Ketone: an organic compound containing a carbonyl group =C=O bonded to two alkyl groups, e.g., PMF IAS – Learn Smart
acetone).
 Alkyl: denoting a hydrocarbon radical derived from an alkane by removal of a hydrogen atom.
 Alkane: any of the series of saturated hydrocarbons including methane, ethane, propane, etc.
alkane-alkyl
• Some of the carbohydrates, which are sweet in taste, are also called sugars (➔ not all carbohydrates
are sweet in taste).

• The most common sugar used in our homes is named as sucrose whereas the sugar present in milk is known
as lactose.
• Carbohydrates are also called saccharides (Greek: sakcharon means sugar).
• Carbohydrates are classified on the basis of their behavior on hydrolysis.
• They have been broadly divided into following three groups.
Monosaccharides
• A carbohydrate that cannot be hydrolyzed further to give simpler unit of polyhydroxy aldehyde or ketone is
called a monosaccharide.
• About 20 monosaccharides are known to occur in nature. Some common examples are Glucose, Fruc-
tose, Ribose, Galactose, etc.
• If a monosaccharide contains an aldehyde group (–CHO), it is known as an aldose & if it contains a keto
group (=C=O), it is known as a ketose.
Glucose
• Glucose occurs freely in nature as well as in the combined form.
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• It is present in sweet fruits & honey.
• Ripe grapes also contain glucose in large amounts.
• Glucose is an aldohexose (an aldohexose is a hexose with an aldehyde group on one end) & is also known
as dextrose. It is the monomer of many of the larger carbohydrates, namely starch, cellulose.
• It is probably the most abundant organic compound on earth.
• Glucose is found to exist in two different crystalline forms which are named as α & β.
• Such isomers, i.e., α-form & β-form, are called anomers.
 Aldohexose: An aldohexose is a hexose with an aldehyde group (–CHO) on one end.

 Hexose: any of the class of simple sugars whose molecules contain six carbon atoms (e.g., glucose)
Fructose
• Fructose is an important ketohexose.

• It is obtained along with glucose by the hydrolysis of disaccharide, sucrose.
• The two monosaccharides are joined together by an oxide linkage formed by the loss of a water molecule.
• Such a linkage between two monosaccharide units through oxygen atom is called Glycosidic Linkage.
Glycosidic Linkage
Ribose
• The ribose β-D-ribofuranose forms part of the backbone of RNA.

• It is related to deoxyribose, which is found in DNA.
Galactose
• Galactose is a monosaccharide. When combined with glucose (monosaccharide), through a condensation

reaction, the result is the disaccharide lactose.
• The hydrolysis of lactose to glucose & galactose is catalyzed by the enzymes lactase & β-galactosidase.
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Oligosaccharides
• Carbohydrates that yield two to ten monosaccharide units, on hydrolysis, are called oligosaccharides.
• They are further classified as disaccharides, trisaccharides, tetrasaccharides, etc., depending upon the
number of monosaccharides, they provide on hydrolysis.
• Amongst these the most common are disaccharides.
• The two monosaccharide units obtained on hydrolysis of a disaccharide may be same or different.
• For example, sucrose on hydrolysis gives one molecule each of glucose & fructose whereas maltose gives
two molecules of glucose only.
 Sucrose: Glucose + Fructose
 Maltose: Glucose + Glucose
 Lactose: Glucose + Galactose
Sucrose
• One of the common disaccharides is sucrose which on hydrolysis gives equimolar mixture of glucose & fruc-
tose.
Maltose
• Another disaccharide, maltose is composed of two α-D-glucose units.
Lactose
• It is more commonly known as milk sugar since this disaccharide is found in milk.
• It is composed of β-D-galactose & β-D-glucose.
Polysaccharides
• Carbohydrates which yield a large number of monosaccharides on hydrolysis are called polysaccharides.
• Some common examples are Starch, Cellulose, Glycogen, Gums, etc
• Polysaccharides are long chains of sugars.
• Polysaccharides are not sweet in taste, hence they are also called non-sugars.
• They are threads (literally a cotton thread) containing different monosaccharides as building blocks.
• For example, Cellulose is a polymeric polysaccharide consisting of only one type of monosaccharide
i.e., Glucose.
• Cellulose is a homopolymer. Starch is a variant of this but present as a store house of energy in plant tissues.
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• Animals have another variant called Glycogen.
• Inulin is a polymer of fructose. PMF IAS – Learn Smart
• Plant cell walls are made of cellulose.

• Paper made from plant pulp & cotton fibre is cellulosic.
• There are more complex polysaccharides in nature.
• Exoskeletons of arthropods, for example, have a complex polysaccharide called chitin.
• These complex polysaccharides are mostly homopolymers.
Starch
• Polysaccharides contain a large number of monosaccharide units joined together by glycosidic linkages.
• These are the most commonly encountered carbohydrates in nature.
• They mainly act as the food storage or structural materials.
• Starch is the main storage polysaccharide of plants.
• It is the most important dietary source for human beings.
• High content of starch is found in cereals, roots, tubers & some vegetables.
• It is a polymer of α-glucose & consists of two components — Amylose & Amylopectin.
• Amylose is water soluble polysaccharide which constitutes about 15-20% of starch.
• Amylopectin is water insoluble polysaccharide which constitutes about 80- 85% of starch.
Cellulose
• Cellulose occurs exclusively in plants & it is the most abundant organic substance in plant kingdom.
• It is a predominant constituent of cell wall of plant cells.
• Cellulose is a straight chain polysaccharide composed only of β-D-glucose units.
Glycogen
• The carbohydrates are stored in animal body as glycogen.

• It is also known as animal starch because its structure is similar to amylopectin & is rather more highly
branched.
• It is present in liver, muscles & brain.
• Glycogen is also found in yeast & fungi.
• When the body needs glucose, enzymes break the glycogen down to glucose.
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Importance of Carbohydrates
• Carbohydrates are essential for life in both plants & animals.
• They form a major portion of our food. Honey has been used for a long time as an instant source of energy
in ayurvedic system of medicine.
• Carbohydrates are used as storage molecules as starch in plants & glycogen in animals.
• Cell wall of bacteria & plants is made up of cellulose which is a carbohydrate.
• We build furniture, etc. from cellulose in the form of wood & clothe ourselves with cellulose in the form
of cotton fibre.
• They provide raw materials for many important industries like textiles, paper, lacquers & breweries.
Summary
• Carbohydrates are optically active polyhydroxy aldehydes or ketones or molecules which provide such units
on hydrolysis.
• They are broadly classified into three groups — monosaccharides, disaccharides and polysaccharides.
• Glucose, the most important source of energy for mammals, is obtained by the digestion of starch.
• Monosaccharides are held together by glycosidic linkages to form disaccharides or polysaccharides.
3. Biomolecules – Amino Acids & Proteins
Amino Acids
• Amino acids are organic compounds containing an amino group (NH2) & an acidic group (COOH) as sub-
stituents on the same carbon i.e., the a-carbon.
• Hence, they are called a-amino acids. They are substituted methanes.
• All proteins are polymers of α-amino acids.

• Amino acids contain amino (–NH2) & carboxyl (–COOH) functional groups.
• Depending upon the relative position of amino group with respect to carboxyl group, the amino acids can
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be classified as α, β, γ, δ & so on.
• Only α-amino acids are obtained on hydrolysis of proteins. PMF IAS – Learn Smart
• All α-amino acids have trivial names, which usually reflect the property of that compound or its source.
• Glycine is so named since it has sweet taste (in Greek glykos means sweet) & tyrosine was first obtained
from cheese (in Greek, tyros mean cheese.)
• Amino acids are classified as acidic, basic or neutral depending upon the relative number of amino & carboxyl
groups in their molecule.
1. Equal number of amino & carboxyl groups makes it neutral;

2. more number of amino than carboxyl groups makes it basic and
3. more carboxyl groups as compared to amino groups makes it acidic.
• The amino acids, which can be synthesized in the body, are known as nonessential amino acids.
• On the other hand, those which cannot be synthesized in the body & must be obtained through diet, are
known as essential amino acids.
 Non-Essential Amino Acids: Amino Acids that our body can make.
 Essential Amino Acids: We get them through our diet/food.
• Amino acids are usually colorless, crystalline solids. These are water-soluble, high melting solids & behave
like salts rather than simple amines or carboxylic acids.
• This behavior is due to the presence of both acidic (carboxyl group) & basic (amino group) groups in the
same molecule.
• In aqueous solution, the carboxyl group can lose a proton & amino group can accept a proton, giving rise to
a dipolar ion known as zwitter ion. This is neutral but contains both positive & negative charges.
• In zwitter ionic form, amino acids show amphoteric behavior as they react both with acids & bases.
• Except glycine, all other naturally occurring α-amino acids are optically active, since the α-carbon atom is
asymmetric.
 Optically Active: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gBELxxGbzKk
Proteins
• Proteins are the most abundant biomolecules of the living system.
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• Chief sources of proteins are milk, cheese, pulses, peanuts, fish, meat, etc.
• They occur in every part of the body & form the fundamental basis of structure & functions of life.
• They are also required for growth & maintenance of body.
• The word protein is derived from Greek word, “proteios” which means primary or of prime importance.
• Proteins are polypeptides.
 Peptide: a compound consisting of two or more amino acids linked in a chain.

 Proteins are linear chains of amino acids linked by peptide bonds.
 Each protein is a polymer of amino acids.
• Collagen is the most abundant protein in animal world.

• Ribulose bisphosphate Carboxylase-Oxygenase (RuBisCO) is the most abundant protein in the whole of
the biosphere.
Structure of Proteins
• You have already read that proteins are the polymers of α-amino acids & they are connected to each other
by peptide bond or peptide linkage.
• Chemically, peptide linkage is an amide (an organic compound containing the group -C(O)NH2) formed be-
tween –COOH group & –NH2
• The reaction between two molecules of similar or different amino acids, proceeds through the combination
of the amino group of one molecule with the carboxyl group of the other.
• This results in the elimination of a water molecule & formation of a peptide bond –CO–NH–. The product of
the reaction is called a dipeptide because it is made up of two amino acids.
• If a third amino acid combines to a dipeptide, the product is called a tripeptide.
• A tripeptide contains three amino acids linked by two peptide linkages.
• Similarly, when four, five or six amino acids are linked, the respective products are known as tetrapeptide,
pentapeptide or hexapeptide, respectively.
• When the number of such amino acids is more than ten, then the products are called polypeptides.
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• A polypeptide with more than hundred amino acid residues, having molecular mass higher than
10,000u is called a protein.
• However, the distinction between a polypeptide & a protein is not very sharp.
• Polypeptides with fewer amino acids are likely to be called proteins if they ordinarily have a well-defined
conformation of a protein such as insulin which contains 51 amino acids.
• Proteins can be classified into two types on the basis of their molecular shape: Fibrous Proteins & Globular
proteins.
Fibrous proteins
• When the polypeptide chains run parallel & are held together by hydrogen & disulphide bonds, then fibre–
like structure is formed.
• Such proteins are generally insoluble in water. Some common examples are keratin (present in hair, wool,
silk) & myosin (present in muscles), etc.
Globular proteins
• This structure results when the chains of polypeptides coil around to give a spherical shape.
• These are usually soluble in water. Insulin & albumins are the common examples of globular proteins.
Primary structure of proteins
• Proteins may have one or more polypeptide chains.

• Each polypeptide in a protein has amino acids linked with each other in a specific sequence & it is this se-
quence of amino acids that is said to be the primary structure of that protein.
• Any change in this primary structure i.e., the sequence of amino acids creates a different protein.
Secondary structure of proteins
• The secondary structure of protein refers to the shape in which a long polypeptide chain can exist.
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• Protein found in a biological system with a unique three-dimensional structure & biological activity is called
a native protein.
• When a protein in its native form, is subjected to physical change like change in temperature or chemical
change like change in pH, the hydrogen bonds are disturbed.
• Due to this, globules unfold & helix get uncoiled & protein loses its biological activity. This is called dena-
turation of protein.
• During denaturation 2° & 3° structures are destroyed but 1º structure remains intact.
• The coagulation of egg white on boiling is a common example of denaturation.
• Another example is curdling of milk which is caused due to the formation of lactic acid by the bacteria
present in milk.
Role of Proteins
1. Some transport nutrients across cell membrane,

2. some fight infectious organisms,
3. some are hormones,
4. some are enzymes, etc.
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Enzymes
• Life is possible due to the coordination of various chemical reactions in living organisms.
• An example is the digestion of food, absorption of appropriate molecules & ultimately production of energy.
• This process involves a sequence of reactions & all these reactions occur in the body under very mild condi-
tions. This occurs with the help of certain biocatalysts called enzymes.
 Catalyst: a substance that increases the rate of a chemical reaction without itself undergoing any perma-
nent chemical change.
• Almost all the enzymes are globular proteins.

• Enzymes are very specific for a particular reaction & for a particular substrate.
• They are generally named after the compound or class of compounds upon which they work.
• For example, the enzyme that catalyses hydrolysis of maltose into glucose is named as maltase.
• Sometimes enzymes are also named after the reaction, where they are used.
• For example, the enzymes which catalyse the oxidation of one substrate with simultaneous reduction of an-
other substrate are named as oxidoreductase.
• The ending of the name of an enzyme is -ase.
• Almost all enzymes are proteins (➔ all enzymes are not proteins).
• There are some nucleic acids that behave like enzymes. These are called ribozymes.
• An enzyme like any protein has a primary structure, i.e., amino acid sequence of the protein.
• Enzyme catalysts differ from inorganic catalysts in many ways.
• Inorganic catalysts work efficiently at high temperatures & high pressures, while enzymes get damaged at
high temperatures (say above 40°C).
• However, enzymes isolated from organisms who normally live under extremely high temperatures (e.g., hot
vents & sulphur springs), are stable & retain their catalytic power even at high temperatures (up to 80°-90°C).
• Thermal stability is thus an important quality of such enzymes isolated from thermophilic organisms.
 Thermophile: a bacterium or other microorganism that grows best at high temperatures (above 45°C).
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Factors Affecting Enzyme Activity
• The activity of an enzyme can be affected by a change in the conditions which can alter the structure of the
protein.
• These include temperature, pH, change in substrate concentration or binding of specific chemicals that reg-
ulate its activity.
Temperature & pH
• Each enzyme shows its highest activity at a particular temperature & pH called the optimum temperature
& optimum pH.
• Activity declines both below & above the optimum value.
• Low temperature preserves the enzyme in a temporarily inactive state whereas high temperature destroys
enzymatic activity because proteins are denatured by heat.
Concentration of Substrate
• With the increase in substrate concentration, the velocity of the enzymatic reaction rises at first.
• The reaction ultimately reaches a maximum velocity (Vmax) which is not exceeded by any further rise in
concentration of the substrate.
• This is because the enzyme molecules are fewer than the substrate molecules & after saturation of these
molecules, there are no free enzyme molecules to bind with the additional substrate molecules.
• The activity of an enzyme is also sensitive to the presence of specific chemicals that bind to the enzyme.
• When the binding of the chemical shuts off enzyme activity, the process is called inhibition & the chemical
is called an inhibitor.
• When the inhibitor closely resembles the substrate in its molecular structure & inhibits the activity of the
enzyme, it is known as competitive inhibitor.
Summary
• Proteins are the polymers of about twenty different α-amino acids which are linked by peptide bonds.
• Ten amino acids are called essential amino acids because they cannot be synthesised by our body, hence
must be provided through diet.
• Proteins perform various structural & dynamic functions in the organisms.
• Proteins which contain only α-amino acids are called simple proteins.
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• The secondary or tertiary structure of proteins get disturbed on change of pH or temperature & they are not
able to perform their functions. This is called denaturation of proteins. PMF IAS – Learn Smart
• Enzymes are biocatalysts which speed up the reactions in biosystems. They are very specific & selective in
their action & chemically all enzymes are proteins.
4. Biomolecules – Metabolites & Vitamins
Primary & Secondary Metabolites

• In animal tissues, one notices the presence of all categories of compounds shown in Figure 9.1. These are
called primary metabolites.
• However, when one analyses plant, fungal & microbial cells, one would see thousands of compounds other
than these called primary metabolites, e.g. alkaloids, flavonoids, rubber, essential oils, antibiotics, colored
pigments, scents, gums, spices. These are called secondary metabolites.
Minerals
• These are inorganic nutrients that also play a key role in ensuring health & well‐ 42
• They include the trace elements copper, iodine, iron, manganese, selenium & zinc together with the macro
elements calcium, magnesium, potassium & sodium.
Vitamins
• Micronutrients, as opposed to macronutrients (protein, carbohydrates & fat), are comprised of vitamins
& minerals which are required in small quantities to ensure normal metabolism & growth.
• Vitamins are organic compounds that are required in small amounts in our diet but their deficiency causes
specific diseases.
• Most of the vitamins cannot be synthesized in our body but plants can synthesize almost all of them, so
they are considered as essential food factors.
• However, the bacteria of the gut can produce some of the vitamins required by us.
• All the vitamins are generally available in our diet.
• Different vitamins belong to various chemical classes & it is difficult to define them on the basis of structure.
• They are generally regarded as organic compounds required in the diet in small amounts to perform spe-
cific biological functions for normal maintenance of optimum growth & health of the organism.
• Vitamins are designated by alphabets A, B, C, D, etc.
• Some of them are further named as sub-groups e.g. B1, B2, B6, B12, etc.
• Each of the 13 vitamins known today have specific functions in the body: vitamin A, provitamin A (Beta‐
carotene), vitamin B1, vitamin B2, vitamin B6, vitamin B12, biotin, vitamin C, vitamin D, vitamin E,
folic acid, vitamin K, niacin & pantothenic acid.
 Vitamin A keeps our skin & eyes healthy.

 Vitamin C helps body to fight against many diseases.
 Vitamin C gets easily destroyed by heat during cooking.
 Vitamin D helps our body to use calcium for bones & teeth.
• Excess of vitamins is also harmful & vitamin pills should not be taken without the advice of doctor.
• The term “Vitamine” was coined from the word vital + amine since the earlier identified compounds had
amino groups.
• Later work showed that most of them did not contain amino groups, so the letter ‘e’ was dropped & the
term vitamin is used these days.
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• Vitamins are classified into two groups depending upon their solubility in water or fat.
Fat soluble vitamins
• Vitamins which are soluble in fat & oils but insoluble in water are kept in this group.
• These are vitamins A, D, E & K. They are stored in liver & adipose (fat storing) tissues.
Water soluble vitamins
• B group vitamins & vitamin C are soluble in water, so they are grouped together.
• Water soluble vitamins must be supplied regularly in diet because they are readily excreted in urine &
cannot be stored (except vitamin B12) in our body.
Important Micronutrients
Vitamin A
• This vital micronutrient is found in a range of different foods including carrots, spinach, broccoli, milk, egg,
liver & fish.
• It plays an essential role in vision (lack of Vitamin A is a common cause of blindness), reproduction &
growth, & a healthy immune system (it plays a key role in the development of white blood cells).
• Worldwide about 5 million children under the age of five are affected by xerophthalmia, a serious eye dis-
order caused by vitamin A deficiency.
• These children are at risk of becoming blind & are more likely to die of common childhood diseases.
Folate (folic acid)
• This is a generic term for a group of B vitamins including folic acid & naturally occurring folates.
• Folic acid is a synthetic folate compound used in vitamin supplements & fortified food because of its in-
creased stability.
• Folates are found in egg, dairy products, asparagus, orange juice, dark green leafy vegetables, beans
& brown bread.
• They play a key role in the metabolism of amino acids & the production of proteins, the synthesis of
nucleic acid (the molecules that carry genetic information in the cells), & the formation of blood cells.
Iodine
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• Seaweed & fish are rich sources but in many countries the addition of iodine (known as iodization) to salt is
an important source.
• Iodine is one of the most important elements required by the developing foetus due to its effect on brain
development.
• Iodine also serves a number of other important functions especially in the production of hormones.
• Goitre is a visible sign of severe iodine deficiency.
Iron
• Iron has a number of key functions within the body. It acts as a carrier for oxygen from the lungs to the
body’s tissues – it does so in the form of hemoglobin – & it also integral to the working of various tissues
through the role that it plays in enzymatic reactions.
• Iron deficiency ultimately leads to anemia, the most common cause of anemia, a condition in which the
blood lacks healthy red bloods cells required to carry oxygen, & which results in morbidity & death.
• Iron deficiency is the most widespread health problem in the world, impairing normal mental development
in 40‐60% of infants in the developing world.
• Iron‐rich foods include lentils, red meat, poultry, fish, lentils, leaf vegetables & chick‐pea.
Zinc
• Found in a range of foodstuffs including liver, eggs, nuts, cereals & seafood.
• The absence of zinc is associated with a number of conditions including, short stature, anemia, impaired
healing of wounds, poor gonadal function, & impaired cognitive & motor function.
• It can also lead to appetite disorders, as well as contributing to the increased severity & incidence of diarrhea
& pneumonia.
• The most important effect of zinc deficiency is its impact on children’s resistance to infectious diseases in-
cluding the risk of infection, the recurrence of infections & the severity of infection.
• This is well document in the case of diarrhoea. Zinc nutrition is therefore an important determinant of mor-
tality in children.
Food Sources of Vitamins & Minerals
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Deficiency Diseases
• A person may be getting enough food to eat, but sometimes the food may not contain a particular nutrient.
If this continues over a long period of time, the person may suffer from its deficiency.
• Deficiency of one or more nutrients can cause diseases or disorders in our body. Diseases that occur due to
lack of nutrients over a long period are called deficiency diseases.
1. Vitamin A--------- Night blindness
2. Vitamin B1---------Beriberi
3. Vitamin B2-------- Ariboflavinosis
4. Vitamin B3 --------Pellagra
5. Vitamin B5 --------Paresthesia
6. Vitamin B6 --------Anemia
7. Vitamin B7 ------ Dermatitis, enteritis
8. Vitamin B9 & Vitamin B12 ----- Megaloblastic anemia
9. Vitamin C ------ Scurvy, Swelling of Gums
10. Vitamin D ------ Rickets & Osteomalacia
11. Vitamin E ------ Less Fertility
12. Vitamin K ------ Non-Clotting of Blood
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Questions
UPSC Prelims 2014: Consider the following pairs:
Vitamin Deficiency disease
1. Vitamin C Scurvy
2. Vitamin D Rickets
3. Vitamin E Night blindness
Which of the pairs given above is/are correctly matched?
a) 1 and 2 only
b) 3 only
c) 1, 2 and 3
d) None
Besides proteins & carbohydrates, other elements of nutritional value found in milk, include
(1996)
a. Calcium, potassium & iron

b. Calcium & potassium
c. Potassium & iron
d. Calcium & iron
What is average fat content of Buffalo Milk?
a. 7.2%
b. 5%
c. 0%
d. 0%
Buffalo Milk → 7.2%

Cow Milk → 4.4%
Buffalo’s milk contain all nutrients in higher proportion than the cow’s milk.
5. Biomolecules – Fats: Trans Fat, Saturated & Unsaturated Fat 48

Lipid
• A lipid is chemically defined as a substance that is insoluble in water & soluble in alcohol & chloroform.
• Lipids are an important component of living cells.
• Together with carbohydrates & proteins, lipids are the main constituents of plant & animal cells.
• Cholesterol & triglycerides are lipids. Lipid is not necessarily a triglyceride.
• Glycerol is a simple sugar alcohol compound.
• A triglyceride is an ester derived from glycerol & three fatty acids (tri + glyceride).
• Triglycerides are the main constituent of body fat in humans & animals, as well as vegetable fat.
Fatty Acid
• A fatty acid is a carboxylic acid with a long aliphatic chain (organic compounds in which carbon atoms
form open chains), which is either saturated or unsaturated.
• Some fatty acids are called essential as they cannot be synthesized in the body from simpler constituents.
• There are two essential fatty acids (EFAs) in human nutrition: alpha-linolenic acid (an omega-3 fatty acid)
& linoleic acid (an omega-6 fatty acid).
Fats
• Fat is one of the three main macronutrients: fat, carbohydrate, & protein.
• Fat is a major source of energy & helps your body absorb vitamins.
• Fat has the most calories compared to any other nutrient.
• Controlling fat intake is important for maintaining weight & preventing or delaying type 2 diabetes.
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• Fats, also known as triglycerides, are esters of three fatty acid chains & the alcohol glycerol.

Source & Credits
• Fats are solids at room temperature.

• Oil refers to a fat with unsaturated fatty acid chains that is liquid at room temperature.
• Fats, like other lipids, are generally insoluble in water.
• Fats & other lipids are broken down in the body by enzymes called LIPASES produced in the pancreas.
Adipose tissue
• In animals, adipose, or fatty tissue with adipose cells is the body's means of storing fat derived from the diet
& from liver metabolism.
• Under stress conditions, adipose cells degrade their stored fat to supply fatty acids & also glycerol.
• These metabolic activities are regulated by several hormones (e.g., insulin, glucagon & epinephrine).
Types of Fats
Saturated fat
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• A saturated fat is a fat in which the fatty acids all have single bonds.
• A saturated fat has the maximum number of hydrogens bonded to the carbons, & therefore is ‘satu‐
rated’ with hydrogen atoms.
• Most animal fats are saturated whereas the fats of plants & fish are generally unsaturated.
• Many experts recommend a diet low in saturated fat.
• Saturated fats are popular with manufacturers of processed foods because they are less vulnerable to ran-
cidity & are, in general, more solid at room temperature than unsaturated fats.
Unsaturated fat
• An unsaturated fat is a fatty acid in which there is at least one double bond within the fatty acid chain.
• Where double bonds are formed, hydrogen atoms are eliminated.
• In cellular metabolism, unsaturated fat molecules contain somewhat less energy (i.e., fewer calories) than
an equivalent amount of saturated fat.
• The greater the degree of unsaturation in a fatty acid (i.e., the more double bonds in the fatty acid) the more
vulnerable it is to rancidity (lipid oxidation or rusting of fats).
• Antioxidants can protect unsaturated fat from lipid oxidation.
Healthy Fats – Omega-3 and Omega-6, Monounsaturated and Polyunsaturated
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• The main types of “healthy” fats are:
✓ monounsaturated (single double bond), PMF IAS – Learn Smart
✓ polyunsaturated (more than one double bond),
✓ alpha-linolenic acid (an omega-3 fatty acid) and
✓ linoleic acid (an omega-6 fatty acid).
• Omega-3 and Omega-6 fatty acids are heart healthy fats.
• They are found in fish, soybean products, Walnuts etc.
• Both of these fatty acids are needed for growth and repair but can also be used to make other fatty acids.
• The omega-3 and omega-6 are fatty acids are both polyunsaturated.
• The difference is in where the first of the double bonds occurs.
• Both omega-3 (ω-3) and omega-6 (ω-6) fatty acids are important components of cell membranes.
• There is increasing support for omega-3 fatty acids in protecting against fatal heart disease and it is known
that they have anti-inflammatory effects.
• There is also growing interest in the role of omega-3 fatty acids in the prevention of diabetes and certain
types of cancer.
• Monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fat are considered “heart healthy” and can help with improv‐
ing cholesterol when used in place of unhealthy fats.
• Some sources of these fats include almonds, cashews, pecans, peanuts, pine nuts, pumpkin, sesame seeds,
sunflower seeds, Olive oil and olives, vegetable oils (sunflower, safflower, corn, soybean, and cottonseed).
Unhealthy Fats – Saturated Fat & Trans Fat
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• The main types of “unhealthy” fats are saturated & trans fat.
• Saturated fats are primarily found in foods that come from animals, such as meat & dairy.
• Saturated fats are unhealthy because they increase LDL (“bad” cholesterol) levels in your body.
• Many saturated fats are “solid” fats that you can see, such as the fat in meat.
• Other sources of saturated fats include high-fat cheese, butter, Ice cream, palm & coconut oils, etc.
• Trans fats or trans-unsaturated fatty acids are a type of unsaturated fats that are uncommon in nature.
• Trans fats are worse than saturated fats.
• Trans fat is simply liquid oils turned into solid fats during food processing.
• Natural trans fats, present in very small amounts in certain animal products, are not considered harmful.
• But industrially produced artificial trans fats (manufactured by adding hydrogen to vegetable oil) have
the tendency to negatively alter the lipoprotein cholesterol profile by increasing the level of bad cho-
lesterol (LDL) while decreasing the level of HDL or good cholesterol.
• These changes in the lipoprotein cholesterol clog arteries & cause hypertension, increase the risk of type-II
diabetes, heart attacks & other cardiovascular diseases.
• Foods containing trans fat are usually labelled as “partially hydrogenated”.
• Partially hydrogenated oil is less likely to spoil, so foods made with it have a longer shelf life.
• Trans fats are easy to use, inexpensive to produce & last a long time.
• Trans fats give foods a desirable taste & texture.
• These trans fats are largely found in vanaspati oil, margarine, bakery items, & in baked & fried foods.
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Elimination Trans Fat from Food
• Feb 2021: The Food Safety & Standards Authority of India (FSSAI) has put a cap on trans fatty acids (TFAs)
in food products, just weeks after it tightened the norms for oils & fats.
• FSSAI had capped trans fats in oils & fats to 3% by 2021, & 2% by 2022 from the current levels of 5%.
• From 01/01/2022, India will limit trans fat to 2% by mass of the total oils/fats present in a food product.
• While FSSAI mentions edible oils & fats, it also applies to emulsions such as margarines.
• Even when the fat/oil contains less than 2% trans fat, repeated heating can increase the trans fat content.
• WHO has called for the elimination of industrially produced trans fatty acids from the global food supply
by 2023. (India will be achieving the target a year in advance)
• Denmark became the first country to limit industrially produced trans fats in all foods to 2% of fats & oils.
• EU adopted a new regulation to limit industrially produced trans fat to 2% in foods sold within the EU.
• It is now well known that trans fat can be completely eliminated & replaced with healthier substitutes
without any change in the food taste or cost.
• According to WHO, a dozen large multinational food companies have already committed to eliminate indus-
trially produced trans fat from all their products by 2023.
• Over 77,000 deaths annually are attributed to trans fats consumption in India.
Previous Prelims Question: Statements:
1. Trans fats are considered beneficial for the human body

2. Double bond chemistry of the fat molecules in Trans fats causes a Plaque formation
3. Omega-3 fatty acids are considered healthier than the saturated fatty acids
Codes:
a. 1 & 3
b. 2 & 3
c. 1 & 2
d. 1, 2, 3
Ans. B
6. Animal Tissues
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• Blood and muscles are both examples of tissues found in our body.
• On the basis of the functions, they perform we can think of different types of animal tissues, such as epithelial
tissue, connective tissue, muscular tissue and nervous tissue.
• Blood is a type of connective tissue, and muscle forms muscular tissue.
Epithelial Tissue
• The covering or protective tissues in the animal body are epithelial tissues.
• Epithelium covers most organs and cavities within the body.
• It also forms a barrier to keep different body systems separate.
• The skin, the lining of the mouth, the lining of blood vessels, lung alveoli and kidney tubules are all
made of epithelial tissue.
• Epithelial tissue cells are tightly packed and form a continuous sheet.
• They have only a small amount of cementing material between them and almost no intercellular spaces.
• Obviously, anything entering or leaving the body must cross at least one layer of epithelium.
• As a result, cells of various epithelia play an important role in regulating the exchange of materials between
the body and the external environment and between different parts of the body.
• Regardless of the type, all epithelium is usually separated from the underlying tissue by an extracellular fi-
brous basement membrane.
• There are two types of epithelial tissues namely simple epithelium and compound epithelium.
Simple Epithelium
• Simple epithelium is composed of a single layer of cells and functions as a lining for body cavities, ducts,
and tubes.
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Squamous Epithelium
• The squamous epithelium is made of a single thin layer of flattened cells with irregular boundaries.
• They are found in the walls of blood vessels and air sacs of lungs and are involved in functions like forming
a diffusion boundary.
• Different epithelia show differing structures that correlate with their unique functions.
• For example, in cells lining blood vessels or lung alveoli, where transportation of substances occurs through
a selectively Permeable surface, there is a simple flat kind of epithelium.
• This is called the simple Squamous epithelium.
• Simple squamous epithelial cells are extremely thin and flat and form a delicate lining.
• The oesophagus and the lining of the mouth are also covered with squamous epithelium.
Stratified Squamous Epithelium
• The skin, which protects the body, is made of squamous epithelium.

• Skin epithelial cells are arranged in many layers to prevent wear and tear.
• Since they are arranged in a pattern of layers, the epithelium is called stratified squamous epithelium.
Ciliated Columnar Epithelium
• The columnar epithelium is composed of a single layer of tall and slender cells.
• Their nuclei are located at the base.
• Where absorption and secretion occur, as in the inner lining of the intestine, tall epithelial cells are present.
• In the respiratory tract, the columnar epithelial tissue also has cilia, which are hair-like projections on the
outer surfaces of epithelial cells.
• These cilia can move, and their movement pushes the mucus forward to clear it. This type of epithelium
is thus ciliated columnar epithelium.
• They are mainly present in the inner surface of hollow organs like bronchioles and fallopian tubes.
Cuboidal Epithelium
• The cuboidal epithelium is composed of a single layer of cube-like cells.

• This is commonly found in ducts of glands and tubular parts of nephrons in kidneys and its main functions
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are secretion and absorption.
• Cuboidal epithelium (with cube-shaped cells) forms the lining of kidney tubules and ducts of salivary
glands, where it provides mechanical support.
Glandular Epithelium
• Epithelial cells often acquire additional specialization as gland cells, which can secrete substances at the
epithelial surface.
• Sometimes a portion of the epithelial tissue folds inward, and a multicellular gland is formed. This is glandular
epithelium.
• Some of the columnar or cuboidal cells get specialized for secretion and are called glandular epithelium.
• They are mainly of two types: unicellular, consisting of isolated glandular cells (goblet cells of the alimentary
canal), and multicellular, consisting of cluster of cells (salivary gland).
• Based on the mode of pouring of their secretions, glands are divided into two categories namely EXOCRINE
and ENDOCRINE glands.
• Exocrine glands secrete mucus, saliva, earwax, oil, milk, digestive enzymes and other cell products.
• These products are released through ducts or tubes.
• In contrast, endocrine glands do not have ducts.
• Their products called hormones are secreted directly into the fluid bathing the gland.
Compound Epithelium
• Compound epithelium is made of more than one layer (multi-layered) of cells and thus has a limited role
in secretion and absorption.
• Their main function is to provide protection against chemical and mechanical stresses.
• They cover the dry surface of the skin, the moist surface of buccal cavity, pharynx, inner lining of ducts
of salivary glands and of pancreatic ducts.
• All cells in epithelium are held together with little intercellular material.
• In nearly all animal tissues, specialized junctions provide both structural and functional links between its
individual cells.
• Three types of cell junctions are found in the epithelium and other tissues. These are called as tight, adhering
and gap junctions.
• Tight junctions help to stop substances from leaking across a tissue.
• Adhering junctions perform cementing to keep neighboring cells together.
• Gap junctions facilitate the cells to communicate with each other by connecting the cytoplasm of adjoining
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cells, for rapid transfer of ions, small molecules and sometimes big molecules.

Connective Tissue
• Connective tissues are most abundant and widely distributed in the body of complex animals.
• They are named connective tissues because of their special function of linking and supporting other tis-
sues/organs of the body.
• They range from soft connective tissues to specialized types, which include cartilage, bone, adipose, and
blood.
• In all connective tissues except blood, the cells secrete fibres of structural proteins called collagen/elas-
tin.
• The fibres provide strength, elasticity, and flexibility to the tissue.
• These cells also secrete modified polysaccharides, which accumulate between cells and fibres and act as
matrix (ground substance).
• Connective tissues are classified into three types: (i) Loose connective tissue, (ii) Dense connective tissue and
(iii) Specialized connective tissue.
Loose Connective Tissue
• Loose connective tissue has cells & fibres loosely arranged in a semi-fluid ground substance, for example,
areolar tissue present beneath the skin.
• Often it serves as a support framework for epithelium.
• It contains:
✓ fibroblasts (cells that produce & secrete fibres),

✓ macrophages (a large phagocytic cell found in stationary form in the tissues or as a mobile white blood
cell, especially at sites of infection) &
✓ mast cells (a cell found in connective tissue & releasing histamine & other substances during inflamma-
tory & allergic reactions).
• Adipose tissue is a type of loose connective tissue located mainly beneath the skin.
• The cells of this tissue are specialized to store fats.
• The excess of nutrients which are not used immediately are converted into fats & are stored in this tissue.
Dense Connective Tissue
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• Fibres & fibroblasts are compactly packed in the dense connective tissues.
• Orientation of fibres show a regular or irregular pattern & are called dense regular & dense irregular tissues.
• In the dense regular connective tissues, the collagen fibres are present in rows between many parallel bundles
of fibres.
• Tendons, which attach skeletal muscles to bones & ligaments which attach one bone to another are exam-
ples of this tissue.
• Dense irregular connective tissue has fibroblasts & many fibres (mostly collagen) that are oriented differently.
This tissue is present in the skin.
Specialized Connective Tissue – Cartilage, Bones, Blood, Areolar
• Cartilage, bones & blood are various types of specialized connective tissues.
• The intercellular material of cartilage is solid & pliable & resists compression.
• Cells of this tissue (chondrocytes) are enclosed in small cavities within the matrix secreted by them.
• Most of the cartilages in vertebrate embryos are replaced by bones in adults.
• Cartilage is present in the tip of nose, outer ear joints, trachea, larynx, between adjacent bones of the
vertebral column, limbs & hands in adults.
• Bone cells are embedded in a hard matrix that is composed of calcium & phosphorus compounds.
• Bones have a hard & non-pliable ground substance rich in calcium salts & collagen fibres which give bone
its strength.
• The bone cells (osteocytes) are present in the spaces called lacunae.
• The bone marrow in some bones is the site of production of blood cells.
• Two bones can be connected to each other by another type of connective tissue called the ligament.
• This tissue is very elastic. It has considerable strength. Ligaments contain very little matrix.
• Tendons connect bones to muscles & are another type of connective tissue.
• Tendons are fibrous tissue with great strength but limited flexibility.
• Blood is a fluid connective tissue containing plasma, red blood cells (RBC), white blood cells (WBC) &
platelets. It is the main circulating fluid that helps in the transport of various substances.
• Areolar connective tissue is found between the skin & muscles, around blood vessels & nerves & in the
bone marrow.
• It fills the space inside the organs, supports internal organs & helps in repair of tissues.
Muscular Tissue
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• Each muscle is made of many long, cylindrical fibres arranged in parallel arrays.
• These fibres are composed of numerous fine fibrils, called myofibrils.
• Muscle fibres contract (shorten) in response to stimulation, then relax (lengthen) & return to their uncon-
tracted state in a coordinated fashion.
• Muscles contain special proteins called contractile proteins, which contract & relax to cause movement.
• Muscles are of three types, skeletal, smooth, & cardiac.
Skeletal Muscle Tissue – Voluntary Muscles
• We can move some muscles by conscious will. Such muscles are called voluntary muscles.
• These muscles are also called skeletal muscles as they are mostly attached to bones & help in movement.
• Under the microscope, these muscles show alternate light & dark bands or striations.
• As a result, they are also called striated muscles.
• The cells of this tissue are long, cylindrical, unbranched & multinucleate (having many nuclei).
• Skeletal muscle tissue is closely attached to skeletal bones.
• In a typical muscle such as the biceps, striated (striped) skeletal muscle fibres are bundled together in a
parallel fashion. A sheath of tough connective tissue encloses several bundles of such muscle fibres.
Smooth Muscle Tissue – Involuntary Muscles
• The movement of food in the alimentary canal or the contraction & relaxation of blood vessels are involuntary
movements.
• We cannot really start them or stop them simply by wanting to do so! Smooth muscles or involuntary mus-
cles control such movements.
• They are also found in the iris of the eye, in ureters & in the bronchi of the lungs.
• The cells are long with pointed ends (spindle-shaped) & uninucleate (having a single nucleus). They are
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also called unstriated muscles.
• The smooth muscle fibres taper at both ends (fusiform, spindle-shaped) & do not show striations. PMF IAS – Learn Smart
• Cell junctions hold them together & they are bundled together in a connective tissue sheath.
• The wall of internal organs such as the blood vessels, stomach & intestine contains this type of muscle tissue.
Cardiac Muscle Tissue – Involuntary Muscles
• The muscles of the heart show rhythmic contraction & relaxation throughout life.
• These involuntary muscles are called cardiac muscles.
• Heart muscle cells are cylindrical, branched & uninucleate.
• Cardiac muscle tissue is a contractile tissue present only in the heart.
• Cell junctions fuse the plasma membranes of cardiac muscle cells & make them stick together.
• Communication junctions (intercalated discs) at some fusion points allow the cells to contract as a unit, i.e.,
when one cell receives a signal to contract, its neighbors are also stimulated to contract.
Nervous Tissue
• Neural tissue exerts the greatest control over the body’s responsiveness to changing conditions.
• Neurons, the unit of neural system are excitable cells.
• The neuroglial cell constitute the rest of the neural system and protects & support neurons.
• Neuroglia make up more than one-half the volume of neural tissue in our body.
• When a neuron is suitably stimulated, an electrical disturbance is generated which swiftly travels along
its plasma membrane.
• Arrival of the disturbance at the neuron’s endings, or output zone, triggers events that may cause stimulation
or inhibition of adjacent neurons & other cells.
• All cells possess the ability to respond to stimuli.
• However, cells of the nervous tissue are highly specialized for being stimulated & then transmitting the stim-
ulus very rapidly from one place to another within the body.
• The brain, spinal cord & nerves are all composed of the nervous tissue.
• The cells of this tissue are called nerve cells or neurons.
• A neuron consists of a cell body with a nucleus & cytoplasm, from which long thin hair-like parts arise.
• Usually, each neuron has a single long part, called the axon, & many short, branched parts called dendrites.
• An individual nerve cell may be up to a metre long.
• Many nerve fibres bound together by connective tissue make up a nerve.
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• Nerve impulses allow us to move our muscles when we want to.
• The functional Combination of nerve & muscle tissue is fundamental to most animals. PMF IAS – Learn Smart
• This combination enables animals to move rapidly in response to stimuli.
7. Human Digestive System
• Biomacromolecules in food cannot be utilized by our body in their original form.

• They have to be broken down & converted into simple substances (glucose, amino acids etc.) in the digestive
system.
• During the digestion process, Biomacromolecules like
1. carbohydrates get broken into simple sugars such as glucose,

2. fats into fatty acids & glycerol,
3. proteins into amino acids.
• This process of conversion of complex food substances to simple absorbable forms is called digestion.
Alimentary Canal
• The food passes through a continuous canal called alimentary canal.

• The canal can be divided into various compartments: (1) the buccal cavity, (2) foodpipe or oesophagus, (3)
stomach, (4) small intestine, (5) large intestine ending in the rectum & (6) the anus.
• The activities of the gastro-intestinal tract (alimentary canal) are under neural & hormonal control for proper
coordination of different parts.
• The sight, smell and/or the presence of food in the oral cavity can stimulate the secretion of saliva.
• Gastric & intestinal secretions are also, similarly, stimulated by neural signals.
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Buccal Cavity or Oral Cavity – Teeth, Tongue, Saliva
• The process of taking food into the body is called ingestion.

• The mouth leads to the buccal cavity or oral cavity.
• The oral cavity has a number of teeth & a muscular tongue.
• Each tooth is embedded in a socket of jaw bone.
• Majority of mammals including human being forms two sets of teeth during their life, a set of temporary
milk or deciduous teeth (milk teeth) replaced by a set of permanent or adult teeth (permanent teeth).
• An adult human has 32 permanent teeth which are of four different types, namely, incisors (I), canine (C),
premolars (PM) & molars (M).
• Arrangement of teeth in each half of the upper & lower jaw in the order I, C, PM, M is represented by a dental
formula which in human is 2123/2123 (2-I,1-C,2-PM,3-M)
• The hard chewing surface of the teeth, made up of enamel (Enamel is the hardest substance in the hu-
man body & contains the highest percentage of minerals), helps in the mastication (chewing) of food.
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• Our mouth has the salivary glands which secrete saliva.
• The saliva breaks down the starch into sugars.
• The saliva secreted into the oral cavity contains electrolytes (Na+, K+, Cl", HCOs) & enzymes salivary am-
ylase & lysozyme.
• The chemical process of digestion is initiated in the oral cavity by the hydrolytic action of the carbohydrate
splitting enzyme, the salivary amylase.
• About 30 per cent of starch is hydrolysed here by this enzyme (optimum pH 6.8) into a disaccharide - malt-
ose.
• Lysozyme present in saliva acts as an antibacterial agent that prevents infections.
• The tongue is a fleshy muscular organ attached at the back to the floor of the buccal cavity.
• It mixes saliva with the food during chewing & helps in swallowing food.
• The tongue is attached to the floor of the oral cavity by the frenulum (a fold of skin beneath the tongue).
• The upper surface of the tongue has small projections called papillae, some of which bear taste buds.
Foodpipe/Oesophagus
• The oral cavity leads into a short pharynx which serves as a common passage for food & air.
• The esophagus & the trachea (windpipe) open into the pharynx.
• A cartilaginous flap called epiglottis prevents the entry of food into the glottis during swallowing.
• The swallowed food passes into the foodpipe or oesophagus.
• The oesophagus is a thin, long tube which extends posteriorly (further back in position) passing through the
neck, thorax (the part of the body of a mammal between the neck & the abdomen) & diaphragm (separates
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the thorax from the abdomen in mammals) & leads to a ‘J’ shaped bag like structure called stomach.
• Mucus in saliva helps in lubricating & adhering the masticated food particles into a bolus. PMF IAS – Learn Smart
• The bolus is then conveyed into the pharynx & then into the oesophagus by swallowing or deglutition.
• The bolus further passes down through the oesophagus by successive waves of muscular contractions
called peristalsis. The gastro-oesophageal sphincter controls the passage of food into the stomach.
Stomach
• The inner lining of the stomach secretes mucous, hydrochloric acid & digestive juices.
1. The mucous protects the lining of the stomach.
2. The acid kills many bacteria that enter along with the food & makes the medium in the stomach acidic.
3. The digestive juices break down the proteins into simpler substances.
• A muscular sphincter (gastro-oesophageal) (a ring of muscle surrounding & serving to guard or close an
opening) regulates the opening of oesophagus into the stomach.
• The stomach, located in the upper left portion of the abdominal cavity, has three major parts – a cardiac
portion into which the oesophagus opens, a fundic region & a pyloric portion which opens into the first
part of small intestine.
Small intestine
• Small intestine is distinguishable into three regions, a ‘C’ shaped duodenum, a long coiled middle portion
jejunum & a highly coiled ileum.
• The opening of the stomach into the duodenum is guarded by the pyloric sphincter.
• Ileum opens into the large intestine.
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• The small intestine is highly coiled & is about 5 meters long.
• It receives secretions from the liver & the pancreas. Besides, its wall also secretes juices.
• The digested food passes into the blood vessels in the wall of the intestine. This process is called absorption.
• The inner walls of the small intestine have thousands of finger-like outgrowths.
• These are called villi (singular villus).
• The villi increase the surface area for absorption of the digested food.
• Villi are supplied with a network of capillaries & a large lymph (a colourless fluid containing white blood
cells) vessel called the lacteal.
• The absorbed substances are transported via the blood vessels to different organs of the body where they
are used to build complex substances such as the proteins required by the body. This is called assimilation.
• In the cells, glucose breaks down with the help of oxygen into carbon dioxide & water, & energy is re-
leased.
• The food that remains undigested & unabsorbed then enters into the large intestine.
Large intestine
• The large intestine is wider & shorter than small intestine.

• It is about 1.5 metre in length.
• Its function is to absorb water & some salts from the undigested food material.
• The remaining waste passes into the rectum & remains there as semi-solid faeces.
• The faecal matter is removed through the anus from time-to-time. This is called egestion.
 Ingestion → Digestion → Absorption → Assimilation → Egestion
• It consists of caecum, colon & rectum.
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• Caecum is a small blind sac which hosts some symbiotic micro-organisms.
• A narrow finger -like tubular projection, the vermiform appendix which is a vestigial organ (small remnant PMF IAS – Learn Smart
of something that was once more noticeable), arises from the caecum.
• Appendix was helpful in digesting roughage (fibrous indigestible material in vegetable foodstuffs which
aids the passage of food & waste products through the gut).
• Thousands of years ago, when humans used to eat roots, leaves, etc., it was essential. But now it has lost its
significance.
• The caecum opens into the colon. The colon is divided into three parts - an ascending, a transverse & a
descending part. The descending part opens into the rectum which opens out through the anus.
• No significant digestive activity occurs in the large intestine.
• The functions of large intestine are absorption of some water, minerals & certain drugs; secretion of mucus
which helps in adhering the waste (undigested) particles together & lubricating it for an easy passage.
• The undigested, unabsorbed substances called faeces enters into the caecum of the large intestine
through ileo-caecal valve, which prevents the back flow of the faecal matter.
Layers of Alimentary Canal
• The wall of alimentary canal from oesophagus to rectum possesses four layers namely serosa, muscularis,
sub-mucosa & mucosa.
• Serosa is the outermost layer & is made up of a thin mesothelium (epithelium of visceral organs) with some
connective tissues.
• Muscularis is formed by smooth muscles.
• The submucosal layer is formed of loose connective tissues containing nerves, blood & lymph vessels. In
duodenum, glands are also present in sub-mucosa.
• The innermost layer lining the lumen of the alimentary canal is the mucosa. This layer forms irregular folds
(rugae) in the stomach & small finger-like foldings called villi in the small intestine.
• Mucosal epithelium has goblet cells which secrete mucus that help in lubrication.
• Mucosa also forms glands in the stomach (gastric glands).
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Digestive Glands
• The digestive glands associated with the alimentary canal include the salivary glands, the liver & the pan-
creas.
Salivary glands
• Saliva is mainly produced by three pairs of salivary glands, the parotids (cheek), the sub-maxillary (lower
jaw) & the sub-linguals (below the tongue).
• These glands situated just outside the buccal cavity secrete salivary juice into the buccal cavity.
• The saliva breaks down the starch into sugars.
Liver
• The liver is a reddish-brown gland situated in the upper part of the abdomen on the right side.
• It is the largest gland in the body.
• It secretes bile juice that is stored in a sac called the gall bladder.
• The bile plays an important role in the digestion of fats.
• It has two lobes. The hepatic lobules are the structural & functional units of liver containing hepatic cells.
• The bile secreted by the hepatic cells passes through the hepatic ducts & is stored & concentrated in a thin
muscular sac called the gall bladder.
• The duct of gall bladder (cystic duct) along with the hepatic duct from the liver, forms the common bile
duct.
• The bile duct & the pancreatic duct open together into the duodenum as the common hepato-pancreatic
duct which is guarded by a sphincter called the sphincter of Oddi.
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Pancreas
• The pancreas is a large cream coloured gland located just below the stomach.
• The pancreatic juice acts on carbohydrates & proteins & changes them into simpler forms.
• The partly digested food now reaches the lower part of the small intestine where the intestinal juice (succus
entericus) completes the digestion of all components of the food.
• The pancreas is a compound (both exocrine & endocrine) elongated organ situated between the limbs
of the ‘U’ shaped duodenum.
• The exocrine portion secretes an alkaline pancreatic juice containing enzymes & the endocrine portion se-
cretes hormones, insulin & glucagon.
Digestion – Enzyme Action in Stomach
• The stomach stores the food for 4-5 hours.

• The food mixes thoroughly with the acidic gastric juice of the stomach by the churning movements of its
muscular wall & is called the chyme.
• The proenzyme (inactive precursor of an enzyme) pepsinogen, on exposure to hydrochloric acid gets con-
verted into the active enzyme pepsin, the proteolytic (breakdown of proteins or peptides into amino
acids) enzyme of the stomach.
• Pepsin converts proteins into proteoses & peptones (peptides).
• The mucus & bicarbonates present in the gastric juice play an important role in lubrication & protection of
the mucosal epithelium from excoriation by the highly concentrated hydrochloric acid.
• HCl provides the acidic pH (pH 1.8) optimal for pepsins.
• Rennin is a proteolytic enzyme found in gastric juice of infants which helps in the digestion of milk pro-
teins.
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Digestion – Enzyme Action in Small Intestine
• The pancreatic juice contains inactive enzymes - trypsinogen, chymotrypsinogen, procarboxypeptidases, am-
ylases, lipases & nucleases.
• Trypsinogen is activated by an enzyme, enterokinase, secreted by the intestinal mucosa into active trypsin,
which in turn activates the other enzymes in the pancreatic juice.
• The bile released into the duodenum contains bile pigments (bilirubin & biliverdin), bile salts, cholesterol &
phospholipids but no enzymes.
• Bile helps in emulsification of fats, i.e., breaking down of the fats into very small micelles.
• Bile also activates lipases. Small amounts of lipases are secreted by gastric glands.
• The intestinal mucosal epithelium has goblet cells which secrete mucus.
• The secretions of the mucosa along with the secretions of the goblet cells constitute the intestinal juice.
• This juice contains a variety of enzymes like disaccharidases (e.g., maltase), dipeptidases, lipases, nucle-
osidases, etc.
• Hormonal control of the secretion of digestive juices is carried out by local hormones produced by the gastric
& intestinal mucosa.
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• The mucus along with the bicarbonates from the pancreas protects the intestinal mucosa from acid as
well as provide an alkaline medium (pH 7.8) for enzymatic activities.
• The breakdown of biomacromolecules mentioned above occurs in the duodenum region of the small intes-
tine.
• The simple substances thus formed are absorbed in the jejunum & ileum regions of the small intestine.
• The undigested & unabsorbed substances are passed on to the large intestine.
Absorption of Digested Products

• Absorption is the process by which the end products of digestion pass through the intestinal mucosa into
the blood or lymph.
• Small amounts of monosaccharides like glucose, amino acids & some electrolytes like chloride ions are
generally absorbed by simple diffusion.
• The passage of these substances into the blood depends upon the concentration gradients.
• However, sometimes substances like glucose & amino acids are absorbed with the help of carrier proteins.
• This mechanism is called the facilitated transport.
• Transport of water depends upon the osmotic gradient.
• Active transport occurs against the concentration gradient & hence requires energy.
• Various nutrients like amino acids, monosaccharides like glucose, electrolytes like Na+ are absorbed into the
blood by this mechanism.
• Fatty acids & glycerol being insoluble, cannot be absorbed into the blood.
• They are first incorporated into small droplets called micelles which move into the intestinal mucosa.
• They are re-formed into very small protein coated fat globules called the chylomicrons which are trans-
ported into the lymph vessels (lacteals) in the villi.
• These lymph vessels ultimately release the absorbed substances into the blood stream.
• Absorption of substances takes place in different parts of the alimentary canal, like mouth, stomach, small
intestine & large intestine. However, maximum absorption occurs in the small intestine.
Summary of Absorption in Different Parts of Digestive System
Mouth Stomach Small Intestine Large Intes-

tine
Certain drugs coming in Absorption Principal organ for absorption of nutrients. Absorption of
contact with the mucosa of of water, The digestion is completed here & the final water, some
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mouth & lower side of the simple sug- products of digestion such as glucose, fructose, minerals &
tongue are absorbed into ars, & alco- fatty acids, glycerol & amino acids are ab- drugs takes PMF IAS – Learn Smart
the blood capillaries lining hol etc. sorbed through the mucosa into the blood place.
them. takes place. stream & lymph.
Disorders of Digestive System
• The inflammation of the intestinal tract is the most common ailment due to bacterial or viral infections.
• The infections are also caused by the parasites of the intestine like tapeworm, roundworm, threadworm,
hookworm, pin worm, etc.
• Jaundice: The liver is affected; skin & eyes turn yellow due to the deposit of bile pigments.
• Vomiting: It is the ejection of stomach contents through the mouth. This reflex action is controlled by the
vomit centre in the medulla. A feeling of nausea precedes vomiting.
• Diarrhoea: The abnormal frequency of bowel movement & increased liquidity of the faecal discharge is
known as diarrhoea. It reduces the absorption of food.
• Constipation: In constipation, the faeces are retained within the rectum as the bowel movements occur ir-
regularly.
• Indigestion: In this condition, the food is not properly digested leading to a feeling of fullness. The causes
of indigestion are inadequate enzyme secretion, anxiety, food poisoning, over eating, & spicy food.
8. Respiration – Breathing & Exchange of Gases
• Oxygen (O2) is utilized by the organisms to indirectly break down nutrient molecules like glucose & to derive
energy for performing various activities.
• CO2 which is harmful is also released during the above catabolic reactions (release of energy).
• It is, therefore, evident that O2 has to be continuously provided to the cells & CO2 produced by the cells
have to be released out.
• This process of exchange of O2 from the atmosphere with CO2 produced by the cells is called breathing,
commonly known as respiration.
• Mechanisms of breathing vary among different groups of animals depending mainly on their habitats & levels
of organization.
• Lower invertebrates like sponges, coelenterates, flatworms, etc., exchange O2 with CO2 by simple diffu-
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sion over their entire body surface.
• Earthworms use their moist cuticle & insects have a network of tubes (tracheal tubes) to transport atmos-
pheric air within the body.
• Special vascularized structures called gills are used by most of the aquatic arthropods & molluscs whereas
vascularised bags called lungs are used by the terrestrial forms for the exchange of gases.
• Among vertebrates, fishes use gills whereas reptiles, birds & mammals respire through lungs.
• Amphibians like frogs can respire through their moist skin.
• Mammals usually have a well-developed respiratory system.
Human Respiratory System
• We have a pair of external nostrils opening out above the upper lips.
• It leads to a nasal chamber through the nasal passage.
• The nasal chamber opens into the pharynx, a portion of which is the common passage for food & air.
• The pharynx opens through the larynx region into the trachea.
• Larynx is a cartilaginous box which helps in sound production & hence called the sound box.
• During swallowing glottis can be covered by a thin elastic cartilaginous flap called epiglottis to prevent the
entry of food into the larynx.
• Trachea is a straight tube which divides into a right & left primary bronchi.
• Each bronchi undergoes repeated divisions to form the secondary & tertiary bronchi & bronchioles ending
up in very thin terminal bronchioles.
• The tracheae, primary, secondary & tertiary bronchi are supported by incomplete cartilaginous rings.
• Each terminal bronchiole gives rise to a number of very thin, irregular-walled & vascularised bag-like struc-
tures called alveoli.
• The branching network of bronchi, bronchioles & alveoli comprise the lungs.
• We have two lungs which are covered by a double layered pleura, with pleural fluid between them.
• It reduces friction on the lung-surface.
• The outer pleural membrane is in close contact with the thoracic lining whereas the inner pleural membrane
is in contact with the lung surface.
• The part starting with the external nostrils up to the terminal bronchioles constitute the conducting part
whereas the alveoli & their ducts form the respiratory or exchange part of the respiratory system.
• The conducting part transports the atmospheric air to the alveoli, clears it from foreign particles, humidi-
fies & also brings the air to body temperature.
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• Exchange part is the site of actual diffusion of O2 & CO2 between blood & atmospheric air.
• The lungs are situated in the thoracic chamber which is anatomically an air-tight chamber.
• The thoracic chamber is formed dorsally by the vertebral column, ventrally by the sternum (breastbone),
laterally by the ribs & on the lower side by the dome-shaped diaphragm.
• The anatomical setup of lungs in thorax is such that any change in the volume of the thoracic cavity will be
reflected in the lung (pulmonary) cavity.
• Such an arrangement is essential for breathing, as we cannot directly alter the pulmonary volume.
Respiration involves the following steps:
1. Breathing or pulmonary ventilation by which atmospheric air is drawn in & CO2 rich alveolar air is
released out.
2. Diffusion of gases (O2 & CO2) across alveolar membrane.
3. Transport of gases by the blood.
4. Diffusion of O2 & CO2 between blood & tissues.
5. Utilisation of O2 by the cells for catabolic reactions & resultant release of CO2.
Mechanism of Breathing
• Breathing involves two stages: inspiration during which atmospheric air is drawn in & expiration by which
the alveolar air is released out.
• The movement of air into & out of the lungs is carried out by creating a pressure gradient between the lungs
& the atmosphere.
• Inspiration can occur if the pressure within the lungs (intra-pulmonary pressure) is less than the atmospheric
pressure, i.e., there is a negative pressure in the lungs with respect to atmospheric pressure.
• Similarly, expiration takes place when the intra-pulmonary pressure is higher than the atmospheric pressure.
• The diaphragm & a specialized set of muscles – external & internal intercostals between the ribs, help
in generation of such gradients.
• Inspiration is initiated by the contraction of diaphragm which increases the volume of thoracic chamber in
the antero-posterior axis.
• The contraction of external inter-costal muscles lifts up the ribs & the sternum causing an increase in the
volume of the thoracic chamber in the dorso-ventral axis.
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• The overall increase in the thoracic volume causes a similar increase in pulmonary volume.
• An increase in pulmonary volume decreases the intra-pulmonary pressure to less than the atmospheric pres-
sure which forces the air from outside to move into the lungs, i.e., inspiration.
• Relaxation of the diaphragm & the inter-costal muscles returns the diaphragm & sternum to their normal
positions & reduce the thoracic volume & thereby the pulmonary volume.
• This leads to an increase in intra-pulmonary pressure to slightly above the atmospheric pressure causing the
expulsion of air from the lungs, i.e., expiration.
• We have the ability to increase the strength of inspiration & expiration with the help of additional muscles in
the abdomen.
• On an average, a healthy human breathes 12-16 times/minute.
• The volume of air involved in breathing movements can be estimated by using a spirometer which helps in
clinical assessment of pulmonary functions.
Exchange of Gases
• Alveoli are the primary sites of exchange of gases. Exchange of gases also occur between blood & tissues.
• O2 & CO2 are exchanged in these sites by simple diffusion based on pressure/concentration gradient.
• Partial pressure of gasses, solubility of the gases as well as the thickness of the membranes involved in
diffusion are some important factors that can affect the rate of diffusion.
• Pressure contributed by an individual gas in a mixture of gases is called partial pressure.
Transport of Gases
• Blood is the medium of transport for O2 & CO2.

• About 97 per cent of O2 is transported by RBCs in the blood.
• The remaining 3 per cent of O2 is carried in a dissolved state through the plasma.
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• Nearly 20-25 per cent of CO2 is transported by RBCs whereas 70 per cent of it is carried as bicarbonate.
• About 7 per cent of CO2 is carried in a dissolved state through plasma. PMF IAS – Learn Smart
Transport of Oxygen
• Haemoglobin is a red coloured iron containing pigment present in the RBCs.

• O2 can bind with haemoglobin in a reversible manner to form oxyhaemoglobin.
• Each haemoglobin molecule can carry a maximum of four molecules of O2.
• Binding of oxygen with haemoglobin is primarily related to partial pressure of O2.
• Partial pressure of CO2, hydrogen ion concentration & temperature are the other factors which can interfere
with this binding.
Transport of Carbon dioxide
• CO2 is carried by haemoglobin as carbamino-haemoglobin (about 20-25 per cent).

• This binding is related to the partial pressure of CO2.
• Partial pressure of O2 is a major factor which could affect this binding.
• RBCs contain a very high concentration of the enzyme, carbonic anhydrase & minute quantities of the same
is present in the plasma too.
• Nearly 70 per cent of carbon dioxide is transported as bicarbonate (HCO3) with the help of the enzyme
carbonic anhydrase.
• At the tissue site where partial pressure of CO2 is high due to catabolism (the breakdown of complex mole-
cules in living organisms to form simpler ones, together with the release of energy), CO2 diffuses into blood
(RBCs & plasma) & forms HCO3 & H+-.
• At the alveolar site where pCO2 is low, the reaction proceeds in the opposite direction leading to the for-
mation of CO2 & H2O.
• Thus, CO2 trapped as bicarbonate at the tissue level & transported to the alveoli is released out as CO2.
• Every 100 ml of deoxygenated blood delivers approximately 4 ml of CO2 to the alveoli.
Regulation of Respiration
• Human beings have a significant ability to maintain & moderate the respiratory rhythm to suit the demands
of the body tissues. This is done by the neural system.
• A specialised centre present in the medulla region of the brain called respiratory rhythm centre is primarily
responsible for this regulation.
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• Another centre present in the pons region of the brain called pneumotaxic centre can moderate the func-
tions of the respiratory rhythm centre. PMF IAS – Learn Smart
• Neural signal from this centre can reduce the duration of inspiration & thereby alter the respiratory rate.
• A chemosensitive area is situated adjacent to the rhythm centre which is highly sensitive to CO2 & hydrogen
ions.
• Increase in these substances can activate this centre, which in turn can signal the rhythm centre to make
necessary adjustments in the respiratory process by which these substances can be eliminated.
Disorders of Respiratory System
• Asthma: it is a difficulty in breathing causing wheezing due to inflammation of bronchi & bronchioles.
• Emphysema: it is a chronic disorder in which alveolar walls are damaged due to which respiratory surface
is decreased. One of the major causes of this is cigarette smoking.
• Occupational Respiratory Disorders: In certain industries, especially those involving grinding or stone-
breaking, so much dust is produced that the body cannot fully cope with the situation.
• Long exposure can give rise to inflammation leading to fibrosis (proliferation of fibrous tissues) & thus
causing serious lung damage. Workers in such industries should wear protective masks.
9. Endocrine Glands & Hormones
• Endocrine glands lack ducts & are hence, called ductless glands. Their secretions are called hormones.
• Hormone is a chemical produced by endocrine glands & released into the blood & transported to a distantly
located target organ.
• Hormones are non-nutrient chemicals which act as intercellular messengers & are produced in trace
amounts.
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• Invertebrates possess very simple endocrine systems with few hormones whereas a large number of chemi-
cals act as hormones & provide coordination in the vertebrates.
• The human endocrine system is described here.
• The endocrine glands & hormone producing diffused tissues/cells located in different parts of our body
constitute the endocrine system.
• Pituitary, pineal, thyroid, adrenal, pancreas, parathyroid, thymus & gonads (testis in males & ovary in
females) are the organized endocrine bodies in our body.
• In addition to these, some other organs, e.g., gastrointestinal tract, liver, kidney, heart also produce hor-
mones.
• A brief account of the structure & functions of all major endocrine glands & hypothalamus of the human
body is given in the following sections.
Hypothalamus
• Hypothalamus is the part of the forebrain & it regulates a wide spectrum of body functions.
• It contains several groups of neurosecretory cells called nuclei which produce hormones.
• These hormones regulate the synthesis & secretion of pituitary hormones.
• The hormones produced by hypothalamus are of two types, the releasing hormones (which stimulate se-
cretion of pituitary hormones) & the inhibiting hormones (which inhibit secretions of pituitary hormones).
• For example, a hypothalamic hormone called Gonadotrophin releasing hormone (GnRH) stimulates the pitu-
itary synthesis & release of gonadotrophins.
• On the other hand, somatostatin from the hypothalamus inhibits the release of growth hormone from the
pituitary.
• These hormones originating in the hypothalamic neurons, pass through axons & are released from their
nerve endings.
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• These hormones reach the pituitary gland through a portal circulatory system & regulate the functions of the
anterior pituitary. PMF IAS – Learn Smart
• The posterior pituitary is under the direct neural regulation of the hypothalamus.
Pituitary Gland
• The pituitary gland is located in a bony cavity called sella tursica & is attached to hypothalamus by a stalk.
• It is divided anatomically into an adenohypophysis & a neurohypophysis.
• Adenohypophysis consists of two portions, pars distalis & pars intermedia.
• The pars distalis region of pituitary, commonly called anterior pituitary, produces:
1. Growth Hormone (GH) – regulates body growth,

2. Prolactin (PRL) – regulates the growth of the mammary glands & formation of milk ,
3. Thyroid Stimulating Hormone (TSH),
4. Adrenocorticotrophic Hormone (ACTH),
5. Luteinizing Hormone (LH) – secrets of hormones called androgens from testis,
6. Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH) – regulates spermatogenesis.
• Pars intermedia secretes only one hormone called Melanocyte Stimulating Hormone (MSH).
• However, in humans, the pars intermedia is almost merged with pars distalis.
• Neurohypophysis (posterior pituitary), stores & releases two hormones called oxytocin & vasopressin,
which are actually synthesised by the hypothalamus & are transported axonally to neurohypophysis.
• Over-secretion of GH stimulates abnormal growth of the body leading to gigantism & low secretion of GH
results in stunted growth resulting in pituitary dwarfism.
• Prolactin regulates the growth of the mammary glands & formation of milk in them.
• TSH stimulates the synthesis & secretion of thyroid hormones from the thyroid gland.
• ACTH stimulates the synthesis & secretion of steroid hormones called glucocorticoids from the adrenal
cortex.
• LH & FSH stimulate gonadal activity & hence are called gonadotrophins.
• In males, LH stimulates the synthesis & secretion of hormones called androgens from testis.
• In males, FSH & androgens regulate spermatogenesis.
• In females, LH induces ovulation of fully mature follicles (graafian follicles) & maintains the corpus lu-
teum, formed from the remnants of the graafian follicles after ovulation.
• FSH stimulates growth & development of the ovarian follicles in females.
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• MSH acts on the melanocytes (melanin containing cells) & regulates pigmentation of the skin.
• Oxytocin acts on the smooth muscles of our body & stimulates their contraction. PMF IAS – Learn Smart
• In females, it stimulates a vigorous contraction of uterus at the time of childbirth, & milk ejection from the
mammary gland.
• Vasopressin acts mainly at the kidney & stimulates resorption of water & electrolytes by the distal tubules
& thereby reduces loss of water through urine (diuresis).
• Hence, it is also called as Anti-Diuretic Hormone (ADH).
Pineal Gland
• The pineal gland is located on the dorsal side of forebrain.

• Pineal secretes a hormone called melatonin.
• Melatonin plays a very important role in the regulation of a 24-hour (diurnal) rhythm of our body.
• For example, it helps in maintaining the normal rhythms of sleep-wake cycle, body temperature.
• In addition, melatonin also influences metabolism, pigmentation, the menstrual cycle as well as our de-
fense capability.
Thyroid Gland
• The thyroid gland is composed of two lobes which are located on either side of the trachea.
• Both the lobes are interconnected with a thin flap of connective tissue called isthmus.
• The thyroid gland is composed of follicles & stromal tissues.
• Each thyroid follicle is composed of follicular cells, enclosing a cavity.
• These follicular cells synthesize hormones tetraiodothyronine/thyroxine (T4) & triiodothyronine (T3).
• Iodine is essential for the normal rate of hormone synthesis in the thyroid.
• Deficiency of iodine in our diet results in hypothyroidism & enlargement of the thyroid gland, commonly
called goitre.
• Hyperthyroidism is also caused due to cancer of the thyroid gland or due to development of nodules of the
thyroid glands.
 Hyperthyroidism: the rate of synthesis & secretion of the thyroid hormones is increased to abnormal
high levels.
• Hypothyroidism during pregnancy causes defective development of the child & stunted growth (cretin-
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ism), mental retardation, low intelligence quotient, abnormal skin, deaf-mutism, etc.
• In adult women, hypothyroidism may cause menstrual cycle to become irregular. PMF IAS – Learn Smart
• Thyroid hormones play an important role in the regulation of the basal metabolic rate.
• These hormones also support the process of red blood cell formation.
• Thyroid hormones control the metabolism of carbohydrates, proteins & fats.
• Maintenance of water & electrolyte balance is also influenced by thyroid hormones.
• Thyroid gland also secretes a protein hormone called Thyrocalcitonin (TCT) which regulates the blood
calcium levels.
Parathyroid Gland
• In humans, four parathyroid glands are present on the back side of the thyroid gland, one pair each in the
two lobes of the thyroid gland.
• The parathyroid glands secrete a peptide hormone called Parathyroid Hormone (PTH).
• The secretion of PTH is regulated by the circulating levels of calcium ions.
• Parathyroid hormone (PTH) increases the Ca2+ levels in the blood.
• PTH acts on bones & stimulates the process of bone resorption (dissolution/ demineralisation).
• PTH also stimulates reabsorption of Ca2+ by the renal tubules & increases Ca2+ absorption from the digested
food.
• It is, thus, clear that PTH is a Hypercalcemic Hormone, i.e., it increases the blood Ca2+ levels.
• Along with TCT, it plays a significant role in calcium balance in the body.
Thymus
• The thymus gland is a lobular structure located between lungs behind sternum on the ventral side of aorta.
• The thymus plays a major role in the development of the immune system.
• This gland secretes the peptide hormones called Thymosins.
• Thymosins play a major role in the differentiation of T-lymphocytes, which provide cell-mediated immunity.
• In addition, thymosins also promote production of antibodies to provide humoral immunity.
• Thymus is degenerated in old individuals resulting in a decreased production of thymosins.
• As a result, the immune responses of old persons become weak.
Adrenal Gland
• Our body has one pair of adrenal glands, one at the anterior part of each kidney.
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• The gland is composed of two types of tissues.
• The centrally located tissue is called the adrenal medulla, & outside this lies the adrenal cortex. PMF IAS – Learn Smart
• The adrenal medulla secretes two hormones called adrenaline or epinephrine & noradrenaline or norepi-
nephrine. These are commonly called as catecholamines.
• Adrenaline & noradrenaline are rapidly secreted in response to stress of any kind & during emergency
situations & are called emergency hormones or hormones of Fight or Flight.
• These hormones increase alertness, pupilary dilation, piloerection (raising of hairs), sweating etc.
• Both the hormones increase the heartbeat, the strength of heart contraction & the rate of respiration.
• Catecholamines also stimulate the breakdown of glycogen resulting in an increased concentration of glu-
cose in blood.
• In addition, they also stimulate the breakdown of lipids & proteins.
• The adrenal cortex secretes many hormones, commonly called as corticoids.
• The corticoids, which are involved in carbohydrate metabolism are called glucocorticoids.
• In our body, cortisol is the main glucocorticoid.
• Corticoids, which regulate the balance of water & electrolytes in our body are called mineralocorticoids.
• Aldosterone is the main mineralocorticoid in our body.
• Glucocorticoids stimulate gluconeogenesis, lipolysis & proteolysis; & inhibit cellular uptake & utilisation of
amino acids.
• Cortisol is also involved in maintaining the cardio-vascular system as well as the kidney functions.
• Glucocorticoids, particularly cortisol, produces anti-inflammatory reactions & suppresses the immune re-
sponse.
• Cortisol stimulates the RBC production.
• Aldosterone acts mainly at the renal tubules & stimulates the reabsorption of Na+ & water & excretion of
K+ & phosphate ions.
• Thus, aldosterone helps in the maintenance of electrolytes, body fluid volume, osmotic pressure & blood
pressure.
• Small amounts of androgenic steroids are also secreted by the adrenal cortex which play a role in the growth
of axial hair, pubic hair & facial hair during puberty.
Pancreas
• Pancreas is a composite gland which acts as both exocrine & endocrine gland.
• The endocrine pancreas consists of ‘Islets of Langerhans’.
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• There are about 1 to 2 million Islets of Langerhans in a normal human pancreas representing only 1 to 2 per
cent of the pancreatic tissue. PMF IAS – Learn Smart
• The two main types of cells in the Islet of Langerhans are called a-cells & p-cells.
• The a-cells secrete a hormone called glucagon, while the p-cells secrete insulin.
• Glucagon is a peptide hormone & plays an important role in maintaining the normal blood glucose levels.
• Glucagon acts mainly on the liver cells (hepatocytes) & stimulates glycogenolysis resulting in an in-
creased blood sugar (hyperglycemia).
• In addition, this hormone stimulates the process of gluconeogenesis which also contributes to hyperglyce-
mia.
• Glucagon reduces the cellular glucose uptake & utilisation. Thus, glucagon is a hyperglycemic hormone.
• Insulin is a peptide hormone, which plays a major role in the regulation of glucose homeostasis (steady
condition).
• Insulin acts mainly on hepatocytes & adipocytes (cells of adipose tissue) & enhances cellular glucose up-
take & utilisation.
• As a result, there is a rapid movement of glucose from blood to hepatocytes & adipocytes resulting in
decreased blood glucose levels (hypoglycemia).
• Insulin also stimulates conversion of glucose to glycogen (glycogenesis) in the target cells.
• The glucose homeostasis in blood is thus maintained jointly by the two - insulin & glucagons.
• Prolonged hyperglycemia leads to a complex disorder called diabetes mellitus which is associated with
loss of glucose through urine & formation of harmful compounds known as ketone bodies.
• Diabetic patients are successfully treated with insulin therapy.
 Glucagon ➔ reduces cellular glucose uptake ➔ increased blood sugar ➔ Hyperglycemia

 Insulin ➔ enhances cellular glucose uptake ➔ decreased blood glucose levels ➔ Hypoglycemia
Testis
• A pair of testis is present in the scrotal sac (outside abdomen) of male individuals.
• Testis performs dual functions as a primary sex organ as well as an endocrine gland.
• Testis is composed of seminiferous tubules & stromal or interstitial tissue.
• The Leydig cells or interstitial cells, which are present in the intertubular spaces produce a group of hormones
called androgens mainly testosterone.
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• Androgens regulate the development, maturation & functions of the male accessory sex organs like
epididymis, vas deferens, seminal vesicles, prostate gland, urethra etc.
• These hormones stimulate muscular growth, growth of facial & axillary hair, aggressiveness, low pitch
of voice etc.
• Androgens play a major stimulatory role in the process of spermatogenesis (formation of spermatozoa).
• Androgens act on the central neural system & influence the male sexual behavior (libido).
• These hormones produce anabolic (synthetic) effects on protein & carbohydrate metabolism.
• Testosterone is important for promoting and maintaining muscle growth and developing secondary male
sex characteristics, such as a deepening voice and facial hair.
• Anabolic (muscle building) steroids are used illegally in some sports settings.
• They are used to boost muscle mass, performance, and endurance.
• The drugs are artificially derived from the main male hormone testosterone.
• Long-term, non-medical uses are linked to heart problems, unwanted physical changes, and aggression.
Ovary
• Females have a pair of ovaries located in the abdomen.

• Ovary is the primary female sex organ which produces one ovum during each menstrual cycle.
• In addition, ovary also produces two groups of steroid hormones called estrogen & progesterone.
• Ovary is composed of ovarian follicles & stromal tissues.
• The estrogen is synthesized & secreted mainly by the growing ovarian follicles.
• After ovulation, the ruptured follicle is converted to a structure called corpus luteum, which secretes
mainly progesterone.
• Estrogens produce wide ranging actions such as stimulation of growth & activities of female secondary
sex organs, development of growing ovarian follicles, appearance of female secondary sex characters
(e.g., high pitch of voice, etc.), mammary gland development.
• Estrogens also regulate female sexual behavior.
• Progesterone supports pregnancy.
• Progesterone also acts on the mammary glands & stimulates the formation of alveoli (sac-like struc-
tures which store milk) & milk secretion.
Hormones of Heart, Kidney & Gastrointestinal Tract
• As mentioned earlier, hormones are also secreted by some tissues which are not endocrine glands.
• For example, the atrial wall of our heart secretes a very important peptide hormone called Atrial Natriuretic
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Factor (ANF), which decreases blood pressure.
• When blood pressure is increased, ANF is secreted which causes dilation of the blood vessels. This reduces
the blood pressure.
• The juxtaglomerular cells of kidney produce a peptide hormone called erythropoietin which stimu-
lates Erythropoiesis (formation of RBC).
• Endocrine cells present in different parts of the gastro-intestinal tract secrete four major peptide hormones,
namely Gastrin, Secretin, Cholecystokinin (CCK) & Gastric Inhibitory Peptide (GIP).
• Gastrin acts on the gastric glands & stimulates the secretion of hydrochloric acid & pepsinogen.
• Secretin acts on the exocrine pancreas & stimulates secretion of water & bicarbonate ions.
• CCK acts on both pancreas & gall bladder & stimulates the secretion of pancreatic enzymes & bile juice,
respectively.
• GIP inhibits gastric secretion & motility.
• Several other non-endocrine tissues secrete hormones called growth factors.
• These factors are essential for the normal growth of tissues & their repairing/regeneration.
Mechanism of Hormone Action
• Hormones produce their effects on target tissues by binding to specific proteins called hormone recep-
tors located in the target tissues only.
• Hormone receptors present on the cell membrane of the target cells are called membrane-bound receptors
& the receptors present inside the target cell are called intracellular receptors, mostly nuclear receptors (pre-
sent in the nucleus).
• Binding of a hormone to its receptor leads to the formation of a hormone-receptor complex.
• Each receptor is specific to one hormone only & hence receptors are specific.
• Hormone-Receptor complex formation leads to certain biochemical changes in the target tissue.
• Target tissue metabolism & hence physiological functions are regulated by hormones.
• Hormones which interact with membrane-bound receptors normally do not enter the target cell but generate
second messengers which in turn regulate cellular metabolism.
• Hormones which interact with intracellular receptors (e.g., steroid hormones, iodothyronines, etc.) mostly
regulate gene expression or chromosome function by the interaction of hormone-receptor complex with
the genome.
• Cumulative biochemical actions result in physiological & developmental effects.
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On the basis of their chemical nature, hormones can be divided into groups:

1. peptide, polypeptide, protein hormones (e.g., insulin, glucagon, pituitary hormones, hypothalamic
hormones, etc.)
2. steroids (e.g., cortisol, testosterone, estradiol & progesterone)
3. iodothyronines (thyroid hormones)
4. amino-acid derivatives (e.g., epinephrine).
Summary
• There are special chemicals which act as hormones & provide chemical coordination, integration & regulation
in the human body.
• These hormones regulate metabolism, growth & development of our organs, the endocrine glands or
certain cells.
• The endocrine system is composed of hypothalamus, pituitary & pineal, thyroid, adrenal, pancreas,
parathyroid, thymus & gonads (testis & ovary).
• In addition to these, some other organs, e.g., gastrointestinal tract, kidney, heart etc., also produce hormones.
• The pituitary gland is divided into three major parts, which are called as pars distalis, pars intermedia & pars
nervosa.
• Pars distalis produces six trophic hormones. Pars intermedia secretes only one hormone, while pars nervosa
(neurohypophysis) secretes two hormones.
• The pituitary hormones regulate the growth & development of somatic tissues & activities of periph-
eral endocrine glands.
• Pineal gland secretes melatonin, which plays a very important role in the regulation of 24-hour (diurnal)
rhythms of our body (e.g., rhythms of sleep & state of being awake, body temperature, etc.).
• The thyroid gland hormones play an important role in the regulation of the basal metabolic rate, devel-
opment & maturation of the central neural system, erythropoiesis, metabolism of carbohydrates, pro-
teins & fats, menstrual cycle.
• Another thyroid hormone, i.e., thyrocalcitonin regulates calcium levels in our blood by decreasing it.
• The parathyroid glands secrete parathyroid hormone (PTH) which increases the blood Ca2+ levels &
plays a major role in calcium homeostasis (steady condition).
• Thyroid & adrenals secrete their hormones when they receive orders from the pituitary through its hor-
mones.
• Metamorphosis in insects is controlled by insect hormones.
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• In a frog, it is controlled by thyroxine, the hormone produced by thyroid.
• Thyroxine production requires the presence of iodine in water. PMF IAS – Learn Smart
• If the water in which the tadpoles are growing does not contain sufficient iodine, the tadpoles cannot become
adults.
• The thymus gland secretes thymosins which play a major role in the differentiation of T-lymphocytes,
which provide cell-mediated immunity.
• In addition, thymosins also increase the production of antibodies to provide humoral immunity.
• Adrenal glands secrete hormones which maintain the correct salt balance in the blood.
• The adrenal gland is composed of the centrally located adrenal medulla & the outer adrenal cortex.
• The adrenal medulla secretes epinephrine & norepinephrine.
• These hormones increase alertness, pupilary dilation, piloerection, sweating, heartbeat, strength of heart
contraction, rate of respiration, glycogenolysis, lipolysis, proteolysis.
• The adrenal cortex secretes glucocorticoids & mineralocorticoids.
• Glucocorticoids stimulate gluconeogenesis, lipolysis, proteolysis, erythropoiesis, cardio-vascular system,
blood pressure, & glomerular filtration rate & inhibit inflammatory reactions by suppressing the immune
response.
• Mineralocorticoids regulate water & electrolyte contents of the body.
• The endocrine pancreas secretes glucagon & insulin.
• Glucagon stimulates glycogenolysis & gluconeogenesis resulting in hyperglycemia.
• Insulin stimulates cellular glucose uptake & utilisation, & glycogenesis resulting in hypoglycemia.
• Insulin deficiency and/or insulin resistance result in a disease called diabetes mellitus.
• The testis secretes androgens, which stimulate the development, maturation & functions of the male ac-
cessory sex organs, appearance of the male secondary sex characters, spermatogenesis, male sexual behav-
iour, anabolic pathways & erythropoiesis.
• The ovary secretes estrogen & progesterone.
• Estrogen stimulates growth & development of female accessory sex organs & secondary sex characters.
• Progesterone plays a major role in the maintenance of pregnancy as well as in mammary gland devel-
opment & lactation.
• The atrial wall of the heart produces atrial natriuretic factor which decreases the blood pressure.
• Kidney produces erythropoietin which stimulates erythropoiesis.
• The gastrointestinal tract secretes gastrin, secretin, cholecystokinin & gastric inhibitory peptide.
• These hormones regulate the secretion of digestive juices & help in digestion.
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10. Neural Control & Coordination
• As you know, the functions of the organs/organ systems in our body must be coordinated to maintain ho-
meostasis (the maintenance of a stable equilibrium).
• Coordination is the process through which two or more organs interact & complement the functions of one
another.
• The neural system provides an organized network of point-to-point connections for a quick coordination.
• The endocrine system provides chemical integration through hormones.
Human Neural System
The human neural system is divided into two parts :
1. the central neural system (CNS)

2. the peripheral neural system (PNS)
• The CNS includes the brain & the spinal cord & is the site of information processing & control.
• The PNS comprises of all the nerves of the body associated with the CNS (brain & spinal cord).
Peripheral Neural System (PNS)
The nerve fibres of the PNS are of two types:
1. afferent fibres → transmit impulses from tissues/organs to brain.

2. efferent fibres → transmit impulses from brain to tissues/organs.
• The afferent nerve fibres transmit impulses from tissues/organs to the CNS & the efferent fibres transmit
regulatory impulses from the CNS to the concerned peripheral tissues/organs.
• The PNS is divided into two divisions called somatic neural system & autonomic neural system.
• The somatic neural system relays impulses from the CNS to skeletal muscles.
• The autonomic neural system transmits impulses from the CNS to the involuntary organs & smooth muscles
of the body.
1. Somatic Neural System → transmit impulses from Brain to Voluntary muscles.

2. Autonomic Neural System → transmit impulses from Brain to Involuntary muscles.
• The autonomic neural system is further classified into sympathetic neural system & parasympathetic neu-
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ral system.
Central Neural System (CNS)
• The brain is the central information processing organ of our body, & acts as the ‘command & control sys-
tem’.
• It controls the voluntary movements, balance of the body, functioning of vital involuntary organs (e.g., lungs,
heart, kidneys, etc.), thermoregulation, hunger & thirst, circadian (24-hour) rhythms of our body, activities of
several endocrine glands & human behavior.
• It is also the site for processing of vision, hearing, speech, memory, intelligence, emotions & thoughts.
• The human brain is well protected by the skull.
• Inside the skull, the brain is covered by cranial meninges consisting of an outer layer called dura mater, a
very thin middle layer called arachnoid & an inner layer (which is in contact with the brain tissue) called pia
mater.
Human Brain
• The brain can be divided into three major parts: (i) forebrain, (ii) midbrain, & (iii) hindbrain.
PIC Credits: NCERT
Forebrain
• The forebrain consists of cerebrum, thalamus & hypothalamus.

• Cerebrum forms the major part of the human brain.
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• A deep cleft divides the cerebrum longitudinally into two halves, which are termed as the left & right cerebral
hemispheres.
• The hemispheres are connected by a tract of nerve fibres called corpus callosum.
• The layer of cells which covers the cerebral hemisphere is called cerebral cortex.
• The cerebral cortex is referred to as the grey matter due to its greyish appearance.
• The neuron cell bodies are concentrated here giving the colour.
• The cerebral cortex contains motor areas, sensory areas & large regions that are neither clearly sensory nor
motor in function.
• These regions called as the association areas are responsible for complex functions like intersensory asso-
ciations, memory & communication.
• Fibres of the tracts are covered with the myelin sheath, which constitute the inner part of cerebral hemi-
sphere. They give an opaque white appearance to the layer and, hence, is called the white matter.
• The cerebrum wraps around a structure called thalamus, which is a major coordinating centre for sensory &
motor signaling.
• Another very important part of the brain called hypothalamus lies at the base of the thalamus.
• The hypothalamus contains a number of centres which control body temperature, urge for eating &
drinking.
• It also contains several groups of neurosecretory cells, which secrete hormones called hypothalamic hor-
mones.
• The inner parts of cerebral hemispheres & a group of associated deep structures like amygdala, hippocam-
pus, etc., form a complex structure called the limbic lobe or limbic system.
• Along with the hypothalamus, it is involved in the regulation of sexual behaviour, expression of emotional
reactions (e.g., excitement, pleasure, rage & fear), & motivation.
Midbrain
• The midbrain is located between the thalamus/hypothalamus of the forebrain & pons of the hindbrain.
• A canal called the cerebral aqueduct passess through the midbrain.
• The dorsal portion of the midbrain consists mainly of four round swellings (lobes) called corpora quadri-
gemina.
• Midbrain & hindbrain form the brain stem.
Hindbrain
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• The hindbrain comprises pons, cerebellum & medulla (also called the medulla oblongata).
• Pons consists of fibre tracts that interconnect different regions of the brain. PMF IAS – Learn Smart
• Cerebellum has very convoluted surface in order to provide the additional space for many more neurons.
• The medulla of the brain is connected to the spinal cord.
• The medulla contains centres which control respiration, cardiovascular reflexes & gastric secretions.
Reflex Action & Reflex Arc

• You must have experienced a sudden withdrawal of a body part which comes in contact with objects that are
extremely hot, cold pointed or animals that are scary or poisonous.
• The entire process of response to a peripheral nervous stimulation, that occurs involuntarily, i.e., without
conscious effort or thought & requires the involvement of a part of the central nervous system is called
a reflex action.
• The reflex pathway comprises at least one afferent neuron (receptor) & one efferent (effector or exci-
tor) neuron appropriately arranged in a series.
• The afferent neuron receives signal from a sensory organ & transmits the impulse via a dorsal nerve root into
the CNS (at the level of spinal cord).
• The efferent nueuron then carries signals from CNS to the effector.
• The stimulus & response thus forms a reflex arc as shown below in the knee jerk reflex.
Types of Movements
• Voluntary movements are called locomotion.

Walking, running, climbing, flying, swimming are all some forms of locomotory movements.
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•
• Cells of the human body exhibit three main types of movements, namely, amoeboid, ciliary & muscular.
• Some specialized cells in our body like macrophages & leucocytes in blood exhibit amoeboid movement.
• It is effected by pseudopodia formed by the streaming of protoplasm (as in Amoeba).
• Ciliary movement occurs in most of our internal tubular organs which are lined by ciliated epithelium.
• The coordinated movements of cilia in the trachea help us in removing dust particles & some of the foreign
substances inhaled along with the atmospheric air.
• Passage of ova through the female reproductive tract is also facilitated by the ciliary movement.
• Movement of our limbs, jaws, tongue, etc. require muscular movement.
• The contractile property of muscles are effectively used for locomotion & other movements by human beings
& majority of multicellular organisms.
• Locomotion requires a perfect coordinated activity of muscular, skeletal & neural systems.
Muscular System – Muscle Types
• Muscle is a specialized tissue of mesodermal origin. (Mesodermal: the middle layer of cells or tissues of an
embryo, or the parts derived from this (e.g. cartilage, muscles, & bone))
• About 40-50 per cent of the body weight of a human adult is contributed by muscles.
• They have special properties like excitability, contractility, extensibility & elasticity.
• Muscles have been classified using different criteria, namely location, appearance & nature of regulation of
their activities.
• Based on their location, three types of muscles are identified : (i) Skeletal (ii) Visceral (the internal organs in
the main cavities of the body) & (iii) Cardiac.
Skeletal Muscles
• Skeletal muscles are closely associated with the skeletal components of the body.
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• They have a striped appearance under the microscope & hence are called striated muscles.
• As their activities are under the voluntary control of the nervous system, they are known as voluntary mus-
cles.
• They are primarily involved in locomotory actions & changes of body postures.
• Each organized skeletal muscle in our body is made of a number of muscle bundles or fascicles held to-
gether by a common connective tissue layer called fascia.
• Each muscle bundle contains a number of muscle fibres.
• Each muscle fibre is lined by the plasma membrane called sarcolemma enclosing the sarcoplasm.
• The endoplasmic reticulum, i.e., sarcoplasmic reticulum of the muscle fibres is the store house of cal-
cium ions.
• A characteristic feature of the muscle fibre is the presence of a large number of parallelly arranged filaments
in the sarcoplasm called myofilaments or myofibrils.
• Each myofibril has alternate dark & light bands on it.
• The striated appearance is due to the distribution pattern of two important proteins - Actin & Myosin.
• Actin & myosin are polymerized proteins with contractility.
• A motor neuron carries signal to the muscle fibre which generates an action potential in it.
• This causes the release of Ca++ from sarcoplasmic reticulum.
• Ca++ activates actin which binds to the myosin head to form a cross bridge.
• These cross bridges pull the actin filaments causing them to slide over the myosin filaments & thereby caus-
ing contraction.
• Ca++ are then returned to sarcoplasmic reticulum which inactivate the actin.
• Cross bridges are broken & the muscles relax.
• Muscles are classified as Red & White fibres based primarily on the amount of red coloured myoglobin pig-
ment in them.
Visceral Muscles
• Visceral muscles are located in the inner walls of hollow visceral organs of the body like the alimentary
canal, reproductive tract, etc.
• They do not exhibit any striation & are smooth in appearance.
• Hence, they are called smooth muscles (nonstriated muscle).
• Their activities are not under the voluntary control of the nervous system & are therefore known as in-
voluntary muscles.
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• They assist, for example, in the transportation of food through the digestive tract & gametes through the
genital tract. PMF IAS – Learn Smart
Cardiac Muscles
• As the name suggests, Cardiac muscles are the muscles of heart.

• Many cardiac muscle cells assemble in a branching pattern to form a cardiac muscle.
• Based on appearance, cardiac muscles are striated.
• They are involuntary in nature as the nervous system does not control their activities directly.
11. Skeletal System
• Skeletal system consists of a framework of bones & a few cartilages.

• Bone & cartilage are specialized connective tissues.
• The former has a very hard matrix due to calcium salts in it & the latter has slightly pliable matrix due
to chondroitin salts.
• In human beings, this system is made up of 206 bones & a few cartilages.
• It is grouped into two principal divisions - the axial & the appendicular skeleton.
• Axial skeleton comprises 80 bones distributed along the main axis of the body.
• The skull, vertebral column, sternum & ribs constitute axial skeleton.
Joints
• Joints are essential for all types of movements involving the bony parts of the body.
• Locomotory movements are no exception to this.
• Joints are points of contact between bones, or between bones & cartilages.
• Joints have been classified into three major structural forms, namely, fibrous, cartilaginous & synovial.
• Fibrous joints do not allow any movement.
• This type of joint is shown by the flat skull bones which fuse end-to-end with the help of dense fibrous
connective tissues in the form of sutures, to form the cranium.
• In cartilaginous joints, the bones involved are joined together with the help of cartilages.
• The joint between the adjacent vertebrae in the vertebral column is of this pattern & it permits limited
movements.
• Synovial joints are characterized by the presence of a fluid filled synovial cavity between the articulating
surfaces of the two bones.
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• Such an arrangement allows considerable movement.
• These joints help in locomotion & many other movements. PMF IAS – Learn Smart
• Ball & socket joint, hinge joint (knee joint), pivot joint, gliding joint & saddle joint are some examples.
Major Joints
1. Ball & socket joints

2. Pivotal Joint: The joint where our neck joins the head is a pivotal joint.
3. Hinge joints
4. Fixed joints
• There are some bones in our head that are joined together at some joints.
• The bones cannot move at these joints. Such joints are called fixed joints.
• When you open your mouth wide, you can move your lower jaw away from your head, isn’t it? Try to move
your upper jaw, now. Are you able to move it?
• There is a joint between the upper jaw & the rest of the head which is a fixed joint.
Which of the following pairs are correctly matched
1. Knee - Hinge joint

2. Neck joining the head - Ball & socket joint
3. Pelvic bones - Fixed joint
4. Elbow - Pivotal joint
Codes:
a. All
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b. 1 only
c. 1, 3 only PMF IAS – Learn Smart
d. 1, 4 only
Disorders of Muscular & Skeletal System
• Arthritis: Inflammation of joints.

• Osteoporosis: Age-related disorder characterized by decreased bone mass & increased chances of fractures.
• Decreased levels of estrogen is a common cause.
• Gout: Inflammation of joints due to accumulation of uric acid crystals.
12. Nucleic Acids – DNA & RNA
Nucleus
• Nucleus contains thread-like structures called chromosomes (long continuous molecule of DNA).
• These carry genes & help in inheritance or transfer of characters from the parents to the offspring.
• The chromosomes can be seen only when the cell divides.
• Gene is a unit of inheritance in living organisms.
• It controls the transfer of a hereditary characteristic from parents to offspring.
Chromosomes
• In a cell which is not dividing, dna is present as part of chromatin material.

• Chromatin material is visible as entangled mass of thread like structures.
• The nucleosome is the fundamental subunit of chromatin.
• Each nucleosome is composed of a little less than two turns of DNA wrapped around a set of eight proteins
called histones.
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• Whenever the cell is about to divide, the chromatin material gets organized into chromosomes.
• Chromosomes are visible as rod-shaped structures only when the cell is about to divide.
• Chromosomes are composed of DNA & Protein.
• Chromosomes contain information for inheritance of features from parents to next generation in the form
of DNA (deoxyribo nucleic acid) molecules.
• DNA molecules contain the information necessary for constructing & organizing cells.
• Functional segments of dna are called genes.
Nucleotide & Nucleoside
• Living organisms have a number of carbon compounds in which heterocyclic rings can be found.
• When heterocyclic rings are attached to a sugar, they are called nucleosides.
• If a phosphate group is also found esterified to the sugar, they are called nucleotides.
• Nucleic acids like DNA & RNA consist of nucleotides.
 Heterocyclic Rings: A heterocyclic compound or ring structure is a cyclic compound that has atoms of
at least two different elements as members of its ring(s).
 Ester: An organic compound made by replacing the hydrogen of an acid by an alkyl or other organic
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group.

Nucleic Acids
• Nucleic acid is a macromolecule that is found in the acid insoluble fraction of any living tissue.
• Together with polysaccharides & polypeptides these comprise the true macromolecular fraction of any
living tissue or cell.
• For nucleic acids, the building block is a nucleotide,e. nucleic acids are polymers of nucleotides.
• Since nucleic acids are long chain polymers of nucleotides, they are also called polynucleotides.
• The nucleotides are joined to one another in a chain by covalent bonds between the sugar of one nucleotide
& the phosphate of the next, resulting in an alternating sugar-phosphate backbone.
• A nucleotide has three chemically distinct components.
• One is a heterocyclic compound, the second is a monosaccharide & the third a phosphoric acid or phos-
phate.
• The sugar found in polynucleotides is either ribose (a monosaccharide pentose) or deoxyribose.
• The heterocyclic compounds in nucleic acids are the nitrogenous bases named Adenine, Guanine, Uracil,
Cytosine, & Thymine.
DNA & RNA
• It has been observed that nucleus of a living cell is responsible for transmission of inherent characters, also
called heredity.
• The particles in nucleus of the cell, responsible for heredity, are called chromosomes which are made up
of proteins & another type of biomolecules called nucleic acids.
• Nucleic acids are responsible for the transfer of characters from parents to off springs.
• There are two types of nucleic acids — DNA & RNA.
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• A nucleic acid containing deoxyribose is called deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) while that which contains ribose
is called ribonucleic acid (RNA).
• Both DNA & RNA contain Adenine, Guanine & Cytosine.
• The fourth base is Thymine in DNA & Uracil in RNA.
• The structure of DNA is a double strand (helix) whereas RNA is a single strand molecule.
• Hydrogen bonds bind the nitrogenous bases of the two separate polynucleotide strands to make double-
stranded DNA.
• The DNA backbone is resistant to cleavage, & both strands of the double-stranded structure store
the same biological information.
• Biological information is replicated as the two strands are separated.
• Within cells, DNA is organized into long structures called chromosomes.
• During cell division these chromosomes are duplicated in the process of DNA replication, providing each
cell its own complete set of chromosomes.
• Eukaryotic organisms (animals, plants, fungi, & protists) store most of their DNA inside the cell nu-
cleus & some of their DNA in organelles, such as mitochondria or chloroplasts.
• In contrast, prokaryotes (bacteria & archaea) store their DNA only in the cytoplasm.
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• DNA is the chemical basis of heredity & have the coded message for proteins to be synthesized in the
cell.
• There are three types of RNA — mRNA, rRNA & tRNA which actually carry out the protein synthesis in
the cell based on the coded message for proteins provided by DNA.
• Ribonucleic acid (RNA) is implicated in various biological roles in coding, decoding, regulation, & expression
of genes.
• Cellular organisms use messenger RNA (mRNA) to convey genetic information that directs synthesis of
specific proteins.
• Many viruses encode their genetic information using an RNA genome.
• Example: HIV virus used this technique to proliferate within human body.
Biological Functions of Nucleic Acids – DNA & RNA
• DNA is the chemical basis of heredity & may be regarded as the reserve of genetic information.
• DNA is exclusively responsible for maintaining the identity of different species of organisms over mil-
lions of years.
• A DNA molecule is capable of self-duplication during cell division & identical DNA strands are transferred
to daughter cells.
• Another important function of nucleic acids is the protein synthesis in the cell.
• Actually, the proteins are synthesized by various RNA molecules in the cell but the message for the
synthesis of a particular protein is present in DNA.
DNA Fingerprinting
• It is known that every individual has unique fingerprints.

• These occur at the tips of the fingers & have been used for identification for a long time but these can be
altered by surgery.
• A sequence of bases on DNA is also unique for a person & information regarding this is called DNA fin-
gerprinting. It is same for every cell & cannot be altered by any known treatment.
• DNA fingerprinting is now used (i) in forensic laboratories for identification of criminals. (ii) to determine
paternity of an individual. (iii) to identify the dead bodies in any accident by comparing the DNA’s of parents
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or children. (iv) to identify racial groups to rewrite biological evolution.
Recombinant DNA PMF IAS – Learn Smart
• Recombinant DNA (rDNA) molecules are DNA molecules formed by laboratory methods of genetic
recombination (such as molecular cloning) to bring together genetic material from multiple sources,
creating sequences that would not otherwise be found in the genome.
• Recombinant DNA is possible because DNA molecules from all organisms share the same chemical structure.
• They differ only in the nucleotide sequence within that identical overall structure.
• In most cases, organisms containing recombinant DNA have apparently normal phenotypes.
• That is, their appearance, behavior & metabolism are usually unchanged.
Applications of recombinant DNA technology
• Recombinant DNA is widely used in biotechnology, medicine & research.

• Recombinant DNA is used to identify, map & sequence genes, & to determine their function.
Recombinant DNA is used to produce:
• Recombinant human insulin,

• Recombinant human growth hormone,
• Recombinant blood clotting factor VIII,
• Recombinant hepatitis B vaccine,
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• Insect-resistant crops etc.
13. Biotechnology
• Biotechnology deals with techniques of using live organisms or enzymes from organisms to produce
products & processes useful to humans.
• Making curd, bread or wine, which are all microbe-mediated processes, could also be thought as a form of
biotechnology.
• However, it is used in a restricted sense today, to refer to such of those processes which use genetically
modified organisms to achieve the same on a larger scale.
• Modern biotechnology using genetically modified organisms was made possible only when man learnt to
alter the chemistry of DNA & construct recombinant DNA.
• This key process is called recombinant DNA technology or genetic engineering.
• This process involves the use of restriction endonucleases, DNA ligase, appropriate plasmid or viral vec-
tors to isolate & ferry the foreign DNA into host organisms, expression of the foreign gene, purification
of the gene product, i.e., the functional protein & finally making a suitable formulation for marketing.
• Large scale production involves use of bioreactors.
Genetic Engineering
• Genetic engineering involves the techniques to alter the chemistry of genetic material (DNA & RNA) &
thus change the phenotype of the host organism.
• Asexual reproduction preserves the genetic information, while sexual reproduction permits variation.
• Traditional hybridisation procedures used in plant & animal breeding, very often lead to inclusion & mul-
tiplication of undesirable genes along with the desired genes.
• The techniques of genetic engineering which include creation of recombinant DNA, use of gene cloning
& gene transfer, overcome this limitation & allows us to isolate & introduce only one or a set of desirable
genes without introducing undesirable genes into the target organism.
• There are three basic steps in genetically modifying an organism —
1. identification of DNA with desirable genes;

2. introduction of the identified DNA into the host;
3. maintenance of introduced DNA in the host & transfer of the DNA to its progeny.
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Cloning
• DNA which is somehow transferred into an alien organism would not be able to multiply itself in the
progeny cells of the organism.
• But, when it gets integrated into the genome of the recipient, it may multiply & be inherited along with the
host DNA.
• This is because the alien piece of DNA has become part of a chromosome, which has the ability to replicate.
• In a chromosome there is a specific DNA sequence called the origin of replication, which is responsible for
initiating replication.
• Therefore, for the multiplication of any alien piece of DNA in an organism it needs to be a part of a
chromosome(s) which has a specific sequence known as ‘origin of replication’.
• Thus, an alien DNA is linked with the origin of replication, so that, this alien piece of DNA can replicate &
multiply itself in the host organism.
• This can also be called as cloning or making multiple identical copies of any template DNA.
Recombinant DNA (rDNA)
• Recombinant DNA (rDNA) molecules are DNA molecules formed by laboratory methods of genetic re-
combination (such as molecular cloning) to bring together genetic material from multiple sources,
creating sequences that would not otherwise be found in the genome.
• Recombinant DNA is possible because DNA molecules from all organisms share the same chemical struc-
ture. They differ only in the nucleotide sequence within that identical overall structure.
• In most cases, organisms containing recombinant DNA have apparently normal phenotypes.
• That is, their appearance, behavior & metabolism are usually unchanged.
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• The cutting of DNA at specific locations became possible with the discovery of the so-called ‘molecular
scissors’ – restriction enzymes.
• Restriction enzymes belong to a larger class of enzymes called nucleases.
• These are of two kinds: exonucleases & endonucleases.
• Exonucleases remove nucleotides from the ends of the DNA whereas, endonucleases make cuts at spe-
cific positions within the DNA.
• The cut piece of DNA was then linked with the plasmid DNA.
• These plasmid DNA act as vectors to transfer the piece of DNA attached to it.
• You probably know that mosquito acts as an insect vector to transfer the malarial parasite into human body.
• In the same way, a plasmid can be used as vector to deliver an alien piece of DNA into the host organism.
• The linking of antibiotic resistance gene with the plasmid vector became possible with the enzyme DNA
ligase, which acts on cut DNA molecules & joins their ends.
• This makes a new combination of circular autonomously replicating DNA created in vitro & is known as re-
combinant DNA.
• When this DNA is transferred into Escherichia coli, a bacterium closely related to Salmonella, it could replicate
using the new host’s DNA polymerase enzyme & make multiple copies.
• The ability to multiply copies of antibiotic resistance gene in E. coli was called cloning of antibiotic resistance
gene in E. coli.
Applications of Recombinant DNA Technology
• Recombinant DNA is widely used in biotechnology, medicine & research.

• Recombinant DNA is used to identify, map & sequence genes, & to determine their function.
Recombinant DNA is used to produce:
• Recombinant human insulin,

• Recombinant human growth hormone,
• Recombinant blood clotting factor VIII,
Recombinant hepatitis B vaccine,
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•
• Insect-resistant crops etc.

Cloning Vectors
• You may be surprised to know that we have learnt the lesson of transferring genes into plants & animals
from bacteria & viruses which have known this for ages – how to deliver genes to transform eukaryotic cells
& force them to do what the bacteria or viruses want.
• For example, Agrobacterioum tumifaciens, a pathogen of several dicot plants is able to deliver a piece of
DNA known as ‘T-DNA’ to transform normal plant cells into a tumor & direct these tumor cells to produce
the chemicals required by the pathogen.
• Similarly, retroviruses in animals have the ability to transform normal cells into cancerous cells.
• A better understanding of the art of delivering genes by pathogens in their eukaryotic hosts has generated
knowledge to transform these tools of pathogens into useful vectors for delivering genes of interest to
humans.
• The tumor inducing (Ti) plasmid of AgrobcLCterium tumifaciens has now been modified into a cloning vector
which is no more pathogenic to the plants but is still able to use the mechanisms to deliver genes of our
interest into a variety of plants.
• Similarly, retroviruses have also been disarmed & are now used to deliver desirable genes into animal cells.
• So, once a gene or a DNA fragment has been ligated into a suitable vector it is transferred into a bacterial,
plant or animal host (where it multiplies).
• Plasmids & bacteriophages (vectors) have the ability to replicate within bacterial cells independent of the
control of chromosomal DNA.
Competent Host – Methods to Induce Alien DNA into Host Cells
• Since DNA is a hydrophilic molecule, it cannot pass through cell membranes.

• In order to force bacteria to take up the plasmid, the bacterial cells must first be made ‘competent’ to take
up DNA.
• Recombinant DNA can then be forced into such cells by incubating the cells with recombinant DNA on ice,
followed by placing them briefly at 420C (heat shock), & then putting them back on ice.
• This enables the bacteria to take up the recombinant DNA.
• This is not the only way to introduce alien DNA into host cells.
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• In a method known as micro-injection, recombinant DNA is directly injected into the nucleus of an
animal cell. PMF IAS – Learn Smart
• In another method, suitable for plants, cells are bombarded with high velocity micro-particles of gold or
tungsten coated with DNA in a method known as biolistics/gene gun.
• And the last method uses ‘disarmed pathogen’ vectors, which when allowed to infect the cell, transfer the
recombinant DNA into the host.
Biotechnology & Its Applications

• Biotechnology essentially deals with industrial scale production of biopharmaceuticals & biologicals us-
ing genetically modified microbes, fungi, plants & animals.
• The applications of biotechnology include therapeutics, diagnostics, genetically modified crops for agricul-
ture, processed food, bioremediation, waste treatment, & energy production.
Cloning
• Cloning is the production of an exact copy of a cell, any other living part, or a complete organism.
• Cloning of an animal was successfully performed for the first time by Ian Wilmut & his colleagues at the
Roslin Institute in Edinburgh, Scotland.
• They cloned successfully a sheep named Dolly. Dolly was born in 1996 & was the first mammal to be cloned.
• During the process of cloning Dolly, a cell was collected from the mammary gland of a female Finn Dorsett
sheep. Simultaneously, an egg was obtained from a Scottish blackface ewe.
• The nucleus was removed from the egg. Then, the nucleus of the mammary gland cell from the Finn Dorsett
sheep was inserted into the egg of the Scottish blackface ewe whose nucleus had been removed.
• The egg thus produced was implanted into the Scottish blackface ewe. Development of this egg followed
normally & finally Dolly was born.
• Though Dolly was given birth by the Scottish blackface ewe, it was found to be absolutely identical to the
Finn Dorsett sheep from which the nucleus was taken.
• Since the nucleus from the egg of the Scottish blackface ewe was removed, Dolly did not show any character
of the Scottish blackface ewe.
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• Dolly was a healthy clone of the Finn Dorsett sheep & produced several offspring of her own through normal
sexual means.
• Since Dolly, several attempts have been made to produce cloned mammals. However, many died before birth
or die soon after birth. The cloned animals are many-a-time found to be born with severe abnormalities.
Biotechnological applications in agriculture
• Let us take a look at the three options that can be thought for increasing food production:
1. agro-chemical based agriculture;

2. organic agriculture; and
3. genetically engineered crop-based agriculture.
• Plants, bacteria, fungi & animals whose genes have been altered by manipulation are called Genetically
Modified Organisms (GMO). GM plants have been useful in many ways. Genetic modification has:
1. made crops more tolerant to abiotic stresses (cold, drought, salt, heat).
2. reduced reliance on chemical pesticides (pest-resistant crops).
3. helped to reduce post harvest losses.
4. increased efficiency of mineral usage by plants (this prevents early exhaustion of fertility of soil).
5. enhanced nutritional value of food, e.g., Vitamin ‘A’ enriched rice.
• In addition to these uses, GM has been used to create tailor-made plants to supply alternative resources to
industries, in the form of starches, fuels & pharmaceuticals.
• Bt toxin is produced by a bacterium called Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt for short).
• Some strains of Bacillus thuringiensis produce proteins that kill certain insects such as tobacco budworm,
armyworm, beetles & dipterans flies, mosquitoes.
• Why does this toxin not kill the Bacillus? Actually, the Bt toxin protein exist as inactive protoxins but once an
insect ingests the inactive toxin, it is converted into an active form of toxin due to the alkaline pH of the gut
which solubilise the crystals.
• Bt toxin gene has been cloned from the bacteria & been expressed in plants to provide resistance to insects
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without the need for insecticides; in effect created a bio-pesticide.
• Examples are Bt cotton, Bt corn, rice, tomato, potato & soyabean etc. PMF IAS – Learn Smart
Biotechnological applications in medicine
• The recombinant DNA technological processes have made immense impact in the area of healthcare by
enabling mass production of safe & more effective therapeutic drugs.
• Further, the recombinant therapeutics do not induce unwanted immunological responses as is common
in case of similar products isolated from non-human sources.
• At present, about 30 recombinant therapeutics have been approved for human-use the world over. In India,
12 of these are presently being marketed.
Genetically Engineered Insulin
• Management of adult-onset diabetes is possible by taking insulin at regular time intervals.

• What would a diabetic patient do if enough human-insulin was not available?
• If you discuss this, you would soon realise that one would have to isolate & use insulin from other animals.
• Would the insulin isolated from other animals be just as effective as that secreted by the human body itself
& would it not elicit an immune response in the human body?
• Now, imagine if bacterium were available that could make human insulin. Suddenly the whole process be-
comes so simple. You can easily grow a large quantity of the bacteria & make as much insulin as you need.
• Think about whether insulin can be orally administered to diabetic people or not. Why?
• Insulin used for diabetes was earlier extracted from pancreas of slaughtered cattle & pigs.
• Insulin from an animal source, though caused some patients to develop allergy or other types of reactions to
the foreign protein.
• Insulin consists of two short polypeptide chains: chain A & chain B, that are linked together by disulphide
bonds.
• In mammals, including humans, insulin is synthesised as a pro-hormone (like a pro-enzyme, the pro-hor-
mone also needs to be processed before it becomes a fully mature & functional hormone) which contains an
extra stretch called the C peptide.
• This C peptide is not present in the mature insulin & is removed during maturation into insulin.
• The main challenge for production of insulin using rDNA techniques was getting insulin assembled into a
mature form.
• In 1983, Eli Lilly an American company prepared two DNA sequences corresponding to A & B, chains of
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human insulin & introduced them in plasmids of E. coli to produce insulin chains.
• Chains A & B were produced separately, extracted & combined by creating disulfide bonds to form human PMF IAS – Learn Smart
insulin.
Gene Therapy
• If a person is born with a hereditary disease, can a corrective therapy be taken for such a disease?
• Gene therapy is an attempt to do this.
• Gene therapy is a collection of methods that allows correction of a gene defect that has been diagnosed in
a child/embryo.
• Here genes are inserted into a person’s cells & tissues to treat a disease.
• Correction of a genetic defect involves delivery of a normal gene into the individual or embryo to take over
the function of & compensate for the non-functional gene.
• The first clinical gene therapy was given in 1990 to a 4-year-old girl with adenosine deaminase (ADA).
• This enzyme is crucial for the immune system to function.
• The disorder is caused due to the deletion of the gene for adenosine deaminase.
• In some children ADA deficiency can be cured by bone marrow transplantation; in others it can be treated by
enzyme replacement therapy, in which functional ADA is given to the patient by injection.
• But the problem with both of these approaches that they are not completely curative.
• As a first step towards gene therapy, lymphocytes from the blood of the patient are grown in a culture outside
the body.
• A functional ADA cDNA (using a retroviral vector) is then introduced into these lymphocytes, which are sub-
sequently returned to the patient.
• However, as these cells are not immortal, the patient requires periodic infusion of such genetically engi-
neered lymphocytes.
• However, if the gene isolate from marrow cells producing ADA is introduced into cells at early embryonic
stages, it could be a permanent cure.
Molecular Diagnosis
• For effective treatment of a disease, early diagnosis & understanding its pathophysiology is very important.
• Using conventional methods of diagnosis (serum & urine analysis, etc.) early detection is not possible.
• Recombinant DNA technology, Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) & Enzyme Linked Immuno-Sorbent
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Assay (ELISA) are some of the techniques that serve the purpose of early diagnosis.
• Presence of a pathogen (bacteria, viruses, etc.) is normally suspected only when the pathogen has produced PMF IAS – Learn Smart
a disease symptom. By this time, the concentration of pathogen is already very high in the body.
• However, very low concentration of a bacteria or virus (at a time when the symptoms of the disease are not
yet visible) can be detected by amplification of their nucleic acid by PCR.
• Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) is now routinely used to detect HIV in suspected AIDS patients.
• It is being used to detect mutations in genes in suspected cancer patients too.
• It is a powerful techqnique to identify many other genetic disorders.
• ELISA is based on the principle of antigen-antibody interaction.
• Infection by pathogen can be detected by the presence of antigens (proteins, glycoproteins, etc.) or by
detecting the antibodies synthesised against the pathogen.
Transgenic animals
• Animals that have had their DNA manipulated to possess & express an extra (foreign) gene are known as
transgenic animals (genetically modified animals).
• Transgenic rats, rabbits, pigs, sheep, cows & fish have been produced, although over 95 per cent of all existing
transgenic animals are mice.
• Normal physiology & development: Transgenic animals can be specifically designed to allow the study of
how genes are regulated, & how they affect the normal functions of the body & its development, e.g., study
of complex factors involved in growth such as insulin-like growth factor.
• By introducing genes from other species that alter the formation of this factor & studying the biological
effects that result, information is obtained about the biological role of the factor in the body.
• Study of disease: Many transgenic animals are designed to increase our understanding of how genes con-
tribute to the development of disease.
• These are specially made to serve as models for human diseases so that investigation of new treatments for
diseases is made possible.
• Today transgenic models exist for many human diseases such as cancer, cystic fibrosis, rheumatoid arthritis
& Alzheimer’s.
• Biological products: Medicines required to treat certain human diseases can contain biological products,
but such products are often expensive to make.
• Transgenic animals that produce useful biological products can be created by the introduction of the portion
of DNA (or genes) which codes for a particular product such as human protein.
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• Similar attempts are being made for treatment of phenylketonuria (PKU) & cystic fibrosis.
• In 1997, the first transgenic cow, Rosie, produced human protein-enriched milk (2.4 grams per litre). PMF IAS – Learn Smart
• The milk contained the human alpha-lactalbumin & was nutritionally a more balanced product for human
babies than natural cow-milk.
• Vaccine safety: Transgenic mice are being developed for use in testing the safety of vaccines before they
are used on humans.
• Transgenic mice are being used to test the safety of the polio vaccine.
• If successful & found to be reliable, they could replace the use of monkeys to test the safety of batches of
the vaccine.
• Chemical safety testing: This is known as toxicity/safety testing.
• The procedure is the same as that used for testing toxicity of drugs.
• Transgenic animals are made that carry genes which make them more sensitive to toxic substances than non-
transgenic animals.
• They are then exposed to the toxic substances & the effects studied.
• Toxicity testing in such animals will allow us to obtain results in less time.
Biotechnology: Ethical Issues
• The manipulation of living organisms by the human race cannot go on any further, without regulation.
• Some ethical standards are required to evaluate the morality of all human activities that might help or harm
living organisms.
• Going beyond the morality of such issues, the biological significance of such things is also important.
• Genetic modification of organisms can have unpredicatable results when such organisms are introduced into
the ecosystem.
• Therefore, the Indian Government has set up organisations such as GEAC (Genetic Engineering Approval
Committee), which will make decisions regarding the validity of GM research & the safety of introducing
GM-organisms for public services.
• The modification/usage of living organisms for public services (as food & medicine sources, for example) has
also created problems with patents granted for the same.
• There is growing public anger that certain companies are being granted patents for products & technologies
that make use of the genetic materials, plants & other biological resources that have long been identified,
developed & used by farmers & indigenous people of a specific region/country.
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• Rice is an important food grain, the presence of which goes back thousands of years in Asia’s agricultural
history. PMF IAS – Learn Smart
• There are an estimated 200,000 varieties of rice in India alone. The diversity of rice in India is one of the richest
in the world.
• Basmati rice is distinct for its unique aroma & flavour & 27 documented varieties of Basmati are grown in
India. There is reference to Basmati in ancient texts, folklore & poetry, as it has been grown for centuries.
• In 1997, an American company got patent rights on Basmati rice through the US Patent & Trademark Office.
• This allowed the company to sell a ‘new’ variety of Basmati, in the US & abroad.
• This ‘new’ variety of Basmati had actually been derived from Indian farmer’s varieties.
• Indian Basmati was crossed with semi-dwarf varieties & claimed as an invention or a novelty.
• The patent extends to functional equivalents, implying that other people selling Basmati rice could be re-
stricted by the patent.
• Several attempts have also been made to patent uses, products & processes based on Indian traditional
herbal medicines, e.g., turmeric neem.
• If we are not vigilant & we do not immediately counter these patent applications, other countries/individuals
may encash on our rich legacy & we may not be able to do anything about it.
• Biopiracy is the term used to refer to the use of bio-resources by multinational companies & other or-
ganisations without proper authorisation from the countries & people concerned without compensa-
tory payment.
• Most of the industrialised nations are rich financially but poor in biodiversity & traditional knowledge.
• In contrast the developing & the underdeveloped world is rich in biodiversity & traditional knowledge related
to bio-resources.
• Traditional knowledge related to bio-resources can be exploited to develop modern applications & can also
be used to save time, effort & expenditure during their commercialisation.
• There has been growing realisation of the injustice, inadequate compensation & benefit sharing between
developed & developing countries.
• Therefore, some nations are developing laws to prevent such unauthorised exploitation of their bio-resources
& traditional knowledge.
• The Indian Parliament has recently cleared the second amendment of the Indian Patents Bill, that takes such
issues into consideration, including patent terms emergency provisions & research & development initiative.
Summary
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• Biotechnology has given to humans several useful products by using microbes, plant, animals & their meta-
bolic machinery. PMF IAS – Learn Smart
• Recombinant DNA technology has made it possible to engineer microbes, plants & animals such that they
have novel capabilities.
• Genetically Modified Organisms have been created by using methods other than natural methods to trans-
fer one or more genes from one organism to another, generally using techniques such as recombinant DNA
technology.
• GM plants have been useful in increasing crop yields, reduce post-harvest losses & make crops more tolerant
of stresses.
• There are several GM crops plants with improved nutritional value of foods & reduced the reliance on chem-
ical pesticides (pest-resistant crops).
• Recombinant DNA technological processes have made immense impact in the area of healthcare by enabling
mass production of safe & more effective therapeutics.
• Since the recombinant therapeutics are identical to human proteins, they do not induce unwanted
immunological responses & are free from risk of infection as was observed in case of similar products
isolated from non-human sources.
• Human insulin is made in bacteria, yet its structure is absolutely identical to that of the natural molecule.
• Transgenic animals are also used to understand how genes contribute to the development of a disease by
serving as models for human diseases, such as cancer, cystic fibrosis, rheumatoid arthritis & Alzheimer’s.
• Gene therapy is the insertion of genes into an individual’s cells & tissues to treat diseases especially
hereditary diseases.
• It does so by replacing a defective mutant allele with a functional one or gene targeting which involves gene
amplification.
• Viruses that attack their hosts & introduce their genetic material into the host cell as part of their replication
cycle are used as vectors to transfer healthy genes or more recently portions of genes.
14. Cell Cycle & Cell Division
• During the division of a cell, DNA replication & cell growth takes place.
• All these processes, i.e., cell division, DNA replication, & cell growth have to take place in a coordinated way
to ensure correct division & formation of progeny (offspring) cells containing intact genomes (the com-
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plete set of genetic material of an organism).
• The sequence of events by which a cell duplicates its genome, synthesizes the other constituents of the cell
& eventually divides into two daughter cells is termed cell cycle.
• Although cell growth (in terms of cytoplasmic increase) is a continuous process, DNA synthesis occurs only
during one specific stage in the cell cycle.
• The replicated chromosomes (DNA) are then distributed to daughter nuclei by a complex series of events
during cell division. These events are themselves under genetic control (DNA).
Cell Cycle – Phases of Cell Cycle

• A typical eukaryotic cell divides once in approximately every 24 hours.
• However, this duration of cell cycle can vary from organism to organism & also from cell type to cell type.
• Yeast for example, can progress through the cell cycle in only about 90 minutes.
Basic Phases of Cell Cycle – Interphase & M Phase or Mitosis
• Interphase: Phase between two successive M phases.

• M Phase (Mitosis phase): Actual cell division or Mitosis.
• In the 24 hour average duration of cell cycle of a human cell, cell division proper lasts for only about an hour.
• The interphase lasts more than 95% of the duration of cell cycle.
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• The M Phase or Mitosis starts with the nuclear division/karyokinesis (separation of daughter chromo-
somes).
• It usually ends with division of cytoplasm (cytokinesis).
• Interphase is called the resting phase.
• It is the time during which the cell is preparing for division by undergoing both cell growth & DNA rep-
lication.
Interphase
• The interphase is divided into three further phases.

1. G1 phase (Gap 1)
2. S phase (Synthesis)
3. G2 phase (Gap 2)
G1 phase
• G1 phase: interval between mitosis & beginning of DNA replication (initiation of DNA replication).
• During G1 phase the cell is metabolically active & continuously grows but does not replicate its DNA.
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S or synthesis phase
• S or synthesis phase: DNA synthesis or replication takes place. PMF IAS – Learn Smart
• During this time the amount of DNA per cell doubles.
• If the initial amount of DNA is denoted as 2C then it increases to 4C.
• However, there is no increase in the chromosome number; if the cell had diploid or 2n number of chro-
mosomes at G1, even after s phase the number of chromosomes remains the same, i.e., 2n.
• In animal cells, during the S phase, DNA replication begins in the nucleus, & the centriole duplicates in the
cytoplasm.
G2 phase
• During the G2 phase, proteins are synthesized in preparation for mitosis while cell growth continues.
• In the S & G2 phases the new DNA molecules formed are not distinct but intertwined.
Quiescent stage (G0)
• Some cells in the adult animals do not appear to exhibit division (e.g., heart cells) & many other cells
divide only occasionally, as needed to replace cells that have been lost because of injury or cell death.
• These cells that do not divide further & exit G1 phase to enter an inactive stage called quiescent stage (G0)
of the cell cycle.
• Cells in this stage remain metabolically active but no longer proliferate unless called on to do so depend-
ing on the requirement of the organism.
Mitosis Phase or M Phase
• This is the most dramatic period of the cell cycle, involving a major reorganization of virtually all components
of the cell.
• Since the number of chromosomes in the parent & progeny cells is the same, it is also called as equa-
tional division.
• Though for convenience mitosis has been divided into four stages of nuclear division, it is very essential to
understand that cell division is a progressive process & very clear-cut lines cannot be drawn between various
stages.
• Mitosis is the process in which a eukaryotic cell nucleus splits in two, followed by division of the parent
cell into two daughter cells.
• The word “mitosis” means “threads,” & it refers to the threadlike appearance of chromosomes as the cell
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prepares to divide.
• Early microscopists were the first to observe these structures, & they also noted the appearance of a special-
ized network of microtubules during mitosis.
• These tubules, collectively known as the spindle fibres, extend from structures called centrosomes — with
one centrosome located at each of the opposite ends, or poles, of a cell.
• As mitosis progresses, the microtubules (spindle fibres) attach to the chromosomes, which have already du-
plicated their DNA & aligned across the center of the cell.
• The spindle tubules then shorten & move toward the poles of the cell.
• As they move, they pull the one copy of each chromosome with them to opposite poles of the cell.
• This process ensures that each daughter cell will contain one exact copy of the parent cell DNA.
Mitosis consists of five morphologically distinct phases:
1. prophase,
2. prometaphase,
3. metaphase,
4. anaphase, and
5. telophase
• Each phase involves characteristic steps in the process of chromosome alignment & separation.
• Once mitosis is complete, the entire cell divides in two by way of the process called cytokinesis.
• In animals, mitotic cell division is only seen in the diploid somatic cells.
• But plants can show mitotic divisions in both haploid & diploid cells.
 Diploid: containing two complete sets of chromosomes, one from each parent.
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 Haploid: only one set of chromosomes from one of the parent.
 Somatic: the parts of an organism other than the reproductive cells (sperm and egg cells).
 Somatic cells are diploid. Mutations in somatic cells can affect the individual, but they are not passed
on to offspring.
1. Onion root tip cell has 16 chromosomes in each cell. Can you tell how many chromosomes will the cell
have at G1 phase, after S phase, & after M phase?
• The number of chromosomes after G1 phase and S phase is 16.

• After M phase the number of chromosomes will be 32 (i.e., 2 X 16 in each daughter cell).
2. Also, what will be the DNA content of the cells at G1, after S & at G2, if the content after M phase is
2C?
• At G1 phase the DNA content will be 2C.

• During S phase the DNA content doubles.
• Hence, after S phase the DNA content will be 4C.
• After G2 phase the DNA content will remain 4C.
Prophase
• Prophase is the first stage in mitosis, occurring after the conclusion of the G2 portion of interphase (see
cyclic image above).
• During prophase, the parent cell chromosomes — which were duplicated during S phase — condense &
become thousands of times more compact than they were during interphase.
• The chromosomal material becomes untangled during the process of chromatin condensation.
• Because each duplicated chromosome consists of two identical sister chromatids joined at a point called
the centromere, these structures now appear as X-shaped bodies when viewed under a microscope.
• The mitotic spindle also begins to develop during prophase.
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• As the cell's two centrosomes move toward opposite poles, microtubules (spindle fibres) gradually assem-
ble between them, forming the network that will later pull the duplicated chromosomes apart.
• The centriole, which had undergone duplication during S phase of interphase, now begins to move towards
opposite poles of the cell.
 Centriole: each of a pair of minute cylindrical structures near the nucleus in eukaryotic cells, involved in
the development of spindle fibres in cell division.
The completion of prophase can thus be marked by the following characteristic events:
• Chromosomal material condenses to form compact mitotic chromosomes.

• Chromosomes are seen to be composed of two chromatids attached together at the centromere (the point
on a chromosome by which it is attached to a spindle fibre during cell division.).
• Initiation of the assembly of mitotic spindle, the microtubules, the proteinaceous components of the cell
cytoplasm help in the process.
• Cells at the end of prophase, when viewed under the microscope, do not show golgi complexes, endoplas-
mic reticulum, nucleolus & the nuclear envelope.
Prometaphase
• When prophase is complete, the cell enters prometaphase — the second stage of mitosis.
• During prometaphase, the nuclear membrane breaks down into numerous small vesicles (a small fluid-
filled sac).
• As a result, the spindle microtubules now have direct access to the genetic material of the cell.
• Each microtubule is highly dynamic, growing outward from the centrosome & collapsing backward as it tries
to locate a chromosome.
• Eventually, the microtubules find their targets & connect to each chromosome at its kinetochore, a complex
of proteins positioned at the centromere.
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• A tug-of-war then ensues as the chromosomes move back & forth toward the two poles.

Metaphase
• As prometaphase ends & metaphase begins, the chromosomes align along the cell equator.
• Every chromosome has at least two microtubules extending from its kinetochore — with at least one micro-
tubule connected to each pole.
• At this point, the tension within the cell becomes balanced, & the chromosomes no longer move back &
forth.
• The complete disintegration of the nuclear envelope marks the start of the second phase of mitosis, hence
the chromosomes are spread through the cytoplasm of the cell.
• By this stage, condensation of chromosomes is completed & they can be observed clearly under the
microscope. This then, is the stage at which morphology of chromosomes is most easily studied.
• At this stage, metaphase chromosome is made up of two sister chromatids, which are held together by
the centromere.
• Small disc-shaped structures at the surface of the centromeres are called kinetochores.
• These structures serve as the sites of attachment of spindle fibres (formed by the spindle fibres) to the chro-
mosomes that are moved into position at the center of the cell.
• Hence, the metaphase is characterized by all the chromosomes coming to lie at the equator with one
chromatid of each chromosome connected by its kinetochore to spindle fibres from one pole & its
sister chromatid connected by its kinetochore to spindle fibres from the opposite pole.
• The plane of alignment of the chromosomes at metaphase is referred to as the metaphase plate.
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The key features of metaphase are:

• Spindle fibres attach to kinetochores of chromosomes.
• Chromosomes are moved to spindle equator & get aligned along metaphase plate through spindle
fibres to both poles.
Anaphase
• Metaphase leads to anaphase, during which each chromosome's sister chromatids separate & move to
opposite poles of the cell.
• Upon separation, every chromatid becomes an independent chromosome.
• At the onset of anaphase, each chromosome arranged at the metaphase plate is split simultaneously &
the two daughter chromatids, now referred to as chromosomes of the future daughter nuclei, begin their
migration towards the two opposite poles.
• As each chromosome moves away from the equatorial plate, the centromere of each chromosome is towards
the pole.
Thus, anaphase stage is characterized by the following key events:
• Centromeres split & chromatids separate.

• Chromatids move to opposite poles.
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Telophase
• During telophase, the chromosomes arrive at the cell poles, the mitotic spindle disassembles, & the vesicles
that contain fragments of the original nuclear membrane assemble around the two sets of chromosomes.
• Climax results in the formation of a new nuclear membrane around each group of chromosomes.
• At the beginning of the final stage of mitosis, i.e., telophase, the chromosomes that have reached their re-
spective poles decondense & lose their individuality.
• The individual chromosomes can no longer be seen & chromatin material tends to collect in a mass in the
two poles.
This is the stage which shows the following key events:
• Chromosomes cluster at opposite spindle poles & their identity is lost as discrete elements.
• Nuclear envelope assembles around the chromosome clusters.
• Nucleolus, golgi complex & ER reform.
Cytokinesis – Actual Cell Division
• Cytokinesis is the physical process that finally splits the parent cell into two identical daughter cells.
• Mitosis is the process of nuclear division, which occurs just prior to cell division, or cytokinesis.
• Mitosis accomplishes the segregation of duplicated chromosomes into daughter nuclei (karyokinesis).
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• Cell itself is divided into two daughter cells by a separate process called cytokinesis at the end of which
cell division is complete. PMF IAS – Learn Smart
• In an animal cell, this is achieved by the appearance of a furrow in the plasma membrane.
• The furrow gradually deepens & ultimately joins in the center dividing the cell cytoplasm into two.
• Plant cells however, are enclosed by a relatively inextensible cell wall, therefore they undergo cytokinesis
by a different mechanism.
• In plant cells, wall formation starts in the center of the cell & grows outward to meet the existing lateral walls.
• The formation of the new cell wall begins with the formation of a simple precursor, called the cell-plate.
• At the time of cytoplasmic division, organelles like mitochondria & plastids get distributed between the two
daughter cells.
• In some organisms karyokinesis is not followed by cytokinesis as a result of which multinucleate con-
dition arises leading to the formation of syncytium (e.g., liquid endosperm in coconut).
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Significance of Mitosis
• Mitosis or the equational division is usually restricted to the diploid cells only.
• However, in some lower plants & in some social insects haploid cells also divide by mitosis.
• Mitosis usually results in the production of diploid daughter cells with identical genetic complement.
• The growth of multicellular organisms is due to mitosis.
• Cell growth results in disturbing the ratio between the nucleus & the cytoplasm.
• It therefore becomes essential for the cell to divide to restore the nucleo-cytoplasmic ratio.
• A very significant contribution of mitosis is cell repair.
• The cells of the upper layer of the epidermis, cells of the lining of the gut, & blood cells are being constantly
replaced.
• Mitotic divisions in the meristematic tissues – the apical & the lateral cambium, result in a continuous
growth of plants throughout their life.
Meiosis
• Meiosis is a specialized kind of cell division that reduces the chromosome number by half & results in the
production of haploid daughter cells.
• The production of offspring by sexual reproduction includes the fusion of two gametes (sperm & ovum),
each with a complete haploid set of chromosomes.
• These haploid gametes come into existence due to meiosis (meiosis type of cell division).
• The gametes are formed from specialized diploid cells.
• Meiosis ensures the production of haploid phase in the life cycle of sexually reproducing organisms
whereas fertilization restores the diploid phase.
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Meiotic events can be grouped under the following phases:
Meiosis I PMF IAS – Learn Smart
Prophase I
• Prophase of the first meiotic division is typically longer & more complex when compared to prophase of
mitosis.
• It has been further subdivided into the following five phases based on chromosomal behavior, i.e., Leptotene,
Zygotene, Pachytene, Diplotene & Diakinesis.
Leptotene
• During leptotene stage the chromosomes become gradually visible under the light microscope.
• The compaction of chromosomes continues throughout leptotene.
Zygotene
• During this stage chromosomes start pairing together & this process of association is called synapsis.
• Such paired chromosomes are called homologous chromosomes.
• Chromosome synapsis is accompanied by the formation of complex structure called synaptonemal com-
plex.
• The complex formed by a pair of synapsed homologous chromosomes is called a bivalent or a tetrad.
• However, these are more clearly visible at the next stage.
• The first two stages of prophase I are relatively short-lived compared to the next stage, that is pachytene.
Pachytene
• During this stage bivalent chromosomes now clearly appears as tetrads.

• This stage is characterized by the appearance of recombination nodules, the sites at which crossing
over occurs between non-sister chromatids of the homologous chromosomes.
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• Crossing over is the exchange of genetic material between two homologous chromosomes.
• Crossing over is an enzyme-mediated process & the enzyme involved is called recombinase.
• Crossing over leads to recombination (exchange) of genetic material on the two chromosomes.
• Recombination between homologous chromosomes is completed by the end of pachytene, leaving the chro-
mosomes linked at the sites of crossing over.
Diplotene
• The beginning of diplotene is recognized by the dissolution of the synaptonemal complex & the tendency of
the recombined homologous chromosomes of the bivalents to separate from each other except at the sites
of crossovers.
• These X-shaped structures are called chiasmata.
Diakinesis
• This is marked by terminalisation of chiasmata.

• During this phase, the chromosomes are fully condensed & the meiotic spindle is assembled to prepare the
homologous chromosomes for separation.
• By the end of diakinesis, the nucleolus disappears & the nuclear envelope also breaks down.
• Diakinesis represents transition to metaphase.
Metaphase I
• The bivalent chromosomes align on the equatorial plate.

• The microtubules from the opposite poles of the spindle attach to the pair of homologous chromosomes.
Anaphase I
• The homologous chromosomes separate, while sister chromatids remain associated at their centromeres.
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Telophase I
• The nuclear membrane & nucleolus reappear, cytokinesis follows & this is called as diad of cells. PMF IAS – Learn Smart
Interkinesis
• The stage between the two meiotic divisions is called interkinesis & is generally short lived.
• Interkinesis is followed by prophase II, a much simpler prophase than prophase I.
Meiosis II
Prophase II
• Meiosis II is initiated immediately after cytokinesis, usually before the chromosomes have fully elongated.
• In contrast to meiosis I, meiosis II resembles a normal mitosis.
• The nuclear membrane disappears by the end of prophase II. The chromosomes again become compact.
Metaphase II
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• At this stage, the chromosomes align at the equator & the microtubules from opposite poles of the spindle
get attached to the kinetochores of sister chromatids.
Anaphase II
• It begins with the simultaneous splitting of the centromere of each chromosome (which was holding the
sister chromatids together), allowing them to move toward opposite poles of the cell.
Telophase II
• Meiosis ends with telophase II, in which the two groups of chromosomes once again get enclosed by a nu-
clear envelope; cytokinesis follows resulting in the formation of tetrad of cellse., four haploid daughter
cells.
Significance of Meiosis
• Meiosis is the mechanism by which conservation of specific chromosome number of each species is
achieved across generations in sexually reproducing organisms, even though the process, per se, paradox-
ically, results in reduction of chromosome number by half.
• It also increases the genetic variability in the population of organisms from one generation to the next.
• Variations are very important for the process of evolution.
Mitosis – Meiosis Comparison
• Cell cycle is divided into two phases called (i) Interphase – a period of preparation for cell division, & (ii) Mi-
tosis (M phase) – the actual period of cell division.
• Interphase is further subdivided into G1, S & G2.
• G1 phase is the period when the cell grows & carries out normal metabolism.
• Most of the organelle duplication also occurs during this phase.
• S phase marks the phase of DNA replication & chromosome duplication.
• G2 phase is the period of cytoplasmic growth.
• Mitosis is also divided into four stages namely prophase, metaphase, anaphase & telophase.
1. Prophase: Chromosomes condense (chromatids to chromosomes), centrioles move to the opposite

poles, nuclear envelope & the nucleolus disappear & the spindle fibres start appearing.
2. Metaphase: alignment of chromosomes at the equatorial plate.
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3. Anaphase: centromeres divide, chromatids start moving towards the two opposite poles.
4. Telophase: chromosomal elongation starts, nucleolus & the nuclear membrane reappear. PMF IAS – Learn Smart
5. Cytokinesis: cytoplasmic division.
• Mitosis thus, is the equational division in which the chromosome number of the parent is conserved in
the daughter cell.
• In contrast to mitosis, meiosis occurs in the diploid cells, which are destined to form gametes.
• It is called the reduction division since it reduces the chromosome number by half while making the gam-
etes.
• In sexual reproduction when the two gametes fuse the chromosome number is restored to the value in
the parent.
• Meiosis is divided into two phases – meiosis I & meiosis II.
• In the first meiotic division the homologous chromosomes pair to form bivalents & undergo crossing
over.
• Meiosis I has a long prophase.
1. Prophase I: leptotene, zygotene, pachytene, diplotene & diakinesis.

2. Metaphase I: bivalents arrange on the equatorial plate.
3. Anaphase I: homologous chromosomes move to the opposite poles with both their chromatids. Each
pole receives half the chromosome number of the parent cell.
4. Telophase I: nuclear membrane & nucleolus reappear.
• Meiosis II is similar to mitosis. 130

• During anaphase II the sister chromatids separate.

• Thus, at the end of meiosis four haploid cells are formed.
Mitosis Meiosis
Number of divisions • One • Two – Meiosis I & Meiosis II.
DNA Replication • Occurs during interphase • Occurs during interphase

Role • Asexual cellular reproduction • Asexual cellular reproduction
& cell repair. that produces gametes.
• Produces only somatic cells.
Type of cells that divide • In animals, mitotic cell divi- • Meiotic cell division is seen
sion is only seen in the dip- only in diploid cells.
loid somatic cells.
• But plants can show mitotic
divisions in both haploid &
diploid cells.
Cell Cycle • Both cell division & cell cycle. • It is only cell division & not
cell cycle.
Daughter cells produced • Two diploid daughter cells • Four haploid daughter cells
(2n) that are genetically iden- (n) containing half the num-
tical to the parent cell. ber of chromosomes as the
parent cell.
15. Mendel’s Experiments on Inheritance
• Inheritance is the process by which characters are passed on from parent to progeny; it is the basis of he-
redity. Variation is the degree by which progeny differ from their parents.
• Gregor Mendel, conducted hybridisation experiments on garden peas for seven years (1856-1863) & pro-
posed the laws of inheritance in living organisms.
• Mendel conducted such artificial pollination/cross pollination experiments using several true-breeding pea
lines.
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 Truebreeding line: A truebreeding line is one that, having undergone continuous self-pollination, shows
the stable trait inheritance & expression for several generations. PMF IAS – Learn Smart
• Mendel investigated characters in the garden pea plant that were manifested as two opposing traits, e.g., tall
or dwarf plants, yellow or green seeds etc.
• Let us take the example of one such hybridisation experiment carried out by Mendel where he crossed tall &
dwarf pea plants to study the inheritance of one gene.
• He collected the seeds produced as a result of this cross & grew them to generate plants of the first hybrid
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generation. This generation is also called the Filial1 progeny or the F1.
• Mendel observed that all the F 1 progeny plants were tall, like one of its parents; none were dwarf. PMF IAS – Learn Smart
• He made similar observations for the other pairs of traits – he found that the F 1 always resembled either one
of the parents, & that the trait of the other parent was not seen in them.
• Mendel then self-pollinated the tall F1 plants & to his surprise found that in the Filial 2 generation some of
the offspring were ‘dwarf’; the character that was not seen in the F 1 generation was now expressed.
• The proportion of plants that were dwarf were 1/4th of the F 2 plants while 3/4th of the F2 plants were tall.
• The tall & dwarf traits were identical to their parental type & did not show any blending, that is all the off-
spring were either tall or dwarf, none were of in between height.
• Similar results were obtained with the other traits that he studied: only one of the parental traits was ex-
pressed in the F1 generation while at the F 2 stage both the traits were expressed in the proportion 3:1.
• The contrasting traits did not show any blending at either F1 or F2 stage.
Factors – Genes
• Based on these observations, Mendel proposed that something was being stably passed down, unchanged,
from parent to offspring through the gametes, over successive generations.
• He called these things as factors.
• Now we call the ‘factors’ as genes.
• Genes, therefore, are the units of inheritance.
• They contain the information that is required to express a particular trait in an organism.
Pair of Alleles – Homozygous & Heterozygous
• Genes which code for a pair of contrasting traits are known as alleles, i.e., they are slightly different
forms of the same gene.
• If we use alphabetical symbols for each gene, then the capital letter is used for the trait expressed at the F 1
stage & the small alphabet for the other trait.
• For example, in case of the character of height, T is used for the Tall trait & t for the ‘dwarf’, & T & t are al-
leles of each other. Hence, in plants the pair of alleles for height would be TT, Tt or tt.
• Genotype & Phenotype: TT & tt are called the genotype of the plant while the descriptive terms tall &
dwarf are the phenotype.
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• Mendel proposed that in a true breeding, tall or dwarf pea variety the allelic pair of genes for height are
identical or homozygous, TT & tt, respectively.
• On the other hand, the allelic pair Tt is heterozygous.
• From the observation that the recessive parental trait is expressed without any blending in the F2 generation,
we can infer that, when the tall & dwarf plant produce gametes, by the process of meiosis, the alleles of the
parental pair separate or segregate from each other & only one allele is transmitted to a gamete.
• This segregation of alleles is a random process & so there is a 50 per cent chance of a gamete containing
either allele, as has been verified by the results of the crossings.
• In this way the gametes of the tall TT plants have the allele T & the gametes of the dwarf tt plants have the
allele t.
• During fertilisation the two alleles, T from one parent say, through the pollen, & t from the other parent, then
through the egg, are united to produce zygotes that have one T allele & one t allele.
• In other words, the hybrids have Tt. Since these hybrids contain alleles which express contrasting traits, the
plants are heterozygous.
Dominant & Recessive Factor
• What twould be the phenotype of a plant that had a genotype Tt?

• As Mendel found the phenotype of the F1heterozygote Tt to be exactly like the TT parent in appearance, he
proposed that in a pair of dissimilar factors, one dominates the other (as in the F1) & hence is called
the dominant factor while the other factor is recessive.
• In this case T (for tallness) is dominant over t (for dwarfness), that is recessive.
• He observed identical behaviour for all the other characters/trait-pairs that he studied.
• It is convenient (and logical) to use the capital & lower case of an alphabetical symbol to remember this
concept of dominance & recessiveness.
• Alleles can be similar as in the case of homozygotes TT & tt or can be dissimilar as in the case of the het-
erozygote Tt.
• Since the Tt plant is heterozygous for genes controlling one character (height), it is a monohybrid & the
cross between TT & tt is a monohybrid cross.
Punnett Square for Monohybrid Cross
• The production of gametes by the parents, the formation of the zygotes, the F1 & F2 plants can be under-
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stood from a diagram called Punnett Square as shown in Figure below.
• The Punnett Square above shows the parental tall TT (male) & dwarf tt (female) plants, the gametes pro-
duced by them and, the F1 Tt The F1 plants of genotype Tt are self-pollinated.
• The F1 plant of the genotype Tt when self-pollinated, produces gametes of the genotype T & t in equal
proportion.
• When fertilisation takes place, the pollen grains of genotype T have a 50 per cent chance to pollinate eggs
of the genotype T, as well as of genotype t.
• Also pollen grains of genotype t have a 50 per cent chance of pollinating eggs of genotype T, as well as of
genotype t.
• As a result of random fertilisation, the resultant zygotes can be of the genotypes TT, Tt or tt.
• From the Punnett square it is easily seen that 1/4th of the random fertilisations lead to TT, 1/2 lead to Tt &
1/4th to tt.
• Though the F1 have a genotype of Tt, but the phenotypic character seen is ‘tall’.
• At F2, 3/4th of the plants are tall, where some of them are TT while others are Tt.
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Test Cross
• Externally it is not possible to distinguish between the plants with the genotypes TT & Tt.
• Hence, within the genopytic pair Tt only one character ‘T’ tall is expressed.
• Hence the character T or ‘tall’ is said to dominate over the other allele t or ‘dwarf’ character.
• It is thus due to this dominance of one character over the other that all the F 1 are tall (though the genotype
is Tt) & in the F2 3/4th of the plants are tall (though genotypically 1/2 are Tt & only 1/4th are TT).
• This leads to a phenotypic ratio of 3/4th tall : (1/4 TT + 1/2 Tt) & 1/4th tt, i.e., a 3:1 ratio, but a genotypic ratio
of 1:2:1.
• The genotypic ratios can be calculated by simply looking at the phenotype of a dominant trait but it is not
possible to know the genotypic composition.
• That is, for example, whether a tall plant from F1 or F 2 has TT or Tt composition, cannot be predicted.
• Therefore, to determine the genotype of a tall plant at F2, Mendel crossed the tall plant from F2 with a dwarf
plant. This he called a test cross.
• In a typical test cross an organism (pea plants here) showing a dominant phenotype (and whose genotype is
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to be determined) is crossed with the recessive parent.
• The progenies of such a cross can easily be analysed to predict the genotype of the test organism. PMF IAS – Learn Smart
• Figure shows the results of typical test cross where violet colour flower (W) is dominant over white colour
flower (w).
Mendel’s Laws of Inheritance
• Based on his observations on monohybrid crosses Mendel proposed two general rules to consolidate his
understanding of inheritance in monohybrid crosses.
• Today these rules are called the Principles or Laws of Inheritance: The First Law or Law of Dominance &
the Second Law or Law of Segregation.
First Law or Law of Dominance
1. Characters are controlled by discrete units called factors.

2. Factors occur in pairs. (pair of alleles)
3. In a dissimilar pair of factors one member of the pair dominates (dominant) the other (recessive).
• The law of dominance is used to explain the expression of only one of the parental characters in a monohybrid
cross (Mendel’s Experiments on Inheritance) in the F1 & the expression of both in the F 2.
• It also explains the proportion of 3:1 obtained at the F2.
Second Law or Law of Segregation
• This law is based on the fact that the alleles do not show any blending & that both the characters are
recovered as such in the F 2 generation though one of these is not seen at the F1 stage.
• Though the parents contain two alleles during gamete formation, the factors or alleles of a pair segre-
gate from each other such that a gamete receives only one of the two factors (either dominant or
recessive).
• Of course, a homozygous parent produces all gametes that are similar while a heterozygous one pro-
duces two kinds of gametes each having one allele with equal proportion.
Incomplete Dominance
• When experiments on peas were repeated using other traits in other plants, it was found that sometimes
the F 1 had a phenotype that did not resemble either of the two parents & was in between the two.
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• The inheritance of flower colour in the dog flower (snapdragon or Antirrhinum sp.) is a good example to
understand incomplete dominance. PMF IAS – Learn Smart
• In a cross between true-breeding red-flowered (RR) & truebreeding white-flowered plants (rr), the F1 (Rr)
was pink. When the F1 was self-pollinated the F 2 resulted in the following ratio 1 (RR) Red : 2 (Rr) Pink: 1 (rr)
White.
• Here the genotype ratios were exactly as we would expect in any mendelian monohybrid cross, but the phe-
notype ratios had changed from the 3:1 dominant : recessive ratio.
• What happened was that R was not completely dominant over r & this made it possible to distinguish Rr as
pink from RR (red) & rr (white).
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Co-dominance
• Till now we were discussing crosses where the F1 resembled either of the two parents (dominance) or
was in-between (incomplete dominance).
• But, in the case of co-dominance the F 1 generation resembles both parents.
• A good example is different types of red blood cells that determine ABO blood grouping in human
beings.
• ABO blood groups are controlled by the gene I.
• The plasma membrane of the red blood cells has sugar polymers that protrude from its surface & the
kind of sugar is controlled by the gene.
• The gene (I) has three alleles IA, IB & i.
• The alleles IA & IB produce a slightly different form of the sugar while allele i does not produce any
sugar.
• Because humans are diploid organisms, each person possesses any two of the three I gene alleles.
• IA & IB are completely dominant over i, in other words when IA & i are present only IA expresses (because
i does not produce any sugar), & when IB & i are present IB expresses.
• But when IA & IB are present together they both express their own types of sugars: this is because
of co-dominance. Hence red blood cells have both A & B types of sugars.
• Since there are three different alleles, there are six different combinations of these three alleles that are
possible, & therefore, a total of six different genotypes of the human ABO blood types. How many phe-
notypes are possible?
Here there are 6 Genotypes & 4 Phenotypes (A, B, AB & O). 139
Inheritance of Two Genes – Dihybrid Cross
• Mendel also worked with & crossed pea plants that differed in two characters, as is seen in the cross between
a pea plant that has seeds with yellow colour & round shape & one that had seeds of green colour & wrinkled
shape.
• Yellow colour was dominant over green & round shape dominant over wrinkled.
• Let us use the genotypic symbols Y for dominant yellow seed colour & y for recessive green seed colour, R
for round shaped seeds & r for wrinkled seed shape.
• The genotype of the parents can then be written as RRYY & rryy. The cross between the two plants can be
written down as in Figure showing the genotypes of the parent plants.
• The gametes RY & ry unite on fertilisation to produce the F1 hybrid RrYy.
• When Mendel self hybridised the F1 plants he found that 3/4th of F2 plants had yellow seeds & 1/4th had
green.
• The yellow & green colour segregated in a 3:1 ratio. Round & wrinkled seed shape also segregated in a 3:1
ratio; just like in a monohybrid cross.
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Law of Independent Assortment

• In the dihybrid cross, the phenotypes round, yellow; wrinkled, yellow; round, green & wrinkled, green ap-
peared in the ratio 9:3:3:1.
• Such a ratio was observed for several pairs of characters that Mendel studied.
• The ratio of 9:3:3:1 can be derived as a combination series of 3 yellow: 1 green, with 3 round : 1 wrinkled.
• This derivation can be written as follows: (3 Round : 1 Wrinkled) (3 Yellow : 1 Green) = 9 Round, Yellow : 3
Wrinkled, Yellow: 3 Round, Green : 1 Wrinkled, Green.
• Based upon such observations on dihybrid crosses (crosses between plants differing in two traits) Men-
del proposed a second set of generalisations that we call Mendel’s Law of Independent Assortment.
• The law states that ‘when two pairs of traits are combined in a hybrid, segregation of one pair of char-
acters is independent of the other pair of characters’.
• You can verify the law using The Punnett square above (Inheritance of Two Genes – dihybrid cross).
Summary
• Genetics is a branch of biology which deals with principles of inheritance & its practices.
• Progeny resembling the parents in morphological & physiological features has attracted the attention of
many biologists.
• Mendel was the first to study this phenomenon systematically.
• While studying the pattern of inheritance in pea plants of contrasting characters, Mendel proposed the prin-
ciples of inheritance, which are today referred to as ‘Mendel’s Laws of Inheritance’.
• He proposed that the ‘factors’ (later named as genes) regulating the characters are found in pairs known
as alleles.
• He observed that the expression of the characters in the offspring follow a definite pattern in different–first
generations (F1), second (F2) & so on. Some characters are dominant over others.
• The dominant characters are expressed when factors are in heterozygous condition (Law of Domi-
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nance). The recessive characters are only expressed in homozygous conditions.
• The characters never blend in heterozygous condition. PMF IAS – Learn Smart
• A recessive character that was not expressed in heterozygous condition may be expressed again when
it becomes homozygous.
• Hence, characters segregate while formation of gametes (Law of Segregation).
• Not all characters show true dominance. Some characters show incomplete, & some show co-dominance.
• When Mendel studied the inheritance of two characters together, it was found that the factors inde-
pendently assort & combine in all permutations & combinations (Law of Independent Assortment).
• Different combinations of gametes are theoretically represented in a square tabular form known as ‘Pun-
nett Square’.
• The factors (now known as gene) on chromosomes regulating the characters are called the genotype
& the physical expression of the characters is called phenotype.
16. Chromosomal Theory of Inheritance
• Due to advancements in microscopy during 1900s, scientists were able to observe cell division.
• This led to the discovery of structures in the nucleus that appeared to double & divide just before each cell
division. These were called chromosomes (colored bodies, as they were visualised by staining).
• By 1902, the chromosome movement during meiosis had been worked out.
• The behavior of chromosomes was parallel to the behavior of genes & used biologists used chromosome
movement to explain Mendel’s laws.
• The important things to remember are that chromosomes as well as genes occur in pairs.
• The two alleles of a gene pair are located on homologous sites on homologous chromosomes.
• During Anaphase of meiosis I, the two chromosome pairs can align at the metaphase plate independently of
each other.
• To understand this, compare the chromosomes of four different colour in the left & right columns.
• In the left column (Possibility I) orange & green is segregating together. But in the right-hand column (Pos-
sibility II) the orange chromosome is segregating with the red chromosomes.
• Sutton & Boveri argued that the pairing & separation of a pair of chromosomes would lead to the segregation
of a pair of factors they carried.
• Sutton united the knowledge of chromosomal segregation with Mendelian principles & called it the chro-
mosomal theory of inheritance.
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• Following this synthesis of ideas, experimental verification of the chromosomal theory of inheritance by
Thomas Hunt Morgan & his colleagues, led to discovering the basis for the variation that sexual repro-
duction produced.
• Morgan worked with the tiny fruit flies, Drosophila melanogaster, which were found very suitable for such
studies.
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Linkage & Recombination
• Morgan carried out several dihybrid crosses in Drosophila to study genes that were sex-linked. PMF IAS – Learn Smart
• The crosses were similar to the dihybrid crosses carried out by Mendel in peas.
• For example Morgan hybridised yellow-bodied, white-eyed females to brown-bodied, red-eyed males & in-
tercrossed their F 1 progeny.
• He observed that the two genes did not segregate independently of each other & the F 2 ratio deviated
very significantly from the 9:3:3:1 ratio (expected when the two genes are independent).
• Morgan & his group knew that the genes were located on the X chromosome & saw quickly that when the
two genes in a dihybrid cross were situated on the same chromosome, the proportion of parental gene
combinations were much higher than the non-parental type.
• Morgan attributed this due to the physical association or linkage of the two genes & coined the term
linkage to describe this physical association of genes on a chromosome & the term recombination to
describe the generation of non-parental gene combinations.
• Alfred Sturtevant used the frequency of recombination between gene pairs on the same chromosome as a
measure of the distance between genes & ‘mapped’ their position on the chromosome.
• Today genetic maps are extensively used as a starting point in the sequencing of whole genomes as
was done in the case of the Human Genome Sequencing Project.
Human Genome Project
• Human Genome Project is a publicly funded international collaborative scientific research project aimed
at
✓ determining the sequence of chemical base pairs which make up human DNA, &
✓ identifying & mapping all of the genes of the human genome.
 A base pair (bp) is a unit consisting of two nucleobases bound to each other by hydrogen bonds.
 They form the building blocks of the DNA double helix & contribute to the folded structure of both DNA
& RNA.
• Human Genome Project was formally launched in 1990, & finally declared complete in 2003.
• The "genome" of any given individual is unique; mapping "the human genome" involves sequencing multi-
ple variations of each gene.
• All our genes together are known as our ‘genome.’
• The HGP has revealed that there are probably about 20,500 human genes.
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Applications & Benefits of Human Genome Project
Can help us
1. understand diseases including genotyping of specific viruses to direct appropriate treatment,

2. in identification of mutations linked to different forms of cancer,
3. understand the design of medication & more accurate prediction of their effects,
4. in advancement of forensic applied sciences, biofuels & other energy applications, agriculture, animal
husbandry, etc.
5. understand evolution much more accurately.
• Another proposed benefit is the commercial development of genomics research related to DNA based
products, a multibillion-dollar industry.
Sex Determination
• Henking (1891) could trace a specific nuclear structure all through spermatogenesis in a few insects, & it was 145
also observed by him that 50 per cent of the sperm received this structure after spermatogenesis, whereas
the other 50 per cent sperm did not receive it.
• Henking gave a name to this structure as the X body but he could not explain its significance.
• Further investigations by other scientists led to the conclusion that the ‘X body’ of Henking was in fact a
chromosome & that is why it was given the name X-chromosome.
• It was also observed that in a large number of insects the mechanism of sex determination is of the XO type,
i.e., all eggs bear an additional X-chromosome besides the other chromosomes (autosomes).
• On the other hand, some of the sperms bear the X-chromosome whereas some do not.
• Eggs fertilized by sperm having an X-chromosome become females and, those fertilized by sperms that do
not have an X-chromosome become males.
• Due to the involvement of the X-chromosome in the determination of sex, it was designated to be
the sex chromosome, & the rest of the chromosomes were named as autosomes.
• Grasshopper is an example of XO type of sex determination in which the males have only one X-chromosome
besides the autosomes, whereas females have a pair of X-chromosomes.
• These observations led to the investigation of a number of species to understand the mechanism of sex
determination.
• In a number of other insects & mammals including man, XY type of sex determination is seen where both
male & female have same number of chromosomes.
• Among the males an X-chromosome is present, but its counterpart is distinctly smaller & called the Y-chro-
mosome. Females, however, have a pair of X-chromosomes.
• Both males & females bear same number of autosomes.
• Hence, the males have autosomes plus XY, while female have autosomes plus XX.
 One pair of sex chromosome (XX or XY) + 22 pairs of autosomes ➔ total 23 pairs of chromosomes
in a human cell nucleus.
• In human beings & in Drosophila the males have one X & one Y chromosome, whereas females have a pair
of X-chromosomes besides autosomes.
• In the above description you have studied about two types of sex determining mechanisms, i.e., XO type &
XY type.
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• But in both cases males produce two different types of gametes, (a) either with or without X-chromosome or
(b) some gametes with X-chromosome & some with Y-chromosome. PMF IAS – Learn Smart
• Such types of sex determination mechanism is designated to be the example of male heterogamety.
• In some other organisms, e.g., birds, a different mechanism of sex determination is observed.
• In this case the total number of chromosomes is same in both males & females.
• But two different types of gametes in terms of the sex chromosomes, are produced by females, i.e., female
heterogamety.
• In order to have a distinction with the mechanism of sex determination described earlier, the two different
sex chromosomes of a female bird has been designated to be the Z & W chromosomes.
• In these organisms the females have one Z & one W chromosome, whereas males have a pair of Z-chromo-
somes besides the autosomes.
Sex Determination in Humans
• It has already been mentioned that the sex determining mechanism in case of humans is XY type.
• Out of 23 pairs of chromosomes present, 22 pairs are exactly same in both males & females; these are
the autosomes.
• A pair of X-chromosomes are present in the female, whereas the presence of an X & Y chromosome are
determinant of the male characteristic.
• During spermatogenesis among males, two types of gametes are produced.
• 50 per cent of the total sperm produced carry the X-chromosome & the rest 50 per cent has Y-chro-
mosome besides the autosomes.
• Females, however, produce only one type of ovum with an X-chromosome.
• There is an equal probability of fertilization of the ovum with the sperm carrying either X or Y chromosome.
• In case the ovum fertilizes with a sperm carrying X-chromosome the zygote develops into a female (XX) &
the fertilization of ovum with Y-chromosome carrying sperm results into a male offspring (XY).
• Thus, it is evident that it is the genetic makeup of the sperm that determines the sex of the child.
• It is also evident that in each pregnancy there is always 50 per cent probability of either a male or a female
child.
• It is unfortunate that in our society women are blamed for giving birth to female children & have been os-
tracized & ill-treated because of this false notion.
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Genetic Disorders
Pedigree Analysis PMF IAS – Learn Smart
• The idea that disorders are inherited has been prevailing in the human society since long.
• This was based on the heritability of certain characteristic features in families.
• After the rediscovery of Mendel’s work the practice of analyzing inheritance pattern of traits in human beings
began.
• Since it is evident that control crosses that can be performed in pea plant or some other organisms, are not
possible in case of human beings, study of the family history about inheritance of a particular trait provides
an alternative.
• Such an analysis of traits in a several of generations of a family is called the pedigree analysis.
• In the pedigree analysis the inheritance of a particular trait is represented in the family tree over generations.
• In human genetics, pedigree study provides a strong tool, which is utilized to trace the inheritance of a specific
trait, abnormality or disease.
• Each & every feature in any organism is controlled by one or the other gene located on the DNA present
in the chromosome.
• DNA is the carrier of genetic information.
• It is hence transmitted from one generation to the other without any change or alteration.
• However, changes or alteration do take place occasionally.
• Such an alteration or change in the genetic material is referred to as mutation.
• A number of disorders in human beings have been found to be associated with the inheritance of changed
or altered genes or chromosomes.
Mutation
• Mutation is a phenomenon which results in alteration of DNA sequences & consequently results in changes
in the genotype & the phenotype of an organism.
• In addition to recombination, mutation is another phenomenon that leads to variation in DNA.
• DNA helix runs continuously from one end to the other in each chromatid, in a highly supercoiled form.
• Therefore loss (deletions) or gain (insertion/duplication) of a segment of DNA, result in alteration in chro-
mosomes.
• Since genes are known to be located on chromosomes, alteration in chromosomes results in abnormalities
148
or aberrations. Chromosomal aberrations are commonly observed in cancer cells.
• In addition to the above, mutation also arise due to change in a single base pair of DNA. This is known PMF IAS – Learn Smart
as point mutation. A classic example of such a mutation is sickle cell anemia.
• Deletions & insertions of base pairs of DNA, causes frame-shift mutations.
• There are many chemical & physical factors that induce mutations. These are referred to as mutagens.
• UV radiations can cause mutations in organisms – it is a mutagen.
Mendelian Disorders
• Broadly, genetic disorders may be grouped into two categories – Mendelian disorders & Chromosomal
disorders.
• Mendelian disorders are mainly determined by alteration or mutation in the single gene.
• These disorders are transmitted to the offspring on the same lines as we have studied in the principle of
inheritance.
• The pattern of inheritance of such Mendelian disorders can be traced in a family by the pedigree analysis.
• Most common & prevalent Mendelian disorders are Haemophilia, Cystic fibrosis, Sickle-cell anaemia, Col-
our blindness, Phenylketonuria, Thalassemia, etc.
• It is important to mention here that such Mendelian disorders may be dominant or recessive.
• By pedigree analysis one can easily understand whether the trait in question is dominant or recessive.
• Similarly, the trait may also be linked to the sex chromosome as in case of haemophilia.
• It is evident that this X-linked recessive trait shows transmission from carrier female to male progeny.
Haemophilia
• This sex-linked recessive disease, which shows its transmission from unaffected carrier female to some
of the male progeny has been widely studied.
• In this disease, a single protein that is a part of the cascade of proteins involved in the clotting of blood is
affected. Due to this, in an affected individual a simple cut will result in non-stop bleeding.
• The heterozygous female (carrier) for haemophilia may transmit the disease to sons.
• The possibility of a female becoming a haemophilic is extremely rare because mother of such a female has
to be at least carrier & the father should be haemophilic (unviable in the later stage of life).
• The family pedigree of Queen Victoria shows a number of haemophilic descendents as she was a carrier
of the disease.
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Sickle-Cell Anaemia
• This is an autosome linked recessive trait that can be transmitted from parents to the offspring when both PMF IAS – Learn Smart
the partners are carrier for the gene (or heterozygous).
• The disease is controlled by a single pair of allele, HbA & HbS.
• Out of the three possible genotypes only homozygous individuals for HbS (HbSHbS) show the diseased
phenotype.
• Heterozygous (HbAHbS) individuals appear apparently unaffected, but they are carrier of the disease as there
is 50 per cent probability of transmission of the mutant gene to the progeny, thus exhibiting sickle-cell trait.
• The defect is caused by the substitution of Glutamic acid (Glu) by Valine (Val) at the sixth position of the
beta globin chain of the haemoglobin molecule.
• The substitution of amino acid in the globin protein results due to the single base substitution at the sixth
codon of the beta globin gene from GAG to GUG.
• The mutant haemoglobin molecule undergoes polymerization under low oxygen tension causing the
change in the shape of the RBC from biconcave disc to elongated sickle like structure.
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Phenylketonuria
• This inborn error of metabolism is also inherited as the autosomal recessive trait. PMF IAS – Learn Smart
• The affected individual lacks an enzyme that converts the amino acid phenylalanine into tyrosine.
• As a result of this phenylalanine is accumulated & converted into phenylpyruvic acid & other derivatives.
• Accumulation of these in brain results in mental retardation.
• These are also excreted through urine because of its poor absorption by kidney.
Chromosomal Disorders
• The chromosomal disorders on the other hand are caused due to absence or excess or abnormal arrange-
ment of one or more sex chromosomes.
• Failure of segregation of chromatids during cell division cycle results in the gain or loss of a chromo-
some(s), called aneuploidy.
• For example, Down’s syndrome results in the gain of extra copy of chromosome 21.
• Similarly, Turner’s syndrome results due to loss of an X chromosome in human females.
• Failure of cytokinesis after telophase stage of cell division results in an increase in a whole set of chromo-
somes in an organism and, this phenomenon is known as polyploidy. This condition is often seen in plants.
• The total number of chromosomes in a normal human cell is 46 (23 pairs).
• Out of these 22 pairs are autosomes & one pair of chromosomes are sex chromosome.
• Sometimes, though rarely, either an additional copy of a chromosome may be included in an individual
or an individual may lack one of any one pair of chromosomes.
• These situations are known as trisomy or monosomy of a chromosome, respectively.
• Such a situation leads to very serious consequences in the individual. Down’s syndrome, Turner’s syn‐
drome, Klinefelter’s syndrome are common examples of chromosomal disorders.
Down’s Syndrome
• The cause of this genetic disorder is the presence of an additional copy of the chromosome number
21 (trisomy of 21). This disorder was first described by Langdon Down (1866).
• The affected individual is short statured with small round head, furrowed tongue & partially open mouth.
• Palm is broad with characteristic palm crease.
• Physical, psychomotor & mental development is retarded.
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Klinefelter’s Syndrome
• This genetic disorder is also caused due to the presence of an additional copy of X-chromosome resulting
into a karyotype of 47, XXY.
• Such an individual has overall masculine development, however, the feminine development (develop-
ment of breast, i.e., Gynaecomastia) is also expressed. Such individuals are sterile.
Turner’s Syndrome
• Such a disorder is caused due to the absence of one of the X chromosomes, i.e., 45 with X0.
• Such females are sterile as ovaries are rudimentary besides other features including lack of other second-
ary sexual characters.
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Summary
• After knowing that the genes are located on the chromosomes, a good correlation was drawn between
Mendel’s laws: segregation & assortment of chromosomes during meiosis.
• The Mendel’s laws were extended in the form of ‘Chromosomal Theory of Inheritance’.
• Later, it was found that Mendel’s law of independent assortment does not hold true for the genes that
were located on the same chromosomes. These genes were called as ‘linked genes’.
• Closely located genes assorted together.
• Distantly located genes, due to recombination, assorted independently.
• Linkage maps, therefore, corresponded to arrangement of genes on a chromosome.
• Many genes were linked to sexes also & called as sex-linked genes.
• The two sexes (male & female) were found to have a set of chromosomes which were common, &
another set which was different.
• The chromosomes which were different in two sexes were named as sex chromosomes.
• The remaining set was named as autosomes.
• In humans, a normal female has 22 pairs of autosomes & a pair of sex chromosomes (XX).
• A male has 22 pairs of autosomes & a pair of sex chromosome as XY.
• In chicken, sex chromosomes in male are ZZ, & in females are ZW.
• Mutation is defined as change in the genetic material.
• A point mutation is a change of a single base pair in DNA.
• Sickle-cell anemia is caused due to change of one base in the gene coding for beta-chain of hemoglobin.
• Inheritable mutations can be studied by generating a pedigree of a family.
• Some mutations involve changes in whole set of chromosomes (polyploidy) or change in a subset of
chromosome number (aneuploidy).
• This helped in understanding the mutational basis of genetic disorders.
• Down’s syndrome is due to trisomy of chromosome 21, where there is an extra copy of chromosome
21 & consequently the total number of chromosome becomes 47.
• In Turner’s syndrome, one X chromosome is missing & the sex chromosome is as XO, & in Klinefelter’s
syndrome, the condition is XXY. These can be easily studied by analysis of Karyotypes.
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• Human Genome Project is a collaborative scientific research project aimed at identifying & mapping all of
the genes of the human genome. PMF IAS – Learn Smart
• Human genome project is helpful in wide ranging biotechnology applications.
17. Microbes or Microorganisms
• Microorganisms (microbes) include bacteria, fungi, protozoa, some algae, viruses, viroids & also pri-
ons that are proteinacious infectious agents.
• Viruses reproduce only inside the cells of the host organism, which may be a bacterium, plant or animal.
• Microorganisms may be single celled like bacteria, some algae & protozoa, or multicellular, such as algae
& fungi.
• They can survive under all types of environment, ranging from ice cold climate to hot springs & deserts to
marshy lands.
• Microorganisms like amoeba can live alone, while fungi & bacteria may live in colonies.
Diseases Caused by Microorganisms
Causative Agent Transmission Type of Organ- Details

Disease
Mode ism Affected
Diseases Caused by Bacteria
Acne vulgaris Propionibacterium Direct contact/close Humans/

• Skin disease that occurs when hair folli-
(acne or pimples) acnes contact Adolescents
cles become clogged with dead skin
cells & oil from the skin.
• Causes: Genetics + Excessive growth of
the bacteria Propionibacterium acnes.
Anthrax Bacillus anthraces Contact with in- Most animals in-

• Causes skin infections & Gastrointestinal
fected meat cluding humans
(GI) infection that are fatal.
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• French scientist Louis Pasteur developed
the first effective vaccine in 1881. PMF IAS – Learn Smart
Cholera Vibrio cholerae Water/food Humans
• Effects small intestine.
• The classic symptom is large amounts of

watery diarrhea that lasts a few days.
• Vomiting & muscle cramps may also oc-

cur.
• Diarrhea can be so severe that it leads
within hours to severe dehydration &

electrolyte imbalance.
Citrus Canker Xanthomonas ax- Air Citrus fruit

• Infection causes lesions on the leaves,
onopodis plants
stems, & fruit of citrus trees.
Diphtheria Corynebacterium Air/direct contact Humans

• Symptoms: sore throat & fever.
diphtheriae
• The neck may swell in part due to large
lymph nodes.
• Complications may include myocarditis,

inflammation of nerves, kidney problems,
& bleeding problems due to low blood

platelets.
• Myocarditis may result in an abnormal
heart rate & inflammation of the nerves

may result in paralysis.
Pneumonia Streptococcus Air borne droplets Humans

• Pneumonia is an inflammatory condition
(caused by bacte- pneumoniae (bac- of sneeze
of the lung affecting primarily the micro-
ria or viruses) teria) & Haemoph-
scopic air sacs known as alveoli.
ilus influenzae (vi-
rus)
Peptic ulcers Helicobacter pylori Humans

Ulcers in the lining of stomach & starting
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•
part of small intestine
Plague Yersinia pestis Air/ direct contact Humans

• Unhygienic conditions is the main cause. PMF IAS – Learn Smart
(You know why Surat is one of the clean-
est cities in India?)
• The symptoms of plague depend on the

concentrated areas of infection in each
person: bubonic plague in lymph nodes,
septicemic plague in blood vessels, pneu-
monic plague in lungs.

Tuberculosis Mycobacterium tu- Air Humans
• Tuberculosis generally affects the lungs,
berculosis
but can also affect other parts of the
body. Most infections do not have symp-
toms, known as latent tuberculosis. About
10% of latent infections eventually pro-

gresses to active disease which, if left un-
treated, kills about half of those infected.
The classic symptoms of active TB are a

chronic cough with blood-tinged sputum,
fever, night sweats, & weight loss.
Typhoid Salmonella typhi Water Humans

• Often there is a gradual onset of a high
fever over several days. Weakness, ab-
dominal pain, constipation, & headaches
also commonly occur.
Diseases Caused by Viruses
AIDS Human Immunode- Blood exchange Humans & pri-

• Severely weakens immunity & makes way
ficiency Virus (HIV) mates
for a number of other pathogens.
Chicken Pox varicella zoster virus Air/contact Humans

• Chickenpox, also known as varicella, is a
(VZV)
highly contagious disease. The disease re-
sults in a characteristic skin rash that
forms small, itchy blisters. Less severe

than small pox. Almost eradicated after
the invention of vaccination.
Small Pox Variola major & Va- Air/contact/water Humans

• One of the highly dreaded diseases that is
riola minor
highly contagious.
• Almost eradicated after the invention of
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vaccination.
Chikungunya Chikungunya virus Aedes mosquitoes,

• Causes severe joint pains. Animal reser-
such as A. aegypti &
voirs of the virus include monkeys, birds,
A. albopictus
cattle, & rodents. This is in contrast to
dengue, for which primates are the only
hosts
Cold, influenza Rhino viruses Air borne droplets Humans

• Summer are hostile for the virus. Most
(flu) & most of sneeze
common during winter months.
coughs
Dengue fever Flavivirus Female Aedes mos- Humans
• high fever, headache, vomiting, muscle &
quito
joint pains, & a characteristic skin rash.
• In a small proportion of cases, the disease
develops into the life-threatening dengue
hemorrhagic fever, resulting in bleed-

ing, low levels of blood platelets & blood
plasma leakage, or into dengue shock
syndrome, where dangerously low blood

pressure occurs.
Ebola Ebola virus Animal to man Humans &

• Ebola infection shows a sudden onset of
Some Animals
the disease resulting initially in flu-like
symptoms: fever, chills & malaise.
• As the disease progresses, it results in
multi-system involvements indicated by

the person experiencing lethargy, nausea,
vomiting, diarrhoea & headache.

•
Foot & Mouth Dis- Picornavirus(genus Close-contact ani- Animals

• Serious problem to animal farming in In-
ease Aphthovirus) mal-to-animal
dia.
spread
Hepatitis B hepatitis B virus Blood Exchange, Humans

• Affects the liver. Acute as well as chronic.
(HBV) STD (Sexually trans-
mitted disease)
Measles measles virus Air Humans

• Complications occur in about 30% & may
include diarrhea, blindness, inflammation
of the brain, & pneumonia among others.
Polio or Poliomye- Poliovirus Water/faecal-mouth Humans

• Weak muscles leading to deformations.
litis
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Zika Zika virus Aedes mosquitoes, Humans
such as A. aegypti & PMF IAS – Learn Smart
A. albopictus
•
Diseases Caused by Protozoans
Amoebiasis Entamoeba histolyt- Contaminated Wa- Humans

• Symptoms may include abdominal pain,
(amoebic dysen- ica ter/food
mild diarrhoea, bloody diarrhea or severe
tery)
colitis with tissue death & perforation.
This last complication may cause peritoni-
tis. People affected may develop anemia

due to loss of blood.
Dysentery Leishmania
•
Kala-Azar or Vis- Leishmania genus Sandflies Humans

• This disease is the second-largest parasitic
ceral leishmaniasis
killer in the world (after malaria).
• The parasite migrates to the internal or-
gans such as the liver, spleen (hence "vis-
ceral"), & bone marrow, and, if left un-

treated, will almost always result in the
death of the host. Signs & symptoms in-

clude fever, weight loss, fatigue, anemia,
& substantial swelling of the liver &
spleen.
Malaria Different species of Female Anopheles Humans

• Malaria causes symptoms that typically
Plasmodium (P. vi- mosquito
include fever, fatigue, vomiting, & head-
vax, P. malaria & P.
aches. In severe cases it can cause yellow
falciparum)
skin, seizures, coma, or death.
Sleeping Sickness Trypanosoma Infected tsetse fly Humans

• Initially, in the first stage of the disease,
there are fevers, headaches, itchiness, &
joint pains. This begins one to three

weeks after the bite. Weeks to months
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later the second stage begins with confu-
sion, poor coordination, numbness &
trouble sleeping.
Yellow Vein Mo- Bhendi yellow vein Insect Okra plant
• Okra are dwarfed, malformed.
saic of Okra (La- mosaic virus
dies finger)
Diseases Caused by Fungi

Ringworms Fungi belonging to Skin-skin contact Humans
• The fungi that cause parasitic infection,
the genera Micro
collectively dermatophytes, feed on kera-
Trichophyton & Epi-
tin, the material found in the outer layer
dermophyton
of skin, hair, & nails.
Rust of wheat Puccinia rust fungus Air/seeds Wheat & other

• Wheat leaf rust is a fungal disease that af-
crops
fects wheat, barley & rye stems, leaves &
grains. In temperate zones it is destructive
on winter wheat because the pathogen.

overwinters. Infections can lead up to 20%
yield loss exacerbated by dying leaves
which fertilize the fungus.
Useful Microbes – Microbes in Human Welfare
• Some microorganisms are harmful (pathogens) as they cause various diseases in humans.
• Some other microorganisms are beneficial & contribute to human welfare.
Antibiotics & Vaccination
• Whenever you fall ill the doctor may give you some antibiotic tablets, capsules or injections such as of peni-
cillin. The source of these medicines is microorganisms.
• These medicines kill or stop the growth of the disease-causing microorganisms.
• Such medicines are called antibiotics.
• These days a number of antibiotics are being produced from bacteria & fungi.
• Streptomycin, tetracycline & erythromycin are some of the commonly known antibiotics which are made
from fungi & bacteria.
• In 1929, Alexander Fleming was working on a culture of disease-causing bacteria (Staphylococci).
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• Suddenly he found the spores of a little green mould (Penicillium notatum) in one of his culture plates.
• He observed that the presence of mould prevented the growth of bacteria.
• In fact, it also killed many of these bacteria. From this the mould penicillin was prepared.
• Antibiotics have greatly improved our capacity to treat deadly diseases such as plague, whooping cough,
diphtheria & leprosy, which used to kill millions all over the globe.
• Today, we cannot imagine a world without antibiotics.
• Antibiotics taken unnecessarily may kill the beneficial bacteria in the body.
• Antibiotics, however, are not effective against cold & flu as these are caused by viruses.
• When a disease-carrying microbe enters our body, the body produces antibodies to fight the invader.
• The body also remembers how to fight the microbe if it enters again.
• So, if dead or weakened microbes are introduced in a healthy body, the body fights & kills them by pro-
ducing suitable antibodies.
• The antibodies remain in the body & we are protected from the disease-causing microbes. This is how
a vaccine works.
• Several diseases, including cholera, tuberculosis, smallpox & hepatitis can be prevented by vaccina-
tion. Edward Jenner discovered the vaccine for smallpox in 1798.
Chemicals, Enzymes & other Bioactive Molecules
• Microbes are also used for commercial & industrial production of certain chemicals like organic acids, alco-
hols & enzymes. Examples of acid producers are:
1. Aspergillus niger (a fungus that causes black mold diseases on citrus fruits) is used in production of
citric acid.
2. Acetobacter aceti (a bacterium) is used in production of acetic acid from ethanol (the bacteria is used
in the production of vinegar)
3. Clostridium butylicum (a bacterium) is used in production of butyric acid (created when the good
bacteria in your gut break down dietary fiber)
4. Lactobacillus (a bacterium) is used in production of lactic acid (curd is produced due to reaction be-
tween lactic acid bacteria and the milk protein casein).
5. Yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) is used for commercial production of ethanol.
• Lipases are used in detergent formulations & are helpful in removing oily stains from the laundry.
• You must have noticed that bottled fruit juices bought from the market are clearer as compared to those
made at home. This is because the bottled juices are clarified by the use of pectinases & proteases.
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• Streptokinase produced by the bacterium Streptococcus & modified by genetic engineering is used as
a ‘clot buster’ for removing clots from the blood vessels of patients who have undergone myocardial infrac- PMF IAS – Learn Smart
tion leading to heart attack.

• Another bioactive molecule, cyclosporin A, that is used as an immunosuppressive agent in organ-trans-
plant patients, is produced by the fungus Tnchoderma polysporum.
• Statins produced by the yeast Monascus purpureus have been commercialized as blood-cholesterol low-
ering agents.
• It acts by competitively inhibiting the enzyme responsible for synthesis of cholesterol.
Milk to Curd
• Micro-organisms such as Lactobacillus & others commonly called lactic acid bacteria (LAB) grow in milk
& convert it to curd.
• During growth, the LAB produces acids that coagulate & partially digest the milk proteins.
• A small amount of curd added to the fresh milk as inoculum or starter contain millions of LAB, which at
suitable temperatures multiply, thus converting milk to curd, which also improves its nutritional quality by
increasing Vitamin B12 (helps in the synthesis of DNA & RBC (red blood cells). Vitamin B12 deficiency
causes Anemia, severe damage to nervous system etc.).
• In our stomach too, the LAB plays a beneficial role in checking disease-causing microbes.
Microbes & Fermentation
• Sugar is converted into alcohol by yeast.

• This process of conversion of sugar into alcohol is known as fermentation.
• Louis Pasteur discovered fermentation in 1857.
• The dough, which is used for making foods such as dosa & idli is fermented by bacteria.
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• The puffed-up appearance of dough is due to the production of CO2 gas which is released by the microbes.
• Similarly, the dough, which is used for making bread, is fermented using baker’s yeast (Saccharomyces PMF IAS – Learn Smart
cerevisiae).
• A number of traditional drinks & foods are also made by fermentation by the microbes.
• ‘Toddy’, a traditional drink of some parts of southern India is made by fermenting sap from palms.
• Microbes are also used to ferment fish, soyabean & bamboo- shoots to make foods.
• Cheese is one of the oldest food items in which microbes were used. The large holes in ‘Swiss cheese’ are
due to production of a large amount of CO2 by a bacterium named Propionibacterium sharmanii.
Fermented Beverages
• Microbes especially yeasts have been used from time immemorial for the production of beverages like wine,
beer, whisky, brandy or rum.
• For this purpose, the same yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae used for bread-making & commonly
called brewer’s yeast, is used for fermenting malted cereals & fruit juices, to produce ethanol.
• Depending on the type of the raw material used for fermentation & the type of processing (with or without
distillation) different types of alcoholic drinks are obtained.
• Wine & beer are produced without distillation whereas whisky, brandy & rum are produced by distil-
lation of the fermented broth.
Microbes in sewage treatment
• Sewage contains large amounts of organic matter & microbes. Many of which are pathogenic.
• Treatment of wastewater is done by the primary sludge, & the supernatant forms the effluent.
• The effluent from the primary settling tank is taken for secondary treatment.
• The primary effluent is passed into large aeration tanks where it is constantly agitated mechanically & air is
pumped into it.
• This allows vigorous growth of useful aerobic microbes into flocs (masses of bacteria associated with fungal
filaments to form mesh like structures).
• While growing, these microbes consume a major part of the organic matter in the effluent.
• This significantly reduces the BOD (biochemical oxygen demand) of the effluent.
• BOD refers to the amount of the oxygen that would be consumed if all the organic matter in one liter
of water were oxidized by bacteria.
• The sewage water is treated till the BOD is reduced.
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• BOD is a measure of the organic matter present in the water.
• The greater the BOD of wastewater, more is its polluting potential.
• Once the BOD of sewage or wastewater is reduced significantly, the effluent is then passed into a settling
tank where the bacterial ‘flocs’ are allowed to sediment. This sediment is called activated sludge.
• A small part of the activated sludge is pumped back into the aeration tank to serve as the inoculum or
starter.
• The remaining major part of the sludge is pumped into large tanks called anaerobic sludge digesters.
• Here, other kinds of bacteria, which grow anaerobically, digest the bacteria & the fungi in the sludge.
• During this digestion, bacteria produce a mixture of gases such as methane, hydrogen sulphide & carbon
dioxide. These gases form biogas & can be used as source of energy as it is inflammable.
• The effluent from the secondary treatment plant is generally released into natural water bodies like rivers &
streams.
Microbes in production of biogas
• Biogas is a mixture of gases (containing predominantly methane) produced by the microbial activity & which
may be used as fuel.
• Certain bacteria, which grow anaerobically on cellulosic material, produce large amount of me-
thane (greenhouse gas) along with CO2 & H2.
• These bacteria are collectively called methanogens, & one such common bacterium is Methanobacterium.
• These bacteria are commonly found in the anaerobic sludge during sewage treatment.
• These bacteria are also present in the rumen (a part of stomach) of cattle.
• A lot of cellulosic material present in the food of cattle is also present in the rumen.
• In rumen, these bacteria help in the breakdown of cellulose & play an important role in the nutrition of
cattle.
• Thus, the excreta (dung) of cattle, commonly called gobar, is rich in these bacteria.
• Dung can be used for generation of biogas, commonly called gobar gas. (Humans cannot digest cellulose.
Hence their faecal waste cannot produce methane).
Microbes as biocontrol agents
• Biocontrol refers to the use of biological methods for controlling plant diseases & pests. Biological
agents are a better alternative to weedicides & pesticides.
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Biological control of pests & diseases
• In agriculture, there is a method of controlling pests that relies on natural predation rather than introduced PMF IAS – Learn Smart
chemicals.
• A key belief of the organic farmer is that biodiversity furthers health.
• The more variety a landscape has, the more sustainable it is.
• The organic farmer, therefore, works to create a system where the insects that are sometimes called pests are
not eradicated, but instead are kept at manageable levels by a complex system of checks & balances within
a living & vibrant ecosystem.
• Contrary to the ‘conventional’ farming practices which often use chemical methods to kill both useful &
harmful life forms indiscriminately, this is a holistic approach that seeks to develop an understanding of
the webs of interaction between the myriad of organisms that constitute the field fauna & flora.
• The organic farmer holds the view that the eradication of the creatures that are often described as pests is
not only possible, but also undesirable, for without them the beneficial predatory & parasitic insects which
depend upon them as food or hosts would not be able to survive. Thus, the use of biocontrol measures will
greatly reduce our dependence on toxic chemicals & pesticides.
• An important part of the biological farming approach is to become familiar with the various life forms that
inhabit the field, predators as well as pests, & also their life cycles, patterns of feeding & the habitats that
they prefer. This will help develop appropriate means of biocontrol.
• The very familiar beetle with red & black markings – the Ladybird, & Dragonflies are useful to get rid of
aphids & mosquitoes, respectively.
• An example of microbial biocontrol agents that can be Introduced in order to control butterfly caterpillars is
the bacteria Bacillus thuringiensis (often written as Bt).
• These are available in sachets as dried spores which are mixed with water & sprayed onto vulnerable plants
such as brassicas & fruit trees, where these are eaten by the insect larvae.
• In the gut of the larvae, the toxin is released & the larvae get killed.
• The bacterial disease will kill the caterpillars but leave other insects unharmed.
• Because of the development of methods of genetic engineering in the last decade or so, the scientists have
introduced thuringiensis toxin genes into plants.
• Such plants are resistant to attack by insect pests. Bt-cotton is one such example, which is being cultivated
in some states of our country.
• A biological control being developed for use in the treatment of plant disease is the fungus Trichoderma.
• Trichoderma species are free-living fungi that are very common in the root ecosystems. They are effective
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biocontrol agents of several plant pathogens.
• Baculoviruses are pathogens that attack insects & other arthropods. PMF IAS – Learn Smart
• They have been shown to have no negative impacts on plants, mammals, birds, fish or even on non-target
insects.
Microbes as biofertilisers
• Biofertilisers are organisms that enrich the nutrient quality of the soil.
• The main sources of biofertilisers are bacteria, fungi & cyanobacteria.
• You may be knowing about the nodules on the roots of leguminous plants formed by the symbiotic associ-
ation of Rhizobium.
• These bacteria fix atmospheric nitrogen into organic forms, which is used by the plant as nutrient.
• Other bacteria can fix atmospheric nitrogen while free-living in the soil (examples Azospirillum & Azo-
tobacter), thus enriching the nitrogen content of the soil.
• Fungi are also known to form symbiotic associations with plants (mycorrhiza).
• Many members of the genus Glomus form mycorrhiza.
• The fungal symbiont in these associations absorbs phosphorus from soil & passes it to the plant.
• Plants having such associations show other benefits also, such as resistance to root-borne pathogens, toler-
ance to salinity & drought, & an overall increase in plant growth & development.
• Cyanobacteria are autotrophic microbes widely distributed in aquatic & terrestrial environments many of
which can fix atmospheric nitrogen, e.g., Anabaena, Nostoc, Oscillatona, etc.
• In paddy fields, cyanobacteria serve as an important biofertiliser.
• Blue green algae also add organic matter to the soil & increase its fertility.
Preservatives
• Salts & edible oils are the common chemicals generally used to check the growth of microorganisms.
• Therefore, they are called preservatives.
• We add salt or acid preservatives to pickles to prevent the attack of microbes.
• Sodium benzoate & sodium metabisulphite are common preservatives.
• These are also used in the jams & squashes to check their spoilage.
• Common salt has been used to preserve meat & fish for ages.
• Meat & fish are covered with dry salt to check the growth of bacteria.
• Salting is also used to preserve amla, raw mangoes, tamarind, etc.
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• Jams, jellies & squashes are preserved by sugar. Sugar reduces the moisture content which inhibits the growth
of bacteria which spoil food. PMF IAS – Learn Smart
• Use of oil & vinegar prevents spoilage of pickles because bacteria cannot live in such an environment.
• Vegetables, fruits, fish & meat are often preserved by this method.
• Pasteurized milk can be consumed without boiling as it is free from harmful microbes.
• The milk is heated to about 700 C for 15 to 30 seconds & then suddenly chilled & stored. By doing so, it
prevents the growth of microbes. This process was discovered by Louis Pasteur. It is called pasteurization.
Summary
• Microbes are a very important component of life on earth.

• Not all microbes are pathogenic. Many microbes are very useful to human beings.
• We use microbes & microbially derived products almost every day.
• Bacteria called lactic acid bacteria (LAB) grow in milk to convert it into curd.
• The dough, which is used to make bread, is fermented by yeast called Saccharomyces cerevisiae.
• Certain dishes such as idli & dosa, are made from dough fermented by microbes.
• Bacteria & fungi are used to impart particular texture, taste & flavor to cheese.
• Microbes are used to produce industrial products like lactic acid, acetic acid & alcohol, which are used in a
variety of processes in the industry.
• Antibiotics like penicillins produced by useful microbes are used to kill disease-causing harmful microbes.
• Antibiotics have played a major role in controlling infectious diseases like diphtheria, whooping cough &
pneumonia.
• For more than a hundred years, microbes are being used to treat sewage (waste water) by the process of
activated sludge formation & this helps in recycling of water in nature.
• Methanogens produce methane (biogas) while degrading plant waste.
• Biogas produced by microbes is used as a source of energy in rural areas.
• Microbes can also be used to kill harmful pests, a process called as biocontrol.
• The biocontrol measures help us to avoid heavy use of toxic pesticides for controlling pests.
18. Immune System in the Body
• The Human Immune System consists of lymphoid organs, tissues, cells & soluble molecules like antibodies.
• The immune system recognizes foreign antigens, responds to these & remembers them.
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• The immune system also plays an important role in allergic reactions, auto-immune diseases & organ
transplantation. PMF IAS – Learn Smart
• Immunity is of two types: (i) Innate immunity & (ii) Acquired immunity.
Basics
Types of Blood Cells
Red Blood Cells White Blood Cells Platelets

• Also called leukocytes • Also called thrombocytes
• Also called erythrocytes
• They are cells that exist in the • They are actually tiny cell frag-
• They are produced in the
blood, the lymphatic system, ments that circulate in blood &
bone marrow.
& tissues & are an important are essential for normal blood
part of the body's natural de- clotting.
fense (immune) system.
• There are five different types • Dysfunction of platelets, you

• They contain hemoglobin, a
of WBCs & each has a differ- may be at an increased risk of
protein that transports oxy-
ent function. excessive bleeding & bruis-
gen throughout the body.
ing.
• WBCs are present in the blood • An excess of platelets (throm-

• The typical lifespan of an
at relatively stable numbers. bocytosis) can cause exces-
RBC is 120 days.
sive clotting.
Types of white blood cells (leukocytes)
1. Monocytes: help to break down bacteria.

2. Lymphocytes: They create antibodies to fight against bacteria, viruses, and other harmful invaders.
3. Neutrophils: They kill and digest bacteria and fungi. They are the most numerous types of white
blood cell and your first line of defense when infection strikes.
4. Basophils: These cells seem to sound an alarm when infectious agents invade your blood. They secrete
chemicals such as histamine, a marker of allergic disease, that help control the body's immune response.
5. Eosinophils: They attack and kill parasites and cancer cells and help with allergic responses.
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PMF IAS – Learn Smart 168
Innate Immunity
• Innate immunity is non-specific type of defense, that is present at the time of birth.
• Innate immunity is accomplished by providing different types of barriers to the entry of the foreign agents
into our body.
Innate immunity consists of four types of barriers
Physical Barriers
• Skin on our body is the main barrier which prevents entry of the micro-organisms.
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• Mucus coating of the epithelium lining the respiratory, gastrointestinal & urogenital tracts also help
in trapping microbes entering our body.
Physiological Barriers
• Acid in the stomach, saliva in the mouth, tears from eyes-all prevent microbial growth.
Cellular Barriers
• Certain types of leukocytes (WBC) of our body like polymorpho-nuclearleukocytes (PMNL-neutrophils) &
monocytes & natural killer (type of lymphocytes) in the blood as well as macrophages in tissues
can phagocytose & destroy microbes.
 Phagocytosis: it is a process by which certain living cells called phagocytes ingest or engulf other cells
or particles.
 The phagocyte may be a free-living one-celled organism, such as an amoeba, or one of the body cells,
such as a white blood cell.
 Phagocytosis is one type of endocytosis.
 Endocytosis: it is the process by which cells take in substances from outside of the cell by engulfing.
 These can include things like nutrients to support the cell or pathogens that immune cells destroy.
Cytokine Barriers
• Virus-infected cells secrete proteins called interferons which protect non-infected cells from further
viral infection.
Acquired Immunity
• Acquired immunity is pathogen specific. It is characterized by memory.

• This means that our body when it encounters a pathogen for the first time produces a response called pri-
mary response which is of low intensity.
• Subsequent encounter with the same pathogen elicits a highly intensified secondary or anamnestic re-
sponse. This is ascribed to the fact that our body appears to have memory of the first encounter.
• The primary & secondary immune responses are carried out with the help of two special types of lympho-
cytes present in our blood, i.e., B-lymphocytes & T-lymphocytes.
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 Lymphocytes are white blood cells that are also one of the body's main types of immune cells.
 They are made in the bone marrow and found in the blood and lymph tissue.
 The immune system is a complex network of cells known as immune cells that include lymphocytes.
 Lymphocytes include natural killer cells, T cells, and B cells.
 They are the main type of cell found in lymph, which prompted the name "lymphocyte".
 Lymphocytes make up between 18% and 42% of circulating leukocytes.
• The B-lymphocytes release an army of proteins into our blood in response to pathogens.
• These proteins are called Antibodies (a blood protein produced in response to & counteracting an
antigen).
• The T-cells themselves do not secrete antibodies but help B cells produce them.
• Each antibody molecule has four peptide chains, two small called light chains & two longer called heavy
chains. Hence, an antibody is represented as H2L2.
• Different types of antibodies are produced in our body. IgA, IgM, IgE, IgG are some of them.
• Because these antibodies are found in the blood, the response is also called as humoral immune response.
• This is one of the two types of our acquired immune response – antibody mediated.
• The second type is called cell-mediated immune response or cell mediated immunity (CMI).
• The T-lymphocytes mediate CMI.
• Very often, when some human organs like heart, eye, liver, kidney fail to function satisfactorily, transplantation
is the only remedy to enable the patient to live a normal life.
• Then a search begins - to find a suitable donor. Why is it that the organs cannot be taken from just anybody?
What is it that the doctors check?
• Grafts from just any source – an animal, another primate, or any human beings cannot be made since the
grafts would be rejected sooner or later.
• Tissue matching, blood group matching are essential before undertaking any graft/transplant & even after
this the patient has to take immuno-suppresants all his/her life.
• The body is able to differentiate ‘self’ & ‘nonself’ & the cell-mediated immune response is responsible for
the graft rejection.
Active & Passive Immunity
• When a host is exposed to antigens (a substance which the body recognizes as alien & which induces an
immune response), which may be in the form of living or dead microbes or other proteins, antibodies are
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produced in the host body. This type of immunity is called active immunity.
• Active immunity is slow & takes time to give its full effective response. PMF IAS – Learn Smart
• Injecting the microbes deliberately during immunization (Vaccination) or infectious organisms gaining
access into body during natural infection induce active immunity.
• When ready-made antibodies are directly given to protect the body against foreign agents, it is called pas-
sive immunity.
• Do you know why mother’s milk is considered very essential for the newborn infant?
• The yellowish fluid colostrum secreted by mother during the initial days of lactation has abundant anti-
bodies (IgA) to protect the infant.
• The foetus also receives some antibodies from their mother, through the placenta during pregnancy.
• These are some examples of passive immunity.
Vaccination & Immunization
• The principle of immunization or vaccination is based on the property of ‘memory’ of the immune system.
• In vaccination, a preparation of antigenic proteins of pathogen or inactivated/weakened pathogen (vac-
cine) are introduced into the body.
• The antibodies produced in the body against these antigens would neutralize the pathogenic agents
during actual infection.
• The vaccines also generate memory – B & T-cells that recognize the pathogen quickly on subsequent expo-
sure & overwhelm the invaders with a massive production of antibodies.
• If a person is infected with some deadly microbes to which quick immune response is required as in tetanus,
we need to directly inject the preformed antibodies, or antitoxin (a preparation containing antibodies to
the toxin).
• Even in cases of snakebites, the injection, which is given to the patients, contain preformed antibodies
against the snake venom. This type of immunization is called passive immunization.
• Recombinant DNA technology has allowed the production of antigenic polypeptides of pathogen in bac-
teria or yeast.
• Vaccines produced using this approach allow large scale production & hence greater availability for im-
munization, e.g., hepatitis B vaccine produced from yeast.
Allergies
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• Did this happen to you? When you have gone to a new place & suddenly you started sneezing, wheezing for
no explained reason, & when you came away, your symptoms disappeared?
• Some of us are sensitive to some particles in the environment. The above-mentioned reaction could be be-
cause of allergy to pollen, mites, etc., which are different in different places.
• The exaggerated response of the immune system to certain antigens present in the environment is
called allergy.
• The substances to which such an immune response is produced are called allergens.
• The antibodies produced to these are of IgE type.
• Common examples of allergens are mites in dust, pollens, animal dander, etc.
• Symptoms of allergic reactions include sneezing, watery eyes, running nose & difficulty in breathing.
• Allergy is due to the release of chemicals like histamine & serotonin from the mast cells.
• For determining the cause of allergy, the patient is exposed to or injected with very small doses of possible
allergens, & the reactions studied.
• The use of drugs like antihistamine, adrenalin & steroids quickly reduce the symptoms of allergy.
Auto Immunity
• Memory-based acquired immunity evolved in higher vertebrates based on the ability to differentiate foreign
organisms (e.g., pathogens), foreign cells from self-cells.
• Sometimes, due to genetic & other unknown reasons, the body attacks self-cells.
• This results in damage to the body & is called auto-immune disease.
• Rheumatoid arthritis (affects joint linings, causing painful swelling. Over long periods of time, it can
cause bone erosion and joint deformity) which affects many is an auto-immune disease.
Immune System in the Body
• The human immune system consists of lymphoid organs, tissues, cells & soluble molecules like antibodies.
• As you have read, immune system is unique in the sense that it recognizes foreign antigens, responds to
these & remembers them.
• The immune system also plays an important role in allergic reactions, auto-immune diseases & organ
transplantation.
 Lymphoid Organs: These are the organs where origin and/or maturation & proliferation of Lympho-
cytes occur.
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• The primary lymphoid organs are bone marrow & thymus where immature lymphocytes differentiate into
antigen-sensitive lymphocytes.
• After maturation the lymphocytes migrate to secondary lymphoid organs like spleen, lymph nodes, ton-
sils, Peyer’s patches of small intestine & appendix.
• The secondary lymphoid organs provide the sites for interaction of lymphocytes with the antigen,
which then proliferate to become effector cells.
• The bone marrow is the main lymphoid organ where all blood cells including lymphocytes are produced.
• The thymus is a lobed organ located near the heart & beneath the breastbone.
• The thymus is quite large at the time of birth but keeps reducing in size with age & by the time puberty is
attained it reduces to a very small size.
• Both bone-marrow & thymus provide micro-environments for the development & maturation of T-
lymphocytes.
• The spleen is a large bean shaped organ. It mainly contains lymphocytes & phagocytes.
• It acts as a filter of the blood by trapping blood-borne micro-organisms.
• Spleen also has a large reservoir of erythrocytes.
• The lymph nodes are small solid structures located at different points along the lymphatic system.
• Lymph nodes serve to trap the micro-organisms or other antigens, which happen to get into the lymph
& tissue fluid.
• Antigens trapped in the lymph nodes are responsible for the activation of lymphocytes present there
& cause the immune response.
• There is lymphoid tissue also located within the lining of the major tracts (respiratory, digestive & urogenital
tracts) called mucosal-associated lymphoid tissue (MALT).
• It constitutes about 50 per cent of the lymphoid tissue in human body.
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What are T–Cells?
• T–cells are a type of white blood cell that work with macrophages.
• Unlike macrophages that can attack any invading cell, each T–cell can fight only one type of virus.
• You might think this means macrophages are stronger than T–cells, but they aren’t.
• There are two types of T–cells in your body: Helper T–cells & Killer T–cells.
• Killer T–cells do the work of destroying the infected cells.
• The Helper T–cells coordinate the attack.
T– Cells & COVID–19
• Because the clearing of a virus depends on an effective immune response, T cells have again come into focus
following the COVID–19 pandemic.
• Initial studies indicate that there is a decrease in T cells in patients with COVID–19 due to higher levels of
cytokines.
• Dysregulated cytokine levels can be central in cases of chronic inflammation.
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How does the Immune System deal with Coronavirus?
• As with most viral infections, the body’s temperature rises in an effort to kill off the virus.
• Additionally, WBCs pursue the infection: some ingest & destroy infected cells, others create antibodies that
prevent virions from infecting host cells, & still others make chemicals that are toxic to infected cells.
• But different people’s immune systems respond differently.
• Like the flu or common cold, covid-19 is easy to get over if it infects only the upper respiratory tract—
everything above the vocal cords.
• It can lead to complications like bronchitis or pneumonia if it takes hold further down.
• If the virus can infect the lower airway (as its close cousin, SARS, does more aggressively), it creates havoc in
the lungs, making it hard to breathe.
• Anything that weakens the immune system — even heavy drinking, missed meals, or a lack of sleep — could
encourage a more severe infection.
How does immune reponse make people Sick?
• Infection is a race between the virus & the immune system.

• The outcome of that race depends on where it starts: the milder the initial dose, the more chance the immune
system has of overcoming the infection before the virus multiplies out of control.
• If an infection sufficiently damages the lungs, they will be unable to deliver oxygen to the rest of the body,
& a patient will require a ventilator.
• It is estimated that this happens to between 3% & 17% percent of all covid-19 patients.
• Secondary infections that take advantage of weakened immune systems are another major cause of death.
• Sometimes it is the body’s response that is most damaging.
• Fevers are intended to cook the virus to death, but prolonged fevers also degrade the body’s own
proteins.
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• In addition, the immune system creates small proteins called cytokines & chemokins (small cytokines, or
signaling proteins secreted by cells) that are meant to hinder the virus’s ability to replicate. PMF IAS – Learn Smart
• They alert the immune system to send an array of different kinds of cells that destroy viral particles.
• Overzealous production of these (cytokine storm), can result in deadly hyper-inflammation.
• The resulting lung inflammation & fluid buildup can lead to respiratory distress & can be contaminated by
a secondary bacterial pneumonia -- often enhancing the mortality in patients.
• It is in expelling this fluid that a dry cough, characteristic of the coronavirus infection, begins.
• As more airsacs are infected, the breathlessness is aggravted.
• Cytokine storms are not exclusive to coronavirus patients.
• It is seen as a likely major cause of mortality in the 1918-20 "Spanish flu" -- which killed more than 50
million people worldwide -- & the H1N1 "swine flu" & H5N1 "bird flu" of recent years.
Why are some infections mild & others life-threatening?
• Depending on the degree of infection in the lungs, the inflammation & the fluid build-up can lead to pneu-
monia.
• A patient will require hospitalisation to treat the breathlessness & ventilator support to artificially provide
oxygen if the condition worsens.
• However, massive levels of cytokines can cause extensive lung damage & a condition called Acute Respir-
atory Distress Syndrome.
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• The unsustainable cytokine storm can cause organ damage far beyond the lungs & spread to the kidneys as
well as the heart.
• The elderly, especially those with existing conditions such as diabetes & cardiovascular disease, already have
an inherent malfunctioning in the immune system.
• In many ways, it is the reaction of the body in trying to combat the virus that ends up being suicidal.
• The different kinds of drugs, whether it is hydroxycholoroquine or anti-HIV drugs, deployed to treat seri-
ous COVID-19 infection, also work in some way to moderate the immune-system’s aggressive defence.
What is Herd Immunity?
• Herd immunity is a stage of an epidemic in which some members of a population group remain protected
from infection because a majority of those around them have already developed immunity, either through
vaccination or because they have been infected earlier.
• The problem is no one clearly knows what percentage of the population needs to be infected before herd
immunity kicks in.
19. AIDS – Acquired Immuno Deficiency Syndrome
• The word AIDS stands for Acquired Immuno Deficiency Syndrome.

• This means deficiency of immune system, acquired during the lifetime of an individual indicating that it is not
a congenital disease (disease or abnormality present from birth).
• ‘Syndrome’ means a group of symptoms.
• AIDS was first reported in 1981 & in the last twenty-five years or so, it has spread all over the world.
Causes of AIDS
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• AIDS is caused by the Human Immuno Deficiency Virus (HIV), a member of a group of viruses called Ret-
rovirus, which have an envelope enclosing the RNA genome.
• Transmission of HIV-infection generally occurs by
1. sexual contact with infected person,

2. by transfusion of contaminated blood & blood products,
3. by sharing infected needles as in the case of intravenous drug abusers and
4. from infected mother to her child through placenta.
• So, people who are at high risk of getting this infection includes
1. individuals who have multiple sexual partners,

2. drug addicts who take drugs intravenously,
3. individuals who require repeated blood transfusions and
4. children born to an HIV infected mother.
• It is important to note that HIV/AIDS is not spread by mere touch or physical contact; it spreads only
through body fluids.
• It is, hence, imperative, for the physical & psychological well-being, that the HIV/AIDS infected persons are
not isolated from family & society.
• There is always a time-lag between the infection & appearance of AIDS symptoms.
• This period may vary from a few months to many years (usually 5-10 years).
Mechanism of HIV Proliferation in Human Body
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• After getting Into the body of the person, the virus enters into macrophages where RNA genome of the
virus replicates to form viral DNA with the help of the enzyme Reverse Transcriptase.
• This viral DNA gets incorporated into host cell’s DNA & directs the infected cells to produce virus particles.
• The macrophages continue to produce virus & in this way acts like a HIV factory.
• Simultaneously, HIV enters into helper T-lymphocytes (Th), replicates & produce progeny viruses.
• The progeny viruses released in the blood attack other helper T-lymphocytes.
• This is repeated leading to a progressive decrease in the number of helper T-lymphocytes in the body of
the infected person. During this period, the person suffers from bouts of fever, diarrhoea & weight loss.
• Due to decrease in the number of helper T lymphocytes, the person starts suffering from infections that
could have been otherwise overcome such as those due to bacteria especially Mycobacterium, viruses, fungi
& even parasites like Toxoplasma.
• The patient becomes so immuno-deficient that he/she is unable to protect himself/herself against these in-
fections.
Prevention of AIDS
• A widely used diagnostic test for AIDS is Enzyme Linked Immuno-Sorbent Assay (ELISA).
• Treatment of AIDS with anti-retroviral drugs is only partially effective. They can only prolong the life of the
patient but cannot prevent death, which is inevitable.
• As AIDS has no cure, prevention is the best option. Moreover, HIV infection, more often, spreads due to
conscious behavior patterns & is not something that happens inadvertently, like pneumonia or typhoid.
• Of course, infection in blood transfusion patients, new-borns (from mother) etc., may take place due to poor
monitoring. The only excuse may be ignorance & it has been rightly said - “don’t die of ignorance”.
• In our country the National AIDS Control Organization (NACO) & other non-governmental organizations
(NGOs) are doing a lot to educate people about AIDS.
• WHO has started a number of programmes to prevent the spreading of HIV infection.
• Making blood (from blood banks) safe from HIV, ensuring the use of only disposable needles & syringes in
public & private hospitals & clinics, free distribution of condoms, controlling drug abuse, advocating safe sex
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& promoting regular check-ups for HIV in susceptible populations, are some such steps taken up.
• Infection with HIV or having AIDS is something that should not be hidden - since then, the infection may PMF IAS – Learn Smart
spread to many more people.
• HIV/AIDS-infected people need help & sympathy instead of being shunned by society.
• Unless society recognizes it as a problem to be dealt with in a collective manner - the chances of wider spread
of the disease increase manifold.
• It is a malady that can only be tackled, by the society & medical fraternity acting together, to prevent the
spread of the disease.
20. Cancer
• Cancer is one of the most dreaded diseases of human beings & is a major cause of death all over the globe.
• The mechanisms that underlie development of cancer or oncogenic transformation of cells, its treatment &
control have been some of the most intense areas of research in biology & medicine.
• In our body, cell growth & differentiation is highly controlled & regulated.
• In cancer cells, there is breakdown of these regulatory mechanisms.
• Normal cells show a property called contact inhibition by virtue of which contact with other cells inhibits
their uncontrolled growth.
• Cancer cells appears to have lost this property of contact inhibition.
• As a result of this, cancerous cells just continue to divide giving rise to masses of cells called tumors.
Types of Tumors
• Tumors are of two types: benign & malignant.

• Benign tumors normally remain confined to their original location & do not spread to other parts of the
body & cause little damage.
• The malignant tumors, on the other hand are a mass of proliferating cells called neoplastic or tumor cells.
• These cells grow very rapidly, invading & damaging the surrounding normal tissues.
• As these cells actively divide & grow, they also starve the normal cells by competing for vital nutrients.
• Cells sloughed from such tumors reach distant sites through blood, & wherever they get lodged in the body,
they start a new tumor there.
• This property called Metastasis is the most feared property of malignant tumors.
Causes of Cancer
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• Transformation of normal cells into cancerous neoplastic cells may be induced by physical, chemical or
biological agents. These agents are called carcinogens.
• Ionizing radiations like X-rays & gamma rays & non-ionizing radiations like UV cause DNA damage
leading to neoplastic transformation.
• The chemical carcinogens present in tobacco smoke have been identified as a major cause of lung cancer.
• Cancer causing viruses called oncogenic viruses have genes called viral oncogenes.
• Furthermore, several genes called cellular oncogenes or proto-oncogenes have been identified in normal
cells which, when activated under certain conditions, could lead to oncogenic transformation of the cells.
Cancer Detection & Diagnosis
• Early detection of cancers is essential as it allows the disease to be treated successfully in many cases.
• Cancer detection is based on biopsy & histopathological studies of the tissue & blood & bone marrow tests
for increased cell counts in the case of leukemias.
• In biopsy, a piece of the suspected tissue cut into thin sections is stained & examined under microscope
(histopathological studies) by a pathologist.
• Techniques like radiography (use of X-rays), CT (computed tomography) & MRI (magnetic resonance
imaging) are very useful to detect cancers of the internal organs.
• Computed tomography uses X-rays to generate a three-dimensional image of the internals of an object.
• MRI uses strong magnetic fields & non-ionising radiations to accurately detect pathological & physiolog-
ical changes in the living tissue.
• Antibodies against cancer-specific antigens are also used for detection of certain cancers.
Techniques of molecular biology can be applied to detect genes in individuals with inherited susceptibility to
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•
certain cancers.
• Identification of such genes, which predispose an Individual to certain cancers, may be very helpful in pre- PMF IAS – Learn Smart
vention of cancers.
• Such individuals may be advised to avoid exposure to particular carcinogens to which they are susceptible
(e.g., tobacco smoke in case of lung cancer).
Treatment of cancer
• The common approaches for treatment of cancer are surgery, radiation therapy & immunotherapy.
• In radiotherapy, tumor cells are Irradiated lethally, taking proper care of the normal tissues surrounding the
tumor mass.
• Several chemotherapeutic drugs are used to kill cancerous cells.
• Some of these are specific for particular tumors. Majority of drugs have side effects like hair loss, anemia, etc.
• Most cancers are treated by combination of surgery, radiotherapy & chemotherapy.
• Tumor cells have been shown to avoid detection & destruction by immune system.
• Therefore, the patients are given substances called biological response modifiers such as a-inter-
feron which activate their immune system & help in destroying the tumor.
21. Drugs Abuse
• The drugs, which are commonly abused are opioids, cannabinoids & coca alkaloids (cocaine).
• Majority of these are obtained from flowering plants. Some are obtained from fungi.
• Opioids bind to specific opioid receptors present in our central nervous system & gastrointestinal tract.
• Heroin is chemically diacetylmorphine, which is a white, odourless, bitter crystalline compound.
• It is obtained by acetylation of morphine.
• Morphine is a very effective sedative & painkiller & is very useful in patients who have undergone surgery.
• Morphine is extracted from the latex of poppy plant Papaver somniferum.
• Generally taken by snorting & injection, heroin is a depressant & slows down body functions.
• Cannabinoids are a group of chemicals, which interact with cannabinoid receptors present principally in
the brain.
• Natural cannabinoids are obtained from the inflorescences of the plant Cannabis sativa.
• The flower tops, leaves & the resin of cannabis plant are used in various combinations to produce mariju-
ana, hashish, charas & ganja.
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• Generally taken by inhalation & oral ingestion, these are known for their effects on cardiovascular system.
• Coca alkaloid or cocaine is obtained from coca plant Erythroxylum coca, native to South America.
• It interferes with the transport of the neuro-transmitter dopamine.
• Cocaine is usually snorted. It has a potent stimulating action on central nervous system, producing a sense
of euphoria & increased energy. Excessive dosage of cocaine causes hallucinations.
• Other well-known plant with hallucinogenic properties is Atropa belladonna.
• Drugs like barbiturates, amphetamines, benzodiazepines, lysergic acid diethyl amides (LSD), etc. that are used
as medicines to help patients cope with mental illnesses like depression & insomnia.
• Tobacco contains a large number of chemical substances including nicotine, an alkaloid.
• Nicotine stimulates adrenal gland to release adrenaline & nor-adrenaline into blood circulation, both of
which raise blood pressure & increase heart rate.
• Smoking is associated with increased incidence of cancers of lung, urinary bladder & throat, bronchitis, em-
physema, coronary heart disease, gastric ulcer, etc.
• Tobacco chewing is associated with increased risk of cancer of the oral cavity.
• Smoking increases carbon monoxide (CO) content in blood & reduces the concentration of haembound
oxygen. This causes oxygen deficiency in the body.
Effects of Drug/Alcohol Abuse
• Those who take drugs intravenously (direct injection into the vein using a needle & syringe), are much more
likely to acquire serious infections like AIDS & hepatitis B.
• Both AIDS & Hepatitis B (transmitted through blood) infections are chronic infections & ultimately fatal.
• The chronic use of drugs & alcohol damages nervous system & liver (cirrhosis).
• The use of drugs & alcohol during pregnancy is also known to adversely affect the foetus.
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• Another misuse of drugs is what certain sportspersons do to enhance their performance.
• They (mis)use narcotic analgesics, anabolic steroids, diuretics & certain hormones in sports to increase
muscle strength & bulk & to promote aggressiveness & as a result increase athletic performance.
• The side-effects of the use of anabolic steroids in females include masculinization (features like males), in-
creased aggressiveness, mood swings, depression, abnormal menstrual cycles, excessive hair growth on the
face & body, enlargement of clitoris, deepening of voice.
• In males it includes acne, increased aggressiveness, mood swings, depression, reduction of size of the testi-
cles, decreased sperm production, potential for kidney & liver dysfunction, breast enlargement, premature
baldness, enlargement of the prostate gland.
• In the adolescent male or female, severe facial & body acne, & premature closure of the growth centers of
the long bones may result in stunted growth.
22. Acute & Chronic Diseases
• Some diseases last for only very short periods of time, & these are called acute diseases.
• We all know from experience that the common cold lasts only a few days.
• Other ailments can last for a long time, even as much as a lifetime, & are called chronic diseases.
• An example is the infection causing elephantiasis, which is very common in some parts of India.
Communicable Diseases
• Microbial diseases that can spread from an infected person to a healthy person through air, water, food or
physical contact are called communicable diseases.
• Examples of such diseases include cholera, common cold, chicken pox & tuberculosis.
• Example of a carrier is the female Anopheles mosquito, which carries the parasite of malaria (Plasmodium,
a genus of parasitic protozoans are the causative organisms of malaria).
• Female Aedes mosquito acts as carrier of dengue virus.
• Robert Köch (1876) discovered the bacterium (Bacillus anthracis) which causes anthrax.
• Disease-causing microbes can spread through the air. Examples of such diseases spread through the air are
the common cold, pneumonia & tuberculosis.
• Diseases can also be spread through water. This occurs if the excreta from someone suffering from an infec-
tious gut disease, such as cholera, get mixed with the drinking water used by people living nearby.
• The sexual act is one of the closest physical contact two people can have with each other.
• Not surprisingly, there are microbial diseases such as Syphilis or AIDS that are transmitted by sexual contact
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from one partner to the other.
• Other than the sexual contact, the aids virus can also spread through blood-to-blood contact with infected PMF IAS – Learn Smart
people or from an infected mother to her baby during pregnancy or through breast feeding.
• Animals carry the infecting agents from a sick person to another potential host. These animals are thus the
intermediaries & are called vectors. The commonest vectors we all know are mosquitoes.
• In many species of mosquitoes, the females need highly nutritious food in the form of blood in order to be
able to lay mature eggs.
• Mosquitoes feed on many warm-blooded animals, including us.
Organ-Specific & Tissue Specific Diseases
• Different species of microbes seem to have evolved to home in on different parts of the body.
• If they enter from the air via the nose, they are likely to go to the lungs.
• This is seen in the bacteria causing tuberculosis.
• If they enter through the mouth, they can stay in the gut lining like typhoid causing bacteria.
• Or they can go to the liver, like the viruses that cause jaundice.
• HIV, that comes into the body via the sexual organs, will spread to lymph nodes all over the body.
• Malaria microbes, entering through a mosquito bite, will go to the liver, & then to the red blood cells.
• The virus causing Japanese Encephalitis, or brain fever, will similarly enter through a mosquito bite. But it
goes on to infect the brain.
• The signs & symptoms of a disease will thus depend on the tissue or organ which the microbe targets.
• If the lungs are the targets, then symptoms will be cough & breathlessness.
• If the liver is targeted, there will be jaundice.
• If the brain is the target, we will observe headaches, vomiting, fits or unconsciousness.
• In addition to these tissue-specific effects of infectious disease, there will be other common effects too.
• Most of these common effects depend on the fact that the body’s immune system is activated in response
to infection.
• An active immune system recruits many cells to the affected tissue to kill off the disease-causing microbes.
• This recruitment process is called inflammation.
• As a part of this process, there are local effects such as swelling & pain, & general effects such as fever.
• In some cases, the tissue-specificity of the infection leads to very general-seeming effects.
• For example, in HIV infection, the virus goes to the immune system & damages its function.
• Thus, many of the effects of HIV-aids are because the body can no longer fight off the many minor infections
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that we face every day. Instead, every small cold can become pneumonia.
• Similarly, a minor gut infection can produce major diarrhoea with blood loss.
• Ultimately, it is these other infections that kill people suffering from HIV-aids.
Principles of Treatment
• There are two ways to treat an infectious disease.

• One would be to reduce the effects of the disease & the other to kill the cause of the disease.
• For the first, we can provide treatment that will reduce the symptoms.
• The symptoms are usually because of inflammation.
• For example, we can take medicines that bring down fever, reduce pain or loose motions.
• We can take bed rest so that we can conserve our energy.
• But this kind of symptom-directed treatment by itself will not make the infecting microbe go away & the
disease will not be cured. For that, we need to be able to kill off the microbes.
• One way is to use medicines that kill microbes.
• We know that microbes can be classified into viruses, bacteria, fungi or protozoa.
• Each of these groups of organisms will have some essential biochemical life process which is peculiar to
that group & not shared with the other groups.
• These processes may be pathways for the synthesis of new substances or respiration.
• These pathways will not be used by us either.
• For example, our cells may make new substances by a mechanism different from that used by bacteria.
• We have to find a drug that blocks the bacterial synthesis pathway without affecting our own.
• This is what is achieved by the antibiotics that we are all familiar with.
• Similarly, there are drugs that kill protozoa such as the malarial parasite.
Why are Antibiotics effective against Bacterial Infections but not Viral Infections?
• One reason why making anti-viral medicines is harder than making antibacterial medicines is that viruses
have few biochemical mechanisms of their own.
• This means that there are relatively few virus-specific targets to aim at.
• Despite this limitation, there are now effective anti-viral drugs, for example, the drugs that keep HIV infection
under control.
• Taxonomically, all bacteria are closely related to each other than to viruses & vice versa.
• This means that many important life processes are similar in the bacteria group but are not shared with the
virus group.
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• As a result, drugs that block one of these life processes in one member of the group is likely to be effective
against many other members of the group. PMF IAS – Learn Smart
• But the same drug will not work against a microbe belonging to a different group.
• As an example, let us take antibiotics. They commonly block biochemical pathways important for bacteria.
• Many bacteria, for example, make a cell-wall to protect themselves.
• The antibiotic penicillin blocks the bacterial processes that build the cell wall.
• As a result, the growing bacteria become unable to make cell-walls & die easily.
• Human cells don’t make a cell-wall anyway, so penicillin cannot have such an effect on us.
• Penicillin will have this effect on any bacteria that use such processes for making cell-walls.
• Similarly, many antibiotics work against many species of bacteria rather than simply working against one
group.
• But viruses do not use these pathways at all, & that is the reason why antibiotics do not work against viral
infections.
• If we have a common cold, taking antibiotics does not reduce the severity or the duration of the disease.
• However, if we also get a bacterial infection along with the viral cold, taking antibiotics will help.
• Even then, the antibiotic will work only against the bacterial part of the infection, not the viral infection.
Principles of Prevention
• These days, there is no smallpox anywhere in the world. But as recently as a hundred years ago, smallpox
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epidemics were not at all uncommon.
• In such an epidemic, people used to be very afraid of coming near someone suffering from the disease since
they were afraid of catching the disease.
• However, there was one group of people who did not have this fear. These people would provide nursing
care for the victims of smallpox.
• This was a group of people who had had smallpox earlier & survived it, although with a lot of scarring.
• In other words, if you had smallpox once, there was no chance of suffering from it again.
• So, having the disease once was a means of preventing subsequent attacks of the same disease.
• This happens because when the immune system first sees an infectious microbe, it responds against it & then
remembers it specifically.
• So, the next time that particular microbe, or its close relatives enter the body, the immune system responds
with even greater vigour.
• This eliminates the infection even more quickly than the first time around. This is the basis of the principle of
‘vaccination’ has come into our usage.
• We can now see that, as a general principle, we can ‘fool’ the immune system into developing a memory
for a particular infection by putting something, that mimics the microbe we want to vaccinate against.
• This does not actually cause the disease, but this would prevent any subsequent exposure to the infecting
microbe from turning into actual disease.
• Many such vaccines are now available for preventing a whole range of infectious diseases & provide a dis-
ease-specific means of prevention.
• There are vaccines against tetanus, diphtheria, whooping cough, measles, polio & many others.
• Introducing fishes like Gambusia in ponds that feed on mosquito larvae, spraying of insecticides in ditches,
drainage areas & swamps, etc. can prevent proliferation of mosquitoes.
• Such precautions have become all the more important especially in the light of recent widespread incidences
of the vector borne (Aedes mosquitoes) diseases like dengue & chikungunya in many parts of India.
• Traditional Indian & Chinese medicinal systems sometimes deliberately rubbed the skin crusts from smallpox
victims into the skin of healthy people.
• They thus hoped to induce a mild form of smallpox that would create resistance against the disease.
• Famously, two centuries ago, an English physician named Edward Jenner, realized that milkmaids who had
had cowpox did not catch smallpox even during epidemics.
• Cowpox is a very mild disease. Jenner tried deliberately giving cowpox to people & found that they were now
resistant to smallpox.
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• This was because the smallpox virus is closely related to the cowpox virus.

Diseases in Indian Children
Gastroentitis
• Gastroentitis is an infection in the digestive system & it is one of the most common childhood illnesses.
• Symptoms of gastroentitis include diarrhoea, nausea & vomiting, tummy cramps, & fever.
• One of the main risks with gastroentitis is that it causes dehydration in children.
Rickets
• Rickets occurs due to Vitamin D deficiency.

• Deficiency of Vitamin D occurs in a child because of lack of exposure to sunlight.
• Lack of adequate calcium in the diet can also cause rickets.
• Rickets is a disease which involves softening & weakening of bones in children.
• Children between the ages of 6 to 24 months are at the highest risk of developing the disease because that
is the age when their bones are rapidly growing.
Conjunctivitis
• Conjunctivitis is caused due to inflammation of the conjunctiva.

• Conjunctiva is the outermost layer of the eye & the inner surface of the eyelids.
• Conjunctivitis often starts in one eye at first & then spreads to the other eye.
• Symptoms of conjunctivitis include redness of eyes, irritation in the eye, & eye watering.
Scabies
• Scabies is an infection of the skin.

• Scabies is caused by tiny insects called mites.
• These scabies mites burrow into the skin & lay eggs which become adult mites very soon.
• Symptoms of this infection include superficial burrows, rash & severe itching.
• Blisters on the palm & soles of the feet are characteristic symptoms of scabies in infants.
• Scabies is one of the highly contagious diseases & children can develop it by coming into contact with some-
one else who has been infected.
• Children with scabies must not be sent to school or day care until it gets completely cured.
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Upper Respiratory Tract infection (URTI)
• Upper Respiratory Tract Infections are extremely common due to air pollution & vehicular emission.
• Upper respiratory tract infections include common cold, influenza & sore throat.
• Tonsillitis is also one of upper respiratory tract infections.
• Tonsillitis is caused due to infection of the tonsils.
• Tonsils are the areas of lymphoid tissue on either side of the throat.
• Symptoms of tonsillitis include a severe sore throat, coughing, headache & difficulty swallowing.
Tuberculosis
• Tuberculosis also affects children & is known as Primary Complex or Childhood Tuberculosis infection.
• Children under the age of two years are more at risk of developing tuberculosis because their immune system
is underdeveloped or still developing.
• Tuberculosis is completely curable & early diagnosis can help in effective treatment.
Typhoid
• It is a water borne disease rampant in children due to poor sanitation.

• Cases of typhoid are more common in countries like India & some other South Asian countries & in other
low developed nations & have been seen lesser in countries like the USA.
• Symptoms of typhoid in children are poor appetite, body ache, discomfort in abdomen, lethargy & weakness,
fever with rising & falling pattern.
• Some children may also experience headache, chest congestion, diarrhoea & vomiting & rose spots on the
abdomen.
Bronchitis & Asthma
• Bronchitis & asthma are common in children.

• Bronchitis & asthma are caused due to high exposure to air borne pollutants.
• Bronchitis & asthma need to be treated with antibiotics & bronchodilators.
Some Other Diseases
Diseases Caused by Worms
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• Ascaris, the common round worm & Wuchereria, the filarial worm, are some of the helminths which are
known to be pathogenic to man. Ascaris, an intestinal parasite causes ascariasis.
• Symptoms of these disease include internal bleeding, muscular pain, fever, anemia & blockage of the intes-
tinal passage.
• The eggs of the parasite are excreted along with the faeces of infected persons which contaminate soil, water,
plants, etc.
• A healthy person acquires this infection through contaminated water, vegetables, fruits, etc.
• Wuchereria (W. bancrofti & malayi), the filarial worms cause a slowly developing chronic inflammation of
the organs in which they live for many years, usually the lymphatic vessels of the lower limbs & the disease
is called elephantiasis or filariasis.
• The genital organs are also often affected, resulting in gross deformities.
• The pathogens are transmitted to person through the bite by the female mosquite.
Old Age Diseases: Dementia
• Dementia is “one of the major causes of disability & dependency among older people worldwide”
Pollution related diseases: Silicosis
• Silicosis is a lung disorder caused by inhalation, retention & pulmonary reaction to crystalline silica, as a result
of exposure during mining, stone crushing & quarrying activities.
Zoonotic Diseases
• Zoonotic diseases — are spread between animals & humans, & are common in societies where poverty is
widespread
• Chikungunya, dengue, Avian influenza, plague, SARS & acute encephalitis syndrome (AES) are some
of the zoonotic diseases.
23. Blood
• It transports substances like digested food from the small intestine to the other parts of the body.
• It carries oxygen from the lungs to the cells of the body. It also transports waste for removal from the body.
• Blood is a liquid, which has cells of various kinds suspended in it.
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• The fluid part of the blood is called plasma.
• One type of cells are the red blood cells (RBC) which contain a red pigment called haemoglobin. PMF IAS – Learn Smart
• Haemoglobin bind with oxygen & transports it to all the parts of the body & ultimately to all the cells.
• The presence of haemoglobin makes blood appear red.
• The blood also has white blood cells (WBC) which fight against germs that may enter our body.
• The clot is formed because of the presence of another type of cells in the blood, called platelets.
Blood Vessels
• There are two types of blood vessels namely arteries & veins.
• Veins are the blood vessels that carry carbon dioxide-rich blood (impure blood) from all parts of the body
back to the heart.
• Pulmonary vein is an exception as it carries oxygen-rich blood (pure blood) from lungs to heart.
• The veins have thin walls.
• Arteries are the blood vessels that carry oxygen-rich blood from heart to all parts of the body.
• Pulmonary artery is an exception as it carries carbon dioxide-rich blood from heart to lungs.
• The arteries have thick walls as the pressure acting on then is high.
 Blood FROM Heart → Artery

 Blood TO Heart → Vein
• Arteries divide into smaller vessels. On reaching the tissues, they divide further into extremely thin tubes
called capillaries. The capillaries join up to form veins which empty into the heart.
Body Fluids & Circulation
• Blood is a special connective tissue consisting of a fluid matrix, plasma, & formed elements.
Plasma
• Plasma is a straw coloured, viscous fluid constituting nearly 55 per cent of the blood.
• 90-92 per cent of plasma is water & proteins contribute 6-8 per cent of it.
• Fibrinogen, globulins & albumins are the major proteins.
 Fibrinogens are needed for clotting or coagulation of blood.

 Globulins primarily are involved in defense mechanisms of the body.
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 Albumins help in osmotic balance.
• Plasma also contains small amounts of minerals like Na+, Ca++, Mg++, HCO3-, Cl-, etc. Glucose, amino acids,
lipids, etc., as they are always in transit in the body.
• Factors for coagulation or clotting of blood are also present in the plasma in an inactive form.
• Plasma without the clotting factors is called serum.
Formed Elements
• Erythrocytes, leucocytes & platelets are collectively called formed elements & they constitute nearly 45
per cent of the blood.
Red Blood Cells (RBC)
• Erythrocytes or red blood cells (RBC) are the most abundant of all the cells in blood.
• A healthy adult man has, on an average, 5 million to 5.5 million cells per microlitre (cells/mcL) of blood.
• RBCs are formed in the red bone marrow in the adults.
• RBCs are devoid of nucleus in most of the mammals & are biconcave in shape.
• They have a red coloured, iron containing complex protein called haemoglobin, hence the colour & name
of these cells.
• RBCs have an average life span of 120 days after which they are destroyed in the spleen (graveyard of
RBCs).
White Blood Cells (WBC)
• Leucocytes are also known as white blood cells (WBC) as they are colorless due to the lack of haemoglo-
bin.
• They are nucleated & are relatively lesser in number which averages 6000-8000 cells per microlitre
(cells/mcL) of blood.
• Leucocytes are generally short lived.
• We have two main categories of WBCs – granulocytes & agranulocytes.
• Neutrophils, eosinophils & basophils are different types of granulocytes.
• Lymphocytes & monocytes are the agranulocytes.
• Neutrophils are the most abundant cells (60-65 per cent) of the total WBCs & basophils are the least (0.5-
1 per cent) among them.
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• Neutrophils & monocytes (6-8 per cent) are phagocytic cells which destroy foreign organisms entering
the body. PMF IAS – Learn Smart
• Basophils secrete histamine, serotonin, heparin, etc., & are involved in inflammatory reactions.
• Eosinophils (2-3 per cent) resist infections & are also associated with allergic reactions.
• Lymphocytes (20-25 per cent) are of two major types – ‘B’ & ‘T’ forms.
• Both B & T lymphocytes are responsible for immune responses of the body.
Platelets
• Platelets also called thrombocytes, are cell fragments produced from megakaryocytes (special cells in the
bone marrow).
• Blood normally contains 1,50,000-3,50,000 platelets per microlitre (cells/mcL).
• Platelets can release a variety of substances most of which are involved in the coagulation or clotting of
blood.
Coagulation of Blood
• Blood exhibits coagulation or clotting in response to an injury or trauma.

• This is a mechanism to prevent excessive loss of blood from the body.
• Dark reddish-brown scum is formed at the site of a cut or an injury over a period of time.
• It is a clot or coagulam formed mainly of a network of threads called fibrins in which dead & dam-
aged formed elements of blood are trapped.
• Fibrins are formed by the conversion of inactive fibrinogens in the plasma by the enzyme thrombin.
• Thrombins, in turn are formed from another inactive substance present in the plasma called prothrombin.
• An enzyme complex, thrombokinase, is required for the above reaction.
• This complex is formed by a series of linked enzymic reactions (cascade process) involving a number of factors
present in the plasma in an inactive state.
• An injury or a trauma stimulates the platelets in the blood to release certain factors which activate the mech-
anism of coagulation.
• Certain factors released by the tissues at the site of injury also can initiate coagulation.
• Calcium ions play a very important role in clotting.
Lymph (Tissue Fluid)
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• As the blood passes through the capillaries in tissues, some water along with many small water-soluble sub-
stances move out into the spaces between the cells of tissues leaving the larger proteins & most of the
formed elements in the blood vessels.
• This fluid released out is called the interstitial fluid or tissue fluid.
• Interstitial fluid or tissue fluid has the same mineral distribution as that in plasma.
• Exchange of nutrients, gases, etc., between the blood & the cells always occur through this fluid.
• An elaborate network of vessels called the lymphatic system collects this fluid & drains it back to the major
veins. The fluid present in the lymphatic system is called the lymph.
• Lymph is a colourless fluid containing specialized lymphocytes which are responsible for the immune
responses of the body.
• Lymph is also an important carrier for nutrients, hormones, etc.
• Fats are absorbed through lymph in the lacteals present in the intestinal villi.
Blood Groups
• As you know, blood of human beings differs in certain aspects though it appears to be similar.
• Various types of grouping of blood have been done.
• Two such groupings – the ABO & Rh – are widely used all over the world.
ABO grouping
• ABO grouping is based on the presence or absence of two surface antigens (chemicals that can induce
immune response) on the RBCs namely A & B.
• Similarly, the plasma of different individuals contains two natural antibodies (proteins produced in re-
sponse to antigens).
• The distribution of antigens & antibodies in the four groups of blood, A, B, AB & O are given in Table below.
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• ABO blood groups are controlled by the gene I.
• The plasma membrane of the red blood cells has sugar polymers that protrude from its surface & the
kind of sugar is controlled by the gene. The gene (I) has three alleles IA, IB & i.
• The alleles IA & IB produce a slightly different form of the sugar while allele i does not produce any
sugar.
• Because humans are diploid organisms, each person possesses any two of the three I gene alleles.
• IA & IB are completely dominant over i, in other words when IA & i are present only IA expresses
(because i does not produce any sugar), & when IB & i are present IB expresses.
• But when IA & IB are present together they both express their own types of sugars: this is because of co-
dominance. Hence red blood cells have both A & B types of sugars.
• Since there are three different alleles, there are six different combinations of these three alleles that
are possible, & therefore, a total of six different genotypes of the human ABO blood types.
• How many phenotypes are possible?
Here there are 6 Genotypes & 4 Phenotypes (A, B, AB & O). (Inheritance – Mendel’s Laws of Inheritance)
• You probably know that during blood transfusion, any blood cannot be used; the blood of a donor has to be
carefully matched with the blood of a recipient before any blood transfusion to avoid severe problems of
clumping (destruction of RBC).
• From the above mentioned table it is evident that group ‘O’ blood can be donated to persons with any
other blood group & hence ‘O’ group individuals are called ‘universal donors’.
• Persons with ‘AB’ group can accept blood from persons with AB as well as the other groups of blood.
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Therefore, such persons are called ‘universal recipients’.
Rh grouping PMF IAS – Learn Smart
• Another antigen, the Rh antigen similar to one present in Rhesus monkeys (hence Rh), is also observed on
the surface of RBCs of majority (nearly 80 per cent) of humans.
• Such individuals are called Rh positive (Rh+ve) & those in whom this antigen is absent are called Rh neg-
ative (Rh-ve).
• An Rh-ve person, if exposed to Rh+ve blood, will form specific antibodies against the Rh antigens.
• Therefore, Rh group should also be matched before transfusions.
• A special case of Rh incompatibility (mismatching) has been observed between the Rh-ve blood of a pregnant
mother with Rh+ve blood of the foetus.
• Rh antigens of the foetus do not get exposed to the Rh-ve blood of the mother in the first pregnancy as the
two bloods are well separated by the placenta.
• However, during the delivery of the first child, there is a possibility of exposure of the maternal blood to small
amounts of the Rh+ve blood from the foetus.
• In such cases, the mother starts preparing antibodies against Rh antigen in her blood.
• In case of her subsequent pregnancies, the Rh antibodies from the mother (Rh-ve) can leak into the blood of
the foetus (Rh+ve) & destroy the foetal RBCs.
• This could be fatal to the foetus or could cause severe anaemia & jaundice to the baby.
• This condition is called erythroblastosis foetalis.
• This can be avoided by administering anti-Rh antibodies to the mother immediately after the delivery of the
first child.
Summary
• Vertebrates circulate blood, a fluid connective tissue, in their body, to transport essential substances to the
cells & to carry waste substances from there.
• Another fluid, lymph (tissue fluid) is also used for the transport of certain substances.
• Blood comprises of a fluid matrix, plasma & formed elements.
• Red blood cells (RBCs, erythrocytes), white blood cells (WBCs, leucocytes) & platelets (thrombocytes)
constitute the formed elements.
• Blood of humans are grouped into A, B, AB & O systems based on the presence or absence of two surface
antigens, A, B on the RBCs.
• Another blood grouping is also done based on the presence or absence of another antigen called Rhesus
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factor (Rh) on the surface of RBCs.
• The spaces between cells in the tissues contain a fluid derived from blood called tissue fluid. PMF IAS – Learn Smart
• This fluid called lymph is almost similar to blood except for the protein content & the formed elements.
24. Circulatory System
• The English physician, William Harvey (A.D.1578–1657), discovered the circulation of blood.
• The circulatory patterns are of two types – open or closed.
• Open circulatory system is present in arthropods & molluscs in which blood pumped by the heart passes
through large vessels into open spaces or body cavities called sinuses.
• Annelids & chordates have a closed circulatory system in which the blood pumped by the heart is always
circulated through a closed network of blood vessels.
• This pattern is more advantageous as the flow of fluid can be more precisely regulated.
• All vertebrates possess a muscular chambered heart.
 Fishes have a 2-chambered heart with an atrium & a ventricle.

 Amphibians & the reptiles (except crocodiles) have a 3-chambered heart with two atria & a single
ventricle.
 Crocodiles, birds & mammals possess a 4-chambered heart with two atria & two ventricles.
• In fishes the heart pumps out deoxygenated blood which is oxygenated by the gills & supplied to the body
parts from where deoxygenated blood is returned to the heart (single circulation).
• In amphibians & reptiles, the left atrium receives oxygenated blood from the gills/lungs/skin & the right
atrium gets the deoxygenated blood from other body parts.
• However, they get mixed up in the single ventricle which pumps out mixed blood (incomplete double cir-
culation).
• In birds & mammals, oxygenated & deoxygenated blood received by the left & right atria respectively passes
on to the ventricles of the same sides.
• The ventricles pump it out without any mixing up, i.e., two separate circulatory pathways are present in
these organisms, hence, these animals have double circulation.
• Animals such as sponges & Hydra do not possess any circulatory system.
• The water in which they live brings food & oxygen as it enters their bodies. The water carries away waste
materials & carbon dioxide as it moves out. Thus, these animals do not need a circulatory fluid like the blood.
Human Circulatory System 199

Heart
• The walls of the chambers of the heart are made up of muscles.

• These muscles contract & relax rhythmically.
• This rhythmic contraction followed by its relaxation constitutes a heartbeat.
• Human circulatory system, also called the blood vascular system consists of a muscular chambered heart, a
network of closed branching blood vessels & blood, the fluid which is circulated.
• Heart, the mesodermally derived organ (the middle layer of cells or tissues of an embryo, or the parts derived
from this (e.g., cartilage, muscles, & bone)), is situated in the thoracic cavity, in between the two lungs, slightly
tilted to the left. It has the size of a clenched fist.
• It is protected by a double walled membranous bag, pericardium, enclosing the pericardial fluid.
• Our heart has four chambers, two relatively small upper chambers called atria & two larger lower chambers
called ventricles.
• A thin, muscular wall called the interatrial septum separates the right & the left atria, whereas a thick-walled,
the inter-ventricular septum, separates the left & the right ventricles.
• The atrium & the ventricle of the same side are also separated by a thick fibrous tissue called the atrio-
ventricular septum.
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• However, each of these septa are provided with an opening through which the two chambers of the same
side are connected.
• The opening between the right atrium & the right ventricle is guarded by a valve formed of three muscular
flaps or cusps, the tricuspid valve, whereas a bicuspid or mitral valve guards the opening between the left
atrium & the left ventricle.
• The openings of the right & the left ventricles into the pulmonary artery & the aorta respectively are pro-
vided with the semilunar valves.
• The valves in the heart allows the flow of blood only in one direction, i.e., from the atria to the ventricles &
from the ventricles to the pulmonary artery or aorta. These valves prevent any backward flow.
• The entire heart is made of cardiac muscles. The walls of ventricles are much thicker than that of the atria.
• A specialized cardiac musculature called the nodal tissue is also distributed in the heart.
• A patch of this tissue is present in the right upper corner of the right atrium called the sino-atrial node
(SAN).
• Another mass of this tissue is seen in the lower left corner of the right atrium close to the atrio-ventricular
septum called the atrio-ventricular node (AVN).
• A bundle of nodal fibres, atrioventricular bundle (AV bundle) continues from the AVN which passes through
the atrio-ventricular septa to emerge on the top of the interventricular septum & immediately divides into a
right & left bundle.
• These branches give rise to minute fibres throughout the ventricular musculature of the respective sides &
are called purkinje fibres. These fibres along with right & left bundles are known as bundle of His.
• The nodal musculature has the ability to generate action potentials without any external stimuli, i.e., it is au-
toexcitable.
• However, the number of action potentials that could be generated in a minute vary at different parts of the
nodal system.
• The SAN can generate the maximum number of action potentials, i.e., 70-75/min, & is responsible for initiat-
ing & maintaining the rhythmic contractile activity of the heart. Therefore, it is called the pacemaker. Our
heart normally beats 70-75 times in a minute (average 72 beats/min).
Cardiac Cycle
Watch these videos for easy understanding

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gn6QmETEm8s;
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yGlFBzaTuoI;
• To begin with, all the four chambers of heart are in a relaxed state, i.e., they are in joint diastole.
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• As the tricuspid & bicuspid valves are open, blood from the pulmonary veins & vena cava flows into the
left & the right ventricle respectively through the left & right atria. PMF IAS – Learn Smart
• The semilunar valves are closed at this stage.

• The SAN now generates an action potential which stimulates both the atria to undergo a simultaneous con-
traction – the atrial systole. This increases the flow of blood into the ventricles by about 30 per cent.
• The action potential is conducted to the ventricular side by the AVN & AV bundle from where the bundle of
His transmits it through the entire ventricular musculature.
• This causes the ventricular muscles to contract, (ventricular systole), the atria undergoes relaxation (dias-
tole), coinciding with the ventricular systole.
• Ventricular systole increases the ventricular pressure causing the closure of tricuspid & bicuspid valves due
to attempted backflow of blood into the atria.
• As the ventricular pressure increases further, the semilunar valves guarding the pulmonary artery (right side)
& the aorta (left side) are forced open, allowing the blood in the ventricles to flow through these vessels into
the circulatory pathways.
• The ventricles now relax (ventricular diastole) & the ventricular pressure falls causing the closure of semilunar
valves which prevents the backflow of blood into the ventricles.
• As the ventricular pressure declines further, the tricuspid & bicuspid valves are pushed open by the pressure
in the atria exerted by the blood which was being emptied into them by the veins.
• The blood now once again moves freely to the ventricles. The ventricles & atria are now again in a relaxed
(joint diastole) state, as earlier.
• Soon the SAN generates a new action potential & the events described above are repeated in that sequence
& the process continues.
• This sequential event in the heart which is cyclically repeated is called the cardiac cycle & it consists of sys-
tole & diastole of both the atria & ventricles.
• As mentioned earlier, the heart beats 72 times per minute, i.e., that many cardiac cycles are performed per
minute. From this it could be deduced that the duration of a cardiac cycle is 0.8 seconds.
• During a cardiac cycle, each ventricle pumps out approximately 70 mL of blood which is called the stroke
volume. The stroke volume multiplied by the heart rate (no. of beats per min.) gives the cardiac output.
• Therefore, the cardiac output can be defined as the volume of blood pumped out by each ventricle per
minute & averages 5000 mL or 5 litres in a healthy individual.
• The body has the ability to alter the stroke volume as well as the heart rate & thereby the cardiac output.
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• For example, the cardiac output of an athlete will be much higher than that of an ordinary man.
• During each cardiac cycle two prominent sounds are produced which can be easily heard through a stetho- PMF IAS – Learn Smart
scope.
• The first heart sound (lub) is associated with the closure of the tricuspid & bicuspid valves whereas the
second heart sound (dub) is associated with the closure of the semilunar valves.
• These sounds are of clinical diagnostic significance.
Electrocardiograph (ECG)
• Electro-cardiograph is used to obtain an electrocardiogram (ECG).
• ECG is a graphical representation of the electrical activity of the heart during a cardiac cycle.
• To obtain a standard ECG, a patient is connected to the machine with three electrical leads (one to each wrist
& to the left ankle) that continuously monitor the heart activity.
• For a detailed evaluation of the heart’s function, multiple leads are attached to the chest region.
• Here, we will talk only about a standard ECG.
• Each peak in the ECG is identified with a letter from P to T that corresponds to a specific electrical activity of
the heart.
• The P-wave represents the electrical excitation (or depolarisation) of the atria, which leads to the contraction
of both the atria.
• The QRS complex represents the depolarisation of the ventricles, which initiates the ventricular contraction.
• The contraction starts shortly after Q & marks the beginning of the systole.
• The T-wave represents the return of the ventricles from excited to normal state (repolarization). The end of
the T-wave marks the end of systole.
• Obviously, by counting the number of QRS complexes that occur in a given time period, one can determine
the heartbeat rate of an individual.
• Since the ECGs obtained from different individuals have roughly the same shape for a given lead configura-
tion, any deviation from this shape indicates a possible abnormality or disease.
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• Hence, it is of a great clinical significance.
Double Circulation PMF IAS – Learn Smart
• As mentioned earlier, the blood pumped by the right ventricle enters the pulmonary artery, whereas the left
ventricle pumps blood into the aorta.
• The deoxygenated blood pumped into the pulmonary artery is passed on to the lungs from where the
oxygenated blood is carried by the pulmonary veins into the left atrium.
• This pathway constitutes the pulmonary circulation.
• The oxygenated blood entering the aorta is carried by a network of arteries, arterioles & capillaries to the
tissues from where the deoxygenated blood is collected by a system of venules, veins & vena cava & emptied
into the right atrium. This is the systemic circulation.
• The systemic circulation provides nutrients, O2 & other essential substances to the tissues & takes CO2 &
other harmful substances away for elimination.
• A unique vascular connection exists between the digestive tract & liver called hepatic portal system.
• The hepatic portal vein carries blood from intestine to the liver before it is delivered to the systemic circula-
tion.
• A special coronary system of blood vessels is present in our body exclusively for the circulation of blood to
& from the cardiac musculature.
Regulation of Cardiac Activity
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• Normal activities of the heart are regulated intrinsically, i.e., auto regulated by specialized muscles (nodal
tissue), hence the heart is called myogenic.
• A special neural center in the medulla oblangata can moderate the cardiac function through autonomic
nervous system (ANs).
• Neural signals through the sympathetic nerves (part of ANS) can increase the rate of heartbeat, the
strength of ventricular contraction & thereby the cardiac output.
• On the other hand, parasympathetic neural signals (another component of ANS) decrease the rate of
heartbeat, speed of conduction of action potential & thereby the cardiac output.
• Adrenal medullary hormones can also increase the cardiac output.
Disorders of Circulatory System
High Blood Pressure (Hypertension)
• Hypertension is the term for blood pressure that is higher than normal (120/80).
• In this measurement 120 mm Hg (millimetres of mercury pressure) is the systolic, or pumping, pressure
& 80 mm Hg is the diastolic, or resting, pressure.
• If repeated checks of blood pressure of an individual is 140/90 (140 over 90) or higher, it shows hyperten-
sion.
• High blood pressure leads to heart diseases & also affects vital organs like brain & kidney.
Coronary Artery Disease (CAD)
• Coronary Artery Disease, often referred to as atherosclerosis, affects the vessels that supply blood to the
heart muscle.
• It is caused by deposits of calcium, fat, cholesterol & fibrous tissues, which makes the lumen of arteries
narrower.
Angina
• It is also called ‘angina pectoris’.

• A symptom of acute chest pain appears when not enough oxygen is reaching the heart muscle.
• Angina can occur in men & women of any age, but it is more common among the middle-aged & elderly.
• It occurs due to conditions that affect the blood flow.
Heart Failure
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• Heart failure means the state of heart when it is not pumping blood effectively enough to meet the needs of
the body.
• It is sometimes called congestive heart failure because congestion of the lungs is one of the main symptoms
of this disease.
• Heart failure is not the same as cardiac arrest (when the heart stops beating) or a heart attack (when the
heart muscle is suddenly damaged by an inadequate blood supply).
Summary
• All vertebrates & a few invertebrates have a closed circulatory system.

• Our circulatory system consists of a muscular pumping organ, heart, a network of vessels & a fluid, blood.
• Heart has two atria & two ventricles. Cardiac musculature is auto-excitable.
• Sino-atrial node (SAN) generates the maximum number of action protentials per minute (70-75/min) &
therefore, it sets the pace of the activities of the heart. Hence it is called the Pacemaker.
• The action potential causes the atria & then the ventricles to undergo contraction (systole) followed by their
relaxation (diastole).
• The systole forces the blood to move from the atria to the ventricles & to the pulmonary artery & the aorta.
• The cardiac cycle is formed by sequential events in the heart which is cyclically repeated & is called the cardiac
cycle.
• A healthy person shows 72 such cycles per minute. About 70 mL of blood is pumped out by each ventricle
during a cardiac cycle & it is called the stroke or beat volume.
• Volume of blood pumped out by each ventricle of heart per minute is called the cardiac output & it is equal
to the product of stroke volume & heart rate (approx 5 litres).
• The electrical activity of the heart can be recorded from the body surface by using electrocardiograph & the
recording is called electrocardiogram (ECG) which is of clinical importance.
• We have a complete double circulation, i.e., two circulatory pathways, namely, pulmonary & systemic are
present.
• The pulmonary circulation starts by the pumping of deoxygenated blood by the right ventricle which is
carried to the lungs where it is oxygenated & returned to the left atrium.
• The systemic circulation starts with the pumping of oxygenated blood by the left ventricle to the aorta
which is carried to all the body tissues & the deoxygenated blood from there is collected by the veins &
returned to the right atrium.
• Though the heart is autoexcitable, its functions can be moderated by neural & hormonal mechanisms.
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25. Excretory System
• When our cells perform their functions, certain waste products are released into the blood stream.
• These are toxic & hence need to be removed from the body.
• The process of removal of wastes produced in the cells of the living organisms is called excretion.
• The parts involved in excretion forms the excretory system.
• Waste removal is done by the blood capillaries in the kidneys.
• When the blood reaches the two kidneys, it contains both useful & harmful substances.
• The useful substances are absorbed back into the blood. The wastes are removed as urine.
• From the kidneys, the urine goes into the urinary bladder through tube-like ureters.
• It is stored in the bladder & is passed out through the urinary opening at the end of a muscular tube
called urethra.
• The kidneys, ureters, bladder & urethra form the excretory system.
• An adult human being normally passes about 1–1.8 L of urine in 24 hours, & the urine consists of 95% water,
2.5 % urea & 2.5% other waste products.
Excretory Products & their Elimination
• Animals accumulate ammonia, urea, uric acid, carbon dioxide, water & ions like Na+, K+, Cl-, phosphate,
sulphate, either by metabolic activities or by other means like excess ingestion.
• These substances have to be removed totally or partially.
• Ammonia, urea & uric acid are the major forms of nitrogenous wastes excreted by the animals.
• The way in which waste chemicals are removed from the body of the animal depends on the availability of
water.
• Ammonia is the most toxic form & requires large amount of water for its elimination, whereas uric acid,
being the least toxic, can be removed with a minimum loss of water.
• Aquatic animals like fishes, excrete cell waste in gaseous form (ammonia) which directly dissolves in water.
• Ammonia, as it is readily soluble, is generally excreted by diffusion across body surfaces or through gill sur-
faces (in fish) as ammonium ions. Kidneys do not play any significant role in its removal.
• Some land animals like birds, lizards, snakes excrete a semi-solid, white coloured compound (uric acid).
• Reptiles, birds, land snails & insects excrete nitrogenous wastes as uric acid in the form of pellet or paste
with a minimum loss of water & are called uricotelic animals.
• Terrestrial adaptation necessitated the production of lesser toxic nitrogenous wastes like urea & uric acid for
conservation of water.
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• Mammals, many terrestrial amphibians & marine fishes mainly excrete urea & are called ureotelic animals.
• Ammonia produced by metabolism is converted into urea in the liver of these animals & released into the PMF IAS – Learn Smart
blood which is filtered & excreted out by the kidneys.
• Some amount of urea may be retained in the kidney matrix of some of these animals to maintain a de-
sired osmolarity (the concentration of a solution expressed as the total number of solute particles per litre).
• A survey of animal kingdom presents a variety of excretory structures.
• In most of the invertebrates, these structures are simple tubular forms whereas vertebrates have complex
tubular organs called kidneys.
• Some of these structures are mentioned here.
• Protonephridia or flame cells are the excretory structures in Platyhelminthes (Flatworms, e.g., Planaria),
rotifers, some annelids & the cephalochordate.
• Protonephridia are primarily concerned with ionic & fluid volume regulation, i.e., osmoregulation.
• Nephridia are the tubular excretory structures of earthworms & other annelids.
• Nephridia help to remove nitrogenous wastes & maintain a fluid & ionic balance.
• Malpighian tubules are the excretory structures of most of the insects including cockroaches.
• Malpighian tubules help in the removal of nitrogenous wastes & osmoregulation.
• Antennal glands or green glands perform the excretory function in crustaceans like prawns.
Human Excretory System
• In humans, the excretory system consists of a pair of kidneys, one pair of ureters, a urinary bladder & a
urethra.
Kidneys
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• Kidneys are reddish brown, bean shaped structures situated between the levels of last thoracic & third lumbar
vertebra close to the dorsal inner wall of the abdominal cavity.
• Each kidney of an adult human measures 10-12 cm in length, 5-7 cm in width, 2-3 cm in thickness with an
average weight of 120-170 g.
• Towards the center of the inner concave surface of the kidney is a notch called hilum through which ureter,
blood vessels & nerves enter.
• Inner to the hilum is a broad funnel shaped space called the renal pelvis with projections called calyces.
• Inside the kidney, there are two zones, an outer cortex & an inner medulla.
• The medulla is divided into a few conical masses (medullary pyramids) projecting into the calyces (singularity:
calyx).
• Each kidney has nearly one million complex tubular structures called nephrons, which are the functional
units.
• Each nephron has two parts – the glomerulus & the renal tubule.
• Glomerulus is a tuft of capillaries formed by the afferent arteriole – a fine branch of renal artery.
• Blood from the glomerulus is carried away by an efferent arteriole.
• The renal tubule begins with a double walled cup-like structure called Bowman’s capsule, which encloses
the glomerulus.
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• Glomerulus along with Bowman’s capsule, is called the malpighian body or renal corpuscle.
• The tubule continues further to form a highly coiled network – proximal convoluted tubule (PCT).
• A hairpin shaped Henle’s loop is the next part of the tubule which has a descending & an ascending limb.
• The ascending limb continues as another highly coiled tubular region called distal convoluted tubule (DCT).
• The DCTs of many nephrons open into a straight tube called collecting duct, many of which converge & open
into the renal pelvis through medullary pyramids in the calyces.
• The Malpighian corpuscle, PCT & DCT of the nephron are situated in the cortical region of the kidney whereas
the loop of Henle dips into the medulla.
• In majority of nephrons, the loop of Henle is too short & extends only very little into the medulla.
• Such nephrons are called cortical nephrons.
• In some of the nephrons, the loop of Henle is very long & runs deep into the medulla.
• These nephrons are called juxta medullary nephrons.
• The efferent arteriole emerging from the glomerulus forms a fine capillary network around the renal tubule
called the peritubular capillaries.
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• A minute vessel of this network runs parallel to the Henle’s loop forming a ‘U’ shaped vasa recta.
• Vasa recta is absent or highly reduced in cortical nephrons.
Urine Formation
• Urine formation involves three main processes namely, glomerular filtration, reabsorption & secretion,
that takes place in different parts of the nephron.
• The first step in urine formation is the filtration of blood, which is carried out by the glomerulus & is
called glomerular filtration.
• On an average, 1100-1200 ml of blood is filtered by the kidneys per minute.
• The glomerular capillary blood pressure causes filtration of blood through 3 layers, i.e., the endothelium of
glomerular blood vessels, the epithelium of Bowman’s capsule & a basement membrane between these
two layers.
• The epithelial cells of Bowman’s capsule called podocytes are arranged in an intricate manner so as to leave
some minute spaces called filtration slits or slit pores.
• Blood is filtered so finely through these membranes, that almost all the constituents of the plasma except
the proteins pass onto the lumen of the Bowman’s capsule.
• Therefore, it is considered as a process of ultra-filtration.
• The amount of the filtrate formed by the kidneys per minute is called glomerular filtration rate (GFR).
• GFR in a healthy individual is approximately 125 ml/minute, i.e., 180 liters per day!
• The kidneys have built-in mechanisms for the regulation of glomerular filtration rate.
• One such efficient mechanism is carried out by juxta glomerular apparatus (JGA).
• A comparison of the volume of the filtrate formed per day (180 liters per day) with that of the urine released
(1.5 litres), suggest that nearly 99 per cent of the filtrate has to be reabsorbed by the renal tubules.
• This process is called reabsorption.
• The tubular epithelial cells in different segments of nephron perform this either by active or passive mech-
anisms.
• For example, substances like glucose, amino acids, Na+, etc., in the filtrate are reabsorbed actively whereas
the nitrogenous wastes are absorbed by passive transport.
• Reabsorption of water also occurs passively in the initial segments of the nephron.
• During urine formation, the tubular cells secrete substances like H+, K+ & ammonia into the filtrate.
• Tubular secretion is also an important step in urine formation as it helps in the maintenance of ionic & acid
base balance of body fluids.
• Sometimes a person’s kidneys may stop working due to infection or injury.
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• As a result of kidney failure, waste products start accumulating in the blood.
• Such persons cannot survive unless their blood is filtered periodically through an artificial kidney. This process PMF IAS – Learn Smart
is called dialysis.
Function of the Tubules
Proximal Convoluted Tubule (PCT)
• PCT is lined by simple cuboidal epithelium which increases the surface area for reabsorption.
• Nearly all of the essential nutrients, & 70-80 per cent of electrolytes & water are reabsorbed by this segment.
• PCT also helps to maintain the pH & ionic balance of the body fluids by selective secretion of hydrogen
ions, ammonia & potassium ions into the filtrate & by absorption of HCO3- from it.
Henle’s Loop
• Reabsorption is minimum in its ascending limb.

• However, this region plays a significant role in the maintenance of high osmolarity of medullary interstitial
fluid.
• The descending limb of loop of Henle is permeable to water but almost impermeable to electrolytes.
• This concentrates the filtrate as it moves down.
• The ascending limb is impermeable to water but allows transport of electrolytes actively or passively.
• Therefore, as the concentrated filtrate pass upward, it gets diluted due to the passage of electrolytes to the
medullary fluid.
Distal Convoluted Tubule (DCT)
• Conditional reabsorption of Na+ & water takes place in this segment.

• DCT is also capable of reabsorption of HCO3- & selective secretion of hydrogen & potassium ions & NH3 to
maintain the pH & sodium-potassium balance in blood.
Collecting Duct
• This long duct extends from the cortex of the kidney to the inner parts of the medulla.
• Large amounts of water could be reabsorbed from this region to produce a concentrated urine.
• This segment allows passage of small amounts of urea into the medullary interstitium to keep up the osmo-
larity.
• It also plays a role in the maintenance of pH & ionic balance of blood by the selective secretion of H+ & K+
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ions.
Mechanism of Concentration of the Filtrate
• Mammals have the ability to produce a concentrated urine.

• The Henle’s loop & vasa recta play a significant role in this.
• The flow of filtrate in the two limbs of Henle’s loop is in opposite directions & thus forms a counter current.
• The flow of blood through the two limbs of vasa recta is also in a counter current pattern.
• The proximity between the Henle’s loop & vasa recta, as well as the counter current in them help in main-
taining an increasing osmolarity towards the inner medullary interstitium.
• This gradient is mainly caused by NaCl & urea.
• NaCl is transported by the ascending limb of Henle’s loop which is exchanged with the descending limb of
vasa recta.
• NaCl is returned to the interstitium by the ascending portion of vasa recta.
• Similarly, small amounts of urea enter the thin segment of the ascending limb of Henle’s loop which is trans-
ported back to the interstitium by the collecting tubule.
• The above-described transport of substances facilitated by the special arrangement of Henle’s loop & vasa
recta is called the counter current mechanism.
• This mechanism helps to maintain a concentration gradient in the medullary interstitium.
• Presence of such interstitial gradient helps in an easy passage of water from the collecting tubule thereby
concentrating the filtrate (urine).
• Human kidneys can produce urine nearly four times concentrated than the initial filtrate formed.
Regulation of Kidney Function
• The functioning of the kidneys is efficiently monitored & regulated by hormonal feedback mechanisms in-
volving the hypothalamus, JGA & to a certain extent, the heart.
• Osmoreceptors in the body are activated by changes in blood volume, body fluid volume & ionic concen-
tration.
• An excessive loss of fluid from the body can activate these receptors which stimulate the hypothalamus to
release antidiuretic hormone (ADH) or vasopressin from the neurohypophysis.
• ADH facilitates water reabsorption from latter parts of the tubule, thereby preventing diuresis (increased
or excessive production of urine).
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• An increase in body fluid volume can switch off the osmoreceptors & suppress the ADH release to complete
the feedback. PMF IAS – Learn Smart
• ADH can also affect the kidney function by its constrictory effects on blood vessels.
• This causes an increase in blood pressure. An increase in blood pressure can increase the glomerular blood
flow & thereby the GFR.
• The JGA plays a complex regulatory role.
• A fall in glomerular blood flow/glomerular blood pressure/GFR can activate the JG cells to re-
lease renin which converts angiotensinogen in blood to angiotensin I & further to angiotensin II.
• Angiotensin II, being a powerful vasoconstrictor, increases the glomerular blood pressure & thereby GFR.
• Angiotensin II also activates the adrenal cortex to release Aldosterone.
• Aldosterone causes reabsorption of Na+ & water from the distal parts of the tubule.
• This also leads to an increase in blood pressure & GFR. This complex mechanism is generally known as
the Renin-Angiotensin mechanism.
• An increase in blood flow to the atria of the heart can cause the release of Atrial Natriuretic Factor (ANF).
• ANF can cause vasodilation (dilation of blood vessels) & thereby decrease the blood pressure. ANF mecha-
nism, therefore, acts as a check on the renin-angiotensin mechanism.
Micturition
• Urine formed by the nephrons is ultimately carried to the urinary bladder where it is stored till a voluntary
signal is given by the central nervous system (CNS).
• This signal is initiated by the stretching of the urinary bladder as it gets filled with urine.
• In response, the stretch receptors on the walls of the bladder send signals to the CNS.
• The CNS passes on motor messages to initiate the contraction of smooth muscles of the bladder & simulta-
neous relaxation of the urethral sphincter causing the release of urine.
• The process of release of urine is called micturition & the neural mechanisms causing it is called the mictu-
rition reflex.
• An adult human excretes, on an average, 1 to 1.5 litres of urine per day.
• The urine formed is a light yellow coloured watery fluid which is slightly acidic (pH-6.0) & has a characteres-
tic odour.
• On an average, 25-30 gm of urea is excreted out per day.
• Various conditions can affect the characteristics of urine.
• Analysis of urine helps in clinical diagnosis of many metabolic discorders as well as malfunctioning of the
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kidney.
• For example, presence of glucose (Glycosuria) & ketone bodies (Ketonuria) in urine are indicative of dia- PMF IAS – Learn Smart
betes mellitus.
Role of other Organs in Excretion
• Other than the kidneys, lungs, liver & skin also help in the elimination of excretory wastes.
• Our lungs remove large amounts of CO2 (approximately 200mL/ minute) & also significant quantities of
water every day.
• Liver, the largest gland in our body, secretes bile-containing substances like bilirubin, biliverdin, choles-
terol, degraded steroid hormones, vitamins & drugs.
• Most of these substances ultimately pass out alongwith digestive wastes.
• The sweat & sebaceous glands in the skin can eliminate certain substances through their secretions.
• Sweat produced by the sweat glands is a watery fluid containing NaCl, small amounts of urea, lactic acid,
etc.
• Though the primary function of sweat is to facilitate a cooling effect on the body surface, it also helps in the
removal of some of the wastes mentioned above.
• Sebaceous glands eliminate certain substances like sterols, hydrocarbons & waxes through sebum.
• This secretion provides a protective oily covering for the skin.
• Small amounts of nitrogenous wastes could be eliminated through saliva too.
Disorders of the Excretory System
• Malfunctioning of kidneys can lead to accumulation of urea in blood, a condition called uremia, which is
highly harmful & may lead to kidney failure.
• In such patients, urea can be removed by a process called hemodialysis.
• Blood drained from a convenient artery is pumped into a dialyzing unit after adding an anticoagulant
like heparin.
• The unit contains a coiled cellophane tube surrounded by a fluid (dialyzing fluid) having the same composi-
tion as that of plasma except the nitrogenous wastes.
• The porous cellophane membrane of the tube allows the passage of molecules based on concentration gra-
dient.
• As nitrogenous wastes are absent in the dialyzing fluid, these substances freely move out, thereby clearing
the blood.
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• The cleared blood is pumped back to the body through a vein after adding anti-heparin to it.
• This method is a boon for thousands of uremic patients all over the world. PMF IAS – Learn Smart
• Kidney transplantation is the ultimate method in the correction of acute renal failures (kidney failure).
• A functioning kidney is used in transplantation from a donor, preferably a close relative, to minimise its
chances of rejection by the immune system of the host.
• Modern clinical procedures have increased the success rate of such a complicated technique.
• Renal calculi: Stone or insoluble mass of crystallised salts (oxalates, etc.) formed within the kidney.
• Glomerulonephritis: Inflammation of glomeruli of kidney.
Summary
• Many nitrogen containing substances, ions, CO2, water, etc., that accumulate in the body have to be elimi-
nated.
• Nature of nitrogenous wastes formed & their excretion vary among animals, mainly depending on the habitat
(availability of water).
• Ammonia, urea & uric acid are the major nitrogenous wastes excreted.
• Protonephridia, nephridia, malpighian tubules, green glands & the kidneys are the common excretory
organs in animals.
• They not only eliminate nitrogenous wastes but also help in the maintenance of ionic & acid-base bal-
ance of body fluids.
• In humans, the excretory system consists of one pair of kidneys, a pair of ureters, a urinary bladder & a
urethra.
• Each kidney has over a million tubular structures called nephrons. Nephron is the functional unit of kidney
& has two portions – glomerulus & renal tubule.
• Glomerulus is a tuft of capillaries formed from afferent arterioles, fine branches of renal artery.
• The renal tubule starts with a double walled Bowman’s capsule & is further differentiated into a proximal
convoluted tubule (PCT), Henle’s loop (HL) & distal convoluted tubule (DCT).
• The DCTs of many nephrons join to a common collecting duct many of which ultimately open into the renal
pelvis through the medullary pyramids.
• The Bowman’s capsule encloses the glomerulus to form Malpighian or renal corpuscle.
• Urine formation involves three main processes, i.e., filtration, reabsorption & secretion.
• Filtration is a non-selective process performed by the glomerulus using the glomerular capillary blood pres-
sure.
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• About 1200 ml of blood is filtered by the glomerulus per minute to form 125 ml of filtrate in the
Bowman’s capsule per minute (GFR).
• JGA, a specialised portion of the nephrons, plays a significant role in the regulation of GFR.
• Nearly 99 per cent reabsorption of the filtrate takes place through different parts of the nephrons.
• PCT is the major site of reabsorption & selective secretion.
• HL (Henle’s Loop) primarily helps to maintain osmolar gradient within the kidney interstitium.
• DCT & collecting duct allow extensive reabsorption of water & certain electrolytes, which help in osmoreg-
ulation: H+, K+ & NH3 could be secreted into the filtrate by the tubules to maintain the ionic balance &
pH of body fluids.
• A counter current mechanism operates between the two limbs of the loop of Henle & those of vasa recta
(capillary parallel to Henle’s loop).
• The filtrate gets concentrated as it moves down the descending limb but is diluted by the ascending limb.
• Electrolytes & urea are retained in the interstitium by this arrangement.
• DCT & collecting duct concentrate the filtrate about four times, an excellent mechanism of conservation of
water.
• Urine is stored in the urinary bladder till a voluntary signal from CNS carries out its release through urethra,
i.e., micturition. Skin, lungs & liver also assist in excretion.
26. Origin of Life on Earth
• The universe is very old – almost 13 billion years old.

• Huge clusters of galaxies comprise the universe.
• The Big Bang theory attempts to explain to us the origin of universe.
• It talks of a singular huge explosion unimaginable in physical terms.
• The universe expanded & hence, the temperature came down.
• Hydrogen & Helium formed sometime later.
• The gases condensed under gravitation & formed the galaxies of the present day universe.
• In the solar system of the milky way galaxy, earth was supposed to have been formed about 5 billion years
back.
• There was no atmosphere on early earth.
• Methane, carbondioxide & ammonia released from molten mass covered the surface.
• The UV rays from the sun brokeup water into Hydrogen & Oxygen & the lighter H2 escaped.
• Oxygen combined with ammonia & methane to form water, CO2 & others.
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• The ozone layer was formed.
• As earth cooled, the water vapor fell as rain, to fill all the depressions & form oceans.
• Life appeared 500 million years after the formation of earth, i.e., almost four billion years back.
• Some scientists believe that the life came from outerspace.
• The first non-cellular forms of life could have originated 3 billion years back.
• They would have been giant molecules (RNA, Protein, Polysaccharides, etc.).
• These capsules reproduced their molecules perhaps.
• The first cellular form of life did not possibly originate till about 2000 million years ago.
• These were probably single cells. All life forms were in water environment only.
• The version of a biogenesis, i.e., the first form of life arose slowly through evolutionary forces from non-living
molecules is accepted by majority.
• However, once formed, how the first cellular forms of life could have evolved into the complex biodiversity
of today is the fascinating story that will be discussed below.
Evolution of Life on Earth
• Evolutionary Biology is the study of history of life forms on earth.

• Homology indicates common ancestry.
• In the context of biology, homology is the existence of shared ancestry between a pair of structures, or genes,
in different species.
• A common example of homologous structures in evolutionary biology are the wings of bats & the arms of
primates.
• Homology is based on divergent evolution whereas Analogy refers to a situation exactly opposite (con-
vergent evolution).
• Wings of butterfly & of birds look alike.
• They are not anatomically similar structures though they perform similar functions.
• Hence, analogous structures are a result of convergent evolution – different structures evolving for the same
function & hence having similarity.
• Other examples of analogy are the eye of the octopus & of mammals or the flippers of Penguins & Dolphins.
• One can say that it is the similar habitat that has resulted in selection of similar adaptive features in different
groups of organisms but toward the same function: Sweet potato (root modification) & potato (stem
modification) is another example for analogy.
Q. Which one of the following is a modified stem? (1996)
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a) Carrot
b) Sweet potato PMF IAS – Learn Smart
c) Coconut
d) Potato
 Carrot → Modified root
 Coconut → Modified seed
Adaptive Radiation
• During his journey, Charles Darwin went to Galapagos Islands.
• There he observed an amazing diversity of creatures.
• Of particular interest, small black birds later called Darwin’s Finches amazed him.
• He realized that there were many varieties of finches in the same island.
• All the varieties, he conjectured, evolved on the island itself.
• From the original seed-eating features, many other forms with altered beaks arose, enabling them to become
insectivorous & vegetarian finches.
• This process of evolution of different species in a given geographical area starting from a point &
literally radiating to other areas of geography (habitats) is called adaptive radiation.
Biological evolution
• The essence of Darwinian theory about evolution is natural selection.

• The rate of appearance of new forms is linked to the life cycle or the life span.
• Microbes that divide fast have the ability to multiply & become millions of individuals within hours.
• A colony of bacteria (say A) growing on a given medium has built-in variation in terms of ability to utilise a
feed component.
• A change in the medium composition would bring out only that part of the population (say B) that can survive
under the new conditions.
• In due course of time this variant population outgrows the others & appears as new species.
• This would happen within days.
• For the same thing to happen in a fish or fowl would take million of years as life spans of these animals are
in years.
• Hence, there must be a genetic basis for getting selected & to evolve.
• Another way of saying the same thing is that some organisms are better adapted to survive in an otherwise
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hostile environment. Adaptive ability is inherited. It has a genetic basis.
• Fitness is the end result of the ability to adapt & get selected by nature. PMF IAS – Learn Smart
A Brief Account of Evolution
• About 2000 million years ago (mya) the first cellular forms of life appeared on earth.
• The mechanism of how non-cellular aggregates of giant macromolecules could evolve into cells with mem-
branous envelop is not known.
• Some of these cells had the ability to release O2.
• The reaction could have been similar to the light reaction in photosynthesis where water is split with the help
of solar energy captured & channelized by appropriate light harvesting pigments.
• Slowly single-celled organisms became multi-cellular life forms.
• By the time of 500 mya, invertebrates were formed & active.
• Jawless fish probably evolved around 350 mya.
• Sea weeds & few plants existed probably around 320 mya.
• We are told that the first organisms that invaded land were plants.
• They were widespread on land when animals invaded land.
• Fish with stout & strong fins could move on land & go back to water. This was about 350 mya.
• These animals called lobefins evolved into the first amphibians that lived on both land & water.
• These were ancestors of modern-day frogs & salamanders.
• The amphibians evolved into reptiles.
• They lay thick-shelled eggs which do not dry up in sun unlike those of amphibians.
• Again, we only see their modern day descendents, the turtles, tortoises & crocodiles.
• In the next 200 million years or so, reptiles of different shapes & sizes dominated on earth.
• Giant ferns (pteridophytes) were present along with reptiles, but they all fell to form coal deposits slowly.
• Some of these land reptiles went back into water to evolve into fish like reptiles probably 200 mya (e.g.,
Ichthyosaurs).
• The land reptiles were, of course, the dinosaurs.
• The biggest of them were Tyrannosaurus & Ultrasaurus.
• About 65 mya, the dinosaurs suddenly disappeared from the earth.
• We do not know the true reason. Some say climatic changes killed them.
• Some say most of them evolved into birds. The truth may live in between.
• Small sized reptiles of that era still exist today.
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• The first mammals were like shrews. Their fossils are small sized.
• Mammals were viviparous & protected their unborn young inside the mother’s body. PMF IAS – Learn Smart
• Mammals were more intelligent in sensing & avoiding danger at least.
• When reptiles came down mammals took over this earth.
• There were in South America mammals resembling horse, hippopotamus, bear, rabbit, etc.
• Due to continental drift, when South America joined North America, these animals were overridden by North
American fauna.
• Due to the same continental drift pouched mammals of Australia survived because of lack of competi-
tion from any other mammal.
Q. With reference to the evolution of living organisms, which one of the following sequences is
correct? (2009)
a. Octopus-Dolphin-Shark
b. Pangolin-Tortoise-Hawk
c. Salamander-Python-Kangaroo
d. Frog-Crab-Prawn
Answer: Evolution: Single cellular → Multicellular → Fishes → Amphibians → Reptiles → Birds → Mammals.
• Octopus (Mollusc) – Dolphins & Whales (Mammals) – Shark (Fish)
• Pangolin (Mammal – always in news as it is an endangered one – its meat is consumed in some South-East
Asian countries) – Tortoise (Reptile) – Hawk (Bird)
• Salamander (Amphibian) – Python (Reptile) – Kangaroo (Mammal)
• Frog (Amphibian) – Crab (Crustaceans) – Prawn (Crustaceans)
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Picture Credits: Wikipedia

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Origin & Evolution of Man
• About 15 mya, primates called Dryopithecus & Ramapithecus were existing.

• They were hairy & walked like gorillas & chimpanzees.
• Ramapithecus was more man-like while Dryopithecus was more ape-like.
• Few fossils of man-like bones have been discovered in Ethiopia & Tanzania.
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• These revealed hominid features leading to the belief that about 3-4 mya, man-like primates walked in east-
ern Africa. They were probably not taller than 4 feet but walked up right.
• Two mya, Australopithecines probably lived in East African grasslands.
• Evidence shows they hunted with stone weapons but essentially ate fruit.
• Some of the bones among the bones discovered were different.
• This creature was called the first human-like being the hominid & was called Homo habilis.
• The brain capacities were between 650-800cc. They probably did not eat meat.
• Fossils discovered in Java in 1891 revealed the next stage, i.e., Homo erectus about 1.5 mya.
• Homo erectus had a large brain around 900cc. Homo erectus probably ate meat.
• The Neanderthal man with a brain size of 1400cc lived in near east & central Asia between 1,00,000-40,000
years back. They used hides to protect their body & buried their dead.
• Homo sapiens arose in Africa & moved across continents & developed into distinct races.
• During ice age between 75,000-10,000 years ago modern Homo sapiens arose.
• Pre-historic cave art developed about 18,000 years ago.
• Agriculture came around 10,000 years back & human settlements started.
• The rest of what happened is part of human history of growth & decline of civilizations.
27. Biodiversity
• Classification of life forms will be closely related to their evolution.

• Charles Darwin first described this idea of evolution in 1859 in his book, The Origin of Species.
• The number of species that are known & described range between 1.7-1.8 million.
• Rough estimates state that there are about ten million species on the planet.
• This refers to biodiversity or the number & types of organisms present on earth.
• The warm & humid tropical regions of the earth, between the tropic of cancer & the tropic of capricorn, are
rich in diversity of plant & animal life. This is called the region of megadiversity.
• Of the biodiversity of the planet, more than half is concentrated in a few countries within tropics.
In alphabetical order, the 17 megadiverse countries are:
1. Australia
2. Brazil
3. China
4. Colombia
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5. Democratic Republic of the Congo
6. Ecuador PMF IAS – Learn Smart
7. India
8. Indonesia
9. Madagascar
10. Malaysia
11. Mexico
12. Papua New Guinea
13. Peru
14. Philippines
15. South Africa
16. United States
17. Venezuela
Picture credits: Environment.gov.au
Classification of Biodiversity
• There is a need to standardize the naming of living organisms such that a particular organism is known by
the same name all over the world. This process is called nomenclature.
• Obviously, nomenclature or naming is only possible when the organism is described correctly & we know to
what organism the name is attached to. This is identification.
• For plants, scientific names are based on agreed principles & criteria, which are provided in International
Code for Botanical Nomenclature (ICBN).
• Animal taxonomists have evolved International Code of Zoological Nomenclature (ICZN). The scientific
names ensure that each organism has only one name.
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• Biologists follow universally accepted principles to provide scientific names to known organisms. Each name
has two components – the Generic name & the specific epithet.
• This system of providing a name with two components is called Binomial nomenclature. This naming system
given by Carolus Linnaeus is being practised by biologists all over the world.
• The scientific name of mango is written as Mangifera indica. In this name Mangifera represents the genus
while indica, is a particular species, or a specific epithet. Other universal rules of nomenclature are as follows:
✓ Biological names are generally in Latin & written in italics. They are Latinised or derived from Latin irre-
spective of their origin.
✓ The first word in a biological name represents the genus while the second component denotes the specific
epithet.
✓ Both the words in a biological name, when handwritten, are separately underlined, or printed in italics to
indicate their Latin origin.
✓ The first word denoting the genus starts with a capital letter while the specific epithet starts with a small
letter. it can be illustrated with the example of Mangifera indica.
✓ Name of the author appears after the specific epithet, i.e., at the end of the biological name & is written
in an abbreviated form, e.g., Mangifera indica Linn. It indicates that this species was first described by
Linnaeus.
• Since it is nearly impossible to study all the living organisms, it is necessary to devise some means to make
this possible. This process is classification.
• Classification is the process by which anything is grouped into convenient categories based on some easily
observable characters.
• The scientific term for these categories is taxa.
• A dog is a mammal & mammals are animals. Therefore, ‘animals’, ‘mammals’ & ‘dogs’ represent taxa at
different levels.
• Hence, based on characteristics, all living organisms can be classified into different taxa. This process of clas-
sification is taxonomy.
• External & internal structure, along with the structure of cell, process & ecological information of organisms
are essential & form the basis of modern taxonomic studies.
• Hence, characterisation, identification, classification & nomenclature are the processes that are basic to
taxonomy.
• Human beings were, since long, not only interested in knowing more about different kinds of organisms &
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their diversities, but also the relationships among them. This branch of study was referred to as systematics.
• The word systematics is derived from the Latin word ‘systema’ which means systematic arrangement of or-
ganisms. Linnaeus used Systema Naturae as the title of his publication.
• The scope of systematics was later enlarged to include identification, nomenclature & classification.
• Systematics takes into account evolutionary relationships between organisms.
Taxonomic Categories
• Classification is not a single step process but involves hierarchy of steps in which each step represents a rank
or category.
• Since the category is a part of overall taxonomic arrangement, it is called the taxonomic category & all cate-
gories together constitute the taxonomic hierarchy.
Species
• Taxonomic studies consider a group of individual organisms with fundamental similarities as a species.
• Let us consider Mangifera indica, Solanum tuberosum (potato) & Panthera leo (lion).
• All the three names, indica, tuberosum & leo, represent the specific epithets, while the first words Mangifera,
Solanum & Panthera are genera & represents another higher level of taxon or category.
• Each genus may have one or more than one specific epithets representing different organisms, but having
morphological similarities.
• For example, Panthera has another specific epithet called tigris (Panthera tigris) & Solanum includes species
like nigrum & melongena.
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• Human beings belong to the species sapiens which is grouped in the genus Homo. The scientific name thus,
for human being, is written as Homo sapiens.
Genus
• Genus comprises a group of related species which has more characters in common in comparison to species
of other genera.
• We can say that genera are aggregates of closely related species. For example, potato & brinjal are two
different species but both belong to the genus Solanum.
• Lion (Panthera leo), leopard (P. pardus) & tiger (P. tigris) with several common features, are all species of the
genus Panthera. This genus differs from another genus Felis which includes cats.
Family
• The next category, Family, has a group of related genera with still less number of similarities as compared
to genus & species.
• Families are characterised on the basis of both vegetative & reproductive features of plant species.
• Among animals for example, genus Panthera, comprising lion, tiger, leopard is put along with genus, Felis
(cats) in the family
• Similarly, if you observe the features of a cat & a dog, you will find some similarities & some differences as
well. They are separated into two different families – Felidae & Canidae, respectively.
Order
• You have seen earlier that categories like species, genus & families are based on a number of similar charac-
ters. Generally, order & other higher taxonomic categories are identified based on the aggregates of charac-
ters.
Class
• This category includes related orders.
Phylum
• Classes comprising animals like fishes, amphibians, reptiles, birds along with mammals constitute the next
higher category called Phylum.
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Kingdom
• All animals belonging to various phyla are assigned to the highest category called Kingdom Animalia in the
classification system of animals.
• The Kingdom Plantae, on the other hand, is distinct, & comprises all plants from various divisions. Henceforth,
we will refer to these two groups as animal & plant kingdoms.
Taxonomical Aids
Herbarium
• Herbarium is a store house of collected plant specimens that are dried, pressed & preserved on sheets.
Further, these sheets are arranged according to a universally accepted system of classification.
• The herbarium sheets also carry a label providing information about date & place of collection, English, local
& botanical names, family, collector’s name, etc.
• Herbaria also serve as quick referral systems in taxonomical studies.
Botanical Gardens
• These specialized gardens have collections of living plants for reference.

• The famous botanical gardens are at Kew (England), Indian Botanical Garden, Howrah (India) & at National
Botanical Research Institute, Lucknow (India).
Museum
• Museums have collections of preserved plant & animal specimens for study & reference. Specimens are pre-
served in the containers or jars in preservative solutions.
Zoological Parks
• These are the places where wild animals are kept in protected environments under human care & which
enable us to learn about their food habits & behavior.
Key
• Key is used for identification of plants & animals based on the similarities & dissimilarities.
• The keys are based on the contrasting characters generally in a pair called couplet.
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• Flora, manuals, monographs & catalogues are some other means of recording descriptions.
28. Biological Classification
• In Linnaeus' time a Two Kingdom system of classification with Plantae & Animalia kingdoms was developed.
• This system did not distinguish between the eukaryotes & prokaryotes, unicellular & multicellular organ-
isms & photosynthetic (green algae) & non-photosynthetic (fungi).
• Classification of organisms into plants & animals was easily done & was easy to understand, but a large
number of organisms did not fall into either category.
• Hence the two-kingdom classification used for a long time was found inadequate.
• Biologists, such as Ernst Haeckel (1894), Robert Whittaker (1959) & Carl Woese (1977) have tried to classify
all living organisms into broad categories, called kingdoms.
The classification Whittaker proposed has five kingdoms & is widely used:
1. Monera,
2. Protista,
3. Fungi,
4. Plantae and
5. Animalia
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• The main criteria for classification used by him include cell structure, thallus organisation, mode of nutri-
tion, reproduction etc.
• It brought together the prokaryotic bacteria & the blue green algae with other groups which were eukar-
yotic.
• It also grouped together the unicellular organisms & the multicellular ones.
• The classification did not differentiate between the heterotrophic group – fungi, & the autotrophic green
plants, though they also showed a characteristic difference in their walls composition – the fungi had chi-
tin in their walls while the green plants had a cellulosic cell wall.
• When such characteristics were considered, the fungi were placed in a separate kingdom – Kingdom Fungi.
• All prokaryotic organisms were grouped together under Kingdom Monera & the unicellular eukaryotic
organisms were placed in Kingdom Protista.
• Kingdom Protista has brought together Chlamydomonas, Chlorella (earlier placed in Algae within Plants &
both having cell walls) with Paramoecium & Amoeba (which were earlier placed in the animal kingdom
which lack cell wall).
At present the biological classification includes:
1. Kingdom Monera
2. Kingdom Protista
3. Kingdom Fungi
4. Kingdom Plantae
5. Kingdom Animalia
6. Viruses, Viroids & Lichens
• Further classification is done by naming the sub-groups at various levels as given in the following scheme:
KPC OF GS
1. Kingdom,
2. Phylum (For Animals) / Division (For Plants),
3. Class,
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4. Order,
5. Family,
6. Genus,
7. Species.
29. Biological Classification of Plants & Animals
• Biological classification of plants & animals was first proposed by Aristotle on the basis of simple morpho-
logical characters.
• Linnaeus later classified all living organisms into two kingdoms - Plantae & Animalia.
• Whittaker proposed an elaborate five kingdom classification – Monera, Protista, Fungi, Plantae & Ani-
malia.
• The main criteria of the five kingdom classification were cell structure, body organisation, mode of nutrition
& reproduction, & phylogenetic relationships (evolutionary development & diversification of a species).
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At present, the biological classification includes:

1. Kingdom Monera
2. Kingdom Protista
3. Kingdom Fungi
4. Kingdom Plantae
5. Kingdom Animalia
6. Viruses, Viroids & Lichens
• In the five kingdom classification, bacteria are included in Kingdom Monera.

• Kingdom Protista includes all single-celled eukaryotes such as Chrysophytes, Dinoflagellates, Eugle-
noids, Slime-moulds & Protozoans.
• Members of Kingdom Fungi show a great diversity in structures & habitat.
• Most fungi are saprophytic in their mode of nutrition.
• The plantae includes all eukaryotic chlorophyll-containing organisms. Algae, bryophytes, pterido-
phytes, gymnosperms & angiosperms are included in this group.
• The heterotrophic eukaryotic, multicellular organisms lacking a cell wall are included in the Kingdom
Animalia.
• Some acellular organisms like viruses & viroids as well as the lichens are not included in the five kingdom
system of classification.
Kingdom Monera
• The organisms in this group are:
1. prokaryotes: do not have a defined nucleus or organelles (Prokaryotic Cells vs. Eukaryotic Cells).
2. unicellular: do not show multi-cellular body designs.
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• This group includes all bacteria.
• Some well-known bacteria include blue-green algae or cyanobacteria (have cell walls), & myco- PMF IAS – Learn Smart
plasma (doesn’t possess a Cell Wall).
• They are the most abundant micro-organisms & live-in extreme habitats.
• Some of them have cell walls (bacteria) while some do not (mycoplasma).
• The mode of nutrition of organisms in this group can be either by synthesizing their own food (auto-
trophic) or getting it from the environment (heterotrophic).
• Many of them live in or on other organisms as parasites.
Bacteria are grouped under four categories based on their shape:
1. the spherical Coccus

2. the rod-shaped Bacillus
3. the comma-shaped Vibrium
4. the spiral Spirillum
• Some of the bacteria are autotrophic, i.e., they synthesise their own food. They may be photosynthetic
autotrophic or chemosynthetic autotrophic (metabolic synthesis of organic compounds by living organ-
isms using energy derived from reactions involving inorganic chemicals).
Archaebacteria
• These bacteria are special since they live in some of the harshest habitats such as
✓ extreme salty areas (halophiles),

✓ hot springs (thermoacidophiles) and
✓ marshy areas (methanogens) (Microbes In Human Welfare | Useful Microbes).
• Archaebacteria differ from other bacteria in having a different cell wall structure & this feature is respon-
sible for their survival in extreme conditions.
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• Methanogens are present in the gut of several ruminant animals such as cows & buffaloes & they are
responsible for the production of methane (biogas) from the dung of these animals.
Eubacteria
• There are thousands of different eubacteria or ‘true bacteria’.

• They are characterized by the presence of a rigid cell wall, & if motile, a flagellum.
Photosynthetic bacteria
• The cyanobacteria (also referred to as blue-green algae) have chlorophyll a similar to green plants & are
photosynthetic autotrophs.
• The cyanobacteria are unicellular, colonial, filamentous, freshwater/marine or terrestrial algae.
• The colonies are generally surrounded by gelatinous sheath.
• They often form blooms (algal blooms) in polluted water bodies.
• Some of these organisms can fix atmospheric nitrogen in specialized cells called heterocysts, e.g., Nostoc
& Anabaena.
Chemosynthetic bacteria
• Chemosynthetic autotrophic bacteria oxidise various inorganic substances such as nitrates, nitrites & ammo-
nia & use the released energy for their ATP production.
• They play a great role in recycling nutrients like nitrogen, phosphorous, iron & sulphur.
Heterotrophic bacteria
• Heterotrophic bacteria are the most abundant in nature. The majority are important decomposers.
• Many of them have a significant impact on human affairs.
• They are helpful in making curd from milk, production of antibiotics, fixing nitrogen in legume roots,
etc (Microbes In Human Welfare | Useful Microbes).
• Some are pathogens causing damage to human beings, crops, farm animals & pets.
• Cholera, typhoid, tetanus, citrus canker are well known diseases caused by different bacteria (Diseases
Caused by Microorganisms, Diseases | Acute, Chronic, Communicable Diseases).
Mycoplasma
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• The Mycoplasma are organisms that completely lack a cell wall.
• They are the smallest living cells known & can survive without oxygen.
• Many mycoplasmas are pathogenic in animals & plants.
Reproduction
• Bacteria reproduce mainly by fission.

• Sometimes, under unfavorable conditions, they produce spores.
• They also reproduce by a sort of sexual reproduction by adopting a primitive type of DNA transfer from
one bacterium to the other.
Kingdom Protista
• All single-celled eukaryotes are placed under Protista (Prokaryotic Cells vs. Eukaryotic Cells).
• Boundaries of this kingdom are not well defined.
• This kingdom forms a link with the others dealing with plants, animals & fungi.
• In this group we include Chrysophytes, Dinoflagellates, Euglenoids, Slime moulds & Protozoans.
• Examples are unicellular algae, diatoms & protozoans.
• Their mode of nutrition can be autotrophic or heterotrophic.
• Members of Protista are primarily aquatic. Some have flagella or cilia that helps in movement.
• Protists reproduce asexually & sexually by a process involving cell fusion & zygote formation.
Chrysophytes
• This group includes diatoms & golden algae (desmids).

• Most of them are photosynthetic.
• Diatoms are the chief ‘producers’ in the oceans.
• They are found in fresh water as well as in marine environments.
• They are microscopic & float passively in water currents (plankton).
• In diatoms the cell walls form two thin overlapping shells.
• The walls are embedded with silica & thus the walls are indestructible.
• Thus, diatoms have left behind large amount of cell wall deposits in their habitat; this accumulation over
billions of years is referred to as ‘diatomaceous earth’.
• Being gritty this soil is used in polishing, filtration of oils & syrups.
Dinoflagellates
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• These organisms are mostly marine & photosynthetic.
• They appear yellow, green, brown, blue or red depending on the main pigments present in their cells.
• The cell wall has stiff cellulose plates on the outer surface.
• Most of them have two flagella; one lies longitudinally & the other transversely in a furrow between the wall
plates.
• Very often, red dinoflagellates (Example: Gonyaulax) undergo such rapid multiplication that they make
the sea appear red (red tides).
• Toxins released by such large numbers may even kill other marine animals such as fishes.
Euglenoids
• Majority of them are freshwater organisms found in stagnant water.

• Instead of a cell wall, they have a protein rich layer called pellicle which makes their body flexible.
• They have two flagella, a short & a long one.
• Though they are photosynthetic in the presence of sunlight, when deprived of sunlight they behave like het-
erotrophs by predating on other smaller organisms.
• Interestingly, the pigments of euglenoids are identical to those present in higher plants. Example: Euglena.
Slime Moulds
• Slime moulds are saprophytic (live and feed on dead and decaying organisms) protists.
• The body moves along decaying twigs & leaves engulfing organic material.
• Under suitable conditions, they form an aggregation called plasmodium which may grow & spread over
several feet.
• During unfavorable conditions, the plasmodium differentiates & forms fruiting bodies bearing spores at their
tips. The spores possess true walls.
• They are extremely resistant & survive for many years, even under adverse conditions. The spores are dis-
persed by air currents.
Protozoans
• All protozoans are heterotrophs & live as predators or parasites.

• They are believed to be primitive relatives of animals.
• There are four major groups of protozoans.
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Amoeboid protozoans
• These organisms live in fresh water, sea water or moist soil.

• They move & capture their prey by putting out pseudopodia (false feet) as in Amoeba.
• Marine forms have silica shells on their surface. Some of them such as Entamoeba are parasites.
Flagellated protozoans
• The members of this group are either free-living or parasitic. They have flagella.
• The parasitic forms cause diseases such as sleeping sickness. Example: Trypanosoma.
Ciliated protozoans
• These are aquatic, actively moving organisms because of the presence of thousands of cilia.
• They have a cavity (gullet) that opens to the outside of the cell surface. The coordinated movement of rows
of cilia causes the water laden with food to be steered into the gullet. Example: Paramoecium.
Sporozoans
• This includes diverse organisms that have an infectious spore-like stage in their life cycle.
• The most notorious is Plasmodium (malarial parasite) which causes malaria, a disease which has a stagger-
ing effect on human population (Diseases Caused by Microorganisms).
Kingdom Fungi
• These are heterotrophic eukaryotic organisms.

• Most fungi are heterotrophic & absorb soluble organic matter from dead substrates & hence are called sap-
rophytes.
• Those that depend on living plants & animals are called parasites.
• Some fungal species live in permanent mutually dependent relationships with bluegreen algae (or cy-
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anobacteria). Such relationships are called symbiotic. These symbiobic life forms are called lichens. They
can also live as symbionts in association with roots of higher plants as mycorrhiza.
 Fungi + Bluegreen algae (Cyanobacteria) ➔ Lichens
Q1. Lichens, which are capable of initiating ecological succession even on a bare rock, are actu-
ally a symbiotic association of (UPSC Prelims 2014)
a. algae & bacteria

b. algae & fungi
c. bacteria & fungi
d. fungi & mosses
• Reproduction in fungi can take place by vegetative means – fragmentation, fission & budding.
• Asexual reproduction is by spores called conidia or sporangiospores or zoospores, & sexual reproduction is
by oospores, ascospores & basidiospores.
• The various spores are produced in distinct structures called fruiting bodies.
• The sexual cycle involves the following three steps:
1. Fusion of protoplasms between two motile or non-motile gametes called plasmogamy.

2. Fusion of two nuclei called karyogamy.
3. Meiosis in zygote resulting in haploid spores (Meiosis | Mitosis – Meiosis Comparison).
• When a fungus reproduces sexually, two haploid hyphae of compatible mating types come together & fuse.
In some fungi the fusion of two haploid cells immediately results in diploid cells (2n).
• However, in other fungi (ascomycetes & basidiomycetes), an intervening dikaryotic stage (n + n, i.e., two
nuclei per cell) occurs; such a condition is called a dikaryon & the phase is called dikaryophase of fungus.
• Later, the parental nuclei fuse & the cells become diploid. The fungi form fruiting bodies in which reduction
division occurs, leading to formation of haploid spores.
• Many of fungi have the capacity to become multicellular organisms at certain stages in their lives.
• They have cell-walls made of a tough complex sugar called chitin.
• Fungi are cosmopolitan & occur in air, water, soil & on animals & plants.
• They prefer to grow in warm & humid places.
• With the exception of yeasts which are unicellular, fungi are filamentous.
• Their bodies consist of long, slender thread-like structures called hyphae.
• The network of hyphae is known as mycelium.
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• Some hyphae are continuous tubes filled with multinucleated cytoplasm – these are called coenocytic hyphae.
• Others have septae or cross walls in their hyphae.
• The cell walls of fungi are composed of chitin & polysaccharides (Monosaccharides | Polysaccharides).
• When your bread develops a mould or your orange rots it is because of fungi.
• The common mushroom you eat & toadstools are also fungi.
• White spots seen on mustard leaves are due to a parasitic fungus.
• Some unicellular fungi, e.g., yeast are used to make bread & beer.
• Other fungi cause diseases in plants & animals; wheat rust causing Puccinia is an important example.
• Some are the source of antibiotics, e.g., Penicillium.
Phycomycetes
• Asexual reproduction takes place by zoospores (motile) or by aplanospores (non-motile).

• These spores are endogenously produced in sporangium.
• A zygospore is formed by fusion of two gametes.
• These gametes are similar in morphology (isogamous) or dissimilar (anisogamous or oogamous).
• Some common examples are Mucor, Rhizopus (the bread mould mentioned earlier) & Albugo (the parasitic
fungi on mustard).
Ascomycetes
• Commonly known as sac-fungi, the as comycetes are mostly multicellular, e.g., Penicillium, or rarely unicel-
lular, e.g., yeast (Saccharomyces).
Basidiomycetes
• Commonly known forms of basidiomycetes are mushrooms, bracket fungi or puffballs.

• They grow in soil, on logs & tree stumps & in living plant bodies as parasites, e.g., rusts & smuts.
• The asexual spores are generally not found, but vegetative reproduction by fragmentation is common.
• The sex organs are absent, but plasmogamy is brought about by fusion of two vegetative or somatic
cells of different strains or genotypes. The resultant structure is dikaryotic.
Deuteromycetes
• Commonly known as imperfect fungi because only the asexual or vegetative phases of these fungi are
known.
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Kingdom Plantae
• These are multicellular eukaryotes with cell walls mainly made of cellulose (Plant Cell vs. Animal Cell). PMF IAS – Learn Smart
• They are autotrophs & use chlorophyll for photosynthesis.

• A few members are partially heterotrophic such as the insectivorous plants or parasites.
• Bladderwort & Venus fly trap are examples of insectivorous plants & Cuscuta is a parasite.
• Plantae includes algae, bryophytes, pteridophytes, gymnosperms & angiosperms.
• Life cycle of plants has two distinct phases – the diploid sporophytic & the haploid gametophytic – that
alternate with each other.
• The lengths of the haploid & diploid phases, & whether these phases are free-living or dependent on others,
vary among different groups in plants. This phenomenon is called alternation of generation.
Kingdom Animalia
• These include all organisms which are multicellular eukaryotes without cell walls. They are heterotrophs.
• They directly or indirectly depend on plants for food. They digest their food in an internal cavity & store food
reserves as glycogen or fat (Carbohydrates , Fats - Healthy Fats & Unhealthy Fats).
• Their mode of nutrition is holozoic – by ingestion of food.
• They follow a definite growth pattern & grow into adults that have a definite shape & size.
• Higher forms show elaborate sensory & neuromotor mechanism. Most of them are capable of locomotion.
• The sexual reproduction is by copulation of male & female followed by embryological development.
Viruses, Viroids & Lichens
• In the five kingdom classification of Whittaker (Biological Classification) there is no mention of some acel-
lular organisms like viruses & viroids, & lichens. These are briefly introduced here.
• Viruses did not find a place in classification since they are not truly ‘living’, if we understand living as those
organisms that have a cell structure.
• The viruses are non-cellular organisms that are characterized by having an inert crystalline structure
outside the living cell.
• Viruses are obligate parasites. Once they infect a cell, they take over the machinery of the host cell to
replicate themselves, killing the host.
• The name virus that means venom or poisonous fluid was given by Pasteur.
• In addition to proteins, viruses also contain genetic material, that could be either RNA or DNA. No virus
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contains both RNA & DNA.
• In general, viruses that infect plants have single stranded RNA & viruses that infect animals have either
single or double stranded RNA or double stranded DNA.
• Bacterial viruses or bacteriophages (viruses that infect the bacteria) are usually double stranded DNA
viruses.
• The protein coat called capsid made of small subunits called capsomeres, protects the nucleic acid.
• These capsomeres are arranged in helical or polyhedral geometric forms.
• Viruses cause diseases like mumps, small pox, herpes & influenza.
• AIDS in humans is also caused by a virus.
• In plants, the symptoms can be mosaic formation, leaf rolling & curling, yellowing & vein clearing,
dwarfing & stunted growth.
Viroids
• Viroids are infectious agents that are smaller than viruses.

• A viroid was found to be a free RNA; it lacked the protein coat that is found in viruses, hence the name
viroid. The RNA of the viroid was of low molecular weight. Viroids caused potato spindle tuber disease.
Lichens
• Lichens are symbiotic associations i.e., mutually useful associations, between algae & fungi.
• The algal component is known as phycobiont & fungal component as mycobiont, which are autotrophic
& heterotrophic, respectively.
• Algae prepare food for fungi & fungi provide shelter & absorb nutrients & water for its partner.
• So close is their association that if one saw a lichen in nature, one would never imagine that they had two
different organisms within them.
• Lichens are very good pollution indicators – they do not grow in polluted areas.
30. Plant Parts & Their Functions – Structural Organization in Plants
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The Root
• The main functions of the root system are absorption of water & minerals from the soil, providing a proper
anchorage to the plant parts, storing reserve food material & synthesis of plant growth regulators.
• In majority of the dicotyledonous plants, the direct elongation of the radicle leads to the formation of
primary root which grows inside the soil.
• It bears lateral roots of several orders that are referred to as secondary, tertiary, etc. roots.
• The primary roots & its branches constitute the tap root system, as seen in the mustard plant.
• In monocotyledonous plants, the primary root is short lived & is replaced by a large number of roots.
• These roots originate from the base of the stem & constitute the fibrous root system, as seen in the wheat
plant.
• In some plants, like grass, Monstera & the banyan tree, roots arise from parts of the plant other than the
radicle & are called adventitious roots.
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Pic Credits: Biosci.ohio-state.edu
• The root is covered at the apex by a thimble-like structure called the root cap.
• It protects the tender apex of the root as it makes its way through the soil.
• Tap roots of carrot, turnip & adventitious roots of sweet potato, get swollen & store food.
• Hanging structures that support a banyan tree are called prop roots.
• Similarly, the stems of maize & sugarcane have supporting roots coming out of the lower nodes of the stem.
• These are called stilt roots.
• In some plants such as Rhizophora growing in swampy areas, many roots come out of the ground & grow
vertically upwards. Such roots, called pneumatophores, help to get oxygen for respiration.
The Stem
• The region of the stem where leaves are born are called nodes while internodes are the portions between
two nodes.
• Some stems perform the function of storage of food, support, protection & of vegetative propagation.
• Underground stems of potato, ginger, turmeric, zaminkand, colocasia are modified to store food in them.
• Stem tendrils which develop from axillary buds, are slender & spirally coiled & help plants to climb such as
in gourds (cucumber, pumpkins, watermelon) & grapevines.
• Axillary buds of stems may also get modified into woody, straight & pointed thorns.
• Thorns are found in many plants such as Citrus, Bougainvillea. They protect plants from browsing animals.
• Some plants of arid regions modify their stems into flattened (Opuntia), or fleshy cylindrical (Euphor-
bia) structures. They contain chlorophyll & carry out photosynthesis.
• Underground stems of some plants such as grass & strawberry, etc., spread to new niches & when older parts
die new plants are formed.
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The Leaf
• Leaves originate from shoot apical meristems.

• Leaf develops at the node & bears a bud in its axil. The axillary bud later develops into a branch.
• A typical leaf consists of three main parts: leaf base, petiole & lamina.
• The petiole help hold the blade to light.
• Long thin flexible petioles allow leaf blades to flutter in wind, thereby cooling the leaf & bringing fresh air to
leaf surface.
• The lamina or the leaf blade is the green expanded part of the leaf with veins & veinlets.
• There is, usually, a middle prominent vein, which is known as the midrib.
• Veins provide rigidity to the leaf blade & act as channels of transport for water, minerals & food materials.
Leaf Venation
• The arrangement of veins & the veinlets in the lamina of leaf is termed as venation.
• When the veinlets form a network, the venation is termed as reticulate.
• When the veins run parallel to each other within a lamina, the venation is termed as parallel.
• Leaves of dicotyledonous plants generally possess reticulate venation.
• Parallel venation is the characteristic of most monocotyledons.
Modifications of Leaves
• Leaves are often modified to perform functions other than photosynthesis.

• They are converted into tendrils for climbing as in peas or into spines (thorns) for defense as in cacti.
• The fleshy leaves of onion & garlic store food.
• Leaves of certain insectivorous plants such as pitcher plant, venus-fly trap are also modified leaves.
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Root Modification Stem Modification Leaf Modification
Carrot & Sweet Potato Potato, Ginger, Turmeric, Za- Onion & Garlic
minkand & Colocasia
Transpiration
• Plants absorb mineral nutrients & water from the soil. Not all the water absorbed is utilised by the plant.
• The water evaporates through the stomata present on the surface of the leaves by the process of transpi-
ration.
• The evaporation of water from leaves generates a suction pull (the same that you produce when you suck
water through a straw) which can pull water to great heights in the tall trees.
• Transpiration also cools the plant.
Water absorption through roots can be increased by keeping the plants
a. in the shade
b. in dim light
c. under the fan
d. covered with a polythene bag
• When we place a plant under the fan the speed of air flow is very high.
• Transpiration will take place in presence of high air flow through the stomata.
• Rate of transpiration increases during windy condition.
• Increase in the rate of transpiration increases the water absorption also because when transpiration occurs,
it will create a transpiration pull & more water absorption will take place.
Do Plants Also Respire?
• In plants each part can independently take in oxygen from the air & give out carbon dioxide.
• Even roots can respire. Can you guess what would happen if a potted plant were overwatered?
• Plants carry out photosynthesis only during the day & respiration both during the daytime as well as
night.
• Did you know? For us oxygen is essential, but for those organisms which do not use it, oxygen is toxic.
• In fact, our white blood cells use oxygen to kill invading bacteria.
• Even for humans, it may be dangerous to breathe pure oxygen for long.
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The Flower
• The flower is the reproductive unit in the angiosperms.
• It is meant for sexual reproduction.
• Androecium & gynoecium are reproductive organs.
• When a flower has both androecium & gynoecium, it is bisexual.
• A flower having either only stamens or only carpels is unisexual.
Parts of a flower
Androecium
• Androecium is composed of stamens.

• Each stamen which represents the male reproductive organ consists of a stalk or a filament & an anther.
• Each anther is usually bilobed & each lobe has two chambers, the pollen-sacs.
• The pollen grains are produced in pollen-sacs. A sterile stamen is called staminode.
Gynoecium
Gynoecium is the female reproductive part of the flower & is made up of one or more carpels.
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•
• A carpel consists of three parts namely stigma, style & ovary.

• After fertilization, the ovules develop into seeds & the ovary matures into a fruit.
 Placentation: The arrangement of ovules within the ovary is known as placentation.

 Aestivation: The mode of arrangement of sepals or petals in floral bud with respect to the other members
of the same whorl is known as aestivation.
The Fruit
• The fruit is a characteristic feature of the flowering plants.
• It is a mature or ripened ovary, developed after fertilisation.
• If a fruit is formed without fertilisation of the ovary, it is called a parthenocarpic fruit.
• The ovules after fertilisation, develop into seeds.
Transport of Water & Minerals In Plants
• Plants absorb water & minerals by the roots. The roots have root hair. The root hair increases the surface area
of the root for the absorption of water & mineral nutrients dissolved in water.
• The root hair is in contact with the water present between the soil particles.
• Plants have pipe-like vessels to transport water & nutrients from the soil. The vessels are made of special
cells, forming the vascular tissue.
• The vascular tissue for the transport of water & nutrients in the plant is called the xylem.
• The xylem forms a continuous network of channels that connects roots to the leaves through the stem &
branches & thus transports water to the entire plant leaves synthesise food.
• The food must be transported to all parts of the plant. This is done by the vascular tissue called the phloem.
• Thus, xylem & phloem transport substances in plants.
Summary
• Flowering plants exhibit enormous variation in shape, size, structure, mode of nutrition, life span, habit &
habitat. They have well developed root & shoot systems.
• Root system is either tap root or fibrous.
• Generally, dicotyledonous plants have tap roots while monocotyledonous plants have fibrous roots.
• The roots in some plants get modified for storage of food, mechanical support & respiration.
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• The shoot system is differentiated into stem, leaves, flowers & fruits.
• The morphological features of stems like the presence of nodes & internodes, multicellular hair & positively
phototropic nature help to differentiate the stems from roots.
• Stems also get modified to perform diverse functions such as storage of food, vegetative propagation &
protection under different conditions.
• Leaf is a lateral outgrowth of stem developed exogeneously at the node.
• These are green in colour to perform the function of photosynthesis.
• Leaves exhibit marked variations in their shape, size, margin, apex & extent of incisions of leaf blade (lamina).
• Like other parts of plants, the leaves also get modified into other structures such as tendrils, spines for climb-
ing & protection respectively.
• The flower is a modified shoot, meant for sexual reproduction.
• The flowers are arranged in different types of inflorescences.
• They exhibit enormous variation in structure, symmetry, position of ovary in relation to other parts, arrange-
ment of petals, sepals, ovules etc.
• After fertilisation, the ovary is converted into fruits & ovules into seeds.
• Seeds either may be monocotyledonous or dicotyledonous.
• They vary in shape, size & period of viability.
• The floral characteristics form the basis of classification & identification of flowering plants.
• This can be illustrated through semi-technical descriptions of families.
• Hence, a flowering plant is described in a definite sequence by using scientific terms.
• The floral features are represented in the summarised form as floral diagrams & floral formula.
• Water comes out of leaves in the form of vapour by a process called transpiration. Plants release a lot of
water into the air through this process.
31. Plantae
• Classification among plants depends on
1. whether the plant body has well differentiated, distinct components,

2. whether the differentiated plant body has special tissues for the transport of water & other substances
within it,
3. ability to bear seeds, and
4. whether the seeds are enclosed within fruits.
• Phylogenetic classification (evolutionary relationships), cytotaxonomy (cytological information like chro- 249
mosome number, structure, behavior) & chemotaxonomy (chemical constituents of the plant), are used by
taxonomists for classifying plants.
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Algae – Thallophytes
• Plants that do not have well-differentiated body design fall in this group.
• They are commonly called algae.
• Algae are chlorophyll-bearing, simple, thalloid, autotrophic & largely aquatic (both fresh water & marine)
organisms.
 Thallus: a plant body not differentiated into stem, leaves, & roots & without a vascular system, typical of
algae, fungi, lichens, & some liverworts.
• They occur in a variety of other habitats: moist stones, soils & wood.
• Some of them also occur in association with fungi (e.g., lichen) & animals (e.g., on sloth bear).
• The form & size of algae is highly variable.
• The size ranges from the microscopic unicellular forms like Chlamydomonas, to colonial forms like Volvox
& to the filamentous forms like Ulothrix & Spirogyra.
• A few of the marine forms such as kelps (algae seaweeds), form massive plant bodies.
• The algae reproduce by vegetative, asexual & sexual methods.
• Vegetative reproduction is by fragmentation. Each fragment develops into a thallus.
• Asexual reproduction is by the production of different types of spores, the most common being the zoo-
spores (capable of swimming by means of a flagellum).
• They are flagellated (motile) & on germination gives rise to new plants.
• Sexual reproduction takes place through fusion of two gametes.
• These gametes can be flagellated & similar in size (as in Chlamydomonas) or non-flagellated (non-motile)
but similar in size (as in Spirogyra).
• Such reproduction is called isogamous (fusion of two gametes similar in size).
• Fusion of two gametes dissimilar in size, as in some species of Chlamydomonas is termed as anisogamous.
• Fusion between one large, non-motile (static) female gamete & a smaller, motile male gamete is termed oog-
amous, e.g., Volvox, Fucus. (Compare this with human sperm & ovum)
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• The algae are divided into three main classes: Chlorophyceae, Phaeophyceae & Rhodophyceae.
Chlorophyceae – Green Algae
• The members of chlorophyceae are commonly called green algae.

• The plant body may be unicellular, colonial or filamentous.
• They are usually grass green due to the dominance of pigments chlorophyll a & b.
• The pigments are localised in definite chloroplasts.
• Most of the members have one or more storage bodies called pyrenoids located in the chloroplasts.
• Pyrenoids contain protein besides starch. Some algae may store food in the form of oil droplets.
• Green algae usually have a rigid cell wall made of an inner layer of cellulose & an outer layer of pectose.
• Vegetative reproduction usually takes place by fragmentation or by formation of different types of spores.
• Asexual reproduction is by flagellated zoospores produced in zoosporangia.
• The sexual reproduction shows considerable variation in the type & formation of sex cells & it may be isog-
amous, anisogamous or oogamous.
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• Some commonly found green algae are: Chlamydomonas, Volvox, Ulothrix, Spirogyra & Chara.
Phaeophyceae – Brown Algae
• The members of phaeophyceae or brown algae are found primarily in marine habitats.
• They show great variation in size & form. They range from simple branched, filamentous forms (Ectocarpus)
to profusely branched forms as represented by kelps, which may reach a height of 100 metres.
• They possess chlorophyll a, c, carotenoids & xanthophylls. They vary in colour from olive green to various
shades of brown depending upon the amount of the xanthophyll pigment, fucoxanthin present in them.
• The vegetative cells have a cellulosic wall usually covered on the outside by a gelatinous coating of algin.
• The protoplast contains, in addition to plastids, a centrally located vacuole & nucleus.
• Vegetative reproduction takes place by fragmentation.
• Asexual reproduction in most brown algae is by biflagellate zoospores that are pear-shaped & have two
unequal laterally attached flagella.
• Sexual reproduction maybe isogamous, anisogamous or oogamous.
• Union of gametes may take place in water or within the oogonium (oogamous species).
• The gametes are pyriform (pear-shaped) & bear two laterally attached flagella.
• The common forms are Ectocarpus, Dictyota, Laminaria, Sargassum & Fucus.
Rhodophyceae – Red Algae
• The members of rhodophyceae are commonly called red algae because of the predominance of the red
pigment, r-phycoerythrin in their body.
• Majority of the red algae are marine with greater concentrations found in the warmer areas.
• They occur in both well-lighted regions close to the surface of water & also at great depths in oceans where
relatively little light penetrates.
• The red thalli of most of the red algae are multicellular. Some of them have complex body organisation.
• The food is stored as floridean starch which is very similar to amylopectin & glycogen in structure.
• The red algae usually reproduce vegetatively by fragmentation.
• They reproduce asexually by non-motile spores & sexually by non-motile gametes.
• Sexual reproduction is oogamous.
• The common members are: Polysiphonia, Porphyra, Gracilaria & Gelidium.
Uses of Algae
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• At least a half of the total carbon dioxide fixation on earth is carried out by algae through photosynthesis.
• Being photosynthetic they increase the level of dissolved oxygen in their immediate environment. PMF IAS – Learn Smart
• They are of paramount importance as primary producers of energy-rich compounds which form the basis
of the food cycles of all aquatic animals.
• Many species of Porphyra, Laminaria & Sargassum are among the 70 species of marine algae used as food.
• Certain marine brown & red algae produce large amounts of hydrocolloids (water holding substances),
e.g., algin (brown algae) & carrageen (red algae) which are used commercially.
• Agar, one of the commercial products obtained from Gelidium & Gracilaria are used to grow microbes &
in preparations of ice-creams & jellies.
• Chlorella a unicellular alga, rich in proteins is used as food supplement even by space travellers.
Bryophytes
• Bryophytes are called amphibians of the plant kingdom because these plants can live in soil but are de-
pendent on water for sexual reproduction.
• The plant body is commonly differentiated to form stem & leaf-like structures.
• However, there is no specialized tissue for the conduction of water & other substances from one part of
the plant body to another.
• Bryophytes include the various mosses (funaria), marchantia & liverworts that are found commonly grow-
ing in damp, humid & shaded localities. They play an important role in plant succession on bare rocks/soil.
• The plant body of bryophytes is more differentiated than that of algae.

• It is thallus-like & erect & attached to the substratum by unicellular or multicellular rhizoids (root like struc-
tures).
• They lack true roots, stem or leaves.
They may possess root-like, leaf-like or stem-like structures.
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•
• The main plant body of the bryophyte is haploid.

• It produces gametes, hence is called a gametophyte. PMF IAS – Learn Smart
• The sex organs in bryophytes are multicellular.

• The male sex organ is called antheridium. They produce biflagellate antherozoids.
• The female sex organ called archegonium is flask-shaped & produces a single egg.
• The antherozoids are released into water where they come in contact with archegonium.
• An antherozoid fuses with the egg to produce the zygote.
• Zygotes do not undergo reduction division (Meiosis) immediately.
• They produce a multicellular body called a sporophyte.
• The sporophyte is not free-living but attached to the photosynthetic gametophyte & derives nourishment
from it.
• Some cells of the sporophyte undergo reduction division (meiosis) to produce haploid spores. These spores
germinate to produce gametophyte.
• Bryophytes in general are of little economic importance but some mosses provide food for herbaceous
mammals, birds & other animals.
• Species of Sphagnum, a moss, provide peat that have long been used as fuel, & as packing material for
trans-shipment of living material because of their capacity to hold water.
• Mosses along with lichens are the first organisms to colonise rocks & hence, are of great ecological
importance. They decompose rocks making the substrate suitable for the growth of higher plants.
• Since mosses form dense mats on the soil, they reduce the impact of falling rain & prevent soil erosion.
Pteridophytes
• In this group, the plant body is differentiated into roots, stem & leaves & has specialized tissue for the
conduction of water & other substances from one part of the plant body to another.
• Some examples are marsilea, ferns & horsetails.
• Pteridophytes are used for medicinal purposes & as soil-binders.
• They are also frequently grown as ornamentals.
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• Evolutionarily, they are the first terrestrial plants to possess vascular tissues – xylem & phloem.
• The pteridophytes are found in cool, damp, shady places though some may flourish well in sandy-soil condi-
tions.
• You may recall that in bryophytes the dominant phase in the life cycle is the gametophytic plant body.
• However, in pteridophytes, the main plant body is a sporophyte which is differentiated into true root, stem
& leaves.
• These organs possess well-differentiated vascular tissues.
• The leaves in pteridophyta are small (microphylls) as in Selaginella or large (macrophylls) as in ferns.
• The spores germinate to give rise to inconspicuous, small but multicellular, free-living, mostly photosynthetic
thalloid gametophytes called prothallus.
• These gametophytes require cool, damp, shady places to grow. Because of this specific restricted requirement
& the need for water for fertilisation, the spread of living pteridophytes is limited & restricted to narrow
geographical regions.
Cryptogamae
• The thallophytes, the bryophytes & the pteridophytes have naked embryos that are called spores.
• The reproductive organs of plants in all these three groups are very inconspicuous, & they are therefore
called ‘cryptogamae’, or ‘those with hidden reproductive organs’.
Phanerogams – Plants with Seeds
• Plants with well differentiated reproductive tissues that ultimately make seeds are called phanerogams.
• Seeds are the result of the reproductive process. They consist of the embryo along with stored food, which
serves for the initial growth of the embryo during germination.
• This group is further classified, based on whether the seeds are naked or enclosed in fruits, giving us two
groups: gymnosperms & angiosperms.
Gymnosperms
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• This term is made from two greek words: gymno– means naked & sperma– means seed.
• The plants of this group bear naked seeds (ovules are not enclosed by any ovary wall) & are usually per-
ennial, evergreen & woody.
• The seeds that develop post-fertilisation are naked too. Examples are pines, such as deodar.
• Gymnosperms include medium-sized trees or tall trees & shrubs.
• One of the gymnosperms, the giant redwood tree Seguoia is one of the tallest tree species.
• The roots are generally tap roots (Plant Parts & Their Functions).
• Roots in some genera have fungal association in the form of mycorrhiza (Pinus), while in some oth-
ers (Cgcas) small, specialised roots called coralloid roots are associated with N2-fixing cyanobacteria.
• The leaves in gymnosperms are well-adapted to withstand extremes of temperature, humidity & wind.
• In conifers, the needle-like leaves reduce the surface area.
• Their thick cuticle & sunken stomata also help to reduce water loss.
• The gymnosperms are heterosporous; they produce haploid microspores & megaspores.
• The two kinds of spores are produced within sporangia that are borne on sporophylls which are arranged
spirally along an axis to form lax or compact strobili or cones.
• The strobili bearing microsporophylls & microsporangia are called microsporangiate or male strobili.
• The microspores develop into a male gametophytic generation which is highly reduced & is confined to only
a limited number of cells. This reduced gametophyte is called a pollen grain.
• The development of pollen grains take place within the microsporangia.
• The cones bearing megasporophylls with ovules or megasporangia are called macrosporangiate or female
strobili.
• The male or female cones or strobili may be borne on the same tree (Pinus). However, in cycas male cones
& megasporophylls are borne on different trees.
• Unlike bryophytes & pteridophytes (Bryophytes – Pteridophytes), in gymnosperms the male & the
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female gametophytes do not have an independent free-living existence.
• They remain within the sporangia retained on the sporophytes. PMF IAS – Learn Smart
• The pollen grain is released from the microsporangium.

• They are carried in air currents & come in contact with the opening of the ovules borne on megasporophylls.
• The pollen tube carrying the male gametes grows towards archegonia in the ovules & discharge their con-
tents near the mouth of the archegonia.
• Following fertilisation, zygote develops into an embryo & the ovule into seeds. These seeds are not cov-
ered.
Figure: Gymnosperms: (a) Cycas (b) Pinus (c) Ginkgo
Angiosperms
• This word is made from two greek words: angio– means covered & sperma– means seed.
• Unlike the gymnosperms where the ovules are naked, in the angiosperms or flowering plants, the pol-
len grains & ovules are developed in specialised structures called flowers.
The seeds develop inside an organ which is modified to become a fruit. These are also called flowering
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•
plants.
• The male sex organ in a flower is the stamen. Each stamen consists of a slender filament with an anther at PMF IAS – Learn Smart
the tip. The anthers, following meiosis, produce pollen grains.

• The female sex organ in a flower is the pistil or the carpel.
• Pistil consists of an ovary enclosing one to many ovules.
• Within ovules are present highly reduced female gametophytes termed embryo-sacs.
• The embryo-sac formation is preceded by meiosis. Hence, each of the cells of an embryo-sac is haploid.
• Each embryo-sac has a three-celled egg apparatus – one egg cell & two synergids, three antipodal cells &
two polar nuclei. The polar nuclei eventually fuse to produce a diploid secondary nucleus.
• Pollen grain, after dispersal from the anthers, are carried by wind or various other agencies to the stigma of
a pistil. This is termed as pollination.
• The pollen grains germinate on the stigma & the resulting pollen tubes grow through the tissues of stigma
& style & reach the ovule.
• The pollen tubes enter the embryo-sac where two male gametes are discharged. One of the male gametes
fuses with the egg cell to form a zygote (syngamy).
• The other male gamete fuses with the diploid secondary nucleus to produce the triploid primary endo-
sperm nucleus (PEN).
• Because of the involvement of two fusions, this event is termed as double fertilisation, an event unique to
angiosperms.
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Figure: Life cycle of an angiosperm
• The zygote develops into an embryo (with one or two cotyledons) & the PEN develops into endosperm
which provides nourishment to the developing embryo.
• The synergids & antipodals degenerate after fertilisation.
• During these events the ovules develop into seeds & the ovaries develop into fruit.
• Plant embryos in seeds have structures called cotyledons.
• Cotyledons are called ‘seed leaves’ because in many instances they emerge & become green when the seed
germinates. Thus, cotyledons represent a bit of pre-designed plant in the seed.
Monocots & Dicots
• The angiosperms are divided into two groups on the basis of the number of cotyledons present in the seed.
• Plants with seeds having a single cotyledon are called monocotyledonous or monocots. Plants with seeds
having two cotyledons are called dicots.
Figure: Angiosperms : (a) A dicotyledon (b) A monocotyledon
Summary
• Plant kingdom includes algae, bryophytes, pteridophytes, gymnosperms & angiosperms.
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• Algae (thallophytes) are chlorophyll-bearing simple, thalloid, autotrophic & largely aquatic organisms.
• Depending on the type of pigment possesed & the type of stored food, algae are classfied into three classes,
namely Chlorophyceae, Phaeophyceae & Rhodophyceae.
• Algae usually reproduce vegetatively by fragmentation, asexually by formation of different types of spores &
sexually by formation of gametes which may show isogamy, anisogamy or oogamy.
• Bryophytes are plants which can live in soil but are dependent on water for sexual reproduction.
• Their plant body is more differentiated than that of algae.
• It is thallus-like & prostrate or erect & attached to the substratum by rhizoids.
• They possess root-like, leaf-like & stem-like structures.
• The bryophytes are divided into liverworts & mosses. The plant body of liverworts is thalloid & dorsiventral
whereas mosses have upright, slender axes bearing spirally arranged leaves.
• The main plant body of a bryophyte is gamete-producing & is called a gametophyte. It bears the male sex
organs called antheridia & female sex organs called archegonia.
• The male & female gametes produced fuse to form zygote which produces a multicellular body called a
sporophyte. It produces haploid spores. The spores germinate to form gametophytes.
• In pteridophytes the main plant is a sporophyte which is differentiated into true root, stem & leaves.
• These organs possess well-differentiated vascular tissues.
• The sporophytes bear sporangia which produce spores.
• The spores germinate to form gametophytes which require cool, damp places to grow.
• The gametophytes bear male & female sex organs called antheridia & archegonia, respectively.
• Water is required for transfer of male gametes to archegonium where zygote is formed after fertilisation.
• The zygote produces a sporophyte.
• The gymnosperms are the plants in which ovules are not enclosed by any ovary wall.
• After fertilisation, the seeds remain exposed & therefore these plants are called naked-seeded plants.
• The gymnosperms produce microspores & megaspores which are produced in microsporangia & megaspo-
rangia borne on the sporophylls.
• The sporophylls – microsporophylls & megasporophylls – are arranged spirally on axis to form male & female
cones, respectively.
• The pollen grain germinates & pollen tube releases the male gamete into the ovule, where it fuses with the
egg cell in archegonia. Following fertilisation, the zygote develops into embryo & the ovules into seeds.
• In angiosperms, the male sex organs (stamen) & female sex organs (pistil) are borne in a flower.
• Each stamen consists of a filament & an anther. The anther produces pollen grains (male gametophyte) after
meiosis.
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• The pistil consists of an ovary enclosing one to many ovules.
• Within the ovule is the female gametophyte or embryo sac which contains the egg cell. PMF IAS – Learn Smart
• The pollen tube enters the embryo-sac where two male gametes are discharged.
• One male gamete fuses with egg cell (syngamy) & other fuses with diploid secondary nucleus (triple
fusion). This phenomenon of two fusions is called double fertilisation & is unique to angiosperms.
• The angiosperms are divided into two classes – the dicotyledons & the monocotyledons.
• During the life cycle of any sexually reproducing plant, there is alternation of generations between gamete
producing haploid gametophyte & spore producing diploid sporophyte. However, different plant groups as
well as individuals may show different patterns of life cycles - haplontic, diplontic or intermediate.
Match the following (column I with column II)
Column I Column II
Chlamydomonas Moss
Cycas Pteridophyte
Selaginella Algae
Sphagnum Gymnosperm
32. Plant Tissues
• Most of the tissues that plants have are supportive, which provides them with structural strength.
• Most of the plant tissues are dead, since dead cells can provide mechanical strength as easily as live ones
& need less maintenance.
• Animals on the other hand move around. They consume more energy as compared to plants. Most of the
tissues they contain are living.
• Another difference between animals & plants is in the pattern of growth. The growth in plants is limited to
certain regions, while this is not so in animals.
• There are some tissues in plants that divide throughout their life. These tissues are localised in certain regions.
• Based on the dividing capacity of the tissues, various plant tissues can be classified as growing/meristematic
tissue & permanent tissue.
• Cell growth in animals is more uniform. So, there is no such demarcation of dividing & non-dividing regions
in animals.
• The structural organisation of organs & organ systems is far more specialised & localised in complex animals
than even in very complex plants.
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• This fundamental difference reflects the different modes of life pursued by these two major groups of organ-
isms, particularly in their different feeding methods.
• Also, they are differently adapted for a sedentary existence on one hand (plants) & active locomotion on the
other (animals), contributing to this difference in organ system design.
Meristematic Tissue
• The growth of plants occurs only in certain specific regions.

• This is because the dividing tissue, also known as meristematic tissue, is located only at these points.
• Depending on the region where they are present, meristematic tissues are classified as apical, lateral &
intercalary.
• New cells produced by meristem are initially like those of meristem itself, but as they grow & mature, their
characteristics slowly change & they become differentiated as components of other tissues.
1. Apical meristem is present at the growing tips of stems & roots & increases the length of the stem
& the root.
2. The girth of the stem or root increases due to lateral meristem (cambium).
3. Intercalary meristem is the meristem at the base of the leaves or internodes (on either side of the node)
on twigs.
• As the cells of this tissue are highly active, they have dense cytoplasm, thin cellulose walls & prominent
nuclei. They lack vacuoles.
Permanent Tissue 263

• What happens to the cells formed by meristematic tissue? They take up a specific role & lose the ability to
divide. As a result, they form a permanent tissue.
• This process of taking up a permanent shape, size, & a function is called differentiation.
• Cells of meristematic tissue differentiate to form different types of permanent tissue.
Simple Permanent Tissue

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Parenchyma
• A few layers of cells form the basic packing tissue. This tissue is parenchyma.
• It consists of relatively unspecialised cells with thin cell walls.
• They are live cells. They are usually loosely packed, so that large spaces between cells (intercellular spaces)
are found in this tissue.
Chlorenchyma
• This tissue provides support to plants & also stores food.

• In some situations, it contains chlorophyll & performs photosynthesis, & then it is called chlorenchyma.
Aerenchyma
• In aquatic plants, large air cavities are present in parenchyma to give buoyancy to the plants to help them
float. Such a parenchyma type is called aerenchyma.
• The parenchyma of stems & roots also stores nutrients & water.
Collenchyma
• The flexibility in plants is due to another permanent tissue, collenchyma.

• It allows easy bending in various parts of a plant (leaf, stem) without breaking.
• It also provides mechanical support to plants.
• We can find this tissue in leaf stalks below the epidermis.
• The cells of this tissue are living, elongated & irregularly thickened at the corners.
• There is very little intercellular space.
Sclerenchyma
• Sclerenchyma makes the plant hard & stiff.

• We have seen the husk of a coconut. It is made of sclerenchymatous tissue. The cells of this tissue are dead.
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• They are long & narrow as the walls are thickened due to lignin (a chemical substance which acts as cement
& hardens them). PMF IAS – Learn Smart
• Often these walls are so thick that there is no internal space inside the cell.
• This tissue is present in stems, around vascular bundles, in the veins of leaves & in the hard covering of
seeds & nuts.
• It provides strength to the plant parts.
Epidermis
• The outermost layer of cells is called epidermis.
• The epidermis is usually made of a single layer of cells.
• In some plants living in very dry habitats, the epidermis may be thicker since protection against water loss
is critical.
• The entire surface of a plant has this outer covering of epidermis. It protects all the parts of the plant.
• Epidermal cells on the aerial parts of the plant often secrete a waxy, water-resistant layer on their outer
surface. This aids in protection against loss of water, mechanical injury & invasion by parasitic fungi.
• Since it has a protective role to play, cells of epidermal tissue form a continuous layer without intercellular
spaces.
• Most epidermal cells are relatively flat. Often their outer & side walls are thicker than the inner wall.
• Small pores in the epidermis of the leaf are called stomata.
• Stomata are enclosed by two kidney-shaped cells called guard cells.
• They are necessary for exchanging gases with the atmosphere.
• Transpiration (loss of water in the form of water vapour) also takes place through stomata.
• Epidermal cells of the roots, whose function is water absorption, commonly bear long hair-like parts that
greatly increase the total absorptive surface area.
• In some plants like desert plants, epidermis has a thick waxy coating of cutin (chemical substance with
waterproof quality) on its outer surface.
• As plants grow older, the outer protective tissue undergoes certain changes.
• A strip of secondary meristem replaces the epidermis of the stem.
• Cells on the outside are cut off from this layer. This forms the several-layer thick cork or the bark of the tree.
• Cells of cork are dead & compactly arranged without intercellular spaces.
• They also have a chemical called suberin in their walls that makes them impervious to gases & water
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Complex Permanent Tissue
• The different types of tissues we have discussed until now are all made of one type of cells, which look like PMF IAS – Learn Smart
each other.
• Such tissues are called simple permanent tissue. Yet another type of permanent tissue is complex tissue.
• Complex tissues are made of more than one type of cells.
• All these cells coordinate to perform a common function.
• Xylem & phloem are examples of such complex tissues.
• They are both conducting tissues & constitute a vascular bundle.
• Vascular or conductive tissue is a distinctive feature of the complex plants, one that has made possible their
survival in the terrestrial environment.
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Xylem
• Xylem consists of tracheids, vessels, xylem parenchyma & xylem fibres.

• The cells have thick walls, & many of them are dead cells.
• Tracheids & vessels are tubular structures. This allows them to transport water & minerals vertically.
• The parenchyma stores food & helps in the sideways conduction of water.
• Fibres are mainly supportive in function.
Phloem
• Phloem is made up of four types of elements: sieve tubes, companion cells, phloem fibres & the phloem
parenchyma.
• Sieve tubes are tubular cells with perforated walls.
• Phloem is unlike xylem in that materials can move in both directions in it.
• Phloem transports food from leaves to other Parts of the plant.
• Except for phloem fibres, phloem cells are living cells.
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33. Nutrition in Plants
• Nutrition is the mode of taking food by an organism & its utilization by the body.
• The mode of nutrition in which organisms make food themselves from simple substances is called auto-
trophic (auto = self; trophos = nourishment) Therefore, plants are called autotrophs.
• Animals & most other organisms take in readymade food prepared by the plants. They are called hetero-
trophs (heteros = other).
• Insectivorous plants have both autotrophic & heterotrophic mode of nutrition.
Photosynthesis – Food Making Process In Plants
• Carbon dioxide from air is taken in through the tiny pores present on the surface of the leaves. These pores
are surrounded by guard cells. Such pores are called stomata.
• Water & minerals are transported to the leaves by the vessels which run like pipes throughout the root, the
stem, the branches & the leaves. They form a continuous path or passage for the nutrients to reach the leaf.
• The leaves have a green pigment called chlorophyll. It helps leaves to capture the energy of the sunlight.
• This energy is used to synthesise (prepare) food from carbon dioxide & water.
• Since the synthesis of food occurs in the presence of sunlight, it is called photosynthesis (Photo: light;
synthesis: to combine).
• So, we find that chlorophyll, sunlight, carbon dioxide & water are necessary to carry out the process of pho-
tosynthesis. Thus, sun is the ultimate source of energy for all living organisms.
• Besides leaves, photosynthesis also takes place in other green parts of the plant — in green stems & green
branches.
• The desert plants have scale or spine-like leaves to reduce loss of water by transpiration.
• These plants have green stems which carry out photosynthesis.
• During photosynthesis, chlorophyll containing cells of leaves, in the presence of sunlight, use carbon dioxide
& water to synthesise carbohydrates. The carbohydrates ultimately get converted into starch.
• The leaves other than green also have chlorophyll. The large amount of red, brown & other pigments mask
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the green colour. Photosynthesis takes place in these leaves also.
Chlorophyll Pigments
• Within the leaves, the mesophyll cells have a large number of chloroplasts that are responsible for CO2
fixation.
• A chromatographic separation of the leaf pigments shows that the colour that we see in leaves is not due
to a single pigment but due to four pigments:
1) Chlorophyll a (bright or blue green in the chromatogram),

2) Chlorophyll b (yellow green),
3) Xanthophylls (yellow) &
4) Carotenoids (yellow to yellow orange).
Light Reactions & Dark Reactions
• Within the chloroplast there is the membranous system consisting of grana, the stroma lamellae, & the fluid
stroma. There is a clear division of labour within the chloroplast.
• The membrane system is responsible for trapping the light energy & also for the synthesis of ATP &
NADPH (light reactions).
• In the light reaction the light energy is absorbed by the pigments present in the antenna, & funnelled to
special chlorophyll a molecules called reaction centre chlorophylls.
• In stroma, enzymatic reactions incorporate CO2 (chemosynthetic pathway – carbon fixing reactions) into
the plant leading to the synthesis of sugar, which in turn forms starch (dark reactions).
• The former set of reactions, since they are directly light driven are called light reactions.
• The latter are not directly light driven but are dependent on the products of light reactions (ATP & NADPH).
• Hence, to distinguish the latter they are called, by convention, as dark reactions. However, this should not
be construed to mean that they occur in darkness or that they are not lightdependent.
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Pic Credits: Wikipedia
Factors Affecting Photosynthesis
• Law of Limiting Factors: If a chemical process is affected by more than one factor, then its rate will be
determined by the factor which is nearest to its minimal value: it is the factor which directly affects the
process if its quantity is changed.
• For example, despite the presence of a green leaf & optimal light & CO2 conditions, the plant may not
photosynthesise if the temperature is very low.
• This leaf, if given the optimal temperature, will start photosynthesising.
Carbon dioxide Concentration
• The concentration of CO2 is very low in the atmosphere (between 0.03 & 0.04 per cent).
• Increase in concentration upto 0.05 per cent can cause an increase in CO2 fixation rates; beyond this
the levels can become damaging over longer periods.
Temperature
• The dark reactions being enzymatic are temperature controlled.

• Though the light reactions are also temperature sensitive they are affected to a much lesser extent.
• The temperature optimum for photosynthesis of different plants also depends on the habitat that they are
adapted to.
• Tropical plants have a higher temperature optimum than the plants adapted to temperate climates.
Water
• Water stress causes the stomata to close hence reducing the CO2 availability.
• Besides, water stress also makes leaves wilt, thus, reducing the surface area ofthe leaves & their metabolic
activity as well.
Light
• There is a linear relationship between incident light & CO2 fixation rates at low light intensities.
• At higher light intensities, gradually the rate does not show further increase as other factors become limiting.
Saprotrophs – Fungi 271

• Fungi have a different mode of nutrition.

• They secrete digestive juices on the dead & decaying matter & convert it into a solution.
• Then they absorb the nutrients from it.
• This mode of nutrition in which organisms take in nutrients in solution form from dead & decaying
matter is called saprotrophic nutrition.
• Plants which use saprotrophic mode of nutrition are called saprotrophs. Mushrooms are best example.
Symbiosis
• Some organisms live together & share shelter & nutrients. This is called symbiotic relationship.
• For example, certain fungi live in the roots of trees. The tree provides nutrients to the fungus and, in return,
receives help from it to take up water & nutrients from the soil.
• Plants absorb mineral nutrients from the soil. So, their amounts in the soil keep on declining. Fertilisers &
manures contain plant nutrients such as nitrogen, potassium, phosphorous, etc.
• Usually crops require a lot of nitrogen to make proteins. After the harvest, the soil becomes deficient in
nitrogen.
• Though nitrogen gas is available in plenty in the air, plants cannot use it in the manner they can use carbon
dioxide. They need nitrogen in a soluble form.
• The bacterium called Rhizobium can take atmospheric nitrogen & converts it into a soluble form.
• But Rhizobium cannot make its own food. So, it lives in the roots of gram, peas, moon beans & other
legumes & provides them with nitrogen (symbiosis).
• Most of the pulses (dals) are obtained from leguminous plants. In return, the plants provide food & shelter
to the bacteria. They have a symbiotic relationship.
Parasites
• A parasite is an organism which lives in or on another organism & benefits by deriving nutrients at the other's
expense.
• Plants like cuscuta are parasites. They take food from the host plant.
Amarbelis (Cuscuta reflexa) an example of: (i) autotroph (ii) parasite (iii) saprotroph (iv) host
Mineral Nutrition
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• The basic needs of all living organisms are essentially the same. They require macromolecules, such as car-
bohydrates, proteins & fats, & water & minerals for their growth & development.
• Only a few elements have been found to be absolutely essential for plant growth & metabolism.
• These elements are further divided into two broad categories based on their quantitative requirements.
Macronutrients & Micronutrients in Plants
Macronutrients are generally present in plant tissues in large amounts. The macronutrients include:
1. Carbon
2. Hydrogen
3. Oxygen
4. Nitrogen
5. Phosphorous
6. Sulphur
7. Potassium
8. Calcium
9. Magnesium
Micronutrients or trace elements are needed in very small amounts. These include:
1. Iron
2. Manganese
3. Copper
4. Molybdenum
5. Zinc
6. Boron
7. Chlorine
8. Nickel
• In addition to the 17 essential elements named above, there are some beneficial elements such as
1. Sodium
2. Silicon
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3. Cobalt
4. Selenium.
• They are required by higher plants.
Nitrogen
• Nitrogen is required by all parts of a plant, particularly the meristematic tissues & the metabolically active
cells.
• Nitrogen is one of the major constituents of proteins, nucleic acids, vitamins & hormones.
Symbiotic Biological Nitrogen Fixation
• Several types of symbiotic biological nitrogen fixing associations are known.

• The most prominent among them is the legume-bacteria relationship.
• Species of rod-shaped Rhizobium has such relationship with the roots of several legumes such as alfalfa,
sweet clover, sweet pea, lentils, garden pea, broad bean, clover beans, etc.
• The most common association on roots is as nodules. These nodules are small outgrowths on the roots. The
microbe, Frankia, also produces nitrogen-fixing nodules on the roots of nonleguminous plants (e.g., Alnus).
• Both Rhizobium & Frankia. are free- living in soil, but as symbionts, can fix atmospheric nitrogen.
Phosphorus
• Phosphorus is a constituent of cell membranes, certain proteins, all nucleic acids & nucleotides, & is required
for all phosphorylation reactions.
Potassium
• In plants, this is required in more abundant quantities in the meristematic tissues, buds, leaves & root tips.
• Potassium helps to maintain an anion-cation balance in cells & is involved in protein synthesis, opening
& closing of stomata, activation of enzymes & in the maintenance of the turgidity of cells.
Calcium
• Calcium is required by meristematic & differentiating tissues.

• During cell division it is used in the synthesis of cell wall, particularly as calcium pectate in the middle
lamella.
• It accumulates in older leaves. It is involved in the normal functioning of the cell membranes.
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• It activates certain enzymes & plays an important role in regulating metabolic activities.
Magnesium PMF IAS – Learn Smart
• It activates the enzymes of respiration, photosynthesis & are involved in the synthesis of DNA & RNA.
Summary
• Plants obtain their inorganic nutrients from air, water & soil.
• Plants absorb a wide variety of mineral elements.
• Not all the mineral elements that they absorb are required by plants.
• Out of the more than 105 elements discovered so far, less than 21 are essential & beneficial for normal
plant growth & development.
• The elements required in large quantities are called macronutrients while those required in less quantities
or in trace are termed as micronutrients.
• These elements are either essential constituents of proteins, carbohydrates, fats, nucleic acid etc., and/or take
part in various metabolic processes.
• Deficiency of each of these essential elements may lead to symptoms called deficiency symptoms.
• Chlorosis, necrosis, stunted growth, impaired cell division, etc., are some prominent deficiency symptoms.
• Plants absorb minerals through roots by either passive or active processes.
• They are carried to all parts of the organism through xylem along with water transport.
• Nitrogen is very essential for the sustenance of life. Plants cannot use atmospheric nitrogen directly.
• But some of the plants in association with N2-fixing bacteria, especially roots of legumes, can fix this atmos-
pheric nitrogen into biologically usable forms.
• Nitrogen fixation requires a strong reducing agent & energy in the form of ATP.
• N2-fixation is accomplished with the help of nitrogenfixing microbes, mainly Rhizobium.
• The enzyme nitrogenase which plays an important role in biological N2 fixation is very sensitive to oxygen.
• Most of the processes take place in anaerobic conditions.
• The energy, ATP, required is provided by the respiration of the host cells.
• Ammonia produced following N2 fixation is incorporated into amino acids as the amino group.
34. Modes of Reproduction in Plants
• There are several ways by which plants produce their offspring.

• These are categorised into two types: (i) asexual, & (ii) sexual
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• In asexual reproduction plants can give rise to new plants without seeds, whereas in sexual reproduction,
new plants are obtained from seeds.
Asexual Reproduction in Plants
Asexual reproduction occurs through:
1. Vegetative Propagation,
2. Budding,
3. Fragmentation and
4. Spore formation.
Vegetative Propagation
• Most plants have roots, stems & leaves. These are called the vegetative parts of a plant.
• Vegetative Propagation is a type of asexual reproduction in which new plants are produced from roots, stems,
leaves & buds.
• Since reproduction is through the vegetative parts of the plant, it is known as vegetative propagation.
• Bryophyllum (sprout leaf plant) has buds in the margins of leaves. If a leaf of this plant falls on a moist soil,
each bud can give rise to a new plant.
Bryophyllum (sprout leaf plant)
• The roots of some plants can also give rise to new plants. Sweet potato & dahlia are examples.
• Plants such as cacti produce new plants when their parts get detached from the main plant body. Each
detached part can grow into a new plant.
• Plants produced by vegetative propagation take less time to grow & bear flowers & fruits earlier than
those produced from seeds.
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• The new plants are exact copies of the parent plant, as they are produced from a single parent.
Budding PMF IAS – Learn Smart
• Yeast is single-celled. The small bulb-like projection coming out from the yeast cell is called a bud.
• The bud gradually grows & gets detached from the parent cell & forms a new yeast cell.
• The new yeast cell grows, matures & produces more yeast cells. If this process continues, a large number of
yeast cells are produced in a short time.
Fragmentation
• When water & nutrients are available algae grow & multiply rapidly by fragmentation.
• An alga breaks up into two or more fragments. These fragments or pieces grow into new individuals. This
process continues & they cover a large area in a short period of time.
Spore formation
• Fungi on a bread piece grow from spores which are present in the air.
• When spores are released, they keep floating in the air.
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• The spores are asexual reproductive bodies. As they are very light, they can cover long distances.
• Each spore is covered by a hard protective coat to withstand unfavorable conditions such as high temper-
ature & low humidity. So, they can survive for a long time.
• Under favourable conditions, a spore germinates & develops into a new individual.
• Plants such as moss & ferns also reproduce by means of spores.
Match the Following:
Column II
Column I
1. Bud a) Maple
2. Eyes b) Spirogyra
3. Fragmentation c) Yeast
4. Wings d) Bread mould
5. Spores e) Potato
f) Rose
Sexual Reproduction in Plants – Unisexual & Bisexual
• The flowers are the reproductive parts of a plant.

• The stamens are the male reproductive part & the pistil is the female reproductive part.
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• The flowers which contain either only the pistil or only the stamens are called unisexual flowers.
• The flowers which contain both stamens & pistil are called bisexual flowers.
• Corn, papaya & cucumber produce unisexual flowers.

• Mustard, rose & petunia have bisexual flowers.
• Both the male & the female unisexual flowers may be present in the same plant or in different plants.
• Anther contains pollen grains which produce male gametes.
• A pistil consists of stigma, style & ovary. The ovary contains one or more ovules.
• The female gamete or the egg is formed in an ovule.
• In sexual reproduction a male & a female gamete fuse to form a zygote.
Pollination
• Generally, pollen grains have a tough protective coat which prevents them from drying up.
• Since pollen grains are light, they can be carried by wind or water.
• Insects visit flowers & carry away pollen on their bodies.
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• Some of the pollen lands on the stigma of a flower of the same kind.
• The transfer of pollen from the anther to the stigma of a flower is called pollination. PMF IAS – Learn Smart
• If the pollen lands on the stigma of the same flower it is called self-pollination.
• When the pollen of a flower lands on the stigma of another flower of the same plant, or that of a different
plant of the same kind, it is called cross-pollination.
Self-Pollination vs. Cross Pollination
Self-Pollination Cross-Pollination
1. Pollen grains are carried to stigma of another flower.

1. Pollen grains are transferred to the stigma of
2. Occurs in bisexual flowers having anther & stigma
the same flower.
maturing at different times.
2. Occurs in bisexual plants having anther &
3. It takes place in plants like lady- finger, tomato,
stigma maturing at same time.
brinjal etc.
3. It takes place in plants like wheat, peas etc.
Fertilization
• The cell which results after fusion of the gametes is called a zygote.
• The process of fusion of male & female gametes (to form a zygote) is called fertilization.
• The zygote develops into an embryo.
Fruits & seed formation
• After fertilization, the ovary grows into a fruit & other parts of the flower fall off.
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• The fruit is the ripened ovary.
• The seeds develop from the ovules. PMF IAS – Learn Smart
• The seed contains an embryo enclosed in a protective seed coat.
• Some fruits are fleshy & juicy such as mango, apple & orange. Some fruits are hard like almonds & walnuts.
Seed dispersal
• Some seeds are dispersed by animals, especially spiny seeds with hooks which get attached to the bodies of
animals & are carried to distant places. Examples are Xanthium & Urena.
• Some seeds are dispersed when the fruits burst with sudden jerks. The seeds are scattered far from the parent
plant. This happens in the case of Castor & Balsam.
Asexual reproduction vs Sexual reproduction
Asexual reproduction Sexual reproduction
• Only one parent plant is involved. • Both male & female parents are involved.
• Occurs in unisexual plants. • Occurs in bisexual plants.
• Occurs in lower plants. • Occurs in higher plants.
• Reproductive organs are not present. • Fully developed reproductive parts are present.
• In most of the methods the original parent • Original parents remain alive after process of reproduc-
disappears. tion.
• Process like gamete formation or fertiliza- • Fertilization of gametes give rises to zygote.
tion is not seen.
• Characteristics of only one parent is inher- • Characteristics of both parents are inherited.
ited.
• No need of seeds. • Seeds are used to get new plants from a flower.
35. Basis for Animal Kingdom Classification
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Classification of Animal Kingdom is based on various fundamental features like:
1. Levels of Organisation,
2. Symmetry,
3. Diploblastic & Triploblastic Organisation,
4. Coelom development,
5. Segmentation of the body and
6. Presense or absence of Notochord.
The broad classification of Animalia based on common fundamental features:
Levels of Organization
• Though all members of Animalia are multicellular, all of them do not exhibit the same pattern of organisation
of cells.
• For example, in sponges, the cells are arranged as loose cell aggregates, i.e., they exhibit cellular level of
organisation. Some division of labour (activities) occur among the cells.
• In coelenterates, the arrangement of cells is more complex. Here the cells performing the same function are
arranged into tissues, hence is called tissue level of organisation.
• A still higher level of organisation, i.e., organ level (organ level of organisation) is exhibited by members of
Platyhelminthes & other higher phyla where tissues are grouped together to form organs, each specialised
for a particular function.
• In animals like Annelids, Arthropods, Molluscs, Echinoderms & Chordates, organs have associated to form
functional systems, each system concerned with a specific physiological function. This pattern is called organ
system level of organisation.
Organ systems in different groups of animals exhibit various patterns of complexities.
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•
• For example, the digestive system in Platyhelminthes (incomplete digestive system) has only a single
opening to the outside of the body that serves as both mouth & anus, & is hence called incomplete. PMF IAS – Learn Smart
• A complete digestive system has two openings, mouth & anus.

• Similarly, the circulatory system may be of two types: open type in which the blood is pumped out of the
heart & the cells & tissues are directly bathed in it & closed type in which the blood is circulated through a
series of vessels of varying diameters (arteries, veins & capillaries).
Symmetry
• Animals can be categorised on the basis of their symmetry.
• Sponges are mostly asymmetrical, i.e., any plane that passes through the centre does not divide them into
equal halves.
• When any plane passing through the central axis of the body divides the organism into two identical halves,
it is called radial symmetry.
• Coelenterates, Ctenophores & Echinoderms have this kind of body plan.
• Animals like Annelids, Arthropods, etc., where the body can be divided into identical left & right halves in
only one plane, exhibit bilateral symmetry.
Diploblastic & Triploblastic Organisation
• Animals in which the cells are arranged in two embryonic layers, an external ectoderm & an internal endo-
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derm, are called diploblastic animals, e.g., Coelenterates.
• An undifferentiated layer, mesoglea, is present in between the ectoderm & the endoderm. PMF IAS – Learn Smart
• Those animals in which the developing embryo has a third germinal layer, mesoderm, in between the ecto-
derm & endoderm, are called triploblastic animals (platyhelminthes to chordates).
Figure: Showing germinal layers : (a) Diploblastic (b) Triploblastic
Coelom
• Presence or absence of a cavity between the body wall & the gut wall is very important in classification.
• The body cavity, which is lined by mesoderm is called coelom.
• Animals possessing coelom are called coelomates, e.g., Annelids, Molluscs, Arthropods, Echinoderms,
Hemichordates & Chordates.
• In some animals, the body cavity is not lined by mesoderm, instead, the mesoderm is present as scattered
pouches in between the ectoderm & endoderm.
• Such a body cavity is called pseudocoelom & the animals possessing them are called pseudocoelomates,
e.g., Aschelminthes.
• The animals in which the body cavity is absent are called acoelomates, e.g., Platyhelminthes.
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Segmentation
• In some animals, the body is externally & internally divided into segments with a serial repetition of at least
some organs.
• For example, in earthworm, the body shows this pattern called metameric segmentation & the phenome-
non is known as metamerism.
Notochord
• Notochord is a mesodermally (the middle layer of cells or tissues of an embryo, or the parts derived from this
(e.g. cartilage, muscles, & bone)) derived rod-like structure formed on the dorsal side (posterior) during em-
bryonic development in some animals.
• Animals with notochord are called chordates & those animals which do not form this structure are called
non-chordates, e.g., Porifera to Echinoderms.
36. Classification of Animal Kingdom
Animal Kingdom is classified into:
1. Phylum Porifera
2. Phylum Coelenterata (Cnidaria)
3. Phylum Ctenophora
4. Phylum Platyhelminthes
5. Phylum Aschelminthes (Nemotoda) Annelida
6. Phylum Arthropoda
7. Phylum Mollusca
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8. Phylum Echinodermata
9. Phylum Hemichordata PMF IAS – Learn Smart
10. Phylum Chordata
Phylum Porifera
• Phylum – Porifera includes organisms with holes.

• They are primitive multicellular animals & have cellular level of organisation.
• They are non-motile animals attached to some solid support.
• The body design involves very minimal differentiation & division into tissues.
• They are commonly called sponges.
• They are generally marine & mostly asymmetrical animals.
• Sponges have a water transport or canal system.
• Water enters through minute pores (ostia) in the body wall into a central cavity, spongocoel, from where it
goes out through the osculum.
• This pathway of water transport is helpful in food gathering, respiratory exchange & removal of waste.
• The body is supported by a skeleton made up of spicules or spongin fibres.
• Sexes are not separate (hermaphrodite), i.e., eggs & sperms are produced by the same individual.
• Sponges reproduce asexually by fragmentation & sexually by formation of gametes.
• Fertilisation is internal & development is indirect having a larval stage which is morphologically distinct
from the adult.
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Figure: Examples of Porifera : (a) Sycon (b) Euspongia (c) Spongilla
• Examples: Sycon (Scypha), Spongilla (Fresh water sponge) & Euspongia (Bath sponge).
Phylum Coelenterata (Cnidaria)
• The name cnidaria is derived from the cnidoblasts or cnidocytes (which contain the stinging capsules or
nematocytes) present on the tentacles & the body.
• Cnidoblasts are used for anchorage, defense & for the capture of prey.
• Coelenterata (Cnidaria) are aquatic, mostly marine sessile or free-swimming & radially symmetrical.
• They exhibit tissue level of organization (have more body design differentiation than sponges).
• They have a central gastro-vascular cavity with a single opening.
• They are diploblastic.
• Some of these species live in colonies (corals).
• Some have a solitary (living alone) like–span (hydra).
• Some of the cnidarians, e.g., corals have a skeleton composed of calcium carbonate.
• Cnidarians exhibit two basic body forms called polyp & medusa.
• The former is a sessile & cylindrical form like Hydra, Adamsia (Sea anemone), etc. whereas, the latter is
umbrella-shaped & free-swimming like Aurelia or jelly fish.
• Those cnidarians which exist in both forms exhibit alternation of generation (Metagenesis), i.e., polyps pro-
duce medusae asexually & medusae form the polyps sexually (e.g., Obelia).
• Jellyfish & sea anemones are common examples.
• Digestion is extracellular & intracellular.
• Examples: Aurelia (jelly fish), Physalia (Portuguese man-of-war), Adamsia (Sea anemone), Pennatula (Sea-
pen), Gorgonia (Sea-fan) & Meandrina (Brain coral).
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Phylum Ctenophora
• Ctenophora are commonly known as sea walnuts or comb jellies.

• They are exclusively marine, radially symmetrical, diploblastic animals.
• They exhinit tissue level of organisation.
• The body bears eight external rows of ciliated comb plates, which help in locomotion.
• Digestion is both extracellular & intracellular.
• Bioluminescence (the property of a living organism to emit light) is well-marked in ctenophores.
• Sexes are not separate & reproduction takes place only by sexual means.
• Fertilisation is external (fertilization occurs outside the body) with indirect development (zygote → larvae
→ animal).
• Examples: Pleurobrachia & Ctenoplana.
Phylum Platyhelminthes
• Platyhelminthes are more complexly designed than the earlier groups.

• They are bilaterally symmetrical.
• They are triploblastic. This allows outside & inside body linings as well as some organs to be made. There is
thus some degree of tissue formation (organ level of organisation).
• The body is flattened dorsiventrally, meaning from top to bottom, which is why these animals are called flat-
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worms.
• They may be freeliving or parasitic. Hooks & suckers are present in the parasitic forms. PMF IAS – Learn Smart
• Some examples are freeliving animals like planarians, or parasitic animals like
• Parisites are mostly endoparasites found in animals including human beings. Some of them absorb nutrients
from the host directly through their body surface.
• Acoelomate: There is no true internal body cavity or coelom, in which well developed organs can be accom-
modated.
• Specialised cells called flame cells help in osmoregulation & excretion.
• Sexes are not separate.
• Fertilisation is internal & development is indirect.
• Some members like Planaria possess high regeneration capacity.
Phylum Aschelminthes (Nemotoda)
• Body in aschelminthes (Nemotoda) is cylindrical (bilaterally symmetrical) rather than flattened.

• They exhibit organ-system level of body organization (there are tissues, but no real organs).
• They are triploblastic. A sort of body cavity or a pseudocoelom, is present.
• They are freeliving, aquatic, terrestrial or parasitic in plants & animals.
• These are very familiar as parasitic worms causing diseases, such as the worms causing elephantiasis (fi-
larial worms) or the worms in the intestines (roundworm or pinworms).
• The body is circular in cross-section, hence, the name roundworms.
• Alimentary canal is complete.
• An excretory tube removes body wastes from the body cavity through the excretory pore.
• Sexes are separate (dioecious), i.e., males & females are distinct.
• Often females are longer than males.
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• Fertilisation is internal & development may be direct (the young ones resemble the adult) or indirect.

Phylum Annelida
• Annelida are aquatic (marine & fresh water) or terrestrial; free-living, & sometimes parasitic.
• Their body surface is distinctly marked out into segments or metameres (metamerically segmented) and,
hence, the phylum name Annelida (Latin, annulus: little ring).
• They exhibit organ-system level of body organization.
• They are coelomate (true body cavity). This allows true organs to be packaged in the body structure.
• They are bilateral symmetric & triploblastic.
• They possess longitudinal & circular muscles which help in locomotion.
• Aquatic annelids like Nereis possess lateral appendages, parapodia, which help in swimming.
• A closed circulatory system is present.
• Nephridia (sing. nephridium) help in osmoregulation & excretion.
• Neural system consists of paired ganglia (sing. ganglion) connected by lateral nerves to a double ventral
nerve cord.
• Nereis, an aquatic form, is dioecious (Sexes are separate), but earthworms & leeches are monoecious (hav-
ing both the male & female reproductive organs in the same individual).
• Reproduction is sexual.
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Phylum Arthropoda
• Insects, arachnids & crustaceans are members of the largest category of creatures on the planet: arthro-
pods.
• Arthropods have hard, external shells called “exoskeletons,” segmented bodies & jointed legs.
• Some familiar examples are prawns, butterflies, houseflies, spiders, scorpions & crabs & some insects.
• They exhibit organ-system level of organisation.
• They are bilaterally symmetrical, triploblastic, segmented & coelomate.
• The coelomic cavity is blood-filled.
• The body of arthropods is covered by chitinous.
• The body consists of head, thorax & abdomen.
• There is an open circulatory system, & so the blood does not flow in well defined blood vessels.
• Respiratory organs are gills, book gills, book lungs or tracheal system.
• Sensory organs like antennae, eyes (compound & simple), statocysts or balance organs are present.
• Excretion takes place through malpighian tubules.
• They are mostly dioecious.
• Fertilisation is usually internal.
• They are mostly oviparous.
• Development may be direct or indirect.
Arachnids
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• Spiders, harvestmen, mites, ticks & other arachnids are members of the class Arachnida.
Crustaceans
• Crustaceans make up a large group of arthropods that includes animals such as crabs, lobsters, crayfish &
shrimp. They breathe with gills & have two pairs of antennae.
Insects
• In general, insects have three-part bodies, six jointed legs, compound eyes & two antennae.
• Bees, wasps, beetles, mosquitoes, flies, grasshoppers, ants, butterflies & moths, & dragonflies & damselflies
are common types of insects.
Phylum Mollusca
• Mollusca are the second largest animal phylum. They are terrestrial or aquatic.
• They exhibit organ-system level of organization.
• They are bilaterally symmetrical, triploblastic, coelomate animals. There is little segmentation.
• They have an open circulatory system & kidney-like organs for excretion.
• The anterior head region has sensory tentacles.
• The mouth contains a file-like rasping organ for feeding, called radula.
• They are usually dioecious & oviparous with indirect development.
• Body is covered by a calcareous shell & is unsegmented with a distinct head, muscular foot & visceral hump.
A soft & spongy layer of skin forms a mantle over the visceral hump.
• Examples are octopus, snails & mussels.
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Phylum Echinodermata
• These animals have an endoskeleton of calcareous ossicles (calcium carbonate structures) and, hence, the
name Echinodermata (spiny skinned organisms).
• They are exclusively free-living marine animals with organ-system level of organisation.
• They are triploblastic with a coelomic cavity (coelomate animals). The adult echinoderms are radially sym-
metrical, but larvae are bilaterally symmetrical.
• Water-driven tube system (water vascular system) are used for locomotion, capture & transport of food
& respiration.
• They are triploblastic & coelomate animals.
• Digestive system is complete. An excretory system is absent.
• Sexes are separate. Reproduction is sexual. Fertilisation is usually external.
• Development is indirect with free-swimming larva.
• Examples: Star fish, Sea urchin, Sea lily, Sea cucumber, Brittle star.
Phylum Hemichordata 293

• Hemichordata was earlier considered as a sub-phylum under phylum Chordata.

• But now it is placed as a separate phylum under non-chordata.
• This phylum consists of a small group of worm-like marine animals with organ-system level of organisa-
tion.
• They are cylindrical (bilaterally symmetrical), triploblastic, coelomate animals.
• The body is Circulatory system is of open type.
• Respiration takes place through gills.
• Excretory organ is present.
• Sexes are separate. Fertilisation is external. Development is indirect.
• Examples: Balanoglossus & Saccoglossus.
Phylum Chordata
• Animals belonging to phylum Chordata are fundamentally characterised by the presence of a notochord, a
dorsal hollow nerve cord & paired pharyngeal gill slits.
• They are bilaterally symmetrical, triploblastic, coelomate with organ-system level of organisation.
• They possess a post anal tail & a closed circulatory system.
• Phylum Chordata is divided into three subphyla: Urochordata or Tunicata, Cephalochordata & Vertebrata.
• Subphyla Urochordata & Cephalochordata are often referred to as protochordates & are exclusively marine.
• In Urochordata, notochord is present only in larval tail, while in Cephalochordata, it extends from head to
tail region & is persistent throughout their life.
• Examples: Urochordata – Ascidia, Salpa, Doliolum; Cephalochordata – Amphioxus or Lancelet.
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All chordates possess the following features:
1. have a notochord
2. have a dorsal nerve cord
3. are triploblastic
4. have paired gill pouches
5. are coelomate.
Vertebrata
• These animals have a true vertebral column & internal skeleton, allowing a completely different distribution
of muscle attachment points to be used for movement.
• The members of subphylum Vertebrata possess notochord during the embryonic period.
• The notochord is replaced by a cartilaginous or bony vertebral column in the adult.
• Thus, all vertebrates are chordates but all chordates are not vertebrates.
• Besides the basic chordate characters, vertebrates have a ventral muscular heart with two, three or four cham-
bers, kidneys for excretion & osmoregulation & paired appendages which may be fins or limbs.
• Vertibrates are bilaterally symmetrical, triploblastic, coelomic & segmented, with complex differentiation
of body tissues & organs.
Comparison of Chordates & Non-chordates
S.No. Chordates Non-chordates
1. Notochord present. Notochord absent.
2. Central nervous system is dorsal, hollow & single. Central nervous system is ventral, solid & double.
3. Pharynx perforated by gill slits. Gill slits are absent.
4. Heart is ventral. Heart is dorsal (if present).
5. A post-anal part (tail) is present. Post-anal tail is absent.
37. Division in Vertebrata
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Basic Concepts
Viviparous & Oviparous Animals
• We have learnt that some animals give birth to young ones while some animals lay eggs which later de-
velop into young ones.
• The animals which give birth to young ones are called viviparous animals.
• Those animals which lay eggs are called oviparous animals.
• In some animals, the young ones may look very different from the adults.
• Recall the life cycle of the silkworm (egg → larva or caterpillar → pupa → adult) (egg → tadpole (larva) →
adult). The transformation of the larva into an adult through drastic changes is called metamorphosis.
Warm Blooded vs. Cold Blooded Animals
Warm Blooded or Endotherms or Homoiother- Cold Blooded or Ectotherms or Poikilothermous

mous animals Animals
• All mammals & birds with few exceptions are • All reptiles, insects, arachnids, amphibians &
warm blooded. (Bats, Echidnas, Mole Rats etc. fish are cold blooded.
cannot regulate their body temperature)
• They maintain a constant internal body tem- • Their body temperature changes according
perature irrespective of external environ- to the external environment. (If a cold-
ment. (Can regulate their body temperature by blooded animal is taken to the equator its body
generating their own heat when they are in a temperature increases & if taken to the poles its
cooler environment, & by cooling themselves body temperature decreases)
when they are in a hotter environment)
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• They can survive in a wide of environments as • They cannot survive in a wide of environments.
they are able to regulate their body tempera- (Tropical animals cannot survive in the polar re-
ture. gion & vice versa)
• They require a lot of food for their survival. • Most of the food consumed is converted into
• Most of the food consumed is utilized to main- body mass.
tain a constant body temperature. • So, they need less food compared to warm
blooded animals.
• They are active in both warm & cold environ- • They are active in warm environments & are
ments. very sluggish in cold environments.
• To stay cool, warm-blooded animals usually • Cold-blooded animals often like to bask in the
sweat. sun to warm up & increase their metabolism.
• Animals like elephants use their ears to cool • Some cold-blooded animals, such as bees or
their body (large, thin ears which loose heat dragonflies, shiver to stay warm when in a cold
quickly). environment.
• Some warm-blooded animals, especially birds,
migrate from colder to warmer regions in the
winter.
• Mammals have hair, fur & birds have feathers to
help keep them warm.
• Warm-blooded animals can also shiver to gen-
erate more heat when they get too cold.
• Constant body temperature provides a nice • Constantly changing body temperatures make
warm environment for viruses, bacteria & para- life more difficult for the parasites.
sites to live in.
Hibernation
• Hibernation is a state of inactivity & metabolic depression in few endotherms (warm blooded animals
– bear, rodents) & ectotherms (many reptiles like snakes, turtles & amphibians like frogs).
• Snakes, lizards, toads, frogs, salamanders & most turtles will mostly hibernate during harsh winters.
• Hibernating animals usually retreat to a den, a burrow, or a hollow log for protection & shelter.
• During "true hibernation," the animal's body temperature drops, & its rate of breathing slows down. These
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hibernating animals are very difficult to awaken.
• Some warm-blooded animals such as bears, rodents etc. hibernate during extreme weather seasons & PMF IAS – Learn Smart
unfavourable conditions.
• During hibernation these animals live off of stored body fat & can drop their body temperatures signifi-
cantly.
• Most animals will eat large amounts of food before hibernating.
Class Cyclostomata
• All living members of the class Cyclostomata are ectoparasites (lives on the outside of its host) on some
fishes.
• They have an elongated body bearing 6-15 pairs of gill slits for respiration.
• Cyclostomes have a sucking & circular mouth without jaws.
• Their body is devoid of scales & paired fins.
• Cranium & vertebral column are cartilaginous.
• Circulation is of closed type.
• Cyclostomes are marine but migrate for spawning (release or deposit eggs) to fresh water.
• After spawning, within a few days, they die.
• Their larvae, after metamorphosis (transformation from an immature form to an adult form in two or more
distinct stages. Example: Larvae → Tadpole → Frog), return to the ocean.
• Examples: Petromyzon (Lamprey) & Myxine (Hagfish).
Class Pisces
• These are fish. Their skin is covered with scales/plates. They lay eggs (oviporous).
• They obtain oxygen dissolved in water by using gills.
• The body is streamlined, & a muscular tail is used for movement.
• They are cold-blooded & their hearts have only two chambers, unlike the four that humans have.
• Some fish skeletons are made entirely of cartilage (Chondrichthyes), such as sharks, & some with a skel-
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eton made of both bone & cartilage (Osteichthyes).
Chondrichthyes
• They are marine animals with streamlined body & have cartilaginous endoskeleton.
• Mouth is located ventrally.
• Notochord is persistent throughout life.
• Gill slits are separate & without operculum (gill cover).
• The skin is tough, containing minute placoid scales.
• Teeth are modified placoid scales which are backwardly directed.
• Their jaws are very powerful.
• These animals are predaceous (shark).
• Due to the absence of air bladder, they have to swim constantly to avoid sinking.
• Heart is two-chambered (one auricle & one ventricle).
• Some of them have electric organs (e.g., Torpedo) & some possess poison sting (e.g., Trygon).
• They are cold-blooded (poikilothermous) animals, i.e., they lack the capacity to regulate their body tem-
perature.
• Sexes are separate. In males pelvic fins bear claspers.
• They have internal fertilisation & many of them are viviparous (give birth to young ones).
• Examples: Scoliodon (Dog fish), Pristis (Saw fish), Carchaiodon (Great white shark), Trygon (Sting ray).
Osteichthyes
• It includes both marine & fresh water fishes with bony endoskeleton.
• Their body is streamlined. Mouth is mostly terminal.
• They have four pairs of gills which are covered by an operculum on each side.
• Skin is covered with cycloid/ctenoid scales.
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• Air bladder is present which regulates buoyancy.
• Heart is two- chambered (one auricle & one ventricle).
• They are cold-blooded.
• Sexes are separate.
• Fertilisation is usually external.
• They are mostly oviparous & development is direct.
• Examples: Flying fish, Sea horse, Fighting fish, Angel fish etc.
Class Amphibia
• As the name indicates (Gr., Amphi : dual, bios, life), amphibians can live in aquatic as well as terrestrial habitats.
• The amphibian skin is moist without scales (mucus glands in the skin). The eyes have eyelids. A tympanum
represents the ear.
• Alimentary canal, urinary & reproductive tracts open into a common chamber called cloaca which opens to
the exterior.
• They have a three-chambered heart (two auricles & one ventricle). These are cold-blooded.
• Respiration is through gills, lungs & through skin.
• Sexes are separate. Fertilisation is external.
• They are oviparous & development is indirect.
• Examples: Toad, Frog), Tree frog, Salamander, Limbless amphibia.
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Class Reptilia
• The class name refers to their creeping or crawling mode of locomotion (Latin, repere or reptum, to creep
or crawl).
• They are mostly terrestrial animals & their body is covered by dry & cornified skin, epidermal scales or scutes.
Snakes & lizards shed their scales as skin cast.
• They do not have external ear openings. Tympanum represents ear. Limbs, when present, are two pairs.
• Heart is usually three-chambered, but four-chambered in crocodiles.
• Reptiles are poikilotherms (cold-blooded animals).
• They lay eggs with tough coverings & do not need to lay their eggs in water, unlike amphibians.
• Sexes are separate.
• Fertilisation is internal.
• They are oviparous & development is direct.
• Examples: Turtle, Tortoise, Chameleon (Tree lizard), Garden lizard, Crocodile, Alligator, Wall lizard, Poison-
ous snakes – Naja (Cobra), Bangarus (Krait), Vipera (Viper).
Class Aves
• They have a four-chambered heart. They breathe through lungs. All birds fall in this category.
• The characteristic features of Aves (birds) are the presence of feathers & most of them can fly except flightless
birds (e.g., Ostrich). The forelimbs are modified into wings.
• The hind limbs generally have scales & are modified for walking, swimming or clasping the tree branches.
• Skin is dry without glands except the oil gland at the base of the tail.
• Endoskeleton is fully ossified (bony) & the long bones are hollow with air cavities (pneumatic).
• The digestive tract of birds has additional chambers, the crop & gizzard.
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• They are warm-blooded (homoiothermous) animals, i.e., they are able to maintain a constant body tem-
perature.
• Respiration is by lungs. Air sacs connected to lungs supplement respiration.
• Sexes are separate. Fertilisation is internal. They are oviparous & development is direct.
• Examples : Crow, Pigeon, Ostrich), Neophron (Vulture) etc..
Class Mammalia
• Mammals are warm-blooded animals with four-chambered hearts.

• Most mammals familiar to us produce live young ones (viviparous).
• However, a few of them, like the Platypus & the Echidna lay eggs, & some, like kangaroos give birth to
very poorly developed young ones.
• They are found in a variety of habitats – polar ice caps, deserts, mountains, forests, grasslands & dark caves.
Some of them have adapted to fly or live in water.
• The most unique mammalian characteristic is the presence of milk producing glands (mammary glands) by
which the young ones are nourished.
• They have two pairs of limbs, adapted for walking, running, climbing, burrowing, swimming or flying.
• The skin of mammals is unique in possessing hair. External ears or pinnae are present. Different types of
teeth are present in the jaw.
• Sexes are separate & fertilisation is internal.
• They are viviparous with few exceptions & development is direct.
• Examples: Oviparous – Platypus; Viviparous – Kangaroo, Flying fox), Delphinus (Common dolphin),
Balaenoptera (Blue whale), etc.
Summary
Phylum Level of Organisation Symmetry Coelom Segmention

Porifera Cellular Various Absent Absent
Coelenterata (Cnidaria) Tissue Radial Absent Absent
Ctenophora Tissue Radial Absent Absent
Platyhelminthes Organ & Organ – system Bilateral Absent Absent
Aschelminthes Organ – system Bilateral Pseudo-coelmate Absent
Annelida Organ – system Bilateral Coelomate Present
Arthropoda Organ – system Bilateral Coelomate Present
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Mollusca Organ – system Bilateral Coelomate Absent
Echinodermata Organ – system Radial Coelomate Absent

Hemichordata Organ – system Bilateral Coelomate Absent
Chordata Organ – system Bilateral Coelomate Present
• Porifera includes multicellular animals which exhibit cellular level of organisation & have characteristic
flagellated choanocytes.
• The coelenterates have tentacles & bear cnidoblasts. They are mostly aquatic, sessile or free-floating.
• The ctenophores are marine animals with comb plates.
• The platyhelminths have flat body & exhibit bilateral symmetry.
• The parasitic forms show distinct suckers & hooks.
• Aschelminthes are pseudocoelomates & include parasitic as well as non-parasitic round worms.
• Annelids are metamerically segmented animals with a true coelom.
• The arthropods are the most abundant group of animals characterised by the presence of jointed append-
ages.
• The molluscs have a soft body surrounded by an external calcareous shell.
• The body is covered with external skeleton made of chitin.
• The echinoderms possess a spiny skin. Their most distinctive feature is the presence of water vascular system.
• The hemichordates are a small group of worm-like marine animals. They have a cylindrical body with pro-
boscis, collar & trunk.
• Phylum Chordata includes animals which possess a notochord either throughout or during early embryonic
life.
• Other common features observed in the chordates are the dorsal, hollow nerve cord & paired pharyngeal gill
slits.
• Some of the vertebrates do not possess jaws (Agnatha) whereas most of them possess jaws (Gnathostomata).
Agnatha is represented by the class, Cyclostomata. They are the most primitive chordates & are ectoparasites
on fishes. Gnathostomata has two super classes, Pisces & Tetrapoda.
• Classes Chondrichthyes & Osteichthyes bear fins for locomotion & are grouped under Pisces. The Chondrich-
thyes are fishes with cartilaginous endoskeleton & are marine.
Phylum Digestive Circulatory Respiratory Distinctive Features
System System System
Porifera Absent Absent Absent Body with pores & canals in walls.
Coelenterata (Cnidaria) Incomplete Absent Absent Cnidoblasts present.
Ctenophora Incomplete Absent Absent Comb plates for locomotion.
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Platyhelminthes Incomplete Absent Absent Flat body, suckers.
Aschelminthes Complete Absent Absent Often wormshaped, elongated. PMF IAS – Learn Smart
Annelida Complete Present Absent Body segmentation like rings.
Arthropoda Complete Present Present Exoskeleton of cuticle, jointed appendages.
Mollusca Complete Present Present External skeleton of shell usually present.
Echinodermata Complete Present Present Water vascular system, radial symmetry.
Hemichordata Complete Present Present Worm-like with proboscis, collar & trunk.
Chordata Complete Present Present Notochord, nerve cord, gill slits with limbs/fins.
• Classes, Amphibia, Reptilia, Aves & Mammalia have two pairs of limbs & are thus grouped under Tetrapoda.
The amphibians have adapted to live both on land & water.
• Reptiles are characterised by the presence of dry & cornified skin. Limbs are absent in snakes. Fishes, am-
phibians & reptiles are poikilothermous (coldblooded).
• Aves are warm-blooded animals with feathers on their bodies & forelimbs modified into wings for flying.
Hind limbs are adapted for walking, swimming, perching or clasping.
• The unique features of mammals are the presence of mammary glands & hairs on the skin. They commonly
exhibit viviparity.
Match the following
1. Operculum a) Ctenophora
2. Parapodia b) Mollusca
3. Scales c) Porifera
4. Comb plates d) Reptilia
5. Radula e) Annelida
6. Hairs f) Cyclostomata & Chondrichthyes
7. Choanocytes g) Mammalia
8. Gill slits h) Osteichthyes
38. Reproduction in Animals
• There are two modes by which animals reproduce. These are:
1. Sexual reproduction, and
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2. Asexual reproduction.
• There are many organisms which do not reproduce (mules, sterile worker bees, infertile human couples, etc.). PMF IAS – Learn Smart
Sexual Reproduction
• The reproductive parts in animals produce gametes that fuse to form a zygote.
• It is the zygote which develops into a new individual. This type of reproduction beginning from the fusion of
male & female gametes is called sexual reproduction.
• The male reproductive organs include a pair of testes (singular, testis), two sperm ducts & a penis. The
testes produce the male gametes called sperms.
• The female reproductive organs are a pair of ovaries, oviducts (fallopian tubes) & the uterus. Ovary pro-
duces female gametes called ova (eggs).
• In human beings, a single matured egg is released into the oviduct by one of the ovaries every
month.
• Uterus is the part where development of the baby takes place.
• Like the sperm, an egg is also a single cell.
• The first step in the process of reproduction is the fusion of a sperm & an ovum.
• When sperms come in contact with an egg, one of the sperms may fuse with the egg. Such fusion of the
egg & the sperm is called fertilization.
Internal & External Fertilization
• During fertilization, the nuclei of the sperm & the egg fuse to form a single nucleus.
• This results in the formation of a fertilized egg or zygote.
• Fertilization which takes place inside the female body is called internal fertilization.
305
• Internal fertilization occurs in many animals including humans, cows, dogs & hens.
• During spring or rainy season, frogs & toads move to ponds & slow flowing streams. When the male & female
come together in water, the female lays hundreds of eggs.
• Unlike hen’s egg, frog’s egg is not covered by a shell & it is comparatively very delicate.
• A layer of jelly holds the eggs together & provides protection to the eggs.
• As the eggs are laid, the male deposits sperms over them. Each sperm swims randomly in water with the help
of its long tail. The sperms come in contact with the eggs. This results in fertilization.
• This type of fertilization in which the fusion of a male & a female gamete takes place outside the body of the
female is called external fertilization.
• It is very common in aquatic animals such as fish, starfish, etc.
Asexual Reproduction
• In each hydra, there may be one or more bulges.

• These bulges are the developing new individuals & they are called buds.
• In hydra, the new individuals develop as outgrowths from a single parent.
• This type of reproduction in which only a single parent is involved is called asexual reproduction.
• Since new individuals develop from the buds in hydra, this type of asexual reproduction is called budding.
• Another method of asexual reproduction is observed in the microscopic organism, amoeba.
• Reproduction in which an animal reproduces by dividing into two individuals is called binary fission.
• Apart from budding & binary fission, there are other methods by which a single parent reproduces the young
ones.
39. Human Reproductive System
• The reproductive events in humans include: 306

1. formation of gametes (gametogenesis), i.e., sperms in males & ovum in females,

2. transfer of sperms into the female genital tract (insemination),
3. fusion of male & female gametes (fertilisation) leading to formation of zygote.
4. formation & development of blastocyst & its attachment to the uterine wall (implantation),
5. embryonic development (gestation) and
6. delivery of the baby (parturition).
Male Reproductive System
• The male reproductive system is located in the pelvis region. It includes a pair of testes along with accessory
ducts, glands & the external genitalia.
• The testes are situated outside the abdominal cavity within a pouch called scrotum.
• The scrotum helps in maintaining the low temperature of the testes (2–2.50C lower than the normal internal
body temperature) necessary for spermatogenesis.
• Each testis has about 250 testicular lobules. Each lobule contains one to three highly coiled seminiferous
tubules in which sperms are produced.
• Each seminiferous tubule is lined on its inside by two types of cells called male germ cells (spermatogonia)
& Sertoli cells.
• The male germ cells undergo meiotic divisions finally leading to sperm formation, while Sertoli cells pro-
vide nutrition to the germ cells.
• The regions outside the seminiferous tubules called interstitial spaces, contain small blood vessels & intersti-
tial cells or Leydig cells.
• Leydig cells synthesise & secrete testicular hormones called androgens (a male sex hormone, such as tes-
tosterone. Androgens stimulates or controls the development & maintenance of male characteristics).
307
• The male sex accessory ducts include rete testis, vasa efferentia, epididymis & vas deferens.
• The seminiferous tubules of the testis open into the vasa efferentia through rete testis.
• The vasa efferentia leave the testis & open into epididymis.
• The epididymis leads to vas deferens that ascends to the abdomen & loops over the urinary bladder.
• It receives a duct from seminal vesicle (gland that secrete many of the components of semen) & opens into
urethra as the ejaculatory duct.
• These ducts store & transport the sperms from the testis to the outside through urethra.
• The urethra originates from the urinary bladder & extends through the penis to its external opening called
urethral meatus.
• The penis is the male external genitalia.
• It is made up of special tissue that helps in erection of the penis to facilitate insemination.
• The enlarged end of penis called the glans penis is covered by a loose fold of skin called foreskin.
• The male accessory glands include paired seminal vesicles, a prostate (releasing a fluid component of
semen) & paired bulbourethral glands.
• Secretions of these glands constitute the seminal plasma, which is rich in fructose, calcium & certain en-
zymes.
• The secretions of bulbourethral glands also help in the lubrication of the penis.
Female Reproductive System
• The female reproductive system consists of a pair of ovaries along with a pair of oviducts, uterus, cervix,
vagina & the external genitalia located in pelvic region.
• These parts of the system along with a pair of the mammary glands are integrated structurally & functionally
to support the processes of ovulation, fertilisation, pregnancy, birth & childcare.
• Ovaries are the primary female sex organs (testis in males) that produce the female gamete (ovum)
(sperm in males) & several steroid hormones (ovarian hormones).
• The ovaries are located one on each side of the lower abdomen. Each ovary is connected to the pelvic wall &
uterus by ligaments.
• Each ovary is covered by a thin epithelium which encloses the ovarian stroma. The stroma is divided into two
zones – a peripheral cortex & an inner medulla.
• The oviducts (fallopian tubes), uterus & vagina constitute the female accessory ducts.
308
• Each fallopian tube extends from the periphery of each ovary to the uterus, the part closer to the ovary is the
funnel-shaped infundibulum.
• The edges of the infundibulum possess finger-like projections called fimbriae, which help in collection of
the ovum after ovulation. The infundibulum leads to a wider part of the oviduct called ampulla.
• The last part of the oviduct, isthmus has a narrow lumen & it joins the uterus.
• The uterus is single & it is also called womb. The shape of the uterus is like an inverted pear.
• It is supported by ligaments attached to the pelvic wall. The uterus opens into vagina through a narrow cervix.
• The cavity of the cervix is called cervical canal which along with vagina forms the birth canal.
• The wall of the uterus has three layers of tissue. The external thin membranous perimetrium, middle thick
layer of smooth muscle, myometrium & inner glandular layer called endometrium that lines the uterine cavity.
• The endometrium undergoes cyclical changes during menstrual cycle while the myometrium exhibits
strong contraction during delivery of the baby.
• The female external genitalia include mons pubis, labia majora, labia minora, hymen & clitoris.
• Mons pubis is a cushion of fatty tissue covered by skin & pubic hair. The labia majora are fleshy folds of
tissue, which extend down from the mons pubis & surround the vaginal opening.
309
• Thelabia minora are paired folds of tissue under the labia majora.
• The opening of the vagina is often covered partially by a membrane called hymen. PMF IAS – Learn Smart
• The clitoris is a tiny finger-like structure which lies at the upper junction of the two labia minora above the
urethral opening.
• The hymen is often torn during the first coitus (intercourse).
• However, it can also be broken by a sudden fall or jolt, insertion of a vaginal tampon, active participation in
some sports like horseback riding, cycling, etc.
• In some women the hymen persists even after coitus. In fact, the presence or absence of hymen is not a
reliable indicator of virginity or sexual experience.
• A functional mammary gland is characteristic of all female mammals.
• The mammary glands are paired structures (breasts) that contain glandular tissue & variable amount of fat.
• The glandular tissue of each breast is divided into 15-20 mammary lobes containing clusters of cells called al-
veoli.
• The cells of alveoli secrete milk, which is stored in the cavities (lumens) of alveoli. The alveoli open into
mammary tubules.
• The tubules of each lobe join to form a mammary duct. Several mammary ducts join to form a wider mam-
mary ampulla which is connected to lactiferous duct through which milk is sucked out.
Gametogenesis
• The primary sex organs – the testis in the males & the ovaries in the females produce gametes, i.e, sperms
& ovum, respectively, by the process called gametogenesis.
• In testis, the immature male germ cells (spermatogonia) produce sperms by spermatogenesis that begins
at puberty.
• The spermatogonia (sing. spermatogonium) present on the inside wall of seminiferous tubules multiply
by mitotic division & increase in numbers. Each spermatogonium is diploid & contains 46 chromosomes.
• Some of the spermatogonia called primary spermatocytes periodically undergo meiosis.
• A primary spermatocyte completes the first meiotic division (reduction division) leading to formation
of two equal, haploid cells called secondary spermatocytes, which have only 23 chromosomes each.
• The secondary spermatocytes undergo the second meiotic division to produce four equal, haploid sperma-
tids.
310
What would be the number of chromosomes in the spermatids? 23 chromosomes.
• The spermatids are transformed into spermatozoa (sperms) by the process called spermiogenesis.
• After spermiogenesis, sperm heads become embedded in the Sertoli cells, & are finally released from the
seminiferous tubules by the process called spermiation.
• Spermatogenesis starts at the age of puberty due to significant increase in the secretion of gonadotropin
releasing hormone (GnRH). This, if you recall, is a hypothalamic hormone.
• The increased level of GnRH then acts at the anterior pituitary gland & stimulates secretion of two gonad-
otropins – luteinising hormone (LH) & follicle stimulating hormone (FSH).
• LH acts at the Leydig cells & stimulates synthesis & secretion of androgens.
• Androgens, in turn, stimulate the process of spermatogenesis.
• FSH acts on the Sertoli cells & stimulates secretion of some factors which help in the process of spermio-
genesis.
• Sperm is a microscopic structure composed of a head, neck, a middle piece & a tail. A plasma membrane
envelops the whole body of sperm.
• The sperm head contains an elongated haploid nucleus, the anterior portion of which is covered by a cap-
like structure, acrosome. The acrosome is filled with enzymes that help fertilization of the ovum.
• The middle piece possesses numerous mitochondria, which produce energy for the movement of tail that
facilitate sperm motility essential for fertilization.
• The human male ejaculates about 200 to 300 million sperms during a coitus of which, for normal fertility, at
least 60 per cent sperms must have normal shape & size & at least 40 per cent of them must show
vigorous motility.
• Sperms released from the seminiferous tubules, are transported by the accessory ducts.
• Secretions of epididymis, vas deferens, seminal vesicle & prostate are essential for maturation & motility
of sperms.
311
• The seminal plasma along with the sperms constitute the semen. The functions of male sex accessory ducts
& glands are maintained by the testicular hormones (androgens). PMF IAS – Learn Smart
• The process of formation of a mature female gamete is called oogenesis which is markedly different from
spermatogenesis.
• Oogenesis is initiated during the embryonic development stage when a couple of million gamete mother
cells (oogonia) are formed within each fetal ovary; no more oogonia are formed & added after birth.
• These cells start division & enter into prophase-I of the meiotic division & get temporarily arrested at that
stage, called primary oocytes.
• Each primary oocyte then gets surrounded by a layer of granulosa cells & is called the primary follicle.
• A large number of these follicles degenerate during the phase from birth to puberty. Therefore, at puberty
only 60,000-80,000 primary follicles are left in each ovary.
• The primary follicles get surrounded by more layers of granulosa cells & a new theca & are called secondary
follicles.
• The secondary follicle soon transforms into a tertiary follicle which is characterised by a fluid filled cavity
called antrum.
• At this stage the primary oocyte within the tertiary follicle grows in size & completes its first meiotic divi-
sion. It is an unequal division resulting in the formation of a large haploid secondary oocyte & a tiny first
polar body.
• The secondary oocyte retains bulk of the nutrient rich cytoplasm of the primary oocyte.
• The tertiary follicle further changes into the mature follicle or Graafian follicle. The secondary oocyte forms
a new membrane called zona pellucida surrounding it.
• The Graafian follicle now ruptures to release the secondary oocyte (ovum) from the ovary by the process
called ovulation.
Menstrual Cycle
312
• The reproductive cycle in the female primates (e.g. monkeys, apes & human beings) is called menstrual cycle.
• The first menstruation begins at puberty & is called menarche.
• In human females, menstruation is repeated at an average interval of about 28/29 days, & the cycle of
events starting from one menstruation till the next one is called the menstrual cycle.
• One ovum is released (ovulation) during the middle of each menstrual cycle. The cycle starts with the men-
strual phase, when menstrual flow occurs & it lasts for 3-5 days.
• The menstrual flow results due to breakdown of endometrial lining of the uterus & its blood vessels which
forms liquid that comes out through vagina. Menstruation only occurs if the released ovum is not fertilized.
• Lack of menstruation may be indicative of pregnancy. However, it may also be caused due to some other
underlying causes like stress, poor health etc.
• The menstrual phase is followed by the follicular phase.
• During this phase, the primary follicles in the ovary grow to become a fully mature Graafian follicle & simul-
taneously the endometrium of uterus regenerates through proliferation.
• These changes in the ovary & the uterus are induced by changes in the levels of pituitary & ovarian hormones.
• The secretion of gonadotropins (LH & FSH) increases gradually during the follicular phase, & stimulates
follicular development as well as secretion of estrogens by the growing follicles.
• Both LH & FSH attain a peak level in the middle of cycle (about 14 th day).
• Rapid secretion of LH leading to its maximum level during the mid-cycle called LH surge induces rupture of
Graafian follicle & thereby the release of ovum (ovulation).
• The ovulation (ovulatory phase) is followed by the luteal phase during which the remaining parts of the
Graafian follicle transform as the corpus luteum.
• The corpus luteum secretes large amounts of progesterone which is essential for maintenance of the en-
dometrium.
• Such an endometrium is necessary for implantation of the fertilised ovum & other events of pregnancy.
313
• During pregnancy all events of the menstrual cycle stop & there is no menstruation. In the absence of ferti-
lisation, the corpus luteum degenerates. PMF IAS – Learn Smart
• This causes disintegration of the endometrium leading to menstruation, marking a new cycle.
• In human beings, menstrual cycles ceases around 50 years of age; that is termed as menopause.
• Cyclic menstruation is an indicator of normal reproductive phase & extends between menarche & meno-
pause.
Fertilisation & Implantation

• During copulation (coitus) semen is released by the penis into the vagina (insemination).
• The motile sperms swim rapidly, pass through the cervix, enter into the uterus & finally reach the ampullary
region of the fallopian tube.
• The ovum released by the ovary is also transported to the ampullary region where fertilisation takes place.
• Fertilisation can only occur if the ovum & sperms are transported simultaneously to the ampullary
region.
• This is the reason why not all copulations lead to fertilisation & pregnancy.
• The process of fusion of a sperm with an ovum is called fertilisation.
• During fertilisation, a sperm comes in contact with the zona pellucida layer of the ovum & induces changes
in the membrane that block the entry of additional sperms.
• Thus, it ensures that only one sperm can fertilise an ovum.
• The secretions of the acrosome help the sperm enter into the cytoplasm of the ovum through the zona
pellucida & the plasma.
314
• Ovum surrounded by few sperm blastomeres is called a morula. The morula continues to divide & transforms
into blastocyst as it moves further into the uterus.
• The blastomeres in the blastocyst are arranged into an outer layer called trophoblast & an inner group of
cells attached to trophoblast called the inner cell mass.
• The trophoblast layer then gets attached to the endometrium & the inner cell mass gets differentiated as
the embryo.
• After attachment, the uterine cells divide rapidly & covers the blastocyst. As a result, the blastocyst becomes
embedded in the endometrium of the uterus. This is called implantation & it leads to pregnancy.
In Vitro Fertilization
• Have you heard of test tube babies? In some women oviducts are blocked.
• These women are unable to bear babies because sperms cannot reach the egg for fertilization.
• In such cases, doctors collect freshly released egg & sperms & keep them together for a few hours for IVF
or In Vitro Fertilization (fertilization outside the body).
• In case fertilization occurs, the zygote is allowed to develop for about a week & then it is placed in the
mother’s uterus.
• Complete development takes place in the uterus & the baby is born like any other baby.
• Babies born through this technique are called test-tube babies.
• This term is actually misleading because babies cannot grow in test tubes.
Pregnancy & Embryonic Development
• After implantation, finger-like projections appear on the trophoblast called chorionic villi which are sur-
rounded by the uterine tissue & maternal blood.
315
• The chorionic villi & uterine tissue become interdigitated with each other & jointly form a structural &
functional unit between developing embryo (foetus) & maternal body called placenta.
• The placenta facilitates the supply of oxygen & nutrients to the embryo & also removal of carbon
dioxide & excretory/waste materials produced by the embryo.
• The placenta is connected to the embryo through an umbilical cord which helps in the transport of sub-
stances to & from the embryo.
• Placenta also acts as an endocrine tissue & produces several hormones like human chorionic gonado-
tropin (hCG), human placental lactogen (hPL), estrogens, progestogens, etc.
• In the later phase of pregnancy, a hormone called relaxin is also secreted by the ovary.
• Let us remember that hCG, hPL & relaxin are produced in women only during pregnancy.
• In addition, during pregnancy the levels of other hormones like estrogens, progestogens, cortisol, pro-
lactin, thyroxine, etc., are increased several folds in the maternal blood.
• Increased production of these hormones is essential for supporting the fetal growth, metabolic changes
in the mother & maintenance of pregnancy.
• Immediately after implantation, the inner cell mass (embryo) differentiates into an outer layer calledectoderm
& an inner layer called endoderm.
• A mesoderm soon appears between the ectoderm & the endoderm (triploblastic).
• These three layers give rise to all tissues (organs) in adults.
• It needs to be mentioned here that the inner cell mass contains certain cells called stem cells which have the
potency to give rise to all the tissues & organs.
• The human pregnancy lasts 9 months. In human beings, after one month of pregnancy, the embryo’s heart
is formed.
• The first sign of growing foetus may be noticed by listening to the heart sound carefully through the stetho-
scope.
• By the end of the second month of pregnancy, the foetus develops limbs & digits.
• By the end of 12 weeks (first trimester), most of the major organ systems are formed, for example, the
limbs & external genital organs are well developed.
• The first movements of the foetus & appearance of hair on the head are usually observed during the fifth
month.
• By the end of about 24 weeks (end of second trimester), the body is covered with fine hair, eye-lids separate,
& eyelashes are formed.
• By the end of nine months of pregnancy, the foetus is fully developed & is ready for delivery.
316
Parturition & Lactation
• The average duration of human pregnancy is about 9 months which is called the gestation period.
• Vigorous contraction of the uterus at the end of pregnancy causes expulsion/delivery of the foetus.
• This process of delivery of the foetus (childbirth) is called parturition.
• Parturition is induced by a complex neuroendocrine mechanism.
• The signals for parturition originate from the fully developed foetus & the placenta which induce mild uterine
contractions called foetal ejection reflex. This triggers release of oxytocin from the maternal pituitary.
• Oxytocin acts on the uterine muscle & causes stronger uterine contractions, which in turn stimulates
further secretion of oxytocin.
• The stimulatory reflex between the uterine contraction & oxytocin secretion continues resulting in stronger
& stronger contractions.
• This leads to expulsion of the baby out of the uterus through the birth canal – parturition.
• Soon after the infant is delivered, the placenta is also expelled out of the uterus.
• The mammary glands of the female undergo differentiation during pregnancy & starts producing milk to-
wards the end of pregnancy by the process called lactation. This helps the mother in feeding the newborn.
• The milk produced during the initial few days of lactation is called colostrum which contains several anti-
bodies absolutely essential to develop resistance for the new-born babies.
• Breast-feeding during the initial period of infant growth is recommended by doctors for bringing up a healthy
baby.
Summary
• Humans are sexually reproducing & viviparous.

• The male reproductive system is composed of a pair of testes, the male sex accessory ducts & the accessory
317
glands & external genitalia.
• Each testis has about 250 compartments called testicular lobules, & each lobule contains one to three highly
coiled seminiferous tubules.
• Each seminiferous tubule is lined inside by spermatogonia & Sertoli cells.
• The spermatogonia undergo meiotic divisions leading to sperm formation, while Sertoli cells provide nutri-
tion to the dividing germ cells.
• The Leydig cells outside the seminiferous tubules, synthesise & secrete testicular hormones called andro-
gens.
• The male external genitalia is called penis.
• The female reproductive system consists of a pair of ovaries, a pair of oviducts, a uterus, a vagina, external
genitalia, & a pair of mammary glands.
• The ovaries produce the female gamete (ovum) & some steroid hormones (ovarian hormones).
• Ovarian follicles in different stages of development are embedded in the stroma.
• The oviducts, uterus & vagina are female accessory ducts.
• The uterus has three layers namely perimetrium, myometrium & endometrium.
• The female external genitalia includes mons pubis, labia majora, labia minora, hymen & clitoris.
• The mammary glands are one of the female secondary sexual characteristics.
• Spermatogenesis results in the formation of sperms that are transported by the male sex accessory ducts.
• A normal human sperm is composed of a head, neck, a middle piece & tail.
• The process of formation of mature female gametes is called oogenesis.
• The reproductive cycle of female primates is called menstrual cycle.
• Menstrual cycle starts only after attaining sexual maturation (puberty).
• During ovulation only one ovum is released per menstrual cycle.
• The cyclical changes in the ovary & the uterus during menstrual cycle are induced by changes in the levels
of pituitary & ovarian hormones.
• After coitus, sperms are transported to the junction of the isthmus & ampulla, where the sperm fertilizes the
ovum leading to formation of a diploid zygote.
• The presence of X or Y chromosome in the sperm determines the sex of the embryo.
318
• The zygote undergoes repeated mitotic division to form a blastocyst, which is implanted in the uterus re-
sulting in pregnancy.
• After nine months of pregnancy, the fully developed foetus is ready for delivery.
• The process of childbirth is called parturition which is induced by a complex neuroendocrine mechanism
involving cortisol, estrogens & oxytocin.
• Mammary glands differentiate during pregnancy & secrete milk after childbirth.
• The new-born baby is fed milk by the mother (lactation) during the initial few months of growth.
319
NCERT Physics Class 6-10 Compilation by Pmfias.com
PDF Contents
1. Electric current ................................................................................................................ 5
Electric charges: Like charges & unlike charges ........................................................................................................5

Lightning (Explained in Geography > Climatology) ...................................................................................................7
Do’s & Don’ts during a Thunderstorm .............................................................................................................................................. 8
Lightning Conductors ........................................................................................................................................................................ 9
Electric current ..................................................................................................................................................... 10

‘Flow’ of charges inside a wire .............................................................................................................................. 10
Electric potential & potential difference................................................................................................................ 11
Components of an electric circuit & their symbols ................................................................................................. 12
Ohms law ............................................................................................................................................................. 13
Resistance ....................................................................................................................................................................................... 13
Electric power ...................................................................................................................................................... 16

Chemical Effects of Electric Current....................................................................................................................... 17
Electric Cell ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 17
Electric Conductivity in liquids ........................................................................................................................................................ 18
Electroplating .................................................................................................................................................................................. 19
Heating effect of the electric current .................................................................................................................... 20

Joule’s law of heating ...................................................................................................................................................................... 20
2. Magnets ........................................................................................................................ 22
Magnetic field & field lines ................................................................................................................................... 23

Magnetic effect of electric current ........................................................................................................................ 24 1
Magnetic Field due to a Current through a Straight Conductor ..................................................................................................... 25
Magnetic Field due to a Current through a Circular Loop ............................................................................................................... 26

Magnetic Field due to a Current in a Solenoid ................................................................................................................................ 27
Force on a current-carrying conductor in a magnetic field ............................................................................................................. 29
Magnetism in medicine ................................................................................................................................................................... 31
Electric motor .................................................................................................................................................................................. 31
Electromagnetic induction .............................................................................................................................................................. 33
Electric generator ............................................................................................................................................................................ 35
Domestic electric circuits ................................................................................................................................................................ 37
Summary ......................................................................................................................................................................................... 38
3. Motion .......................................................................................................................... 40
Force.................................................................................................................................................................... 40
Contact Forces ................................................................................................................................................................................. 40
Non-contact Forces ......................................................................................................................................................................... 40
Friction ................................................................................................................................................................ 41
Speed, Velocity & Acceleration ............................................................................................................................. 41
Speed ............................................................................................................................................................................................... 41
Displacement................................................................................................................................................................................... 42
Velocity: Speed with direction ........................................................................................................................................................ 42
Acceleration: Rate of Change of Velocity ........................................................................................................................................ 43
Velocity-time graphs ....................................................................................................................................................................... 43
Equations of Motion by Graphical Method ..................................................................................................................................... 44
Uniform Circular Motion ................................................................................................................................................................. 46
Newton’s laws of motion...................................................................................................................................... 47

First Law of Motion ......................................................................................................................................................................... 48
Second Law of Motion .................................................................................................................................................................... 48
Third Law of Motion ........................................................................................................................................................................ 50
Conservation of Momentum ........................................................................................................................................................... 50
Gravitation........................................................................................................................................................... 52
Universal law of gravitation ............................................................................................................................................................ 52
Acceleration due to gravity ............................................................................................................................................................. 53
Mass & weight ................................................................................................................................................................................. 54
Thrust & Pressure ............................................................................................................................................................................ 55
Buoyancy ......................................................................................................................................................................................... 55
Relative Density ............................................................................................................................................................................... 56
Work & Energy ..................................................................................................................................................... 57

2
Forms of energy .............................................................................................................................................................................. 58

Law of conservation of energy ........................................................................................................................................................ 60

Power: Rate of Doing Work ............................................................................................................................................................. 60
4. Sound ............................................................................................................................ 61
Propagation of Sound ........................................................................................................................................... 61

Wave nature of sound .......................................................................................................................................... 62
Transverse wave.............................................................................................................................................................................. 62
Characteristics of a sound wave ............................................................................................................................ 63

Wavelength ..................................................................................................................................................................................... 63
Frequency ........................................................................................................................................................................................ 64
Time Period ..................................................................................................................................................................................... 66
Amplitude ........................................................................................................................................................................................ 66
Speed of Sound ............................................................................................................................................................................... 67
Reflection of Sound ......................................................................................................................................................................... 68
Applications of Ultrasound ................................................................................................................................... 69

Sonar ............................................................................................................................................................................................... 71
Voice box ............................................................................................................................................................. 72
5. Heat............................................................................................................................... 73
Transfer of heat ................................................................................................................................................... 73

Latent heat .......................................................................................................................................................... 74
Nail polish remover: how does evaporation cause cooling?........................................................................................................... 76
Why should we wear cotton clothes in summer? ........................................................................................................................... 77
How can we separate a mixture of salt and ammonium chloride? ................................................................................................ 77
Heat pipes............................................................................................................................................................ 77
6. Light .............................................................................................................................. 78
Reflection and Refraction ..................................................................................................................................... 79

Reflection of Light ................................................................................................................................................ 79
Laws of Reflection of light ............................................................................................................................................................... 80
Kaleidoscope ................................................................................................................................................................................... 80
Periscope ......................................................................................................................................................................................... 81 3
Refraction of light ................................................................................................................................................ 81
The Refractive Index ........................................................................................................................................................................ 82
Atmospheric Refraction .................................................................................................................................................................. 84

Advance sunrise and delayed sunset .............................................................................................................................................. 85
Dispersion ............................................................................................................................................................ 86
Dispersion of white light by a glass prism ....................................................................................................................................... 86
Rainbow .......................................................................................................................................................................................... 88
Scattering of light ................................................................................................................................................. 89
Tyndall Effect ................................................................................................................................................................................... 89
Why is the colour of the clear Sky Blue? ......................................................................................................................................... 90
Colour of the Sun at Sunrise and Sunset ......................................................................................................................................... 91
Raman Effect (Raman Scattering) ................................................................................................................................................... 92
7. Mirrors & Lenses ........................................................................................................... 93
Concave Mirrors and Covex Mirrors ...................................................................................................................... 93

Spherical Mirrors.................................................................................................................................................. 95
Image Formation by Spherical Mirrors ........................................................................................................................................... 96
Image formation by Concave Mirror ............................................................................................................................................... 97
Uses of Concave Mirrors ................................................................................................................................................................. 98
Image formation by a Convex Mirror .............................................................................................................................................. 98
Uses of Convex Mirrors ................................................................................................................................................................... 98
Sign Convention for Reflection by Spherical Mirrors ...................................................................................................................... 99
Mirror Formula and Magnification ................................................................................................................................................ 100
Concave Lens and Covex Lens ............................................................................................................................. 101

Spherical Lenses ................................................................................................................................................. 102
Refraction by Spherical Lenses ...................................................................................................................................................... 103
Sign Convention for Spherical Lenses ........................................................................................................................................... 106
Questions .......................................................................................................................................................... 108
8. The Human Eye.............................................................................................................109
Power of Accommodation .................................................................................................................................. 111

Why do we have two eyes for vision and not just one?........................................................................................ 112
Defects of vision and their correction.................................................................................................................. 112
Myopia .......................................................................................................................................................................................... 112
Hypermetropia .............................................................................................................................................................................. 113 4
Presbyopia ..................................................................................................................................................................................... 114
Eye Donation ..................................................................................................................................................... 114

Summary ........................................................................................................................................................... 115
Questions .......................................................................................................................................................... 115
9. Misc Topics ...................................................................................................................116
States of Matter ................................................................................................................................................. 116

Plasma ........................................................................................................................................................................................... 116
Bose-einstein condensate ............................................................................................................................................................. 117
Chromatography ................................................................................................................................................ 118

How can we separate a mixture of two miscible liquids? ..................................................................................... 118
However, the knowledge from Science NCERTs can be very useful in understanding Science & Tech Cur-
rent Affairs and Contemporary Issues & certain concepts of Environmental Sciences.
The current trend revolves around Science & Tech Current Affairs and Contemporary Issues.
fairs Downloads
UPSC focuses mostly on logical kind of questions that test your basics. 5
1. Electric current
Electric charges: Like charges & unlike charges

• In 1752 Benjamin Franklin, an American scientist, showed that lightning & the spark from clothes are es-
sentially the same phenomena.
• When a plastic refill is rubbed with polythene, it acquires a small electric charge.
• Similarly, when a plastic comb is rubbed with dry hair, it acquires a small charge.
• These objects are called charged objects.
• The electrical charges produced by rubbing are called static charges.
• When charges move, they constitute an electric current.
• Electrical charge can be transferred from a charged object to another through a metal conductor.
• The process of transferring of charge from a charged object to the earth is called earthing.
• Earthing is provided in buildings to protect us from electrical shocks due to any leakage of electrical current.
• In the process of charging the refill & the plastic comb, polythene & hair also get charged (loss of charge in
one object is compensated by the gain of charge in the other).
• An object that loses charge (electrons), is said to be positively charged because it has an excess of pro-
tons.
• An object that gains charge (electrons), is said to be negatively charged.
• Like charges repel while the unlike charges attract.
Experiment
• Inflate two balloons. Hang them in such a way that they do not touch each other. Rub both the balloons with
a woollen cloth & release them. What do you observe? (They repel each other)
6
Like charges repel each other
• Rub a refill with a polythene & place it gently in a glass tumbler. Bring an inflated charged balloon near the
refill & observe. The charged balloon will attract a charged refill.
Unlike charges attract each other
A simple electroscope
• The aluminium foil strips in the jar receive the same charge from the charged refill.
• The strips carrying similar charges repel each other & they become wide open.
• Such a device can be used to test whether an object is carrying charge or not.
• This device is known as electroscope.
Lightning (Explained in Geography > Climatology)
• During the development of a thunderstorm, the air currents move upward while the water droplets move
downward. These vigorous movements cause separation of charges.
• By a process, not yet completely understood, the positive charges collect near the upper edges of the
7
clouds & the negative charges accumulate near the lower edges.
• There is accumulation of positive charges near the ground also.

• When the magnitude of the accumulated charges becomes very large, the air which is normally a poor con-
ductor of electricity, is no longer able to resist their flow.
• Negative & positive charges meet, producing streaks of bright light & sound.
• We see streaks as lightning. The process is called an electric discharge.
8
Accumulation of charges leading to lightning.
Do’s & Don’ts during a Thunderstorm

Outside the house
• Open vehicles, like motorbikes, tractors, construction machinery, open cars are not safe.
• Open fields, tall trees, shelters in parks, elevated places do not protect us from lightning strokes.
• Carrying umbrella is not a good idea at all during thunderstorms.
• If in a forest, take shelter under shorter trees.
• If no shelter is available & you are in an open field, stay far away from all trees.
• Stay away from poles or other metal objects.
• Do not lie on the ground. Instead, squat low on the ground. This position will make you the smallest target.
Inside the house
• Lightning can strike telephone cords, electrical wires & metal pipes. During a thunderstorm contact with these
should be avoided.
• It is safer to use mobile phones & cordless phones. However, it is not wise to call up a person who is receiving
your phone through a wired phone.
• Bathing should be avoided during thunderstorms to avoid contact with running water.
• Electrical appliances like computers, TVs, etc., should be unplugged.
Lightning Conductors
• Lightning Conductor is a device used to protect buildings from the effect of lightning. 9
• A metallic rod, taller than the building, is installed in the walls of the building during its construction.
• One end of the rod is kept out in the air & the other is buried deep in the ground.
• The rod provides easy route for the transfer of electric charge to the ground.
• The metal columns used during construction, electrical wires & water pipes in the buildings also protect us
to an extent. But do not touch them during a thunderstorm.
Electric current
• Electric current is expressed by the amount of charge flowing through a particular area in unit time.
• In other words, it is the rate of flow of electric charges.
• A continuous & closed path of an electric current is called an electric circuit.
• Conventionally, in an electric circuit the direction of electric current is taken as opposite to the direction
of the flow of electrons.
• If a net charge Q, flows across any cross-section of a conductor in time t, then the current I, through the
cross-section is I = Q/t.
• The SI unit of electric charge is coulomb (C), which is equivalent to the charge contained in nearly 6 x 1018
electrons. (electron possesses a negative charge of 1.6 x 10-19 C)
• The electric current is expressed by a unit called ampere (A), named after the French scientist, Andre-Marie
Ampere (1775-1836).
• One ampere is constituted by the flow of one coulomb of charge per second.
• Small quantities of current are expressed in milliampere (1 mA = 10-3 A) or in microampere (10-6 A).
• An instrument called ammeter measures electric current in a circuit.
• It is always connected in series in a circuit through which the current is to be measured.
10
The credit for the invention of the electric bulb is usually given to Thomas Alva Edison, though others before him
had worked on it.

Edison made some 1300 inventions including the electric bulb, gramophone, the motion picture camera & the
carbon transmitter, which facilitated the invention of the telephone.
‘Flow’ of charges inside a wire

• A low-energy electron would have great difficulty passing through a solid conductor as the atoms are packed
together with very little spacing between them.
• But it turns out that the electrons are able to ‘travel’ through a perfect solid crystal smoothly & easily.
• The ‘motion’ of electrons in a conductor, however, is very different from that of charges in empty space.
• When steady current flows through a conductor, the electrons in it move with a certain average ‘drift
speed’.
• For a typical copper wire carrying a small current, drift speed it is found to be of the order of 1 mm per
second (electrons move at snail’s pace in a conductor).
How is it then that an electric bulb lights up as soon as we turn the switch on?
• Think of a tube filled with marbles: if you add a marble at one end, a marble will come out the other end at
almost the same instant, even though each marble did not move that far on its own.
• Likewise, a copper wire contains lots of electrons. The electrons are packed in so tightly that even a small
movement will travel down the wire from electron to electron at an impressive speed, letting you turn on the
lights without having to wait for electrons to travel the whole way there.
Electric potential & potential difference
• Charges do not flow in a copper wire by themselves, just as water in a perfectly horizontal tube does not flow.
• For flow of charges in a conducting metallic wire, the electrons move only if there is a difference of electric
pressure – called the potential difference – along the conductor.
• This difference of potential may be produced by a battery, consisting of one or more electric cells.
• The chemical action within a cell generates the potential difference across the terminals of the cell.
• When the cell is connected to a conducting circuit element, the potential difference sets the charges in motion
in the conductor & produces an electric current.
• In order to maintain the current in a given electric circuit, the cell has to expend its chemical energy.
• We define the electric potential difference between two points in an electric circuit carrying some current
11
as the work done to move a unit charge from one point to the other.
• Potential difference (V) between two points = Work done (W)/Charge (Q) = V = W/Q
• The SI unit of electric potential difference is volt (V), named after Alessandro Volta (1745-1827), an Italian
physicist.
• One volt is the potential difference between two points in a current carrying conductor when 1 joule of work
is done to move a charge of 1 coulomb from one point to the other.
• The potential difference is measured by means of an instrument called the voltmeter.
• The voltmeter is always connected in parallel (ammeter is connected in series) across the points between
which the potential difference is to be measured.
Questions
• Name a device that helps to maintain a potential difference across a conductor. (Ans: Battery)
• What is meant by saying that the potential difference between two points is 1 V? (Ans: One Joule of work
done by One Coulomb of charge)
Components of an electric circuit & their symbols
• It is convenient to represent electric components by symbols.

• Using these, an electric circuit can be represented by a circuit diagram.
12
A simple Circuit Diagram
Ohms law
• In 1827, a German physicist Georg Simon Ohm (1787-1854) found out the relationship between the current
I, flowing in a metallic wire & the potential difference across its terminals.
• He stated that the electric current flowing through a metallic wire is directly proportional to the po-
tential difference V, across its ends provided its temperature remains the same. This is called Ohm’s law.
• R is a constant for the given metallic wire at a given temperature & is called its resistance.
• It is the property of a conductor to resist the flow of charges through it.
• Its SI unit is ohm, represented by the Greek letter Ω.
• According to Ohm’s law, R = V/I.
• If the potential difference across the two ends of a conductor is 1 V & the current through it is 1 A, then the
resistance R, of the conductor is 1 Ω.
• Ohm's law holds true for semiconductors, but for a wide variety of materials (such as metals) the re-
sistance is fixed & does not depend on the amount of current or the amount of voltage.
Resistance
13
The electrons, not completely free to move within a conductor. They are restrained by the attraction of the
•
atoms among which they move. Thus, motion of electrons through a conductor is retarded by its resistance.
• A component of a given size that offers a low resistance is a good conductor.
• A conductor having some appreciable resistance is called a resistor.
• A component of identical size that offers a higher resistance is a poor conductor.
• An insulator of the same size offers even higher resistance.
• Resistance of the conductor depends on
a) its length (greater the length, greater is the resistance, & greater is the transmission loss),
b) its area of cross-section (greater the cross-section, lesser is the resistance), &
c) the nature of its material.
• Precise measurements have shown that resistance of a uniform metallic conductor is directly proportional to
its length (l) & inversely proportional to the area of cross-section (A).
• That is,
where ρ (rho) is a constant of proportionality & is called the electrical resistivity of the material.
14
• The SI unit of resistivity is Ω m. It is a characteristic property of the material.
• The metals & alloys have very low resistivity. They are good conductors of electricity.
• The resistivity of an alloy is generally higher than that of its constituent metals.
• Alloys do not oxidise (burn) readily at high temperatures.
• For this reason, they are commonly used in electrical heating devices, like electric iron, toasters etc.
• Tungsten is used almost exclusively for filaments of electric bulbs, whereas copper & aluminium are gen-
erally used for electrical transmission lines.
• Insulators like rubber & glass have resistivity.
• Both the resistance & resistivity of a material vary with temperature.
Resistor
• A resistor is an electrical component that implements electrical resistance as a circuit element.

• In electronic circuits, resistors are used to reduce current flow, adjust signal levels, etc.
• Current through a resistor is inversely proportional to its resistance.
• If the resistance is doubled the current gets halved.
• A component used to regulate current without changing the voltage source is called variable resistance.
• In an electric circuit, a device called rheostat is often used to change the resistance in the circuit.
Resistors in Series
15
• The potential difference V is equal to the sum of potential differences V1, V2, & V3.
• That is the total potential difference across a combination of resistors in series is equal to the sum of potential
difference across the individual resistors.
• That is,
V = V1 + V2 + V3 = IR = IR1 + IR2 + IR3 = I (R1 + R2 + R3)
That is, Rs = R1 + R2 + R3
• We can conclude that when several resistors are joined in series, the resistance of the combination Rs equals
the sum of their individual resistances, R1, R2, R3, & is thus greater than any individual resistance.
Disadvantages of series circuit
• In a series circuit the current is constant throughout the electric circuit.

• Thus, it is obviously impracticable to connect an electric bulb & an electric heater in series, because they need
currents of widely different values to operate properly.
• Another major disadvantage of a series circuit is that when one component fails the circuit is broken
& none of the components works.
Resistors in Parallel
• It is observed that the total current I, is equal to the sum of the separate currents through each branch of the
combination.
I = I1 +12 +13 = V/R = V/R1 + V/R2 + V/R3 or 1/Rp = 1/R1 + 1/R2 + 1/R3
16
• Thus, we may conclude that the reciprocal of the equivalent resistance of a group of resistances joined in
parallel is equal to the sum of the reciprocals of the individual resistances.
• That is, the total resistance in a parallel circuit is decreased.

• Parallel circuits are helpful when each gadget has different resistance & requires different current to operate
properly.
Electric power
• Electric power is the rate of consumption of energy = Voltage x Electric Current.
P = VI = (IR) I = I2R = V2 / R
• The SI unit of electric power is watt (W). It is the power consumed by a device that carries 1 A of current
when operated at a potential difference of 1 V. Thus, 1 W = 1 volt x 1 ampere = 1 V A.
• The unit ‘watt’ is very small. Therefore, we use a much larger unit called kilowatt (1000 watts).
• Since energy is the product of power & time, the unit of electric energy is, therefore, watt hour (Wh).
• One watt hour is the energy consumed when 1 watt of power is used for 1 hour.
• The commercial unit of electric energy is kilowatt hour (kWh), commonly known as unit.
 1 kW h = 1000 watts x 3600 seconds = 3.6 x 106 watt second = 3.6 x 106 joule (J)
Questions
• Why is the tungsten used almost exclusively for filament of electric lamps?
• Why are the conductors of electric heating devices, such as bread-toasters & electric irons, made of an alloy
rather than a pure metal?
• Why is the series arrangement not used for domestic circuits?
• Why are copper & aluminium wires usually employed for electricity transmission?
Chemical Effects of Electric Current
• The passage of an electric current through a conducting liquid causes chemical reactions.
• The resulting effects are called chemical effects of currents.
• British chemist, William Nicholson (1753-1815), had shown that if electrodes were immersed in water, & a
current was passed, bubbles of oxygen & hydrogen were produced.
• Oxygen bubbles formed on the electrode connected to the positive terminal of the battery & hydrogen
bubbles formed on the other electrode.
The passage of an electric current through a conducting solution causes chemical reactions.
17
•
• As a result, bubbles of a gas may be formed on the electrodes.
• Deposits of metal may be seen on electrodes.

• Changes of colour of solutions may occur.
• The reaction would depend on what solution & electrodes are used.
Electric Cell
• All electric cells have two terminals: a positive terminal (anode) & a negative terminal (cathode).
• An electric cell produces electricity from the chemicals stored inside it (chemical energy to electrical en-
ergy).
• The electric circuit provides a complete path for electricity to pass between the two terminals.
• In an electric circuit, the direction of current is taken to be from the positive to the negative terminal.
Direction of current in a closed circuit
• A switch is a simple device that either breaks the circuit or completes it.
• Materials which allow electric current to pass through them are conductors of electricity.
• Insulators do not allow electric current to pass through them.
Electric Conductivity in liquids
• Most liquids that conduct electricity are solutions of acids, bases & salts.
• Distilled water (pure water free of salts) doesn’t conduct electricity as there are no ions in it.
• Tap water may contain several salts dissolved in it & hence it is a good conductor of electricity.
• Some liquids such as oil or alcohol do not form ions & do not conduct electricity.
• Vinegar is mostly water with a small amount of acetic acid in it.
• The acetic acid separates into ions. Hence vinegar (weak acid) conducts electricity.
18
• Soda compounds (containing sodium) contain ions when dissolved in water & ions help conduct electricity.
• Milk is a good conductor of electricity because it contains water & lactic acids & other salts.
• Lubricants are normally only slightly conductive & therefore can work as insulators in transformers or
switches.
• Sugar solution does not conduct electricity, because there are no ions in the solution.
Electroplating
• When electric current is passed through the copper sulphate solution, copper sulphate dissociates into cop-
per & sulphate.
• The free copper gets drawn to the electrode connected to the negative terminal of the battery & gets de-
posited on it. But what about the loss of copper from the solution?
• From the other electrode, a copper plate, an equal amount of copper gets dissolved in the solution.
• Thus, the loss of copper from the solution is restored & the process keeps going.
• This means that copper gets transferred from one electrode to the other.
• The process of depositing a layer of any desired metal on another material by means of electricity is
called electroplating. It is one of the most common applications of chemical effects of electric current.
Examples of electroplating
• Chromium plating is done on many objects such as bath taps, wheel rims & many others.
• Chromium has a shiny appearance. It does not corrode. It resists scratches.
• However, chromium is expensive, & it may not be economical to make the whole object out of chromium.
• So, the object is made from a cheaper metal & only a coating of chromium over it is deposited.
• Jewellery makers electroplate silver & gold on less expensive metals. 19
• Tin cans, used for storing food, are made by electroplating tin onto iron. Tin is less reactive than iron.
• Thus, food does not come into contact with iron & is protected from getting spoilt.
• Iron is used in bridges & automobiles to provide strength. However, iron tends to corrode & rust.
• So, a coating of zinc is deposited on iron to protect it from corrosion & formation of rust.
• In the electroplating factories the disposal of the used conducting solution is a major concern.
• It is a polluting waste & there are specific disposal guidelines to protect the environment.
Questions
1) To make a battery of two cells, the negative terminal of one cell is connected to the negative terminal of the
other cell. (T/F) (Hint: arrangement of batteries in a torch light)
Heating effect of the electric current
• A part of the source energy in maintaining the current may be consumed into useful work.
• Rest of the source energy may be expended in heat to raise the temperature of gadget.
• For example, an electric fan becomes warm if used continuously for longer time etc.
• On the other hand, if the electric circuit is purely resistive, the source energy continually gets dissipated
entirely in the form of heat. This is known as the heating effect of electric current.
• This effect is utilised in devices such as electric heater, electric iron etc.
Joule’s law of heating
20
• Consider a current I flowing through a resistor of resistance R.

• Let the potential difference across it be V. Let t be the time during which a charge Q flows across.
• The work done in moving the charge Q through a potential difference V is VQ. Therefore, the source must
supply energy equal to VQ in time t. Hence the power input to the circuit by the source is
• Or the energy supplied to the circuit by the source in time t is P × t, that is, VIt.
• What happens to this energy expended by the source?
• This energy gets dissipated in the resistor as heat.
• Thus, for a steady current I, the amount of heat H produced in time t is
• This is known as Joule’s law of heating.

• The law implies that heat produced in a resistor is
a) directly proportional to the square of current for a given resistance,
b) directly proportional to resistance for a given current, &
c) directly proportional to the time for which the current flows through the resistor.
Practical Applications of Heating Effect of Electric Current
• The electric laundry iron, electric toaster, electric oven, electric kettle & electric heater are some of the
familiar devices based on Joule’s heating.
• The electric heating is also used to produce light, as in an electric bulb. Here, the filament must retain as
much of the heat generated as is possible, so that it gets very hot & emits light.
• It must not melt at such high temperature. A strong metal with high melting point such as tungsten (melting
point 3380°C) is used for making bulb filaments.
• The filament should be thermally isolated as much as possible, using insulating support, etc.
21
• The bulbs are usually filled with chemically inactive nitrogen & argon gases to prolong the life of filament.
• Another common application of Joule’s heating is the fuse used in electric circuits.
• It protects circuits & appliances by stopping the flow of any unduly high electric current.
Electric fuse
• A wire gets hot when electric current passes through it. This is the heating effect of the electric current.
• The amount of heat produced in a wire depends on its material, length & thickness.
• Wires made from some special materials melt quickly & break when large electric currents are passed
through them. These wires are used for making electric fuses.
• One reason for excessive currents in electrical circuits is the direct touching of wires.
• This may happen if the insulation on the wires has come off (causing short circuit).
• Another reason for excessive current can be the connection of many devices to a single socket (overload).
• These days Miniature circuit breakers (MCBs) are increasingly being used in place of fuses.
• MCBs are switches which automatically turn off when current in a circuit exceeds the safe limit.
• The fuse is placed in series with the device.
• The fuses used for domestic purposes are rated as 1 A, 2 A, 3 A, 5 A, 10 A, etc.
• For an electric iron which consumes 1 kW electric power when operated at 220 V, a current of (1000/220) A,
that is, 4.54 A will flow in the circuit. In this case, a 5 A fuse must be used.
2. Magnets
• The substances having the property of attracting iron are now known as magnets.
• Artificial magnets are magnets made from pieces of iron.
• Magnet shapes: bar magnet, horse-shoe magnet, cylindrical or a ballended magnet.
• The materials which get attracted towards a magnet are magnetic – for example, iron, nickel or cobalt.
22
• Magnets lose their properties if they are heated, hammered or dropped from some height.
• Also, magnets become weak if they are not stored properly.

• To keep them safe, bar magnets should be kept in pairs with their unlike poles on the same side.
• They must be separated by a piece of wood while two pieces of soft iron should be placed across their ends.
• For horse-shoe magnet, one should keep a piece of iron across the poles.
Magnetic field & field lines
• A compass needle gets deflected when brought near a bar magnet.

• A compass needle is, in fact, a small bar magnet.
• The ends of the compass needle point approximately towards north & south directions.
• The end of the magnet that points towards North is called its North seeking end (North pole) of the magnet.
• The other end that points towards the South is called South seeking end (South pole) of the magnet.
• All magnets have two poles whatever their shape may be.
• Like poles repel, while unlike poles of magnets attract each other.
• The magnet exerts its influence in the region surrounding it. 23
• Therefore, the iron filings around a magnet experience a force.

• The force thus exerted makes iron filings to arrange in a pattern along the field lines.
• The region surrounding a magnet, in which the force of the magnet can be detected, is said to have a mag-
netic field. The lines along which the iron filings align themselves represent magnetic field lines.
• Magnetic field is a quantity that has both direction & magnitude.
• The direction of the magnetic field is taken to be the direction in which a north pole of the compass needle
moves.
• Therefore, it is taken by convention that the field lines emerge from north pole & merge at the south pole.
• Inside the magnet, the direction of field lines is from its south pole to its north pole. Thus, the magnetic field
lines are closed curves.
• The relative strength of the magnetic field is shown by the degree of closeness of the field lines.
• The field is stronger, that is, the force acting on the pole of another magnet placed is greater where the field
lines are crowded.
Magnetic effect of electric current
• An electric current through a metallic conductor produces a magnetic field around it.
• If the current flows from north to south, the north pole of the compass needle would move towards the east.
• Replacing the cell connections in the circuit would result in the change of the direction of current through
the copper wire, that is, from south to north.
• You will see that now the needle moves in opposite direction, that is, towards the west. It means that the
direction of magnetic field produced by the electric current is also reversed.
24
A simple electric circuit in which a straight copper wire is placed parallel to & over a compass needle. The de-
flection in the needle becomes opposite when the direction of the current is reversed.
Magnetic Field due to a Current through a Straight Conductor
• The direction of the north pole of the compass needle would give the direction of the field lines produced
by the electric current through the straight wire at point P.
• A pattern of concentric circles indicating the field lines of a magnetic field around a straight conducting wire.
• The arrows in the circles show the direction of the field lines.
• The magnitude of the magnetic field produced at a given point increases as the current through the wire
increases.
• The magnetic field produced by a given current in the conductor decreases as the distance from it in-
creases.
Right-Hand Thumb Rule
• A convenient way of finding the direction of magnetic field associated with a current-carrying conductor
is Right-hand thumb rule.
25
• Imagine that you are holding a current-carrying straight conductor in your right hand such that the thumb
points towards the direction of current.
• Then your fingers will wrap around the conductor in the direction of the field lines of the magnetic field. This
is known as the right-hand thumb rule.
A current through a horizontal power line flows in east to west direction. What is the direction of magnetic
field at a point directly below it & at a point directly above it?
• The current is in the east-west direction. Applying the right-hand thumb rule, we get that the direction of
magnetic field at a point below the wire is from north to south.
• The direction of magnetic field at a point directly above the wire is from south to north.
Magnetic Field due to a Current through a Circular Loop
Magnetic field lines of the field produced by a current-carrying circular loop
• The magnetic field produced by a current-carrying straight wire depends inversely on the distance from it.
• Similarly, at every point of a current-carrying circular loop, the concentric circles representing the magnetic
field around it would become larger & larger as we move away from the wire.
• At the centre of the circular loop, the arcs of these big circles would appear as straight lines.
26
• Every point on the wire carrying current would give rise to the magnetic field appearing as straight lines at
the centre of the loop.

• By applying the right-hand rule, it is easy to check that every section of the wire contributes to the magnetic
field lines in the same direction within the loop.
• This rule is also called Maxwell’s corkscrew rule. If we consider ourselves driving a corkscrew in the direction
of the current, then the direction of the corkscrew is the direction of the magnetic field.
Magnetic field produced by a current carrying circular coil
• We know that the magnetic field produced by a current-carrying wire at a given point depends directly on
the current passing through it.
• Therefore, if there is a circular coil having n turns, the field produced is n times as large as that pro-
duced by a single turn.
• This is because the current in each circular turn has the same direction, & the field due to each turn then just
adds up.
Magnetic Field due to a Current in a Solenoid
• A coil of many circular turns of insulated copper wire wrapped closely in the shape of a cylinder is
called a solenoid.
27
The pattern of the magnetic field lines around a current-carrying solenoid
• One end of the solenoid behaves as a magnetic north pole, while the other behaves as the south pole.
• The field lines inside the solenoid are in the form of parallel straight lines. This indicates that the magnetic
field is the same at all points inside the solenoid. That is, the field is uniform inside the solenoid.
• A strong magnetic field produced inside a solenoid can be used to magnetise a piece of magnetic material,
like soft iron, when placed inside the coil. The magnet so formed is called an electromagnet.
A current-carrying solenoid coil is used to magnetise steel rod inside it - an electromagnet.
Question: The magnetic field inside a long straight solenoid-carrying current
a) is zero.
b) decreases as we move towards its end.
c) increases as we move towards its end.
d) is the same at all points.
Explanation: In case of a current carrying coil, the magnetic field of each loop adds up to produce a net magnetic
field. But in case of solenoid each loop is separated by a distance & the magnetic field at the centre of each loop
is same.
Solenoid acts as a simple bar magnet

Ans: d) is the same at all points.
Application of Electromagnets
When the electric current is switched off, the wire or coil generally loses its magnetism. Such wires or coils
28
•
are called electromagnets.
• The electromagnets are used on the track for a maglev train.

• The electromagnets can be made extraordinarily strong & can lift very heavy loads.
• Electromagnets are used in electric bell.
The coil in the bell acts as an electromagnet when electricity is passed through it.
Hans Christian Oersted (1777-1851)
• Hans Christian Oersted, one of the leading scientists of the 19th century, played a crucial role in understand-
ing electromagnetism.
• In 1820 he accidentally discovered that a compass needle got defected when an electric current passed
through a metallic wire placed nearby.
• Through this observation Oersted showed that electricity & magnetism were related phenomena.
• His research later created technologies such as the radio, television & fiber optics.
• The unit of magnetic field strength is named the Oersted in his honour.
Force on a current-carrying conductor in a magnetic field
• Electric current flowing through a conductor produces a magnetic field.

• The field so produced exerts a force on a magnet placed in the vicinity of the conductor.
• French scientist Andre Marie Ampere (1775-1836) suggested that the magnet must also exert an equal &
opposite force on the current-carrying conductor.
• The direction of the force on the conductor depends upon the direction of current & the direction of the
magnetic field.
• The direction of the force on the conductor can be found by applying Fleming’s left-hand rule.
29
• According to this rule, stretch the thumb, forefinger & middle finger of your left hand such that they are
mutually perpendicular.
• If the first finger points in the direction of magnetic field & the second finger in the direction of current,
then the thumb will point in the direction of motion or the force acting on the conductor.
• Devices that use current-carrying conductors & magnetic fields include electric motor, electric generator,
loudspeakers, microphones & measuring instruments.
• When a current-carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field such that the direction of current is perpen-
dicular to the magnetic field, it experiences a force. This force causes the conductor to move.
Q. An electron enters a magnetic field at right angles to it. The direction of force acting on the electron
will be
a) to the right.
b) to the left.
c) out of the page.
d) into the page.
• Answer is option (d). The direction of force is perpendicular to the direction of magnetic field & current as
given by Fleming’s left-hand rule. Recall that the direction of current is taken opposite to the direction of
motion of electrons. The force is therefore directed into the page.
Q. Which of the following property of a proton can change while it moves freely in a magnetic field? 30
(There may be more than one correct answer.)
a) mass
b) speed
c) velocity
d) momentum
Ans: Velocity of the proton (+ve charge = direction of current) increases & hence its momentum (momentum =
mass x velocity).
Q. A positively charged particle (alpha-particle) projected towards west is deflected towards north by a
magnetic field. The direction of magnetic field is
a) towards south
b) towards east
c) downward
d) upward
Direction of current (middle finger) is towards west.

The direction of force (thumb) is towards north.
According to Fleming’s left-hand rule, the direction of magnetic field (index finger) will be d) upwards.
Magnetism in medicine
• An electric current always produces a magnetic field.

• Even weak ion currents that travel along the nerve cells in our body produce magnetic fields.
• When we touch something, our nerves carry an electric impulse to the muscles we need to use. This impulse
produces a temporary magnetic field.
• These fields are very weak & are about one-billionth of the earth’s magnetic field.
• Two main organs in the human body where the magnetic field produced is significant, are the heart & the
brain.
• The magnetic field inside the body forms the basis of obtaining the images of different body parts.
• This is done using a technique called Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)
• Analysis of these images helps in medical diagnosis. Magnetism has, thus, got important uses in medicine.
Electric motor
31
• An electric motor is a rotating device that converts electrical energy to mechanical energy.
• An electric motor consists of a rectangular coil ABCD of insulated copper wire.

• The coil is placed between the two poles of a magnetic field.
A simple electric motor
• The ends of the coil are connected to the two halves of a split ring (P & Q).
• The inner sides of these halves are insulated & attached to an axle.
• The external conducting edges of P & Q touch two conducting stationary brushes X & Y, respectively.
• Current in the coil ABCD enters through conducting brush X & flows back to the battery through brush Y.
• That is, the current in arm AB flows from A to B. In arm CD it flows from C to D.
32
• On applying Fleming’s left hand rule, we find that the force acting on arm AB pushes it downwards while the
force acting on arm CD pushes it upwards. Thus, the coil & the axle rotate anti-clockwise.
• At half rotation, Q makes contact with the brush X, & P with brush Y.
• Therefore, the current in the coil gets reversed & flows along the path DCBA.
• A device that reverses the direction of flow of current through a circuit is called a commutator.
• In electric motors, the split ring acts as a commutator.
• The reversal of current also reverses the direction of force acting on the two arms AB & CD.
• Thus, the arm AB of the coil that was earlier pushed down is now pushed up & the arm CD previously pushed
up is now pushed down.
• Therefore, the coil & the axle rotate half a turn more in the same direction.
• The reversing of the current is repeated at each half rotation, giving rise to a continuous rotation of the
coil & to the axle.
• The commercial motors use:
a) an electromagnet in place of permanent magnet;
b) large number of turns of the conducting wire in the current carrying coil; &
c) a soft iron core on which the coil is wound.
• The soft iron core, on which the coil is wound, plus the coils, is called an armature.
• This enhances the power of the motor.
Electromagnetic induction
• A galvanometer is an instrument that can detect the presence of a current in a circuit. 33

• The pointer remains at zero (the centre of the scale) for zero current flowing through it.
• It can deflect either to the left or to the right of the zero-mark depending on the direction of current.
• Let us imagine a situation in which a magnet’s north pole is moving towards end B of the conductor coil.
• There is a momentary deflection in the needle of the galvanometer.
• This indicates the presence of a current in the coil AB.
• The deflection becomes zero the moment the motion of the magnet stops.
• If the south pole of the magnet is moved towards the end B of the coil, the deflections in the galvanometer
would just be opposite to the previous case.
• It is, thus, clear from this activity that motion of a magnet with respect to the coil produces an induced
potential difference, which sets up an induced electric current in the circuit.
• This phenomenon was first studied by English physicist Michael Faraday.
• In 1831, Faraday made an important breakthrough by discovering how a moving magnet can be used to
generate electric currents.
• Let us now replace the moving magnet by a current-carrying coil & the current in the coil can be varied.
• Coil-1 is called the primary coil & coil-2 is called the secondary coil. As the current in the first coil changes,
the magnetic field associated with it also changes.
• Thus, the magnetic field lines around the secondary coil also change.
• Hence the change in magnetic field lines associated with the secondary coil is the cause of induced electric
current in it.
• This process, by which a changing magnetic field in a conductor induces a current in another conductor, 34
is called electromagnetic induction.
In practice we can induce current in a coil either by moving it in a magnetic field or by changing the
•
magnetic field around it. It is convenient in most situations to move the coil in a magnetic field.
• The induced current is found to be the highest when the direction of motion of the coil is at right angles
to the magnetic field.
• In this situation, we can use a simple rule to know the direction of the induced current: Stretch the thumb,
forefinger & middle finger of right hand so that they are perpendicular to each other.
• If the forefinger indicates the direction of the magnetic field & the thumb shows the direction of motion of
conductor, then the middle finger will show the direction of induced current. This simple rule is called Flem-
ing’s right-hand rule.
Michael Faraday (1791-1867)
• Michael Faraday was an experimental physicist. He had no formal education.

• Faraday made several path-breaking discoveries that include electromagnetic induction & the laws of elec-
trolysis.
Electric generator
35
• Electromagnetic induction is also employed to produce large currents for use in homes & industry.
• In an electric generator, a conductor is rotated in a magnetic field to produce electricity.
• An electric generator consists of a rotating rectangular coil ABCD placed between the two poles of a per-
manent magnet.
• The two ends of this coil are connected to the two rings R1 & R2.
• The inner side of these rings are insulated.
• The two conducting stationary brushes B1 & B2 are kept pressed separately on the rings R1 & R2, respectively.
• The two rings R1 & R2 are internally attached to an axle.
• The axle may be mechanically rotated from outside to rotate the coil inside the magnetic field.
• Outer ends of the two brushes are connected to the galvanometer to show the flow of current in the circuit.
• The axle attached to the two rings is rotated such that the arm AB moves up (and the arm CD moves down)
in the magnetic field produced by the permanent magnet (ABCD is rotated clockwise).
• By applying Fleming’s right-hand rule, the induced currents are set up in these arms along the directions AB
& CD.
• Thus, an induced current flows in the direction ABCD.
• This means that the current in the external circuit flows from B2 to B1.
• If there are larger numbers of turns in the coil, the current generated in each turn adds up to give a large
current through the coil.
• After half a rotation, arm CD starts moving up & AB moving down. As a result, the directions of the induced
currents in both the arms change, giving rise to the net induced current in the direction DCBA.
• The current in the external circuit now flows from B1 to B2.
• Thus, after every half rotation the polarity of the current in the respective arms changes.
• Such a current, which changes direction after equal intervals of time, is called an alternating current
(abbreviated as AC). This device is called an AC generator.
• To get a direct current (DC, which does not change its direction with time), a split-ring type commutator
must be used. The generator is thus called a DC generator.
• The difference between the direct & alternating currents is that the direct current always flows in one
direction, whereas the alternating current reverses its direction periodically.
36
• Most power stations constructed these days produce AC.

• In India, the AC changes direction after every 1/100 second, that is, the frequency of AC is 50 Hz.
• An important advantage of AC over DC is that electric power can be transmitted over long distances
without much loss of energy.
Q. A rectangular coil of copper wires is rotated in a magnetic field. The direction of the induced current
changes once in each
a) two revolutions
b) one revolution
c) half revolution
d) one-fourth revolution
Answer: 1/2
Domestic electric circuits
• In our homes, one of the wires in the supply, usually with red insulation cover, is called live wire (or posi-
tive).
• Another wire, with black insulation, is called neutral wire (or negative).
• In our country, the potential difference between the two is 220 V. (220 V & 50 Hz AC current)
• At the metre-board in the house, these wires pass into an electricity meter through a main fuse.
• Often, two separate circuits are used, one of 15 A current rating for appliances with higher power ratings
such as geysers, air coolers, etc.
• The other circuit is of 5 A current rating for bulbs, fans, etc.
• The earth wire, which has insulation of green colour, is usually connected to a metal plate deep in the
earth near the house.
• This is used as a safety measure, especially for those appliances that have a metallic body, for example, electric
press, toaster, table fan, refrigerator, etc.
• The metallic body is connected to the earth wire, which provides a low resistance conducting path for the
current.
• Thus, it ensures that any leakage of current to the metallic body of the appliance keeps its potential to
that of the earth, & the user may not get a severe electric shock.
37
A schematic diagram of one of the common domestic circuits

• Electric fuse is an important component of all domestic circuits. A fuse in a circuit prevents damage to the
appliances & the circuit due to overloading.
• Overloading can occur when the live wire & the neutral wire come into direct contact. (This occurs when the
insulation of wires is damaged or there is a fault in the appliance.)
• In such a situation, the current in the circuit abruptly increases. This is called short-circuiting.
• The use of an electric fuse prevents the electric circuit & the appliance from a possible damage by stopping
the flow of unduly high electric current.
• The Joule heating that takes place in the fuse melts it to break the electric circuit.
• Overloading can also occur due to an accidental hike in the supply voltage. Sometimes overloading is caused
by connecting too many appliances to a single socket.
Summary
• An electromagnet consists of a core of soft iron wrapped around with a coil of insulated copper wire.
• A current-carrying conductor when placed in a magnetic field experiences a force.
• If the direction of the field & that of the current are mutually perpendicular to each other, then the force
acting on the conductor will be perpendicular to both & will be given by Fleming’s left-hand rule. This is
the basis of an electric motor.
• The phenomenon of electromagnetic induction is the production of induced current in a coil placed in a
region where the magnetic field changes with time. If the coil is placed near to a current-carrying conductor,
the magnetic field may change either due to a change in the current through the conductor or due to the
relative motion between the coil & conductor. The direction of the induced current is given by the Fleming’s
right-hand rule.
• In our houses we receive AC electric power of220 V with a frequency of 50 Hz.
Q. Which of the following correctly describes the magnetic field near a long straight wire?
a) The field consists of straight lines perpendicular to the wire.

38
b) The field consists of straight lines parallel to the wire.

c) The field consists of radial lines originating from the wire.

d) The field consists of concentric circles centred on the wire.
Q. The phenomenon of electromagnetic induction is
a) the process of charging a body.

b) the process of generating magnetic field due to a current passing through a coil.
c) producing induced current in a coil due to relative motion between a magnet & the coil.
d) the process of rotating a coil of an electric motor.
Q. The essential difference between an AC generator & a DC generator is that
a) AC generator has an electromagnet while a DC generator has permanent magnet.

b) DC generator will generate a higher voltage.
c) AC generator will generate a higher voltage.
d) AC generator has slip rings while the DC generator has a commutator.
Answer: option four
Q. When is the force experienced by a current-carrying conductor placed in a magnetic field largest?
• Ans: when the magnetic field & electric current are perpendicular to each other (Fleming’s left-hand rule).
Q. Imagine that you are sitting in a chamber with your back to one wall. An electron beam moving hori-
zontally from back wall towards the front wall, is deflected by a strong magnetic field to your right side.
What is the direction of magnetic field?
• Ans: An electron beam moving horizontally from back wall towards the front wall == electric flowing from
front wall towards back wall (Middle Finger).
• Is deflected by a strong magnetic field to your right side (thumb)
• Direction of magnetic field (index finger) = downwards direction (Fleming’s left-hand rule).
39
Q. State the rule to determine the direction of a
a) magnetic field produced around a straight conductor-carrying current (Right-Hand Thumb Rule),
b) force experienced by a current-carrying straight conductor placed in a magnetic field which is perpendic-
ular to it (Fleming’s left-hand rule), &
c) current induced in a coil due to its rotation in a magnetic field (Fleming’s right-hand rule).
Electric Motor ➔ Fleming’s left-hand rule

Electric Generator ➔ Electromagnetic Induction ➔ Fleming’s right-hand rule
3. Motion
• When objects move along a straight line it is called rectilinear motion.

• Motion of a pendulum & motion on strings of a guitar are examples of periodic motion.
• In periodic motion an object repeats its motion after a fixed interval of time.
• Galileo Galilie (A.D. 1564 –1642) discovered that the time period of a given pendulum is constant.
• That is, a pendulum of a given length always takes the same time to complete one oscillation.
• This observation led to the development of pendulum clocks.
Force
• Forces applied on an object in the same direction add to one another.

• If the two forces act in the opposite directions on an object, the net force acting on it is the difference between
the two forces.
Contact Forces
• Muscular Force
• Friction: The frictional force exerted by fluids is also called drag.
Non-contact Forces
40
• These forces come into play even when the bodies are not in contact.
• Magnetic Force
• Electrostatic Force: The force exerted by a charged body on another charged or uncharged body is known
as electrostatic force.
• Gravitational Force: This is an attractive force. The force of gravity acts on all objects.
• Pressure: The force acting on a unit area of a surface is called pressure.
Q. An inflated balloon was pressed against a wall after it has been rubbed with a piece of synthetic cloth.
It was found that the balloon sticks to the wall. What force might be responsible for the attraction be-
tween the balloon & the wall?
Ans: Electrostatic Force
Friction
1. Rolling friction
2. Sliding friction
3. Static friction
• Friction opposes the relative motion between two surfaces in contact. It acts on both the surfaces.
• Static friction comes into play when we try to move an object at rest.
• Sliding friction comes with play when an object is sliding over another.
• Sliding friction is smaller than static friction.
• When one body rolls over another body, rolling friction comes into play. Rolling friction is smaller than the
sliding friction.
Speed, Velocity & Acceleration
Speed
• Speed is the total distance covered divided by the total time taken.
• The SI unit of speed is metre per second. This is represented by the symbol ms-1 or m/s.
• If the speed of an object moving along a straight line keeps changing, its motion is said to be non-uniform.
• An object moving along a straight line with a constant speed is said to be in uniform motion.
• In the case of uniform motion, the average speed is the same as the actual speed.
• The distance-time graph an object moving with a constant speed (uniform motion) is a straight line.
41
•
Distance-time graph of an object moving with uniform speed
• In most cases, objects will be in non-uniform motion. Therefore, we describe the rate of motion of such
objects in terms of their average speed.
• The average speed of an object is obtained by dividing the total distance travelled by the total time taken.
Displacement
• The shortest distance measured from the initial to the final position of an object is known as the displacement.
• The magnitude of the displacement for a course of motion may be zero but the corresponding distance
covered is not zero.
• If the final position of the object coincides with the initial position, the displacement is zero.
• E.g., If you complete one revolution on a circular track then the distance travelled is equal to 2πr, but the
displacement is zero.
Velocity: Speed with direction
• The rate of motion of an object can be more comprehensive if we specify its direction of motion along with
its speed. The quantity that specifies both these aspects is called velocity.
• Velocity is the speed of an object moving in a definite direction.
• The velocity of an object can be uniform or variable.
• It can be changed by changing the object’s speed, direction of motion or both.
• When an object is moving along a straight line at a variable speed, we can express the magnitude of its rate
of motion in terms of average velocity. It is calculated in the same way as we calculate average speed. 42
• In case the velocity of the object is changing at a uniform rate, then average velocity is given by the arith-
metic mean of initial velocity & final velocity for a given period of time.
Acceleration: Rate of Change of Velocity
• During uniform motion of an object along a straight line, the velocity remains constant with time. In this
case, the change in velocity of the object for any time interval is zero.
• However, in non-uniform motion, velocity varies with time. It has different values at different instants & at
different points of the path. Thus, the change in velocity of the object during any time interval is not zero.
• Acceleration is a measure of the change in the velocity of an object per unit time.
• If the velocity of an object changes from an initial value u to the final value v in time t, the acceleration a is,
• This kind of motion is known as accelerated motion.

• The acceleration is taken to be positive if it is in the direction of velocity & negative when it is opposite to
the direction of velocity. The SI unit of acceleration is ms-2.
• If an object travels in a straight line & its velocity increases or decreases by equal amounts in equal intervals
of time, then the acceleration of the object is said to be uniform.
• The motion of a freely falling body is an example of uniformly accelerated motion.
• On the other hand, an object can travel with non-uniform acceleration if its velocity changes at a non-uniform
rate.
Velocity-time graphs
• If the object moves at uniform velocity, the height of its velocity-time graph will not change with time.
• It will be a straight line parallel to the x-axis. 43
Velocity-time graph for uniform motion of a car

• The area enclosed by velocity-time graph & the time axis will be equal to the magnitude of the displacement
(product of velocity & time give displacement of an object moving with uniform velocity).
Velocity-time graph for a car moving with uniform accelerations.
• For all uniformly accelerated motion, the velocity-time graph is a straight line.
• The area under the velocity-time graph gives the distance (magnitude of displacement) moved by the
car in a given interval of time.
• If the car would have been moving with uniform velocity, the distance travelled by it would be represented
by the area ABCD under the graph.
• Since the magnitude of the velocity of the car is changing due to acceleration, the distance s travelled by the
car will be given by the area ABCDE under the velocity-time graph.
Equations of Motion by Graphical Method
• When an object moves along a straight line with uniform acceleration, it is possible to relate its velocity,
acceleration during motion & the distance covered by it in a certain time interval by a set of equations known
as the equations of motion. There are three such equations. These are:
44
u is the initial velocity of the object which moves with uniform acceleration a for time t,
v is the final velocity, &
s is the distance travelled by the object in time t.
Equation for velocity-time (v = u + at)
Velocity-time graph to obtain the equations of motion
• From this graph, you can see that initial velocity of the object is u (at point A) & then it increases to v (at
point B) in time t. The velocity changes at a uniform rate a.
• The perpendicular lines BC & BE are drawn from point B on the time & the velocity axes respectively, so that
the initial velocity is represented by OA, the final velocity is represented by BC & the time interval t is repre-
sented by OC. BD = BC - CD, represents the change in velocity in time interval t.
• Let us draw AD parallel to OC. From the graph, we observe that
BC = BD + DC = BD + OA
Substituting BC = v & OA = u, we get v = BD + u or BD = v - u
• From the velocity-time graph, the acceleration of the object is given by a = Change in velocity / time
taken.
a = BD/AD = BD/OC
Substituting OC = t, we get
45
a = BD/t
or BD = at
or v – u = at
Equation for position-time (s = ut + ½ at2)
• Let us consider that the object has travelled a distance s in time t under uniform acceleration a.
• The distance travelled by the object is obtained by the area enclosed within OABC under the velocity-time
graph AB.
• Thus, the distance s travelled by the object is given by
s = area OABC (which is a trapezium) = area of the rectangle OADC + area of the triangle ABD
s = OA × OC + ½ (AD × BD)
Substituting OA = u, OC = AD = t & BD = at, we get
s = ut + ½ at2
Equation for position-velocity (2 as = v2 – u2)
• The distance s travelled by the object in time t, moving under uniform acceleration a is given by the area
enclosed within the trapezium OABC under the graph. That is, s = area of the trapezium OABC
= (OA + BC) ×OC / 2

Substituting OA = u, BC = v & OC = t, we get
s = (u + v) t / 2
From the velocity-time relation, we get
t = (v – u) / a
thus, s = (u + v) (v - u) / 2a
or 2 as = v2 – u2
Uniform Circular Motion
46
• Let us consider an example of the motion of a body along a closed path. Fig (a) shows the path of an athlete
along a rectangular track ABCD.
• It is clear that to move in a rectangular track once, he has to change his direction of motion four times.
• Now, suppose instead of a rectangular track, the athlete is running along a hexagonal shaped path ABCDEF,
as shown in Fig (b).
• In this situation, the athlete will have to change his direction six times while he completes one round.
• It is observed that as the number of sides of the track increases the athlete has to take turns more & more
often.
• What would happen to the shape of the track as we go on increasing the number of sides indefinitely? If you
do this, you will notice that the shape of the track approaches the shape of a circle & the length of each of
the sides will decrease to a point.
• If the athlete moves with a velocity of constant magnitude along the circular path, the only change in his
velocity is due to the change in the direction of motion.
• The motion of the athlete moving along a circular path is, therefore, an example of an accelerated motion.
• We know that the circumference of a circle of radius r is given by 2πr.
• If the athlete takes t seconds to go once around the circular path of radius r, the velocity v is given by
v = 2πr / t
• When an object moves in a circular path with uniform speed, its motion is called uniform circular motion.
Q. State which of the following situations are possible & give an example for each of these:
a) an object with a constant acceleration but with zero velocity (Ans: When an object is thrown upwards,
at the maximum height, the velocity of the object becomes zero. However, the object is in constant ac-
celeration due to gravity.)
b) an object moving in a certain direction with an acceleration in the perpendicular direction. (Ans:
Circular motion)
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Newton’s laws of motion

Balanced & Unbalanced Forces
• Balanced forces do not change the state of rest or of motion of an object.

• Unbalanced force acting on an object brings it in motion.
• Newton studied Galileo’s ideas on force & motion & presented three fundamental laws that govern the
motion of objects. These three laws are known as Newton’s laws of motion.
First Law of Motion
• An object remains in a state of rest or of uniform motion in a straight line unless compelled to change
that state by an applied force.
• It thus suggests that an unbalanced (external) force is required to change the motion of the object but no
net force is needed to sustain the uniform motion of the object.
• In practical situations it is difficult to achieve a zero unbalanced force. This is because of the presence of the
frictional force acting opposite to the direction of motion.
• In a qualitative way, the tendency of undisturbed objects to stay at rest or to keep moving with the same
velocity is called inertia (tendency to maintain the same state of motion).
• This is why, the first law of motion is also known as the law of inertia.
• Heavier or more massive objects offer larger inertia.

• Quantitatively, the inertia of an object is measured by its mass.
Second Law of Motion
• The first law of motion indicates that when an unbalanced external force acts on an object, its velocity
changes, that is, the object gets an acceleration.
• We would now like to study how the acceleration of an object depends on the force applied to it & how we
measure a force.
• A moving truck, even at low speeds, may kill a person standing in its path. A a bullet may kill a person when
48
fired from a gun.

• These observations suggest that the impact produced by the objects depends on their mass & velocity.
• In other words, there appears to exist some quantity of importance that combines the object’s mass & its
velocity. One such property called momentum was introduced by Newton.
• The momentum, p of an object is defined as the product of its mass, m & velocity, v. That is, p = mv.
• Momentum has both direction & magnitude. Its direction is the same as that of velocity, v.
• The SI unit of momentum is kilogram-metre per second (kg ms-1).
• Since the application of an unbalanced force brings a change in the velocity of the object, it is therefore clear
that a force also produces a change of momentum.
• The second law of motion states that the rate of change of momentum of an object is proportional to
the applied unbalanced force in the direction of force.
• Suppose an object of mass, m is moving along a straight line with an initial velocity, u. It is uniformly accel-
erated to velocity, v in time, t by the application of a constant force, F throughout the time, t.
• The initial & final momentum of the object will be, p1 = mu & p2 = mv respectively.
The change in momentum, p2 – p1 ∝ mv - mu = m (v - u)

The rate of change of momentum ∝ m (v - u) / t
Or, the applied force, F ∝ m (v - u) / t
F = k m (v - u) / t, where k is ratio of proportionality
F = k ma; because (v-u) / t = a
• The unit of force is so chosen that the value of the constant, k becomes one.
• For this, one unit of force is defined as the amount that produces an acceleration of 1 m s-2 in an object of 1
kg mass. That is, 1 unit of force = k × (1 kg) × (1 m s-2).
• Thus, the value of k becomes 1 & F = ma
• The unit of force is kgms-2 or newton, which has the symbol N.
• The second law of motion is often seen in action in our everyday life. Have you noticed that while catching a
fast-moving cricket ball, a fielder in the ground gradually pulls his hands backwards with the moving ball?
• In doing so, the fielder increases the time during which the high velocity of the moving ball decreases to zero.
• Thus, the acceleration of the ball is decreased & therefore the impact of catching the fast-moving ball is also
reduced.
49
• The first law of motion can be mathematically stated from the mathematical expression for the second law
of motion.
F = ma
or Ft = mv - mu
• That is, when F = 0, v = u for whatever time, t is taken. This means that the object will continue moving with
uniform velocity, u throughout the time, t.
• If u is zero, then v will also be zero. That is, the object will remain at rest.
Third Law of Motion
• The first two laws of motion tell us how an applied force changes the motion & provide us with a method
of determining the force.
• The third law of motion states that when one object exerts a force on another object, the second
object instantaneously exerts a force back on the first.
• These two forces are always equal in magnitude but opposite in direction. These forces act on different ob-
jects & never on the same object.
• When a gun is fired, it exerts a forward force on the bullet. The bullet exerts an equal & opposite reaction
force on the gun. This results in the recoil of the gun.
• Since the gun has a much greater mass than the bullet, the acceleration of the gun is much less than the
acceleration of the bullet.
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Conservation of Momentum
• The sum of momenta of the two objects before collision is equal to the sum of momenta after the
collision provided there is no external unbalanced force acting on them. This is known as the law of
conservation of momentum.
• Suppose two objects (two balls A & B, say) of masses mA & mB are travelling in the same direction along a
straight line at different velocities uA & uB, respectively.
• And there are no other external unbalanced forces acting on them.
• Let uA > uB & the two balls collide with each other as shown in Fig.
• During collision which lasts for a time t, the ball A exerts a force F AB on ball B & the ball B exerts a force FBA
on ball A.
• vA & vB are the velocities of the two balls A & B after the collision, respectively.
• The momenta (plural of momentum) of ball A before & after the collision are mAuA & mAvA, respectively. The
rate of change of its momentum (or FAB, action) during the collision will be mA (vA - uA) / t
• Similarly, the rate of change of momentum of ball B (= Fba or reaction) during the collision will be mB (vB –
uB) / t
• According to the third law of motion, the force FAB exerted by ball A on ball B (action) & the force FBA exerted
by the ball B on ball A (reaction) must be equal & opposite to each other. Therefore,
FAB = - FBA
mA (vA - uA) / t = - [mB (vB – uB) / t]
this gives, mAuA + mBuB = mAvA + mBvB
that is,
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• Since (mAuA + mBuB) is the total momentum of the two balls A & B before the collision & (mAvA + mBvB) is
their total momentum after the collision, we observe that the total momentum of the two balls remains
unchanged or conserved provided no other external force acts.
Conservation laws
• All conservation laws such as conservation of momentum, energy, angular momentum, charge etc. are
considered to be fundamental laws in physics. These are based on observations & experiments.
• It is important to remember that a conservation law cannot be proved. It can be verified, or disproved, by
experiments.
• An experiment whose result is in conformity with the law verifies or substantiates the law; it does not prove
the law.
• On the other hand, a single experiment whose result goes against the law is enough to disprove it.
• The law of conservation of momentum has been deduced from large number of observations & experiments.
• It is interesting to note that not a single situation has been realised so far, which contradicts this law. Several
experiences of every-day life can be explained on the basis of the law of conservation of momentum.
Gravitation
• The motion of the moon around the earth is due to the centripetal force.
• The centripetal force is provided by the force of attraction of the earth.
• If there were no such force, the moon would pursue a uniform straight-line motion.
• Newton concluded that all objects in the universe attract each other. This force of attraction between objects
is called the gravitational force.
Universal law of gravitation
• Every object in the universe attracts every other object with a force which is proportional to the prod-
uct of their masses & inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them.
• The force is along the line joining the centres of two objects.
• A & B of masses M & m lie at a distance d from each other.
• Let the force of attraction between two objects be F.
• According to the universal law of gravitation, the force between two objects is directly proportional to the
product of their masses.
• And the force between two objects is inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them. 52
• G is the constant of proportionality & is called the universal gravitation constant.

Why the earth doesn’t move towards the apple?
• According to the second law of motion, for a given force, acceleration is inversely proportional to the
mass of an object.
• The mass of an apple is negligibly small compared to that of the earth. So, we do not see the earth moving
towards the apple.
Isaac Newton (1642 - 1727)
• He invented a new branch of mathematics, called calculus. He used it to prove that for objects outside a
sphere of uniform density, the sphere behaves as if the whole of its mass is concentrated at its centre.
• Newton transformed the structure of physical science with his three laws of motion & the universal law of
gravitation.
How did Newton guess the inverse-square rule?
• Johannes Kepler derived three laws that govern the motion of planets. These are called Kepler’s laws.
• It is important to note that Kepler could not give a theory to explain the motion of planets.
• It was Newton who showed that the cause of the planetary motion is the gravitational force that the Sun
exerts on them. Newton used the third law of Kepler to calculate the gravitational force of attraction.
• The SI unit of G can be obtained by substituting the units of force, distance & mass as N m2 kg-2.
• The value of G was found out by Henry Cavendish (1731 - 1810) by using a sensitive balance.
• The accepted value of G is 6.673 x 10-11 N m2 kg-2.
Acceleration due to gravity
• Whenever an object falls towards the earth, an acceleration is involved. This acceleration is due to the earth’s
gravitational force.
• Therefore, this acceleration is called the acceleration due to the gravitational force of the earth (or accelera-
tion due to gravity). It is denoted by g. The unit of g is the same as that of acceleration, that is, ms-2.
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M is the mass of the earth, & d is the distance between the object & the earth.
Let an object be on or near the surface of the earth. The distance d will be equal to R, the radius of the earth.
Thus, for objects on or near the surface of the earth
• To calculate the value of g,
universal gravitational constant, G = 6.7 × 10–11 N m2 kg-2,

mass of the earth, M = 6 × 1024 kg, and
radius of the earth, R = 6.4 × 106 m.
• The earth is not a perfect sphere. As the radius of the earth increases from the poles to the equator, the value
of g becomes greater at the poles than at the equator (centrifugal force is greater at the equator because
of the earth’s rotation).
Mass & weight
Mass
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• The mass of an object is the measure of its inertia. Greater the mass, the greater is the inertia.
• It remains the same whether the object is on the earth, the moon or even in outer space.
• Thus, the mass of an object is constant & does not change from place to place.
Weight
• We know that the earth attracts every object with a certain force & this force depends on the mass (m) of the
object & the acceleration due to the gravity (g).
• The weight of an object is the force with which it is attracted towards the earth.
• As the weight of an object is the force with which it is attracted towards the earth, the SI unit of weight
is the same as that of force, that is, newton (N).
• The weight is a force acting vertically downwards; it has both magnitude & direction.
• We have learnt that the value of g is constant at a given place. Therefore, at a given place, the weight of an
object is directly proportional to the mass, say m, of the object, that is, W = m x g.
• It is due to this reason that at a given place, we can use the weight of an object as a measure of its mass.
• The mass of an object remains the same everywhere, that is, on the earth & on any planet whereas its
weight depends on its location.
Thrust & Pressure
• The force acting on an object perpendicular to the surface is called thrust.

• When you stand on loose sand, the force, that is, the weight of your body is acting on an area equal to area
of your feet.
• When you lie down, the same force acts on an area equal to the contact area of your whole body, which is
larger than the area of your feet.
• Thus, the effects of forces of the same magnitude on different areas are different.
• Therefore, the effect of thrust depends on the area on which it acts.
• The thrust on unit area is called pressure. SI unit of pressure is N/m2 or N m-2.
• In honour of scientist Blaise Pascal, the SI unit of pressure is called pascal, denoted as Pa.
• All liquids & gases are fluids. A solid exerts pressure on a surface due to its weight. Similarly, fluids have
weight, & they also exert pressure on the base & walls of the container in which they are enclosed.
• Pressure exerted in any confined mass of fluid is transmitted undiminished in all directions.
Buoyancy
Push an empty bottle into the water. You feel an upward push.
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•
• This indicates that water exerts a force on the bottle in the upward direction. The upward force exerted by
the water goes on increasing as the bottle is pushed deeper till it is completely immersed.
• The upward force exerted by the water on the bottle is known as upthrust or buoyant force.
• In fact, all objects experience a force of buoyancy when they are immersed in a fluid.
• The magnitude of this buoyant force depends on the density of the fluid.
• The nail sinks because the downward force acting on the nail is greater than the upthrust of water.
An iron nail sinks & a cork floats when placed on the surface of water.
• The cork floats while the nail sinks. This happens because of the difference in their densities.
• The density of a substance is defined as the mass per unit volume.
• The density of cork is less than the density of water.
• This means that the upthrust of water on the cork is greater than the weight of the cork. So, it floats.
Archimedes’ principle
• Archimedes was a Greek scientist. He discovered the principle, subsequently named after him, after noticing
that the water in a bathtub overflowed when he stepped into it.
• This knowledge helped him to determine the purity of the gold in the crown made for the king.
• His work in the field of Geometry & Mechanics made him famous.
• His understanding of levers, pulleys, wheels- and-axle helped the Greek army in its war with Roman army.
• Archimedes’ principle has many applications. It is used in designing ships & submarines.
• Lactometers, which are used to determine the purity of a sample of milk & hydrometers used for de-
termining density of liquids, are based on this principle.
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Relative Density
• The density of a substance is defined as mass of a unit volume.
• The unit of density is kilogram per metre cube (kg m-3).
• The density of a given substance, under specified conditions, remains the same.
• It is different for different substances. For example, the density of gold is 19300 kg m-3 while that of water is
1000 kg m-3.
• The density of a given sample of a substance can help us to determine its purity.
• It is often convenient to express density of a substance in comparison with that of water.
• The relative density of a substance is the ratio of its density to that of water:
Q. Gravitational force acts on all objects in proportion to their masses. Why then, a heavy object does not
fall faster than a light object?
• Gravitational force acts on all objects in proportion to their masses.

• But a heavy object does not fall faster than a light object.
• This is because of the reason that Acceleration = Force / Mass or Force = Acceleration x Mass.
• As force is directly proportional to mass, acceleration is constant for a body of any mass.
Q. The earth & the moon are attracted to each other by gravitational force. Does the earth attract the
moon with a force that is greater or smaller or the same as the force with which the moon attracts the
earth? Why?
• M = Mass of earth, m = Mass of moon, d = Distance between the earth & the moon. 57
• The magnitude of force (F) is mutual & hence it is same for the earth & the moon.
Work & Energy
• Two conditions need to be satisfied for work to be done: (i) a force should act on an object, & (ii) the object
must be displaced.
• If any one of the above conditions does not exist, work is not done.
• Work done = force x displacement
• Here the unit of work is newton metre (N m) or joule (J).
• The work done by a force can be either positive or negative.
• Work done is negative when the force acts opposite to the direction of displacement.
• Work done is positive when the force is in the direction of displacement.
Forms of energy
• The energy possessed by an object is measured in terms of its capacity of doing work.
• The unit of energy is, therefore, the same as that of work, that is, joule (J).
• 1 J is the energy required to do 1 joule of work.
• Sometimes a larger unit of energy called kilo joule (kJ) is used. 1 kJ equals 1000 J.
• The various forms include potential energy, kinetic energy, heat energy, chemical energy, electrical en-
ergy & light energy.
James Prescott Joule
• James Prescott Joule was an outstanding British physicist. He is best known for his research in electricity &
thermodynamics. Amongst other things, he formulated a law for the heating effect of electric current.
• He also verified experimentally the law of conservation of energy & discovered the value of the mechanical
equivalent of heat. The unit of energy & work called joule, is named after him.
• A moving object can do work. An object moving faster can do more work than an identical object moving
relatively slow.
Kinetic energy of an object
• Objects in motion possess energy. We call this energy kinetic energy.

• A falling coconut, a speeding car, etc. possess kinetic energy.
• In short, kinetic energy is the energy possessed by an object due to its motion.
• The kinetic energy of an object increases with its speed.
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• By definition, we say that the kinetic energy of a body moving with a certain velocity is equal to the work
done on it to make it acquire that velocity.

• Consider an object of mass, m moving with a uniform velocity, u. Let it now be displaced through a distance
s when a constant force, F acts on it in the direction of its displacement. Work done, W = Fs.
• The work done on the object will cause a change in its velocity.
• Let its velocity change from u to v. Let a be the acceleration produced.
• The relation connecting the initial velocity (u) & final velocity (v) of an object moving with a uniform acceler-
ation a, & the displacement, s is v2 - u2 = 2a s
• This gives
• If the object is starting from its stationary position, that is, u = 0, then
• It is clear that the work done is equal to the change in the kinetic energy of an object.
• If u = 0, the work done will be (1/2) mv2.
• Thus, the kinetic energy possessed by an object of mass, m & moving with a uniform velocity, v is
Potential energy of an object
• An object increases its energy when raised through a height. This is because work is done on it against gravity
while it is being raised. The energy present in such an object is the gravitational potential energy.
• The gravitational potential energy of an object at a point above the ground is defined as the work done in
raising it from the ground to that point against gravity.
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• It is easy to arrive at an expression for the gravitational potential energy of an object at a height.
• Consider an object of mass, m. Let it be raised through a height, h from the ground. A force is required to do
this. The minimum force required to raise the object is equal to the weight of the object, mg (F = ma).
• The object gains energy equal to the work done on it. Let the work done on the object against gravity be W.
That is, work done, W = force x displacement = mg x h = mgh
• Since work done on the object is equal to mgh, an energy equal to mgh units is gained by the object. This is
the potential energy (Ep = mgh).
Law of conservation of energy
• Whenever energy gets transformed, the total energy remains unchanged. This is the law of conserva-
tion of energy.
• According to this law, energy can only be converted from one form to another; it can neither be created
or destroyed. The total energy before & after the transformation remains the same.
• The law of conservation of energy is valid in all situations & for all kinds of transformations.
• That is, potential energy + kinetic energy = constant
• The sum of kinetic energy & potential energy of an object is its total mechanical energy.
• We find that during the free fall of the object, the decrease in potential energy, at any point in its path,
appears as an equal amount of increase in kinetic energy.
• There is thus a continual transformation of gravitational potential energy into kinetic energy.
Power: Rate of Doing Work
• Power measures the speed of work done, that is, how fast or slow work is done.
• Power is defined as the rate of doing work or the rate of transfer of energy.
• If an agent does a work W in time t, then power is given by:
• Power = work done / time taken = W/t
• The unit of power is watt [in honour of James Watt (1736 - 1819)] having the symbol W.
• 1 watt is the power of an agent, which does work at the rate of 1 joule per second. We can also say that
power is 1 W when the rate of consumption of energy is 1 J s-1.
• 1 watt = 1 joule/second or 1 W = 1 J s-1.
• We express larger rates of energy transfer in kilowatts (kW).
 1 kilowatt (1 kW) = 1000 watts (W) = 1000 J s-1
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Commercial unit of energy
• The unit joule is too small & hence inconvenient to express large quantities of energy. We use a bigger unit
of energy called kilowatt hour (kW h).
• What is 1 kW h? Let us say we have a machine that uses 1000 J of energy every second. If this machine is
used continuously for one hour, it will consume 1 kW h of energy.
• Thus, 1 kW h is the energy used in one hour at the rate of 1000 J s1 (or 1 kW).
 1 kW h =1 kW x 1 h = 1000 W x 3600 s = 1000 J s-1 x 3600 s = 3600000 J = 3.6 x 106 J
• The energy used in households & commercial establishments are usually expressed in kilowatt hour.
• For example, electrical energy used during a month is expressed in terms of ‘units’.
• Here, 1 ‘unit’ means 1 kilowatt hour.
Q. An object thrown at a certain angle to the ground moves in a curved path & falls back to the ground.
The initial & the final points of the path of the object lie on the same horizontal line. What is the work
done by the force of gravity on the object?
Q. A certain household has consumed 250 units of energy during a month. How much energy is this in
joules?
1 kW h =1 kW x1 h = 1000 W x 3600 s = 3600000J 1 kW h = 3.6 x 106 J

250 units = 250 x 3.6 x 106 J
• What is the work done by the force of gravity on a satellite moving round the earth? Justify your answer.
• Q. Can there be displacement of an object in the absence of any force acting on it? (Ans: Yes, e.g. an object
moving in space outside the gravitational influence of any object. E.g. a rocket that escapes earth’s gravity
will keep moving without the requirement of any force.)
Facts
• The meter that measures the distance moved by the vehicle is known as an odometer.
• The time-keeping services in India are provided by the National Physical Laboratory, New Delhi.
• The clock they use can measure time intervals with an accuracy of one-millionth of a second.
• The most accurate clock in the world has been developed by the National Institute of Standards & Technology
in the U.S.A. This clock will lose or gain one second after running for 20 million years.
4. Sound
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Propagation of Sound
• The matter or substance through which sound is transmitted is called a medium.

• Sound travels through a medium (gas, liquid or solid). It cannot travel in vacuum.
• When an object vibrates, it sets the particles of the medium around it vibrating.
• The particles do not travel all the way from the vibrating object to the ear.
• A particle of the medium in contact with the vibrating object is first displaced from its equilibrium position.
• It then exerts a force on the adjacent particle.
• As a result of which the adjacent particle gets displaced from its position of rest.
• After displacing the adjacent particle, the first particle comes back to its original position.
• This process continues in the medium till the sound reaches your ear.
Wave nature of sound
• Sound waves are characterised by the motion of particles in the medium & are called mechanical waves.
• In these waves the individual particles of the medium move in a direction parallel to the direction of
propagation of the disturbance.
• The particles do not move from one place to another, but they simply oscillate back & forth about their
position of rest. This is exactly how a sound wave propagates, hence sound waves are longitudinal waves.
Transverse wave
• In a transverse wave particle do not oscillate along the line of wave propagation but oscillate up & down
about their mean position as the wave travels.
• Thus, a transverse wave is the one in which the individual particles of the medium move about their mean
positions in a direction perpendicular to the direction of wave propagation.
• Light is a transverse wave but for light, the oscillations are not of the medium particles or their pressure
or density – It is not a mechanical wave.
• Air is the most common medium through which sound travels.

• When a vibrating object moves forward, it pushes & compresses the air in front of it creating a region of high
pressure. This region is called a compression (C).
• This compression starts to move away from the vibrating object. When the vibrating object moves backwards,
it creates a region of low pressure called rarefaction (R).
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• As the object moves back & forth rapidly, a series of compressions & rarefactions is created in the air.
• These make the sound wave that propagates through the medium. Compression is the region of high
pressure & rarefaction is the region of low pressure.
• Pressure is related to the number of particles of a medium in a given volume.
• More density of the particles in the medium gives more pressure & vice versa.
• Thus, propagation of sound can be visualised as propagation of density variations or pressure variations
in the medium.
Characteristics of a sound wave
• We can describe a sound wave by its

✓ frequency
✓ amplitude and
✓ speed.
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Sound propagates as density or pressure variations as shown in (a) & (b), (c) represents graphically the density
& pressure variations.
Wavelength
• The distance between two consecutive compressions (C) or two consecutive rarefactions (R) is called the
wavelength.
• The wavelength is usually represented by λ (Greek letter lambda). Its SI unit is metre (m).
• He also discovered the photoelectric effect which was later explained by Albert Einstein.
Frequency
• We have learnt that the to & fro motion of an object is known as vibration.
• This motion is also called oscillatory motion or periodic motion.
• The number of oscillations per second is called the frequency of oscillation.
• Frequency is expressed in hertz. Its symbol is Hz.
• A frequency of 1 Hz is one oscillation per second.
 Heinrich Rudolph Hertz confirmed J.C. Maxwell’s electromagnetic theory by his experiments. He laid the
foundation for future development of radio, telephone, telegraph & even television.
• We know that when sound is propagated through a medium, the density of the medium oscillates between
a maximum value & a minimum value.
• The change in density from the maximum value to the minimum value, again to the maximum value, makes
one complete oscillation.
• The number of such oscillations per unit time is the frequency of the sound wave.
• If we can count the number of the compressions or rarefactions that cross us per unit time, we will get the
frequency of the sound wave.
• A sound of single frequency is called a tone.
• The sound which is produced due to a mixture of several frequencies is called a note.
Audible & Inaudible Sounds
• Sounds of frequencies less than about 20 vibrations per second (20 Hz) cannot be detected by the hu-
man ear. Such sounds are called inaudible.
• On the higher side, sounds of frequencies higher than about 20,000 vibrations per second (20 kHz) are
also not audible to the human ear.
• Thus, for human ear, the range of audible frequencies is roughly from 20 to 20,000 Hz.
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Infrasonic Sound or Infrasound
• Sounds of frequencies below 20 Hz are called infrasonic sound or infrasound.

• If we could hear infrasound, we would hear the vibrations of a pendulum just as we hear the vibrations of the
wings of a bee.
• Rhinoceroses communicate using infrasound of frequency as low as 5 Hz.
• Whales & elephants produce sound in the infrasound range.
• It is observed that some animals get disturbed before earthquakes.
• Earthquakes produce low-frequency infrasound before the main shock waves begin which possibly alert
the animals.
Ultrasonic sound or ultrasound
• Frequencies higher than 20 kHz are called ultrasonic sound or ultrasound.

• Ultrasound is produced by dolphins, bats & porpoises.
• Some animals can hear sounds of frequencies higher than 20,000 Hz. Dogs have this ability.
• The police use high frequency whistles which dogs can hear but humans cannot.
• Moths of certain families have very sensitive hearing equipment.
• These moths can hear the high frequency squeaks of the bat & know when a bat is flying nearby & are able
to escape capture.
• Rats also play games by producing ultrasound.
Pitch
• How the brain interprets the frequency of an emitted sound is called the pitch.
• The frequency determines the shrillness or pitch of a sound.
• If the frequency of vibration is higher, we say that the sound is shrill & has a higher pitch.
• If the frequency of vibration is lower, we say that the sound has a lower pitch.
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• Objects of different sizes & conditions vibrate at different frequencies to produce sounds of different pitch.
• For example, a drum vibrates with a low frequency. Therefore, it produces a low-pitched sound.
• On the other hand, a whistle has a high frequency & therefore, produces a sound of higher pitch.
• A bird makes a high-pitched sound whereas a lion makes a low-pitched roar.
• However, the roar of a lion is very loud while the sound of the bird is quite feeble.
• Usually, the voice of a woman has a higher frequency & is shriller than that of a man.
Time Period
• The time taken by two consecutive compressions or rarefactions to cross a fixed point is called the time
period of the wave.
• In other words, we can say that the time taken for one complete oscillation in the density of the medium is
called the time period of the sound wave.
• It is represented by the symbol T. Its SI unit is second (s).
• Frequency & time period are related as follows: Frequency (ν) = 1 / Time Period (T) = 1 / T
Amplitude
• The magnitude of the maximum disturbance in the medium on either side of the mean value is called
the amplitude of the wave. It is usually represented by the letter A.
• The loudness or softness of a sound is determined basically by its amplitude.
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Loudness
• The loudness of sound depends on its amplitude.

• When the amplitude of vibration is large, the sound produced is loud.
• When the amplitude is small, the sound produced is feeble.
• Loudness of sound is proportional to the square of the amplitude of the vibration producing the sound.
• For example, if the amplitude becomes twice, the loudness increases by a factor of 4.
• The loudness is expressed in a unit called decibel (dB).
10 dB
Normal breathing
Soft whisper (at 5m) 30 dB
Normal conversation 60 dB
Busy traffic 70 dB
Average factory 80 dB
• Above 80 dB the noise becomes physically painful.

• The amount of sound energy passing each second through unit area is called the intensity of sound.
• We sometimes use the terms “loudness” & “intensity” interchangeably, but they are not the same.
• Loudness is a measure of the response of the ear to the sound.
• Even when two sounds are of equal intensity, we may hear one as louder than the other simply because our
ear detects it better.
Speed of Sound
• The speed of sound depends on the properties of the medium through which it travels.
• The speed of sound decreases when we go from solid to gaseous state.
• The speed of sound in a medium depends also on temperature & pressure of the medium.
• In any medium as we increase the temperature the speed of sound increases. 67
• For example, the speed of sound in air is 331 ms-1 at 0 °C & 344 ms-1 at 22 °C.
Sonic boom
• When the speed of any object exceeds the speed of sound it is said to be travelling at supersonic
speed. Bullets, jet aircrafts etc. often travel at supersonic speeds.
• When a sound, producing source moves with a speed higher than that of sound, it produces shock waves in
air. These shock waves carry a large amount of energy.
• The air pressure variation associated with this type of shock waves produces a very sharp & loud sound called
the “sonic boom”.
• The shock waves produced by a supersonic aircraft have enough energy to shatter glass & even damage
buildings.
Reflection of Sound
• Sound bounces off a solid or a liquid like a rubber ball bounces off a wall.
• Like light, sound gets reflected at the surface of a solid or liquid & follows the same laws of reflection.
• The directions in which the sound is incident & is reflected make equal angles with the normal to the reflect-
ing surface, & the three are in the same plane.
Echo
• If we shout or clap near a suitable reflecting object such as a tall building or a mountain, we will hear the
same sound again a little later. This sound which we hear is called an echo.
• The sensation of sound persists in our brain for about 0.1 s.
• To hear a distinct echo the time interval between the original sound & the reflected one must be at
least 0.1s.
• If we take the speed of sound to be 344 m/s at a given temperature, say at 22 °C in air, the sound must go
to the obstacle & reach back the ear of the listener on reflection after 0.1s.
• Hence, the total distance covered by the sound from the point of generation to the reflecting surface
& back should be at least (344 m/s) x 0.1 s = 34.4 m.
• Thus, for hearing distinct echoes, the minimum distance of the obstacle from the source of sound
must be half of this distance, that is, 17.2 m.
• This distance will change with the temperature of air.
• Echoes may be heard more than once due to successive or multiple reflections.
• The rolling of thunder is due to the successive reflections of the sound from a number of reflecting
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surfaces, such as the clouds & the land.

Reverberation
• A sound created in a big hall will persist by repeated reflection from the walls until it is reduced to a value
where it is no longer audible.
• The repeated reflection that results in this persistence of sound is called reverberation.
• In an auditorium or big hall excessive reverberation is highly undesirable.
• To reduce reverberation, the roof & walls of the auditorium are generally covered with sound-absorbent
materials like compressed fibreboard, rough plaster or draperies.
• The seat materials are also selected on the basis of their sound absorbing properties.
• In instruments, a tube followed by a conical opening reflects sound successively to guide most of the sound
waves from the source in the forward direction towards the audience.
Why are the ceilings of concert halls curved?
• Generally, the ceilings of concert halls, conference halls & cinema halls are curved so that sound after reflec-
tion reaches all corners of the hall.
• Sometimes a curved soundboard may be placed behind the stage so that the sound, after reflecting from the
sound board, spreads evenly across the width of the hall.
Applications of Ultrasound
• The ultrasound equipment, familiar to us for investigating & tracking many medical problems, works at
frequencies higher than 20,000 Hz.
• Ultrasounds are able to travel along well-defined paths even in the presence of obstacles.
• Ultrasound is generally used to clean parts located in hard-to-reach places, for example, spiral tube, odd,
shaped parts, electronic components etc.
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• Due to the high frequency, the particles of dust, grease & dirt get detached & drop out. The objects thus get
thoroughly cleaned.
• A technician uses ultrasound to remove water drops in a mobile phone or an electronic gadget that
fell in water.
• Ultrasounds can be used to detect cracks & flaws in metal blocks. Metallic components are generally used in
construction of big structures like buildings, bridges, machines & also scientific equipment.
• The cracks or holes inside the metal blocks, which are invisible from outside reduces the strength of the
structure.
• Ultrasonic waves are allowed to pass through the metal block & detectors are used to detect the transmitted
waves.
• If there is even a small defect, the ultrasound gets reflected back indicating the presence of the flaw or
defect.
Ultrasound is reflected back from the defective locations inside a metal block.
• Ordinary sound of longer wavelengths cannot be used for such purpose as it will bend around the cor-
ners of the defective location & enter the detector.
• Ultrasonic waves are made to reflect from various parts of the heart & form the image of the heart. This
technique is called ‘echocardiography’.
• Ultrasound scanner is an instrument which uses ultrasonic waves for getting images of internal organs of the
human body. A doctor may image the patient’s organs such as the liver, gall bladder, uterus, kidney, etc.
• It helps the doctor to detect abnormalities, such as stones in the gall bladder & kidney or tumours in
different organs.
• In this technique the ultrasonic waves travel through the tissues of the body & get reflected from a region
where there is a change of tissue density.
• These waves are then converted into electrical signals that are used to generate images of the organ.
• These images are then displayed on a monitor or printed on a film. This technique is called ‘ultrasonogra- 70
phy’.
• Ultrasonography is also used for examination of the foetus during pregnancy to detect congenial defects
& growth abnormalities.

• Ultrasound may be employed to break small ‘stones’ formed in the kidneys into fine grains. These grains
later get flushed out with urine.
• Ultrasound sent by the transmitter & received by the detector.
• The transmitter produces & transmits ultrasonic waves. These waves travel through water & after striking the
object on the seabed, get reflected back & are sensed by the detector.
• The detector converts the ultrasonic waves into electrical signals which are appropriately interpreted.
• The distance of the object that reflected the sound wave can be calculated by knowing the speed of sound
in water & the time interval between transmission & reception of the ultrasound.
• The above method is called echo-ranging.
Sonar
• The sonar technique is used to determine the depth of the sea & to locate underwater hills, valleys,
submarine, icebergs, sunken ship etc.
• The acronym SONAR stands for Sound Navigation & Ranging.
• Sonar is a device that uses ultrasonic waves to measure the distance, direction & speed of underwater
objects.
• Sonar consists of a transmitter & a detector & is installed in a boat or a ship.
• Bats search out prey & fly in dark night by emitting & detecting reflections of ultrasonic waves.
• The high-pitched ultrasonic squeaks of the bat are reflected from the obstacles or prey & returned to bat’s
ear.
• The nature of reflections tells the bat where the obstacle or prey is & what it is like. 71
• Porpoises also use ultrasound for navigation & location of food in the dark.
Ultrasound is emitted by a bat & it is reflected back by the prey or an obstacle.

Voice box
• In humans, the sound is produced by the voice box or the larynx. It is at the upper end of the windpipe.
• Two vocal cords, are stretched across the voice box or larynx in such a way that it leaves a narrow slit between
them for the passage of air.
Voice box in humans
• When the lungs force air through the slit, the vocal cords vibrate, producing sound.
• Muscles attached to the vocal cords can make the cords tight or loose.
• When the vocal cords are tight & thin, the type or quality of voice is different.
• The vocal cords in men are about 20mm long. In women these are about 5mm shorter. Children have very
short vocal cords.
• This is the reason why the voices of men, women & children are different.
• The shape of the outer part of the ear is like a funnel. When sound enters in it, it travels down a canal at the
end of which a thin membrane is stretched tightly. It is called the eardrum.
• The eardrum is like a stretched rubber sheet. Sound vibrations make the eardrum vibrate.
• The eardrum sends vibrations to the inner ear. From there, the signal goes to the brain. That is how we hear.
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Did You Know
• Golconda fort, near Hyderabad, is famous for many engineering & architectural marvels.
• One of the marvels is the water supply system.
• But, perhaps, more astonishing is a dome near the entrance to the fort.
• A hand-clap at a particular point under the dome reverberates & can be heard at the highest point of the
fort, about a kilometre away. This was devised as a warning system.
5. Heat
• A reliable measure of the hotness of an object is its temperature.

• Temperature is measured by a device called thermometer.
• The normal temperature of human body is 37 °C.
• The temperature of human body normally does not go below 35 °C or above 42 °C.
• That is the reason that clinical thermometers have the range 35 °C to 42 °C.
• The range of a laboratory thermometer is generally from –10°C to 110°C.
• Why does the mercury not fall or rise in a clinical thermometer when taken out of the mouth? Ans: The kink
in the thermometer bulb prevents mercury level from falling on its own.
Transfer of heat 73
• In solids, generally, the heat is transferred by the process of conduction.

• The materials which allow heat to pass through them easily are conductors of heat.
• The materials which do not allow heat to pass through them easily are poor conductors of heat such as plastic
& wood. Poor conductors are known as insulators.
• The water & air are poor conductors of heat. Walls constructed using hollow bricks are better at insulating
the house as the trapped air is a bad conductor of heat.
• The mode of heat transfer in a pot of boiling water is known as convection.
• Land & see breeze are examples of convection on a large scale.
• From the sun the heat comes to us by another process known as radiation.
• The transfer of heat by radiation does not require any medium
• When this heat falls on some object, a part of it is reflected, a part is absorbed, & a part may be transmitted.
• All hot bodies radiate a part of the absorbed heat.
Latent heat
• The energy required to change the phase of a substance is known as a latent heat.
• Latent heat is the characteristic amount of energy absorbed or released by a substance during a change in
its physical state that occurs without changing its temperature.
• On increasing the temperature of solids, the kinetic energy of the particles increases.
• Due to the increase in kinetic energy, the particles start vibrating with greater speed.
• The energy supplied by heat overcomes the forces of attraction between the particles.
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• The particles leave their fixed positions and start moving more freely.
• A stage is reached when the solid melts and is converted to a liquid.

• The temperature at which a solid melt to become a liquid at the atmospheric pressure is called its melting
point.
• The melting point of a solid is an indication of the strength of the force of attraction between its particles.
• The melting point of ice is 273.16 k (0 degree Celsius).
• The process of melting, that is, change of solid state into liquid state is also known as fusion.
• When a solid melts, its temperature remains the same, so where does the heat energy go?
• The word latent means hidden. The amount of heat energy that is required to change 1 kg of a solid into
liquid at atmospheric pressure at its melting point is known as the latent heat of fusion.
• The temperature at which a liquid starts boiling at the atmospheric pressure is known as its boiling
point. Boiling is a bulk phenomenon.
• Particles from the bulk of the liquid gain enough energy to change into the vapour state.
• For water, this temperature is 373 k (1000 C = 273 + 100 = 373 k).
• Can you define the latent heat of vaporization? Do it in the same way as we have defined the latent heat
of fusion.
• Particles in steam (water vapour at 373 k (1000 C)) have more energy than water at the same temperature.
This is because particles in steam have absorbed extra energy in the form of latent heat of vaporization.
• The potential energy stored in the interatomic forces between molecules needs to be overcome by the
kinetic energy the motion of the particles before the substance can change phase.
Figure: Temperature change with time. Phase changes are indicated by flat regions where heat energy used to
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overcome attractive forces between molecules.

• Starting at point a, the substance is in its solid phase, heating it brings the temperature up to its melting
point but the material is still a solid at point b.
• As it is heated further, the energy from the heat source goes into breaking the bonds holding the atoms
in place. This takes place from b to c.
• At point c all of the solid phase has been transformed into the liquid phase. Once again, as energy is added
the energy goes into the kinetic energy of the particles raising the temperature, (c to d).
• At point d the temperature has reached its boiling point, but it is still in the liquid phase.
• From points d to e thermal energy is overcoming the bonds and the particles have enough kinetic energy to
escape from the liquid. The substance is entering the gas phase.
• Beyond e, further heating under pressure can raise the temperature still further is how a pressure
cooker works.
 When the phase change is from solid to liquid, we must use the latent heat of fusion, and when the
phase change is from liquid to a gas, we must use the latent heat of vaporization.
 The latent heat associated with melting a solid or freezing a liquid is called the heat of fusion; that
associated with vaporizing a liquid or a solid or condensing a vapour is called the heat of vaporiza-
tion.
 The latent heat is normally expressed as the amount of heat (in units of joules or calories) per mole or
unit mass of the substance undergoing a change of state.
Nail polish remover: how does evaporation cause cooling?
• What happens when you pour some acetone (nail polish remover) on your palm? The particles gain en-
ergy from your palm or surroundings and evaporate causing the palm to feel cool.
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• After a hot sunny day, people sprinkle water on the roof or open ground because the large latent heat of
vaporization of water helps to cool the hot surface. (Another example is cooling water with the help of Matki)
• A basic clear nail polish could be made from nitrocellulose dissolved in butyl acetate or ethyl acetate.
• The nitrocellulose forms a shiny film as the acetate solvent evaporates. However, most polishes contain an
extensive list of ingredients.
• Acetone is usually the main ingredient in nail polish remover. Acetone is a chemical that is produced through
bacterial fermentation. Ethyl acetate is another solvent that is often used in nail polish remover, as well.
• Acetone is such a powerful component that it has the capability of dissolving some plastics and is used
as a cleaning agent, a super-glue remover and fiberglass-tool cleaner, in addition to fiberglass-resin
thinner.
• Some nail polish removers boast that they are acetone-free. These removers contain acetate, instead.
Why should we wear cotton clothes in summer?
• During summer, we perspire more because of the mechanism of our body which keeps us cool.
• We know that during evaporation, the particles at the surface of the liquid gain energy from the sur-
roundings or body surface and change into vapour.
• The heat energy equal to the latent heat of vaporization is absorbed from the body leaving the body cool.
• Cotton, being a good absorber of water helps in absorbing the sweat and exposing it to the atmosphere for
easy evaporation.
Why do we see water droplets on the outer surface of a glass containing ice-cold water?
• The water vapour present in air, on coming in contact with the cold glass of water, loses energy and gets
converted to liquid state, which we see as water droplets.
Why does a desert cooler cool better on a hot dry day?

How does the water kept in an earthen pot (matka) become cool during summer?
Why does our palm feel cold when we put some acetone or petrol or perfume on it?
How can we separate a mixture of salt and ammonium chloride?
• Ammonium chloride changes directly from solid to gaseous state (sublimation) on heating.
• So, to separate such mixtures that contain a sublimable volatile component from a non-sublimable impurity 77
(salt in this case), the sublimation process is used.
• Some examples of solids which sublime are ammonium chloride, camphor, naphthalene and anthracene.
Heat pipes
• As the density of transistors in a microprocessor increases, the amount of heat dissipated increases.
• One solution is the heat pipe. As its name suggests, it transfers heat from high temperature regions to lower
temperature regions where there is more space for heat sinks or cooling fans.
• Although it just looks like a sealed metal pipe, there is a wick or porous material and a liquid with a high
latent heat of vaporization.
• When the pipe is heated the liquid uses the heat to evaporate and changes into a gas, the gas moves to a
colder region of the heat pipe where is condensed and uses the latent heat to change back into a liquid.
• Heat pipes are a reliable and cost-effective solution for laptop computers where fans would reduce battery
life.
• A change of state directly from solid to gas without changing into liquid state (or vice versa) is called
sublimation. (ex: solid CO2 or dry ice)
• Applying pressure and reducing temperature can liquefy gases. Have you heard of solid carbon dioxide
(CO2)? It is stored under high pressure.
• Solid CO2 gets converted directly to gaseous state on decrease of pressure to 1 atmosphere without coming
into liquid state. This is the reason that solid carbon dioxide is also known as dry ice.
6. Light
• Transparent objects: these objects pass light through them and the objects on the other side are clearly
visible. E.g., Clear Glass.
• Opaque object: these objects block light and the objects on the other side are not visible. E.g. Brick wall.
• Translucent objects: these objects partially block the light and the objects on the other side are blurred. E.g.
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Some plastics, frosted glass.

Reflection and Refraction
• Light seems to travel in straight lines. The fact that a small source of light casts a sharp shadow of an opaque
object points to this straight-line path of light, usually indicated as a ray of light.
• If an opaque object on the path of light becomes very small, light has a tendency to bend around it and not
walk in a straight line – an effect known as the diffraction of light.
• Then the straight-line treatment of optics using rays fails.
• To explain phenomena such as diffraction, light is thought of as a wave.
• Again, at the beginning of the 20th century, it became known that the wave theory of light often becomes
inadequate for treatment of the interaction of light with matter, and light often behaves somewhat like a
stream of particles.
• This confusion about the true nature of light continued for some years till a modern quantum theory of light
emerged in which light is neither a ‘wave’ nor a ‘particle’ – the new theory reconciles the particle properties
of light with the wave nature.
Reflection of Light
• After striking the mirror, the ray of light is reflected in another direction.
• The light ray, which strikes any surface, is called the incident ray.
• The ray that comes back from the surface after reflection is known as the reflected ray.
• The angle between the normal and incident ray is called the angle of incidence (Zi).
• The angle between the normal and the reflected ray is known as the angle of reflection (Zr).
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• The angle of incidence is always equal to the angle of reflection. This is known as the law of reflection.
Rays reflected from irregular surface
• When all the parallel rays reflected from a plane surface are not parallel, the reflection is known as diffused
or irregular reflection.
• Remember that the diffused reflection is not due to the failure of the laws of reflection. It is caused by the
irregularities in the reflecting surface, like that of a cardboard.
• On the other hand, reflection from a smooth surface like that of a mirror is called regular reflection. Images
are formed by regular reflection.
• Nearly everything you see around is seen due to reflected light.

• Moon, for example, receives light from the sun and reflects it. That is how we see the moon.
• The objects which shine in the light of other objects are called illuminated objects.
• There are other objects, which give their own light, such as the sun, fire, flame of a candle and an electric
lamp. Their light falls on our eyes. That is how we see them.
• The objects which emit their own light are known as luminous objects.
• This idea of number of images formed by mirrors placed at an angle to one another is used in a kaleidoscope
to make numerous beautiful patterns. You can also make a kaleidoscope yourself.
Laws of Reflection of light
• These laws of reflection are applicable to all types of reflecting surfaces including spherical surfaces.
• Image formed by a plane mirror is always virtual and erect. The size of the image is equal to that of the object.
• The image formed is as far behind the mirror as the object is in front of it. 80
• Further, the image is laterally inverted.
Kaleidoscope
• A kaleidoscope is an optical instrument with two or more reflecting surfaces (or mirrors) tilted to each other
at an angle, so that one or more (parts of) objects on one end of the mirrors are seen as a regular symmetrical
pattern when viewed from the other end, due to repeated reflection.
• When you peep through the hole, you will be able to see a variety of patterns in the tube.
• Interesting feature of a kaleidoscope is that you will never see the same pattern again.
• Designers of wallpapers and fabrics and artists use kaleidoscopes to get ideas for new patterns.
• To make your toy attractive, you can wrap the kaleidoscope in a coloured paper.
Periscope
• Periscope is an instrument used to view around or through an obstacle that prevents direct line-of-sight. E.g.,
periscope of a submarine.
Refraction of light
• Light does not travel in the same direction in all media.

• It appears that when travelling obliquely from one medium to another, the direction of propagation of
light in the second medium changes. This phenomenon is known as refraction of light.
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• EO is the incident ray, OO' is the refracted ray and O'H is the emergent ray. You may observe that the emer-
gent ray is parallel to the direction of the incident ray.
• Why does it happen so? The extent of bending of the ray of light at the opposite parallel faces AB (air-glass
interface) and CD (glass-air interface) of the rectangular glass slab is equal and opposite.
• This is why the ray emerges parallel to the incident ray. However, the light ray is shifted sideward slightly.
• Refraction is due to change in the speed of light as it enters from one transparent medium to another.
• The following are the laws of refraction of light:
1. The incident ray, the refracted ray and the normal to the interface of two transparent media at the point
of incidence, all lie in the same plane.
2. The ratio of sine of angle of incidence to the sine of angle of refraction is a constant, for the light of a
given colour and for the given pair of media. This law is also known as Snell’s law of refraction.
• If i is the angle of incidence and r is the angle of refraction, then,
• This constant value is called the refractive index of the second medium with respect to the first.
The Refractive Index
• You have already studied that a ray of light that travels obliquely from one transparent medium into another
will change its direction in the second medium.
• The extent of the change in direction that takes place in each pair of media is expressed in terms of the
refractive index, the “constant” appearing on the right-hand side of the equation.
• The refractive index can be linked to an important physical quantity, the relative speed of propagation of
light in different media.
• It turns out that light propagates with different speeds in different media.
• Light travels the fastest in vacuum with the highest speed of 3x108 m/s. 82
• In air, the speed of light is only marginally less, compared to that in vacuum.
• It reduces considerably in glass or water.
• The value of the refractive index for a given pair of media depends upon the speed of light in the two media.
• If medium 1 is vacuum or air, then the refractive index of medium 2 is considered with respect to vacuum.
• This is called the absolute refractive index of the medium. It is simply represented as n2. If c is the speed of
light in air and v is the speed of light in the medium, then, the refractive index of the medium nm is given by
• The absolute refractive index of a medium is simply called its refractive index.
• The ability of a medium to refract light is also expressed in terms of its optical density.
• Optical density has a definite connotation. It is not the same as mass density.
• Optically denser medium may not possess greater mass density.
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• For example, kerosene having higher refractive index, is optically denser than water, although its mass density
is less than water.

• We have been using the terms ‘rarer medium’ and ‘denser medium’ in this Chapter.
• It actually means ‘optically rarer medium’ and ‘optically denser medium’, respectively.
• In comparing two media, the one with the larger refractive index is optically denser medium than the other.
• The other medium of lower refractive index is optically rarer.
• The speed of light is higher in a rarer medium than a denser medium.
• Thus, a ray of light travelling from a rarer medium to a denser medium slows down and bends towards the
normal.
• When it travels from a denser medium to a rarer medium, it speeds up and bends away from the normal.
Atmospheric Refraction
• You might have observed the apparent random wavering or flickering of objects seen through a turbulent
stream of hot air rising above a fire or a radiator.
• The air just above the fire becomes hotter than the air further up. The hotter air is lighter (less dense) than
the cooler air above it and has a refractive index slightly less than that of the cooler air.
• Since the physical conditions of the refracting medium (air) are not stationary, the apparent position of the
object, as seen through the hot air, fluctuates.
• This wavering is thus an effect of atmospheric refraction (refraction of light by the earth’s atmosphere) on
a small scale in our local environment.
• The twinkling of stars is a similar phenomenon on a much larger scale. Let us see how we can explain it.
• The twinkling of a star is due to atmospheric refraction of starlight.

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• The starlight, on entering the earth’s atmosphere, undergoes refraction continuously before it reaches the
earth. The atmospheric refraction occurs in a medium of gradually changing refractive index.
• Since the atmosphere bends starlight towards the normal, the apparent position of the star is slightly
different from its actual position.
• The star appears slightly higher (above) than its actual position when viewed near the horizon.
• Further, this apparent position of the star is not stationary, but keeps on changing slightly, since the physical
conditions of the earth’s atmosphere are not stationary, as was the case in the previous paragraph.
• Since the stars are very distant, they approximate point-sized sources of light.
• As the path of rays of light coming from the star goes on varying slightly, the apparent position of the star
fluctuates and the amount of starlight entering the eye flickers – the star sometimes appears brighter, and at
some other time, fainter, which is the twinkling effect.
Why don’t the planets twinkle?
• The planets are much closer to the earth and are thus seen as extended sources.
• If we consider a planet as a collection of a large number of point-sized sources of light, the total variation in
the amount of light entering our eye from all the individual point-sized sources will average out to zero,
thereby nullifying the twinkling effect.
Advance sunrise and delayed sunset
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• The Sun is visible to us about 2 minutes before the actual sunrise, and about 2 minutes after the actual sunset
because of atmospheric refraction.
• By actual sunrise, we mean the actual crossing of the horizon by the Sun.
• Fig shows the actual and apparent positions of the Sun with respect to the horizon.
• The time difference between actual sunset and the apparent sunset is about 2 minutes.
• The apparent flattening of the Sun’s disc at sunrise and sunset is also due to the same phenomenon.
Dispersion
• Splitting of light into its colours is known as dispersion of light.

• Rainbow is a natural phenomenon showing dispersion.
Dispersion of white light by a glass prism
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• The splitting of light into its component colours is called dispersion.
• White light is dispersed into its seven-colour components by a prism.
• Different colours of light bend through different angles with respect to the incident ray, as they pass through
a prism. The red light bends the least while the violet the most.
• Thus, the rays of each colour emerge along different paths and thus become distinct. It is the band of distinct
colours that we see in a spectrum.
• The various colours seen are Violet, Indigo, Blue, Green, Yellow, Orange and Red.
• The acronym VIBGYOR will help you to remember the sequence of colours.
• The band of the coloured components of a light beam is called its spectrum.
• Isaac Newton was the first to use a glass prism to obtain the spectrum of sunlight.
• He tried to split the colours of the spectrum of white light further by using another similar prism.
• However, he could not get any more colours. He then placed a second identical prism in an inverted position
with respect to the first prism. This allowed all the colours of the spectrum to pass through the second prism.
• He found a beam of white light emerging from the other side of the second prism.
• This observation gave Newton the idea that the sunlight is made up of seven colours.
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• Any light that gives a spectrum similar to that of sunlight is often referred to as white light.
Rainbow
• A rainbow is a natural spectrum appearing in the sky after a rain shower.

• It is caused by dispersion of sunlight by tiny water droplets, present in the atmosphere.
• A rainbow is always formed in a direction opposite to that of the Sun.
• The water droplets act like small prisms.
• They refract and disperse the incident sunlight, then reflect it internally (total internal reflection), and
finally refract it again when it comes out of the raindrop.
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• Due to the dispersion of light and internal reflection, different colours reach the observer’s eye.
• You can also see a rainbow on a sunny day when you look at the sky through a waterfall or through a water
fountain, with the Sun behind you.
Scattering of light
• Scattering of light is the phenomenon in which light rays get deviated from its straight path on striking an
obstacle like dust or gas molecules, water vapours etc.
• Scattering of light gives rise to many spectacular phenomena such as Tyndall effect, blue colour of the sky,
colour of water in deep sea, and the reddening of the sun at sunrise and the sunset.
Tyndall Effect
• The earth’s atmosphere is a heterogeneous mixture of minute particles.

• These particles include smoke, tiny water droplets, suspended particles of dust and molecules of air.
• When a beam of light strikes such fine particles, the path of the beam becomes visible.
• The light reaches us, after being reflected diffusely by these particles.
• The phenomenon of scattering of light by the colloidal particles gives rise to Tyndall effect.
• Tyndall effect can also be observed when a fine beam of light enters a room through a small hole.
• This happens due to the scattering of light by the particles of dust and smoke in the air.
• Tyndall effect can be observed when sunlight passes through the canopy of a dense forest.
• In the forest, mist contains tiny droplets of water, which act as particles of colloid dispersed in air.
• The colour of the scattered light depends on the size of the scattering particles.
• Very fine particles scatter mainly blue light while particles of larger size scatter light of longer wave-
lengths.
• If the size of the scattering particles is large enough, then, the scattered light may even appear white.
Tyndall effect in a colloid
• The particles of a colloid are uniformly spread throughout the solution.

• Due to the relatively smaller size of particles, as compared to that of a suspension, the mixture appears to
be homogeneous.
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• But actually, a colloidal solution is a heterogeneous mixture, for example, milk.
• Because of the small size of colloidal particles, we cannot see them with naked eyes.
• But these particles can easily scatter a beam of visible light.
• This scattering of a beam of light is called the Tyndall effect after the name of the scientist who discovered
this effect.
Why is the colour of the clear Sky Blue?
• The molecules of air and other fine particles in the atmosphere have size smaller than the wavelength
of visible light.
• These are more effective in scattering light of shorter wavelengths at the blue end than light of longer
wavelengths at the red end.
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• The red light has a wavelength about 1.8 times greater than blue light.
• Thus, when sunlight passes through the atmosphere, the fine particles in air scatter the blue colour
(shorter wavelengths) more strongly than red.
• The scattered blue light enters our eyes.
• If the earth had no atmosphere, there would not have been any scattering.
• Then, the sky would have looked dark.
• The sky appears dark to passengers flying at very high altitudes, as scattering is not prominent at such heights.
• You might have observed that ‘danger’ signal lights are red in colour. Do you know why? The red is least
scattered by fog or smoke. Therefore, it can be seen in the same colour at a distance.
Colour of the Sun at Sunrise and Sunset
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• The blue colour of the sky and the reddish appearance of the Sun at the sunrise or sunset is due to
scattering of short wavelengths by minute colloidal particles.
• Light from the Sun near the horizon passes through thicker layers of air and larger distance in the earth’s
atmosphere before reaching our eyes.
• However, light from the Sun overhead would travel relatively shorter distance.
• At noon, the Sun appears white as only a little of the blue and violet colours are scattered.
• Near the horizon, most of the blue light and shorter wavelengths are scattered away by the particles.
• Therefore, the light that reaches our eyes is of longer wavelengths. This gives rise to the reddish appearance
of the Sun.
Raman Effect (Raman Scattering)
• Raman Effect is a phenomenon in spectroscopy (study of interaction between matter and electromagnetic
radiation) discovered by Sir Chandrasekhara Venkata Raman in 1928.
• Raman Effect is a change in the wavelength of light when a light beam is deflected by molecules.
• When a beam of light traverses a dust-free, transparent sample of a chemical compound, a small fraction
of the light emerges in directions other than that of the incident beam.
• Most of this scattered light is of unchanged wavelength (color) (Rayleigh scattered light).
• A small part, however, has wavelengths (color) different from that of the incident light.
• In this case, energy from the light particle is transferred to the molecules in the material and the re- 92
maining energy is emitted as scattered light. This interaction process is known as the Raman effect.
• In Raman scattering, there is both an exchange of energy and a change in the light's direction.
• Raman spectroscopy can be used in applications requiring microscopic chemical analysis & imaging.
• One simple example is that the Raman spectroscopy can be used for measuring fat content in milk.
Why do stars twinkle?

Explain why the planets do not twinkle.
Why does the Sun appear reddish early in the morning?
Why does the sky appear dark instead of blue to an astronaut?
7. Mirrors & Lenses
Concave Mirrors and Covex Mirrors
• An image formed by a plane mirror is erect and of the same size as the object.
• If the reflecting surface curves inwards (concave), it is called a concave mirror.
• If the reflecting surface curves outwards (convex), then it is a convex mirror.
• The inner surface of a spoon acts like a concave mirror, while its outer surface acts like a convex mirror.
• Image of your face on the inner side of the spoon (concave) is erect and larger in size.
• If you increase the distance of the spoon from your face, you may see your image inverted.
• A concave mirror can be used to project the real image of an object onto a surface.
• A real image is an image that can be obtained on a screen.
• A real image may be erect or inverted.
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• The image formed by a plane mirror cannot be obtained on a screen.

• Such an image is called a virtual image.
• Experiment: Place a vertical screen behind the mirror. Try to obtain the image of the candle on this screen.
• Now place the screen in front of the mirror. You will find that the image of the candle cannot be obtained on
the screen in either case.
• We see that the image formed by a concave mirror can be smaller or larger in size than the object. The
image may also be real or virtual.
• Concave mirrors are used for many purposes.

• You might have seen doctors using concave mirrors for examining eyes, ears, nose and throat.
• Concave mirrors are also used by dentists to see an enlarged image of the teeth.
• The reflectors of torches, headlights of cars and scooters are concave in shape.
• Repeat the activity now with a convex mirror in place of a concave mirror.
• Could you get a real image at any distance of the object from the convex mirror? Did you get an image larger
in size than the object? Can you now recognise the mirrors used as side mirrors in scooters?
• These are convex mirrors. Convex mirrors can form images of objects spread over a large area. So, these
help the drivers to see the traffic behind them.
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Spherical Mirrors
• The reflecting surface of a spherical mirror may be curved inwards or outwards.

• A spherical mirror, whose reflecting surface is curved inwards, that is, faces towards the centre of the sphere,
is called a concave mirror.
• A spherical mirror whose reflecting surface is curved outwards, is called a convex mirror.
• The centre of the reflecting surface of a spherical mirror is a point called the pole.
• It lies on the surface of the mirror. The pole is usually represented by the letter P.
• The reflecting surface of a spherical mirror forms a part of a sphere. This sphere has a centre.
• This point is called the centre of curvature of the spherical mirror. It is represented by the letter C.
• Please note that the centre of curvature is not a part of the mirror. It lies outside its reflecting surface.
• The centre of curvature of a concave mirror lies in front of it.
• However, it lies behind the mirror in case of a convex mirror.
• The radius of the sphere of which the reflecting surface of a spherical mirror forms a part, is called the radius
of curvature of the mirror. It is represented by the letter R.
• You may note that the distance PC is equal to the radius of curvature.
• Imagine a straight line passing through the pole and the centre of curvature of a spherical mirror.
• This line is called the principal axis. Remember that principal axis is normal to the mirror at its pole.
• A number of rays parallel to the principal axis are falling on a concave mirror. Observe the reflected rays.
• They are all meeting/intersecting at a point on the principal axis of the mirror. This point is called the principal
focus of the concave mirror.
• Similarly, observe Fig. 10.2 (b). The reflected rays appear to come from a point on the principal axis. This point
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is called the principal focus of the convex mirror.

• The principal focus is represented by the letter F. The distance between the pole and the principal focus of a
spherical mirror is called the focal length. It is represented by the letter L.
• The reflecting surface of a spherical mirror is by and large spherical. The surface, then, has a circular outline.
• The diameter of the reflecting surface of spherical mirror is called its aperture.
• In Fig.10.2, distance MN represents the aperture. We shall consider in our discussion only such spherical
mirrors whose aperture is much smaller than its radius of curvature.
• Is there a relationship between the radius of curvature R, and focal length f of a spherical mirror?
• For spherical mirrors of small apertures, the radius of curvature is found to be equal to twice the focal
length. We put this as R = 2f.
• This implies that the principal focus of a spherical mirror lies midway between the pole and centre of
curvature.
Image Formation by Spherical Mirrors
• A ray parallel to the principal axis, after reflection, will pass through the principal focus in case of a
concave mirror or appear to diverge from the principal focus in case of a convex mirror.
• A ray passing through the principal focus of a concave mirror or a ray which is directed towards the prin-
cipal focus of a convex mirror, after reflection, will emerge parallel to the principal axis.
• A ray passing through the centre of curvature of a concave mirror or directed in the direction of the centre
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of curvature of a convex mirror, after reflection, is reflected back along the same path.
• The light rays come back along the same path because the incident rays fall on the mirror along the normal
to the reflecting surface.
• A ray incident obliquely to the principal axis, towards a point P (pole of the mirror), on the concave mirror, is
reflected obliquely.
• The incident and reflected rays follow the laws of reflection at the point of incidence (point P), making equal
angles with the principal axis.
• Remember that in all the above cases the laws of reflection are followed.
• At the point of incidence, the incident ray is reflected in such a way that the angle of reflection equals the
angle of incidence.
Image formation by Concave Mirror
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Uses of Concave Mirrors
• Concave mirrors are commonly used in torches, searchlights and vehicles headlights to get powerful par-
allel beams of light.
• They are often used as shaving mirrors to see a larger image of the face.
• The dentists use concave mirrors to see large images of the teeth of patients.
• Large concave mirrors are used to concentrate sunlight to produce heat in solar furnaces.
Image formation by a Convex Mirror
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Uses of Convex Mirrors

• Convex mirrors are commonly used as rear-view (wing) mirrors in vehicles.
• These mirrors are fitted on the sides of the vehicle, enabling the driver to see traffic behind him/her to facil-
itate safe driving.
• Convex mirrors are preferred because they always give an erect, though diminished, image.
• Also, they have a wider field of view as they are curved outwards.
• Thus, convex mirrors enable the driver to view much larger area than would be possible with a plane mirror.
Name a mirror that can give an erect and enlarged image of an object.
Why do we prefer a convex mirror as a rear-view mirror in vehicles?
Sign Convention for Reflection by Spherical Mirrors
• While dealing with the reflection of light by spherical mirrors, we shall follow a set of sign conventions called
the New Cartesian Sign Convention.
• In this convention, the pole (P) of the mirror is taken as the origin.
• The principal axis of the mirror is taken as the x-axis (X’X) of the coordinate system.
• The conventions are as follows:
1. The object is always placed to the left of the mirror. This implies that the light from the object falls on the
mirror from the left-hand side.
2. All distances parallel to the principal axis are measured from the pole of the mirror.
3. All the distances measured to the right of the origin (along + x-axis) are taken as positive while those
measured to the left of the origin (along - x-axis) are taken as negative.
4. Distances measured perpendicular to and above the principal axis (along + y-axis) are taken as positive.
5. Distances measured perpendicular to and below the principal axis (along -y-axis) are taken as negative.
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Mirror Formula and Magnification
• In a spherical mirror, the distance of the object from its pole is called the object distance (u).
• The distance of the image from the pole of the mirror is called the image distance (v).
• You already know that the distance of the principal focus from the pole is called the focal length (f).
• There is a relationship between these three quantities given by the mirror formula which is expressed as
• This formula is valid in all situations for all spherical mirrors for all positions of the object.
• You must use the New Cartesian Sign Convention while substituting numerical values for u, v, f and R in the
mirror formula for solving problems.
Magnification
• Magnification produced by a spherical mirror gives the relative extent to which the image of an object is
magnified with respect to the object size.
• It is expressed as the ratio of the height of the image to the height of the object. It is usually represented by
the letter m.
• If h is the height of the object and h' is the height of the image, then the magnification m produced by a
spherical mirror is given by
• The magnification m is also related to the object distance (u) and image distance (v). It can be expressed as:
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• You may note that the height of the object is taken to be positive as the object is usually placed above the
principal axis. The height of the image should be taken as positive for virtual images.
• However, it is to be taken as negative for real images.
• A negative sign in the value of the magnification indicates that the image is real.
• A positive sign in the value of the magnification indicates that the image is virtual.
Concave Lens and Covex Lens
• Those lenses which feel thicker in the middle than at the edges are convex lenses.
• Those which feel thinner in the middle than at the edges are concave lenses.
• It is dangerous to look through a lens at the sun or a bright light.
• You should also be careful not to focus sunlight with a convex lens on any part of your body.
• Take a convex lens or magnifying glass. Put it in the path of sunrays. Place a sheet of paper as shown.
• Adjust the distance between the lens and the paper till you get a bright spot on the paper. Hold the lens and
the paper in this position for a few minutes.
• Does the paper begin to burn? Now replace the convex lens with a concave lens. Do you see a bright spot
on the paper this time, too? Why are you not getting a bright spot this time?
• A convex lens converges (bends inward) the light generally falling on it.
• Therefore, it is called a converging lens.
• On the other hand, a concave lens diverges (bends outward) the light and is called a diverging lens.
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Spherical Lenses
• A transparent material bound by two surfaces, of which one or both surfaces are spherical, forms a lens.
• This means that a lens is bound by at least one spherical surface.
• In such lenses, the other surface would be plane.
• A lens may have two spherical surfaces, bulging outwards. Such a lens is called a double convex lens.
• It is simply called a convex lens. It is thicker at the middle as compared to the edges.
• Convex lens converges light rays. Hence convex lenses are called converging lenses.
• Similarly, a double concave lens is bounded by two spherical surfaces, curved inwards. It is thicker at the
edges than at the middle. Such lenses diverge light rays. Such lenses are called diverging lenses.
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• A double concave lens is simply called a concave lens.

• A lens, either a convex lens or a concave lens, has two spherical surfaces. Each of these surfaces forms a part
of a sphere. The centres of these spheres are called centres of curvature of the lens.
• The centre of curvature of a lens is usually represented by the letter C.
• Since there are two centres of curvature, we may represent them as C1 and C2.
• An imaginary straight line passing through the two centres of curvature of a lens is called its principal axis.
• The central point of a lens is its optical centre. It is usually represented by the letter O.
• A ray of light through the optical centre of a lens passes without suffering any deviation.
• The effective diameter of the circular outline of a spherical lens is called its aperture.
• We shall confine our discussion in this Chapter to such lenses whose aperture is much less than its radius of
curvature. Such lenses are called thin lenses with small apertures.
Refraction by Spherical Lenses
• Several rays of light parallel to the principal axis are falling on a convex lens.
• These rays, after refraction from the lens, are converging to a point on the principal axis. This point on the
principal axis is called the principal focus of the lens.
• Several rays of light parallel to the principal axis are falling on a concave lens.
• These rays, after refraction from the lens, are appearing to diverge from a point on the principal axis. This
point on the principal axis is called the principal focus of the concave lens.
• If you pass parallel rays from the opposite surface of the lens, you get another principal focus on the opposite
side. Letter F is usually used to represent principal focus.
• However, a lens has two principal foci. They are represented by F1 and F2.
• The distance of the principal focus from the optical centre of a lens is called its focal length.
• The letter L is used to represent the focal length.
• A concave lens will always give a virtual, erect and diminished image, irrespective of the position of
the object.
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• Ray diagrams will also help us to study the nature, position and relative size of the image formed by lenses.
• A ray of light from the object, parallel to the principal axis, after refraction from a convex lens, passes
through the principal focus on the other side of the lens.
• In case of a concave lens, the ray appears to diverge from the principal focus located on the same side of
the lens.
• A ray of light passing through a principal focus, after refraction from a convex lens, will emerge parallel to
the principal axis.
• A ray of light appearing to meet at the principal focus of a concave lens, after refraction, will emerge parallel
to the principal axis.
• A ray of light passing through the optical centre of a lens will emerge without any deviation.
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The ray diagrams for the image formation in a convex lens for a few positions of the object
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The ray diagrams representing the image formation in a concave lens for various positions of
the object
Sign Convention for Spherical Lenses
• For lenses, we follow sign conventions, similar to the one used for spherical mirrors.
• We apply the rules for signs of distances, except that all measurements are taken from the optical centre of
the lens.
• According to the convention, the focal length of a convex lens is positive and that of a concave lens is nega-
tive.
• You must take care to apply appropriate signs for the values of u, v, f, object height h and image height h'.
Lens Formula and Magnification
• As we have a formula for spherical mirrors, we also have formula for spherical lenses. This formula gives the 106
relationship between object- distance (u), image-distance (v) and the focal length (f). The lens formula is
expressed as
• The lens formula given above is general and is valid in all situations for any spherical lens. Take proper care
of the signs of different quantities, while putting numerical values for solving problems relating to lenses.
Magnification
• The magnification produced by a lens, similar to that for spherical mirrors, is defined as the ratio of the height
of the image and the height of the object. It is represented by the letter m.
• If h is the height of the object and h' is the height of the image given by a lens, then the magnification
produced by the lens is given by,
• Magnification produced by a lens is also related to the object-distance u, and the image-distance v. This
relationship is given by
Power of a Lens
• You have already learnt that the ability of a lens to converge or diverge light rays depends on its focal length.
• For example, a convex lens of short focal length bends the light rays through large angles, by focussing them
closer to the optical centre.
• Similarly, concave lens of very short focal length causes higher divergence than the one with longer focal
length.
• The degree of convergence or divergence of light rays achieved by a lens is expressed in terms of its power.
• The power of a lens is defined as the reciprocal of its focal length. It is represented by the letter P.
• The power P of a lens of focal length f is given by
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• The SI unit of power of a lens is ‘dioptre’. It is denoted by the letter D.

• If f is expressed in metres, then, power is expressed in dioptres.
• Thus, 1 dioptre is the power of a lens whose focal length is 1 metre.
• You may note that the power of a convex lens is positive and that of a concave lens is negative.
• Opticians prescribe corrective lenses indicating their powers.
• Let us say the lens prescribed has power equal to + 2.0 D. This means the lens prescribed is convex. The focal
length of the lens is + 0.50 m.
• Similarly, a lens of power - 2.5 D has a focal length of – 0.40 m. The lens is concave.
• Many optical instruments consist of several lenses.
• They are combined to increase the magnification and sharpness of the image.
• The net power (P) of the lenses placed in contact is given by the algebraic sum of the individual powers P1,
P2, P3, ... as P = P1 + P2 + P3 +•••
• The use of powers, instead of focal lengths, for lenses is quite convenient for opticians.
• During eye-testing, an optician puts several different combinations of corrective lenses of known power, in
contact, inside the testing spectacles’ frame.
• The optician calculates the power of the lens required by simple algebraic addition.
• For example, a combination of two lenses of power + 2.0 D and + 0.25 D is equivalent to a single lens of
power + 2.25 D.
• The simple additive property of the powers of lenses can be used to design lens systems to minimise certain
defects in images produced by a single lens.
• Such a lens system, consisting of several lenses, in contact, is commonly used in the design of camera lenses
and the objectives of microscopes and telescopes.
Questions
The image formed by a concave mirror is observed to be virtual, erect and larger than the ob-
ject. Where should be the position of the object?
a) Between the principal focus and the centre of curvature

b) At the centre of curvature
c) Beyond the centre of curvature
d) Between the pole of the mirror and its principal focus. 108
Where should an object be placed in front of a convex lens to get a real image of the size of the
object?
1) At the principal focus of the lens

2) At twice the focal length
3) At infinity
4) Between the optical centre of the lens and its principal focus.
A spherical mirror and a thin spherical lens have each a focal length of -15 cm. The mirror and
the lens are likely to be
a) both concave.
b) both convex.
c) the mirror is concave and the lens is convex.
d) the mirror is convex, but the lens is concave.
No matter how far you stand from a mirror, your image appears erect. The mirror is likely to be
a) plane.
b) concave.
c) convex.
d) either plane or convex.
Which of the following lenses would you prefer to use while reading small letters found in a
dictionary?
a) A convex lens of focal length 50 cm.

b) A concave lens of focal length 50 cm.
c) A convex lens of focal length 5 cm.
d) A concave lens of focal length 5 cm.
Name the type of mirror used in the following situations.
a) Headlights of a car.
b) Side/rear-view mirror of a vehicle.
c) Solar furnace.
8. The Human Eye

109
• The human eye is like a camera.
• Its lens system forms an image on a light-sensitive screen called the retina.
• Light enters the eye through a thin membrane called the cornea.
• It forms the transparent bulge on the front surface of the eyeball.
• The eyeball is approximately spherical in shape with a diameter of about 2.3 cm.
• Most of the refraction for the light rays entering the eye occurs at the outer surface of the cornea.
• The crystalline lens merely provides the finer adjustment of focal length required to focus objects at different
distances on the retina.
• Behind the cornea, we find a dark muscular structure called iris.
• In the iris, there is a small opening called the pupil.
• The size of the pupil is controlled by the iris.
• The iris is the part of that eye which gives it its distinctive colour.
• When we say that a person has green eyes, we refer actually to the colour of the iris.
• The iris & pupil controls the amount of light entering into the eye.
• The eye lens forms an inverted real image of the object on the retina.
• The retina is a delicate membrane having enormous number of light-sensitive cells.
• The light-sensitive cells get activated upon illumination and generate electrical signals.
• These signals are sent to the brain via the optic nerves.
• The brain interprets these signals, and finally, processes the information so that we perceive objects as they
are.
• Damage to or malfunction of any part of the visual system can lead to significant loss of visual functioning.
• For example, if any of the structures involved in the transmission of light, like the cornea, pupil, eye lens,
aqueous humour and vitreous humour or those responsible for conversion of light to electrical impulse, like
110
the retina or even the optic nerve that transmits these impulses to the brain, is damaged, it will result in visual
impairment.
• You might have experienced that you are not able to see objects clearly for some time when you enter from
bright light to a room with dim light.
• After some time, however, you may be able to see things in the dim-lit room.
• The pupil of an eye acts like a variable aperture whose size can be varied with the help of the iris.
• When the light is very bright, the iris contracts the pupil to allow less light to enter the eye.
• However, in dim light the iris expands the pupil to allow more light to enter the eye.
• Thus, the pupil opens completely through the relaxation of the iris.
• A night bird (owl) can see very well in the night but not during the day.
• On the other hand, day light birds (kite, eagle) can see well during the day but not in the night.
• The Owl has a large cornea and a large pupil to allow more light in its eye.
• Also, it has on its retina a large number of rods and only a few cones.
• The day birds on the other hand, have more cones and fewer rods.
• Animals have eyes shaped in different ways. Eyes of a crab are quite small, but they enable the crab to look
all around. So, the crab can sense even if the enemy approaches from behind.
• Butterfly has large eyes that seem to be made up of thousands of little eyes. It can see not only in the front
and the sides but the back.
Power of Accommodation
• The eye lens is composed of a fibrous, jelly-like material.

• Its curvature can be modified to some extent by the ciliary muscles.
• The change in the curvature of the eye lens can thus change its focal length.
• When the muscles are relaxed, the lens becomes thin. Thus, its focal length increases.
• This enables us to see distant objects clearly.
• When you are looking at objects closer to the eye, the ciliary muscles contract.
• This increases the curvature of the eye lens. The eye lens then becomes thicker.
• Consequently, the focal length of the eye lens decreases. This enables us to see nearby objects clearly.
• The ability of the eye lens to adjust its focal length is called accommodation.
• However, the focal length of the eye lens cannot be decreased below a certain minimum limit.
• Try to read a printed page by holding it very close to your eyes.
• You may see the image being blurred or feel strain in the eye.
• To see an object comfortably and distinctly, you must hold it at about 25 cm from the eyes. 111
• The minimum distance, at which objects can be seen most distinctly without strain, is called the least distance
of distinct vision.
• It is also called the near point of the eye. For a young adult with normal vision, the near point is about 25 cm.
• The farthest point upto which the eye can see objects clearly is called the far point of the eye. It is infinity
for a normal eye.
• You may note here a normal eye can see objects clearly that are between 25 cm and infinity.
• Sometimes, the crystalline lens of people at old age becomes milky and cloudy.
• This condition is called cataract.
• This causes partial or complete loss of vision. It is possible to restore vision through a cataract surgery.
Why do we have two eyes for vision and not just one?
• There are several advantages of our having two eyes instead of one. It gives a wider field of view.
• A human being has a horizontal field of view of about 150° with one eye & of about 180° with two eyes.
• The ability to detect faint objects is, of course, enhanced with two detectors instead of one.
• Some animals, usually prey animals, have their two eyes positioned on opposite sides of their heads to give
the widest possible field of view.
• But our two eyes are positioned on the front of our heads, and it thus reduces our field of view in favour of
what is called stereopsis.
• Shut one eye and the world looks flat - two-dimensional.
• Keep both eyes open and the world takes on the third dimension of depth.
• Because our eyes are separated by a few centimetres, each eye sees a slightly different image.
• Our brain combines the two images into one, using the extra information to tell us how close or far away
things are.
Defects of vision and their correction
• Sometimes, the eye may gradually lose its power of accommodation.

• In such conditions, the person cannot see the objects distinctly and comfortably.
• The vision becomes blurred due to the refractive defects of the eye.
• There are mainly three common refractive defects of vision. These are:
1) myopia or near-sightedness,
2) Hypermetropia or farsightedness, and
3) Presbyopia
• These defects can be corrected by the use of suitable spherical lenses. 112
• We discuss below these defects and their correction.
Myopia
• Myopia is also known as near-sightedness.

• A person with myopia can see nearby objects clearly but cannot see distant objects distinctly.
• A person with this defect has the far point nearer than infinity.
• Such a person may see clearly upto a distance of a few metres.
• In a myopic eye, the image of a distant object is formed in front of the retina and not at the retina itself.
• This defect may arise due to (i) excessive curvature of the eye lens, or (ii) elongation of the eyeball.
• This defect can be corrected by using a concave lens of suitable power.
• A concave lens of suitable power will bring the image back on to the retina and thus the defect is corrected.
Hypermetropia
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• Hypermetropia is also known as far-sightedness.
• A person with hypermetropia can see distant objects clearly but cannot see nearby objects distinctly.
• The near point, for the person, is farther away from the normal near point (25 cm).
• Such a person has to keep a reading material much beyond 25 cm from the eye for comfortable reading.
• This is because the light rays from a closeby object are focussed at a point behind the retina.
• This defect arises either because (i) the focal length of the eye lens is too long, or (ii) the eyeball has
become too small. This defect can be corrected by using a convex lens of appropriate power.
• Eye-glasses with converging lenses provide the additional focussing power required for forming the image
on the retina.
Presbyopia
• The power of accommodation of the eye usually decreases with ageing.

• For most people, the near point gradually recedes away.
• They find it difficult to see nearby objects comfortably and distinctly without corrective eyeglasses.
• This defect is called Presbyopia.
• It arises due to the gradual weakening of the ciliary muscles and diminishing flexibility of the eye lens.
• Sometimes, a person may suffer from both myopia & hypermetropia.
• Such people often require bifocal lenses.
• A common type of bi-focal lenses consists of both concave and convex lenses.
• The upper portion consists of a concave lens. It facilitates distant vision.
• The lower part is a convex lens. It facilitates near vision.
• These days, it is possible to correct the refractive defects with contact lenses or through surgical interventions.
Eye Donation
• About 35 million people in the developing world are blind and most of them can be cured.
• About 4.5 million people with corneal blindness can be cured through corneal transplantation of donated 114
eyes.
• Out of these 4.5 million, 60% are children below the age of 12.
• So, if we have got the gift of vision, why not pass it on to somebody who does not have it? What do we have
to keep in mind when eyes have to be donated?
• Eye donors can belong to any age group or sex. People who use spectacles, or those operated for cataract,
can still donate the eyes.
• People who are diabetic, have hypertension, asthma patients and those without communicable diseases can
also donate eyes.
✓ Eyes must be removed within 4-6 hours after death. Inform the nearest eye bank immediately.
✓ The eye bank team will remove the eyes at the home of the deceased or at a hospital.
✓ Eye removal takes only 10-15 minutes. It is a simple process and does not lead to any disfigurement.
✓ Persons who were infected with or died because of AIDS, Hepatitis B or C, rabies, acute leukaemia, tetanus,
cholera, meningitis, or encephalitis cannot donate eyes.
• An eye bank collects, evaluates, and distributes the donated eyes.
• All eyes donated are evaluated using strict medical standards.
• Those donated eyes found unsuitable for transplantation are used for valuable research and medical educa-
tion. The identities of both the donor and the recipient remain confidential.
• One pair of eyes gives vision to TWO CORNEAL BLIND PEOPLE.
Summary
• The ability of the eye to focus both near and distant objects, by adjusting its focal length, is called the ac-
commodation of the eye.
• The smallest distance, at which the eye can see objects clearly without strain, is called the near point of the
eye or the least distance of distinct vision. For a young adult with normal vision, it is about 25 cm.
• The common refractive defects of vision include myopia, hypermetropia and presbyopia.
• Myopia (short-sightedness - the image of distant objects is focussed before the retina) is corrected by using
a concave lens of suitable power.
• Hypermetropia (far-sightedness – the image of nearby objects is focussed beyond the retina) is corrected by
using a convex lens of suitable power. The eye loses its power of accommodation at old age.
Questions
• A person with a myopic eye cannot see objects beyond 1.2 m distinctly. What should be the type of the 115
corrective lens used to restore proper vision?
• What is the far point and near point of the human eye with normal vision?
• A student has difficulty reading the blackboard while sitting in the last row. What could be the defect the
child is suffering from? How can it be corrected?
The human eye can focus objects at different distances by adjusting the focal length of the eye
lens. This is due to
a) presbyopia.
b) accommodation.
c) near-sightedness.
d) far-sightedness.
The human eye forms the image of an object at its
a) cornea.
b) Iris
c) pupil
d) retina
The least distance of distinct vision for a young adult with normal vision is about
a) 25 m
b) 2.5 cm
c) 25 cm
d) 2.5 m.
The change in focal length of an eye lens is caused by the action of the
a) pupil
b) retina
c) ciliary muscles
d) iris
• Why is a normal eye not able to see clearly the objects placed closer than 25 cm?
• What happens to the image distance in the eye when we increase the distance of an object from the eye?
9. Misc Topics
116
States of Matter
• Now scientists are talking of five states of matter: solid, liquid, gas, plasma and bose-einstein conden-
sate.
Plasma
• Plasma state consists of super energetic and super excited particles.

• These particles are in the form of ionised gases.
• Lightning and electric sparks are everyday examples of phenomena made from plasma.
• Neon lights could more accurately be called ‘plasma lights’ because the light comes from the plasma inside
of them.
• The fluorescent tubes also consist of plasma.
• Inside a neon sign bulb there is neon gas & inside a fluorescent tube there is helium gas or some other gas.
• The gas gets ionised, that is, gets charged when electrical energy flows through it.
• This charging up creates a plasma glowing inside the tube or bulb.
• The plasma glows with a special colour depending on the nature of gas.
• The sun and the stars glow because of the presence of plasma in them.
• The plasma is created in stars because of very high temperature.
Corona
• A corona is a distinctive atmosphere of plasma that surrounds the Sun and other celestial bodies.
• The Sun’s corona extends millions of kilometres into space and is most easily seen during a total solar eclipse.
• Sun’s Corona visible during Total Solar Eclipse.
Sun’s Corona visible during Total Solar Eclipse

117
Bose-einstein condensate
• In 1920, indian physicist Satyendra Nath Bose had done some calculations for a fifth state of matter.
• Building on his calculations, Albert Einstein predicted a new state of matter – the Bose-Einstein Conden-
sate (BEC).
• In 2001, Eric A. Cornell, Wolfgang Ketterle and Carl E. Wieman of USA received the Nobel prize in physics for
achieving “bose-einstein condensation”.
• The BEC is formed by cooling a gas of extremely low density, about one-hundred-thousandth the density
of normal air, to super low temperatures.
Chromatography
• The ink that we use has water as the solvent and the dye is soluble in it.
• Usually, a dye is a mixture of two or more colours.
• The coloured component that is more soluble in water, rises faster and in this way the colours get separated.
• This process of separation of components of a mixture is known as chromatography.
• Applications: to separate colours in a dye, pigments from natural colours & drugs from blood.
How can we separate a mixture of two miscible liquids?
• This method is called distillation. It is used for the separation of components of a mixture containing two
miscible liquids that boil without decomposition and have sufficient difference in boiling point.
118
NCERT Chemistry Class 6-10 Compilation by Pmfias.com
PDF Contents
1. Matter ............................................................................................................................. 7
Elements ................................................................................................................................................................7
Some facts ......................................................................................................................................................................................... 8
Metals ............................................................................................................................................................................................... 8
Non-metals ........................................................................................................................................................................................ 9
Metalloids ......................................................................................................................................................................................... 9
Compound .............................................................................................................................................................9
Mixtures vs Compounds .................................................................................................................................................................. 10
Molecule .............................................................................................................................................................. 11
John Dalton’s Atomic Theory .......................................................................................................................................................... 11
Molecules of Elements and Compounds ......................................................................................................................................... 12
What is an Ion? .................................................................................................................................................... 14

Writing chemical formulae ................................................................................................................................... 14
Atomic mass, Molecular mass and Formula unit mass ........................................................................................... 15
Mole concept ....................................................................................................................................................... 16
Summary ............................................................................................................................................................. 17
2. Structure of The Atom ................................................................................................... 17
Thomson’s Model of an Atom ............................................................................................................................... 18

Rutherford’s Model of an Atom ............................................................................................................................ 19
Conclusions drawn from the α-particle scattering experiment ...................................................................................................... 20
Drawbacks of Rutherford’s model of the atom .............................................................................................................................. 21 1
Neutrons.............................................................................................................................................................. 21
Atomic Number.................................................................................................................................................... 21
Mass Number....................................................................................................................................................... 21
Isotopes ............................................................................................................................................................... 22
Applications of Isotopes .................................................................................................................................................................. 23
Isobars ................................................................................................................................................................. 23
Bohr’s Model of Atom .......................................................................................................................................... 23
How are electrons distributed in different orbits (shells)? ............................................................................................................. 24
Valency ................................................................................................................................................................ 24
Summary ............................................................................................................................................................. 26
3. Physical Change & Chemical Change .............................................................................. 27
Crystallisation – Physical Change .......................................................................................................................... 28

Rusting of iron – Chemical Change ........................................................................................................................ 28
Questions ............................................................................................................................................................ 29
4. Chemical Equations ....................................................................................................... 29
Types of chemical reactions.................................................................................................................... 31

Combination Reaction ..................................................................................................................................................................... 31
Decomposition Reaction ................................................................................................................................................................. 31
Displacement Reaction ................................................................................................................................................................... 32
Double Displacement Reaction ....................................................................................................................................................... 33
Oxidation and Reduction................................................................................................................................................................. 34
Electric Current & Chemical Reactions................................................................................................................... 35

Summary ............................................................................................................................................................. 37
Questions ............................................................................................................................................................ 38
5. Acids, Bases and Salts .................................................................................................... 39
Acid rain .............................................................................................................................................................. 40

Indicators ............................................................................................................................................................. 41
Litmus: A natural dye ...................................................................................................................................................................... 41
Phenolpthalein ................................................................................................................................................................................ 41
How do Acids React with Metals? ......................................................................................................................... 42

How do Metal Carbonates & Metal Hydrogen carbonates React with Acids?.......................................................... 42 2
Preparing a soda-acid fire extinguisher ........................................................................................................................................... 43

Reaction of Metallic Oxides with Acids.................................................................................................................. 44

How do acids react with bases (Neutralisation)? ................................................................................................... 44
Reaction of a Non-metallic Oxide with Base ................................................................................................................................... 45
Uses of Neutralization ..................................................................................................................................................................... 45
What do all acids and all bases have in common?.................................................................................................. 46

What Happens to an Acid or a Base in a Water Solution?....................................................................................... 46
How strong are acid or base solutions? ................................................................................................................. 47
Importance of pH in Everyday ............................................................................................................................... 48
pH in our digestive system .............................................................................................................................................................. 48
pH change as the cause of tooth decay .......................................................................................................................................... 49
Self-defence by animals and plants through chemical warfare ...................................................................................................... 49
Nature provides neutralisation options .......................................................................................................................................... 49
More about salts .................................................................................................................................................. 49

pH of Salts ....................................................................................................................................................................................... 50
Common Salt ................................................................................................................................................................................... 50
Are the crystals of salt really dry? ................................................................................................................................................... 52
Summary ............................................................................................................................................................. 53
Questions ............................................................................................................................................................ 54
6. Metals and Non-metals ................................................................................................. 55
Chemical properties of metals .............................................................................................................................. 56

What happens when Metals are burnt in Air? ................................................................................................................................ 56
What happens when Metals react with Water? ............................................................................................................................. 57
What happens when Metals react with Acids? ............................................................................................................................... 58
How do Metals react with Solutions of other Metal Salts? ............................................................................................................ 58
How do metals and non-metals react? ........................................................................................................................................... 59
Occurrence of metals ........................................................................................................................................... 62

Extraction of Metals ........................................................................................................................................................................ 62
Refining of Metals ........................................................................................................................................................................... 65
Corrosion ............................................................................................................................................................. 66
Prevention of Corrosion .................................................................................................................................................................. 67
Summary ............................................................................................................................................................. 68 3
Questions ............................................................................................................................................................ 69
7. Carbon and its Compounds ............................................................................................ 69
Bonding in carbon – the covalent bond ................................................................................................................. 70

Allotropes of carbon ............................................................................................................................................. 73
Versatile nature of carbon .................................................................................................................................... 74
Catenation ....................................................................................................................................................................................... 74
Tetravalency .................................................................................................................................................................................... 75
Organic compounds ............................................................................................................................................. 75

Saturated and Unsaturated Carbon Compounds.................................................................................................... 75
Chains, Branches and Rings................................................................................................................................... 77
Functional groups................................................................................................................................................. 80
Homologous Series ............................................................................................................................................... 80
Nomenclature of Carbon Compounds ................................................................................................................... 81
Combustion of Carbon .......................................................................................................................................... 83
Formation of coal and petroleum ......................................................................................................................... 84
Reactions in Carbon Compounds........................................................................................................................... 85
Oxidation ......................................................................................................................................................................................... 85
Addition Reaction ............................................................................................................................................................................ 85
Substitution Reaction ...................................................................................................................................................................... 85
Some important carbon compounds – ethanol and ethanoic acid .......................................................................... 86

Reactions of Ethanol ....................................................................................................................................................................... 86
How do alcohols affect living beings? ............................................................................................................................................. 86
Alcohol as a fuel .............................................................................................................................................................................. 87
Properties of Ethanoic Acid ............................................................................................................................................................. 87
Reactions of ethanoic acid: ............................................................................................................................................................. 87
Soaps and detergents ........................................................................................................................................... 88

How soaps work? ............................................................................................................................................................................ 88
Summary ............................................................................................................................................................. 90
Questions ............................................................................................................................................................ 90
8. Chemistry in everyday life ............................................................................................. 91
Classification of Drugs .......................................................................................................................................... 91

Antacids ........................................................................................................................................................................................... 92 4
Antihistamines ................................................................................................................................................................................ 92
Neurologically Active Drugs: Tranquilizers ...................................................................................................................................... 93

Analgesics ........................................................................................................................................................................................ 94
Antimicrobials ................................................................................................................................................................................. 94
Antiseptics and disinfectants .......................................................................................................................................................... 95
Antifertility drugs ............................................................................................................................................................................ 96
Chemicals in Foods ............................................................................................................................................... 96

Artificial Sweetening Agents ........................................................................................................................................................... 96
Food Preservatives .......................................................................................................................................................................... 96
Soaps and detergents ........................................................................................................................................... 97

Soaps ............................................................................................................................................................................................... 97
Synthetic Detergents ....................................................................................................................................................................... 98
9. Periodic Table ................................................................................................................ 99
Mendeléev’s Periodic Table .................................................................................................................................. 99

Achievements of Mendeléev’s Periodic Table ................................................................................................................................ 99
Limitations of Mendeléev’s Classification ....................................................................................................................................... 99
Modern Periodic Table ....................................................................................................................................... 100

Position of Elements in the Modern Periodic Table ...................................................................................................................... 101
Trends in the Modern Periodic Table .................................................................................................................. 102

Metallic and Non-metallic Properties .................................................................................................................. 103
Summary ........................................................................................................................................................... 104
Questions .......................................................................................................................................................... 104
10. Misc. Topics ..................................................................................................................104
Combustion and flame ....................................................................................................................................... 104

Vapourisation and Flame .............................................................................................................................................................. 105
Matchstick ..................................................................................................................................................................................... 106
Water vs Carbon Dioxide as fire extinguisher ............................................................................................................................... 106
Calorific value ................................................................................................................................................................................ 107
Fossil Fuels ......................................................................................................................................................... 107

Coal................................................................................................................................................................................................ 107
Petroleum...................................................................................................................................................................................... 108
Natural Gas.................................................................................................................................................................................... 109
Important alloys and their contents .................................................................................................................... 110 5

Steel............................................................................................................................................................................................... 110
Copper alloys ................................................................................................................................................................................. 110

Gold and platinum alloys............................................................................................................................................................... 110
Aluminum alloys ............................................................................................................................................................................ 111
Synthetic materials ............................................................................................................................................ 111

Some Generally Used Synthetic Fibres .......................................................................................................................................... 112
Plastic ............................................................................................................................................................................................ 113
Properties of a solution ...................................................................................................................................... 114
Non-homogeneous systems .......................................................................................................................................................... 114
What is a colloidal solution? ......................................................................................................................................................... 115
Questions ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 116
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1. Matter
• Atoms of most elements are not able to exist independently.

• Atoms form molecules and ions.
• These molecules or ions aggregate in large numbers to form matter.
Elements
• Robert Boyle was the first scientist to use the term element in 1661.
• Antoine Lavoisier (1743-94) was the first to establish an experimentally useful definition of an element.
• He defined an element as a basic form of matter that cannot be broken down into simpler substances
by chemical reactions.
• Element: A chemical element is a pure chemical substance consisting of a single type of atom distinguished
by its atomic number, which is the number of protons in its atomic nucleus.
• If a substance cannot be broken down further by chemical reactions, by cooling, heating, or by elec- 7
trolysis, it is called ‘element’. Sulphur is an element. So is iron. Carbon, too, is an element.
• Elements are divided into metals, metalloids, and non-metals.

• In the beginning, the names of elements were derived from the name of the place where they were found
for the first time. For example, the name copper was taken from Cyprus.
• Some names were taken from specific colours. E.g. gold was taken from the English word meaning yellow.
• Now-a-days, IUPAC (International Union of Pure And Applied Chemistry) approves names of elements.
• Many of the symbols are the first one or two letters of the element’s name in English.
• The first letter of a symbol is always written as an uppercase and the second letter as a lowercase.
Some facts
• The number of elements known at present are more than 100.

• Ninety-two elements are naturally occurring, and the rest are manmade.
• Majority of the elements are solid.
• Eleven elements are in gaseous state at room temperature.
• Two elements are liquid at room temperature — mercury and bromine.
• Elements, gallium and cesium become liquid at a temperature slightly above room temperature (303 k).
8
Metals
• They have a lustre (shine).

• They have silvery-grey or golden-yellow colour.
• They conduct heat and electricity.
• They are ductile (can be drawn into wires).
• They are malleable (can be hammered into thin sheets).
• They are sonorous (make a ringing sound when hit)
• Examples of metals are gold, silver, copper, iron, sodium, potassium etc.
• Mercury is the only metal that is liquid at room temperature
Non-metals
• They display a variety of colours.

• They are poor conductors of heat and electricity.
• They are not lustrous, sonorous or malleable.
• Examples of non-metals are hydrogen, oxygen, iodine, carbon (coal, coke), bromine, chlorine etc.
Metalloids
• Some elements have intermediate properties between those of metals and non-metals, they are called
metalloids. The six commonly recognised metalloids are:
1. Boron
2. Silicon
3. Germanium
4. Arsenic
5. Antimony
6. Tellurium
Compound
• A compound is a substance formed when two or more chemical elements are chemically bonded together. 9
• Two types of chemical bonds common in compounds are covalent bonds and ionic bonds.
• The elements in any compound are always present in fixed ratios.
• A chemical compound can be separated into simpler substances by chemical reactions.
• On heating the two elements strongly we get a compound, which has totally different properties compared
to the combining elements.
• The composition, texture and the colour of the compound are the same throughout.
• Properties of a compound are different from its constituent elements, whereas a mixture shows the proper-
ties of its constituting elements or compounds.
• Any material that is not a mixture, is called a pure substance.
• Pure substances can be elements or compounds.
Mixtures vs Compounds
• Mixtures are constituted by more than one kind of pure form of matter, known as a substance.
• A substance cannot be separated into other kinds of matter by any physical process.
Mixtures Compounds 10
1. Elements or compounds just mix together to form 1. Elements react to form new compounds.
a mixture and no new compound is formed. 2. The composition of each new substance is al-
2. A mixture has a variable composition. ways fixed.
3. A mixture shows the properties of the constituent 3. The new substance has totally different proper-
substances. ties.
4. The constituents can be separated fairly easily by 4. The constituents can be separated only by
physical methods. chemical or electrochemical reactions.
• Differences between homogeneous and heterogeneous mixtures
Homogeneous mixtures Heterogeneous mixtures
1. Homogeneous mixtures have uniform compo- 1) Heterogeneous mixtures have non uniform composi-
sition. tion
2. It has no visible boundaries of separation be- 2) It has visible boundaries of separation between its
tween its constituents. constituents.
3. Some examples of homogeneous mixtures are: 3) Some examples of heterogeneous mixtures are: wa-
salt in water, sugar in water. ter and sand, oil and water.
Molecule
• A molecule is a group of atoms that are chemically bonded together (held together by attractive forces).
• A molecule can be defined as the smallest particle of an element (e.g., O2) or a compound (e.g., H2O)
that is capable of an independent existence and shows all the properties of that substance.
• Atoms of the same element (e.g., O2) or of different elements (e.g., H2O) can join together to form mol-
ecules.
• Law of conservation of mass: Law of conservation of mass states that mass can neither be created nor
destroyed in a chemical reaction.
• Law of constant proportions: Many compounds are composed of two or more elements and each such
compound has the same elements in the same proportions, irrespective of where the compound came from.
• In a compound such as water, the ratio of the mass of hydrogen to the mass of oxygen is always 1:8.
• Thus, if 9 g of water is decomposed, 1 g of hydrogen and 8 g of oxygen are always obtained.
• Law of constant proportions is also known as the law of definite proportions (in a chemical substance the 11
elements are always present in definite proportions by mass).
John Dalton’s Atomic Theory
• The problem faced by scientists was to give appropriate explanations to the above laws.
• British chemist John Dalton provided the basic theory about the nature of matter.
• He said that the smallest particles of matter are atoms (At present, Quarks are the smallest particles we
know).
 A quark is a type of elementary particle and a fundamental constituent of matter.
 Quarks combine to form composite particles called hadrons, the most stable of which are protons and
neutrons, the components of atomic nuclei.
• His theory was based on the laws of chemical combination.
• It provided an explanation for the law of conservation of mass and the law of definite proportions.
• In 1808, he presented his atomic theory which was a turning point in the study of matter.
• According to Dalton’s atomic theory, all matter, whether an element, a compound or a mixture is composed
of small particles called atoms.
The postulates of John Dalton’s Atomic Theory
1. All matter is made of very tiny particles called atoms.

2. Atoms are indivisible particles, which cannot be created or destroyed in a chemical reaction.
3. Atoms of a given element are identical in mass and chemical properties.
4. Atoms of different elements have different masses and chemical properties.
5. Atoms combine in the ratio of small whole numbers to form compounds.
6. The relative number and kinds of atoms are constant in a given compound.
Molecules of Elements and Compounds
Molecules of elements
• The molecules of an element are constituted by the same type of atoms. E.g., O2
• Molecules of many elements, such as Argon (Ar), Helium (He) etc. are made up of only one atom of that
element. But this is not the case with most of the non-metals.
• E.g. a molecule of oxygen consists of two atoms of oxygen and hence it is known as a diatomic molecule.
• If 3 atoms of oxygen unite into a molecule, instead of the usual 2, we get ozone (O3).
• The number of atoms constituting a molecule is known as its atomicity. 12
• Molecules of metals and some other elements, such as carbon, do not have a simple structure but consist of
a very large and indefinite number of atoms bonded together.
Molecules of compounds
• Atoms of different elements join together in definite proportions to form molecules of compounds. E.g.
H2O, CO2, etc.
13
 Molecule is the general term used to describe any atoms that are connected by chemical bonds.
 A compound is a molecule made of atoms from different elements.
 All compounds are molecules, but not all molecules are compounds.
 E.g. Hydrogen gas (H2) is a molecule, but not a compound because it is made of only one element.
What is an Ion?
• Compounds composed of metals and non-metals contain charged species known as ions.
• An ion is a charged particle and can be negatively or positively charged.
• A negatively charged ion is called an ‘anion’ and the positively charged ion, a ‘cation’.
• E.g., The constituent particles of sodium chloride (NaCl) are positively charged sodium ions (na+) and nega-
tively charged chloride ions (cl-).
• Ions mainly consist of a single charged atom or a group of atoms that have a net charge on them.
• A group of atoms carrying a charge is known as a polyatomic ion.
Writing chemical formulae

14
• The chemical formula of a compound is a symbolic representation of its composition.
• The combining power (or capacity) of an element is known as its valency.

• Valency can be used to find out how the atoms of an element will combine with the atom(s) of another
element to form a chemical compound.
• The valency of the atom of an element can be thought of as hands or arms of that atom.
The rules that you have to follow while writing a chemical formula are as follows:
• The valencies or charges on the ion must balance.
• When a compound consists of a metal and a non-metal, the name or symbol of the metal is written first.
• For example: calcium oxide (CaO), sodium chloride (NaCl), iron sulphide (FeS), copper oxide (CuO) etc.
• In compounds formed with polyatomic ions, the ion is enclosed in a bracket before writing the number to
indicate the ratio. E.g. Calcium hydroxide is Ca(Oh)2 and not CaOh2.
• We use brackets when we have two or more of the same ions in the formula.
• Here, the bracket around oh with a subscript 2 indicates that there are two hydroxyl (Oh) groups joined to
one calcium atom.
• In other words, there are two atoms each of oxygen and hydrogen in calcium hydroxide.
Atomic mass, Molecular mass and Formula unit mass
• The most remarkable concept that Dalton’s Atomic Theory proposed was that of the atomic mass.
• According to him, each element had a characteristic atomic mass.
• One atomic mass unit (amu) is a mass unit equal to exactly 1/12th the mass of one atom of carbon-12.
• The relative atomic masses of all elements have been found with respect to an atom of carbon-12.
• The molecular mass of a substance is the sum of the atomic masses of all the atoms in a molecule of the
substance. It is therefore the relative mass of a molecule expressed in atomic mass units(u).
• The formula unit mass of a substance is a sum of the atomic masses of all atoms in a formula unit of a
compound.
• Formula unit mass is calculated in the same manner as we calculate the molecular mass. The only difference
is that we use the word formula unit for those substances whose constituent particles are ions.
15
Mole concept
• The quantity of a substance can be characterized by its mass or the number of molecules.
• But a chemical reaction equation indicates the number of atoms or molecules taking part in the reaction.
• Therefore, it is more convenient to refer to the quantity of a substance in terms of the number of its mol-
ecules or atoms, rather than their masses. So, a new unit “mole” was introduced.
• One mole of any species (atoms, molecules, ions or particles) is that quantity in number having a mass
equal to its atomic or molecular mass in grams.
• The number of particles (atoms, molecules or ions) present in 1 mole of any substance is fixed, with a value
of 6.022 ×1023. This is an experimentally obtained value.
• Scientists use the relative atomic mass scale to compare the masses of different atoms of elements.
• Atoms of carbon-12 isotopes are assigned a relative atomic mass of 12 and the relative masses of all other
atoms are obtained by comparison with the mass of a carbon-12 atom.
• The Avogadro Constant 6.022 ×1023 is defined as the number of atoms in exactly 12 g of carbon-12.
• This number is called the Avogadro Constant or Avogadro Number.
 1 Mole of Carbon = Number of atoms in 12 u of Carbon = 6.022 ×1023 Carbon Atoms 16
 1 Mole of Carbon-12 = Number of atoms in 12 u of Carbon-12 = 6.022 ×1023 Carbon-12 Atoms

 1 Mole of Oxygen = Number of atoms in 16 u of Oxygen = 6.022 ×1023 Oxygen Atoms

Summary
• Law of Conservation of Mass: During a chemical reaction, the sum of the masses of the reactants and
products remains unchanged.
• Law of Definite Proportions: In a pure chemical compound, elements are always present in a definite
proportion by mass.
• An atom is the smallest particle of the element that can exist independently and retain all its chemical
properties.
• A molecule is the smallest particle of an element or a compound capable of independent existence
under ordinary conditions. It shows all the properties of the substance. 17
• A chemical formula of a compound shows its constituent elements and the number of atoms of each com-
bining element.
• Clusters of atoms that act as an ion are called polyatomic ions. They carry a fixed charge on them.
2. Structure of The Atom

• It was known by 1900 that the atom was not a simple, indivisible particle but contained at least one sub-
atomic particle – the electron identified by J.J. Thomson.
• Even before the electron was identified, E. Goldstein discovered the presence of protons which were posi-
tively charged.
• Protons had a charge, equal in magnitude but opposite in sign to that of the electron.
• Its mass was approximately 2000 times as that of the electron.
• The mass of an electron is considered to be negligible and its charge is minus one.
• It seemed likely that an atom was composed of protons and electrons, mutually balancing their charges.
• It also appeared that the protons were in the interior of the atom, for whereas electrons could easily be
peeled off but not protons.
• Dalton’s atomic theory suggested that the atom was indivisible and indestructible.
• But the discovery of two fundamental particles (electrons and protons) inside the atom, led to the failure of
this aspect of Dalton’s Atomic Theory.
• It was then considered necessary to know how electrons and protons are arranged within an atom.
• For explaining this, many scientists proposed various atomic models.
• J.J. Thomson was the first one to propose a model for the structure of an atom
Thomson’s Model of an Atom
• J.J. Thomson (1856-1940), was awarded the Nobel prize in physics for his work on the discovery of electrons.
• Thomson proposed the model of an atom to be similar to that of a watermelon.
• The positive charge in the atom is spread all over like the red edible part of the watermelon, while the elec-
trons are studded in the positively charged sphere, like the seeds in the watermelon
18
Thomson proposed that:
1. An atom consists of a positively charged sphere and the electrons are embedded in it.
2. The negative and positive charges are equal in magnitude. So, the atom as a whole is electrically neutral.
• Although Thomson’s model explained that atoms are electrically neutral, the results of experiments carried
out by other scientists could not be explained by this model, as we will see below.
Rutherford’s Model of an Atom
• E. Rutherford was known as the ‘father’ of nuclear physics.

• He is famous for his work on radioactivity and the discovery of the nucleus of an atom with the gold foil
experiment. He got the Nobel prize in chemistry in 1908.
• Ernest Rutherford was interested in knowing how the electrons are arranged within an atom.
• Rutherford designed an experiment for this.
• In this experiment, fast moving alpha (α)-particles were made to fall on a thin gold foil.
• (α)-particles are doubly-charged helium ions.
19
• Since they have a mass of 4 u, the fast-moving α-particles have a considerable amount of energy.
• It was expected that α-particles would be deflected by the sub-atomic particles in the gold atoms.
• Since the α-particles were much heavier than the protons, he did not expect to see large deflections.
• But, the α-particle scattering experiment gave totally unexpected results.
• The following observations were made:
1. Most of the fast-moving α-particles passed straight through the gold foil.
2. Some of the α-particles were deflected by the foil by small angles.
3. Surprisingly one out of every 12000 particles appeared to rebound.
• In the words of Rutherford, “this result was almost as incredible as if you fire a 15-inch shell at a piece of
tissue paper and it comes back and hits you”.
Conclusions drawn from the α-particle scattering experiment
• Most of the space inside the atom is empty because most of the α-particles passed through the gold foil
without getting deflected.
• Very few particles were deflected from their path, indicating that the positive charge of the atom occupies
very little space.
• A very small fraction of α-particles were deflected indicating that all the positive charge and mass of the
gold atom were concentrated in a very small volume within the atom.
• From the data he also calculated that the radius of the nucleus is about 105 times less than the radius of
the atom.
• On the basis of his experiment, Rutherford put forward the nuclear model of an atom, which had the follow-
ing features:
1. There is a positively charged centre in an atom called the nucleus.
2. Nearly all the mass of an atom resides in the nucleus.
3. The electrons revolve around the nucleus in well-defined orbits.
4. The size of the nucleus is very small as compared to the size of the atom.
20
Drawbacks of Rutherford’s model of the atom
• The orbital revolution of the electron is not expected to be stable.

• Any particle in a circular orbit would undergo acceleration.
• During acceleration, charged particles would radiate energy.
• Thus, the revolving electron would lose energy and finally fall into the nucleus.
• If this were so, the atom should be highly unstable and hence matter would not exist in the form that we
know. We know that atoms are quite stable.
Neutrons
• In 1932, J. Chadwick discovered another subatomic particle which had no charge and a mass nearly equal
to that of a proton. It was eventually named as neutron.
• Neutrons are present in the nucleus of all atoms, except hydrogen.
• In general, a neutron is represented as ‘n’.
• The mass of an atom is therefore given by the sum of the masses of protons and neutrons present in the
nucleus (The mass of electrons is quite negligible).
 Electron ➔ J.J. Thomson
 Proton ➔ E. Goldstein
 Neutron ➔ J. Chadwick
 Nucleus ➔ E. Rutherford (father of nuclear physics)
Atomic Number
• We know that protons are present in the nucleus of an atom.

• It is the number of protons of an atom, which determines its atomic number. It is denoted by ‘z’.
• All atoms of an element have the same atomic number, z.
21
• In fact, elements are defined by the number of protons they possess.
• For hydrogen, z = 1, because in hydrogen atom, only one proton is present in the nucleus.
• Similarly, for carbon, z = 6.

• Therefore, the atomic number is defined as the total number of protons present in the nucleus of an
atom.
Mass Number
• After studying the properties of the subatomic particles of an atom, we can conclude that mass of an atom
is practically due to protons and neutrons alone.
• These are present in the nucleus of an atom. Hence protons and neutrons are also called nucleons.
• Therefore, the mass of an atom resides in its nucleus.
• For example, mass of carbon is 12 u because it has 6 protons and 6 neutrons, 6 u + 6 u = 12 u.
• Similarly, the mass of aluminium is 27 u (13 protons+14 neutrons).
• The mass number is defined as the sum of the total number of protons and neutrons present in the
nucleus of an atom.
• The atomic number, mass number and symbol of the element are to be written as:
Isotopes
• In nature, a number of atoms of some elements have been identified, which have the same atomic number
but different mass numbers.
• For example, take the case of hydrogen atom, it has three atomic species, namely protium (1H1), deuterium
(2H1) and tritium (3H1).
• The atomic number of each one is 1, but the mass number is 1, 2 and 3, respectively.
• Other such examples are (i) carbon, 12C6 and 14C6 (ii) chlorine, 35Cl17 and 37Cl17, etc.
• On the basis of these examples, isotopes are defined as the atoms of the same element, having the same
atomic number but different mass numbers.
• Therefore, we can say that there are three isotopes of hydrogen atom, namely protium, deuterium and
tritium.
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• Each isotope of an element is a pure substance.
• Many elements consist of a mixture of isotopes.
• The chemical properties of isotopes are similar, but their physical properties are different.
• Chlorine occurs in nature in two isotopic forms, with masses 35 u and 37 u in the ratio of 3:1. Obviously, the
question arises: what should we take as the mass of chlorine atom?
• The mass of an atom of any natural element is taken as the average mass of all the naturally occurring
atoms of that element.
• If an element has no isotopes, then the mass of its atom would be the same as the sum of protons and
neutrons in it.
• But if an element occurs in isotopic forms, then we have to know the percentage of each isotopic form and
then the average mass is calculated.
Applications of Isotopes
• Since the chemical properties of all the isotopes of an element are the same, normally we are not concerned
about taking a mixture.
• But some isotopes have special properties which find them useful in various fields. Some of them are:
1. An isotope of uranium is used as a fuel in nuclear reactors.
2. An isotope of cobalt is used in the treatment of cancer.
3. An isotope of iodine is used in the treatment of goitre.
Isobars
• Let us consider two elements — calcium, atomic number 20, and argon, atomic number 18.
• The number of electrons in these atoms is different, but the mass number of both these elements is 40.
• That is, the total number of nucleons is the same in the atoms of this pair of elements.
• Atoms of different elements with different atomic numbers, which have the same mass number, are
known as isobars.
Bohr’s Model of Atom
• In order to overcome the objections raised against Rutherford’s model of the atom, Neils Bohr put forward
the following postulates about the model of an atom:
1. Only certain special orbits known as discrete orbits of electrons, are allowed inside the atom
2. While revolving in discrete orbits the electrons do not radiate energy 23
• These orbits or shells are called energy levels. Energy levels in an atom are shown in figure below.
• These orbits or shells are represented by the letters k,l,m,n,… or the numbers, n=1,2,3,4,….
How are electrons distributed in different orbits (shells)?
• The distribution of electrons into different orbits of an atom was suggested by Bohr and Bury.
• The following rules are followed for writing the number of electrons in different energy levels or shells:
1. the maximum number of electrons present in a shell is given by the formula 2n2, where ‘n’ is the orbit
number or energy level index, 1, 2, 3, ….
2. Hence the maximum number of electrons in different shells are as follows: first orbit or k-shell will be =
2 ×12 = 2, second orbit or l-shell will be = 2 ×22 = 8, third orbit or m-shell will be = 2 × 32 = 18, fourth
orbit or n-shell will be = 2 ×42 = 32, and so on.
3. The maximum number of electrons that can be accommodated in the outermost orbit is 8.
4. Electrons are not accommodated in a given shell, unless the inner shells are filled. That is, the shells are
filled in a step-wise manner.
Valency
• The electrons present in the outermost shell of an atom are known as the valence electrons.
• The outermost shell of an atom can accommodate a maximum of 8 electrons.
• It was observed that the atoms of elements, having a completely filled outermost shell show little chem-
ical activity. In other words, their combining capacity or valency is zero.
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• Of these inert elements, the helium atom has two electrons in its outermost shell and all other elements
have atoms with eight electrons in the outermost shell.

• The combining capacity of the atoms of other elements, that is, their tendency to react and form molecules,
was thus explained as an attempt to attain a fully-filled outermost shell.
• An outermost-shell, which had eight electrons was said to possess an octet.
• Atoms would thus react, so as to achieve an octet in the outermost shell.
• This was done by sharing, gaining or losing electrons.
• The number of electrons gained, lost or shared so as to make the octet of electrons in the outermost shell,
gives us directly the combining capacity of the element, that is, the valency.
• For example, hydrogen/lithium/sodium atoms contain one electron each in their outermost shell, therefore
each one of them can lose one electron. So, they are said to have valency of one.
• The valency of magnesium and aluminium is two and three, respectively, because magnesium has two elec-
trons in its outermost shell and aluminium has three electrons in its outermost shell.
• If the number of electrons in the outermost shell of an atom is close to its full capacity, then valency is
determined in a different way.
• For example, the fluorine atom has 7 electrons in the outermost shell, and its valency could be 7.
• But it is easier for fluorine to gain one electron instead of losing seven electrons.
• Hence, its valency is determined by subtracting seven electrons from the octet and this gives you a valency
of one for fluorine.
• Therefore, an atom of each element has a definite combining capacity, called its valency.
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Summary
• The chemical formula of a molecular compound is determined by the valency of each element.
• In ionic compounds, the charge on each ion is used to determine the chemical formula of the compound.
• Scientists use the relative atomic mass scale to compare the masses of different atoms of elements.
• Atoms of carbon-12 isotopes are assigned a relative atomic mass of 12 and the relative masses of all other
26
atoms are obtained by comparison with the mass of a carbon-12 atom.
• The Avogadro constant 6.022 × 1023 is defined as the number of atoms in exactly 12 g of carbon-12.
• The mole is the amount of substance that contains the same number of particles (atoms/ ions/ molecules/
formula units etc.) as there are atoms in exactly 12 g of carbon-12.
• Mass of 1 mole of a substance is called its molar mass.
• Credit for the discovery of electron and proton goes to J.J. Thomson and E. Goldstein, respectively.
• J.J. Thomson proposed that electrons are embedded in a positive sphere.
• Rutherford’s alpha-particle scattering experiment led to the discovery of the atomic nucleus.
• Rutherford’s model of the atom proposed that a very tiny nucleus is present inside the atom and electrons
revolve around this nucleus. The stability of the atom could not be explained by this model.
• Neils bohr’s model of the atom was more successful. He proposed that electrons are distributed in different
shells with discrete energy around the nucleus.
• If the atomic shells are complete, then the atom will be stable and less reactive.
• J. Chadwick discovered presence of neutrons in the nucleus of an atom.
• So, the three sub-atomic particles of an atom are: (i) electrons, (ii) protons and (iii) neutrons.
• Electrons are negatively charged; protons are positively charged, and neutrons have no charges.
• The mass of an electron is about 1/2000 times the mass of a hydrogen atom.
• The mass of a proton and a neutron is taken as one unit each.
• Shells of an atom are designated as k,l,m,n,….
• Valency is the combining capacity of an atom.
• The atomic number of an element is the same as the number of protons in the nucleus of its atom.
• The mass number of an atom is equal to the number of nucleons in its nucleus
• Isotopes are atoms of the same element, which have different mass numbers.
• Isobars are atoms having the same mass number but different atomic numbers.
• Elements are defined by the number of protons they possess.
3. Physical Change & Chemical Change
• Properties such as shape, size, colour and state of a substance are called its physical properties.
• A change in which a substance undergoes a change in its physical properties is called a physical change.
• A physical change is generally reversible. In such a change no new substance is formed.
• A change in which one or more new substances are formed is called a chemical change.
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• A chemical change is also called a chemical reaction.
• All new substances are formed as a result of chemical changes.
• For example, if a metal is to be extracted from an ore, such as iron from iron ore, we need to carry out a series
of chemical changes.
• Useful new materials, such as plastics and detergents, are produced by chemical reactions.
• When carbon dioxide is passed through lime water, calcium carbonate is formed, which makes lime water
milky. The turning of lime water into milky is a standard test of carbon dioxide.
Carbon dioxide (CO 2) + Lime water (Ca(OH)2) → Calcium Carbonate (CaCO3) + Water (H2O)
• We have seen that one or more new substances are produce in a chemical change. In addition to new prod-
ucts, the following may accompany a chemical change:
✓ Heat, light or any other radiation (ultraviolet, for example) may be given off or absorbed.
✓ Sound may be produced.
✓ A change in smell may take place or a new smell may be given off.
✓ A colour change may take place.
✓ A gas may be formed.
Crystallisation – Physical Change
• Take a cupful of water in a beaker and add a few drops of dilute sulphuric acid. Heat the water.
• When it starts boiling add copper sulphate powder slowly while stirring continuously.
• Continue adding copper sulphate powder till no more powder can be dissolved. Filter the solution. Allow it
to cool. Do not disturb the solution when it is cooling. Look at the solution after some time.
• Large crystals of pure substances can be formed from their solutions. The process is called crystallisation. It
is an example of a physical change.
UPSC CSE Prelims 2014: Which of the following is/are the example/examples of chemical change?
1. Crystallization of sodium chloride

2. Melting of ice
3. Souring of milk
Select the correct answer using the code given below.
1) 1 and 2 only
2) 3 only 28
3) 1, 2 and 3
4) None
Rusting of iron – Chemical Change
• The process of rusting of iron can be represented by the following equation:
Iron (Fe) + Oxygen (O2, from the air) + water (H2O) → rust (iron oxide Fe2O3)
• For rusting, the presence of both oxygen and water (or water vapour) is essential.
• In fact, if the content of moisture in air is high, which means if it is more humid, rusting becomes faster.
• So, how do we prevent rusting? Prevent iron articles from coming in contact with oxygen, or water, or both.
• One simple way is to apply a coat of paint or grease.
• Another way is to deposit a layer of a metal like chromium or zinc on iron.
• This process of depositing a layer of zinc on iron is called galvanisation.
• The iron pipes we use in our homes to carry water are galvanised to prevent rusting.
• The saltwater makes the process of rust formation faster.
• Therefore, ships suffer a lot of damage from rusting in spite of being painted.
• Stainless steel is made by mixing iron with carbon and metals like chromium, nickel and manganese. It
does not rust.
Questions
• Classify the changes involved in the following processes as physical or chemical changes: (a) Photosynthesis
(b) Dissolving sugar in water (c) Burning of coal (d) Melting of wax (e) Beating aluminium to make aluminium
foil (f) Digestion of food.
• State whether the following statements are true or false. In case a statement is false, write the corrected
statement in your notebook.
✓ Formation of manure from leaves is a physical change. (True/False)
✓ Iron pipes coated with zinc do not get rusted easily. (True/False)
✓ Condensation of steam is not a chemical change. (True/False)
• When baking soda is mixed with lemon juice, bubbles are formed with the evolution of a gas. What type of
change is it?
• When a candle burns, both physical and chemical changes take place. Identify these changes. Give another
example of a familiar process in which both the chemical and physical changes take place. 29
• How would you show that setting of curd is a chemical change?
• Explain how painting of an iron gate prevents it from rusting.

• Explain why rusting of iron objects is faster in coastal areas than in deserts
4. Chemical Equations
• Mass can neither be created nor destroyed in a chemical reaction.

• That is, the total mass of the elements present in the products of a chemical reaction has to be equal
to the total mass of the elements present in the reactants.
• In other words, the number of atoms of each element remains the same, before and after a chemical
reaction.
• A skeletal chemical equation for a reaction is unbalanced because the mass is not the same on both sides
of the equation.
Zinc + Sulphuric acid → Zinc sulphate + Hydrogen
• The above word-equation may be represented by the following chemical equation –
Zn + H2SO4 → ZnSO4 + H2
• As the number of atoms of each element is the same on both sides of the arrow, Eq. is a balanced
chemical equation.
• To make a chemical equation more informative, the physical states of the reactants and products are men-
tioned along with their chemical formulae.
• The gaseous, liquid, aqueous and solid states of reactants and products are represented by the notations (g),
(l), (aq) and (s), respectively.
• The word aqueous (aq) is written if the reactant or product is present as a solution in water. 30
• Sometimes the reaction conditions, such as temperature, pressure, catalyst, etc., for the reaction are indicated
above and/or below the arrow in the equation. For example –

Types of chemical reactions
• During a chemical reaction, atoms of one element do not change into those of another element.
• Nor do atoms disappear from the mixture or appear from elsewhere.
• Actually, chemical reactions involve the breaking and making of bonds between atoms to produce new
substances.
Combination Reaction
• Calcium oxide reacts vigorously with water to produce slaked lime (calcium hydroxide) releasing a large
amount of heat.
CaO(s) (Quick lime) + H2O(l) → Ca(OH)2(aq) (Slaked lime) + Heat
• In this reaction, calcium oxide and water combine to form a single product, calcium hydroxide.
• Such a reaction in which a single product is formed from two or more reactants is known as a combi-
nation reaction.
• Reactions in which heat is released along with the formation of products are called exothermic chemical
reactions.
• Examples of exothermic reactions are – Burning of natural gas CH 4(g) + 2O2 (g) → CO2 (g) + 2H2O (g),
Respiration & Decomposition of vegetable matter into compost.
Decomposition Reaction
• In this reaction you can observe that a single reactant breaks down to give simpler products. This is a
decomposition reaction. 31
• Decomposition of calcium carbonate to calcium oxide and carbon dioxide on heating is an important de-
composition reaction used in various industries.

• Calcium oxide is called lime or quick lime. It has many uses – one is in the manufacture of cement.
• When a decomposition reaction is carried out by heating, it is called thermal decomposition.
• White silver chloride turns grey in sunlight.
• This is due to the decomposition of silver chloride into silver and chlorine by light.
• Silver bromide also behaves in the same way.
• The above reactions are used in black and white photography.

• We have seen that the decomposition reactions require energy either in the form of heat, light or electricity
for breaking down the reactants.
• Reactions in which energy is absorbed are known as endothermic reactions.
• The temperature of water decreases when Urea is added to water. The process is endothermic.
Displacement Reaction
32
• Why does the iron nail become brownish in colour and the blue colour of copper sulphate solution fade?
• The following chemical reaction takes place –
• In this reaction, iron has displaced or removed another element, copper, from copper sulphate solution. This
reaction is known as displacement reaction.
• Other examples of displacement reactions are 33
• Zinc and lead are more reactive elements than copper. They displace copper from its compounds.
Double Displacement Reaction

• Take about 3 mL of sodium sulphate solution in a test tube.
• In another test tube, take about 3 mL of barium chloride solution. Mix the two solutions.
• You will observe that a white substance, which is insoluble in water, is formed.
• This insoluble substance formed is known as a precipitate.
• Any reaction that produces a precipitate can be called a precipitation reaction.
• What causes this? The white precipitate of BaSO4 is formed by the reaction of 2–SO4 and Ba2+.
• The other product formed is sodium chloride which remains in the solution.
• Such reactions in which there is an exchange of ions between the reactants are called double displace-
ment reactions.
Oxidation and Reduction
• Heat a china dish containing about 1 g copper powder

• The surface of copper powder becomes coated with black copper(II) oxide.
• This is because oxygen is added to copper and copper oxide is formed.
• If hydrogen gas is passed over this heated material (CuO), the black coating on the surface turns brown as
the reverse reaction takes place and copper is obtained.
• If a substance gains oxygen during a reaction, it is said to be oxidised.

• If a substance loses oxygen during a reaction, it is said to be reduced. 34
• During this reaction, the copper(II) oxide is losing oxygen and is being reduced. The hydrogen is gaining
oxygen and is being oxidised.

• In other words, one reactant gets oxidised while the other gets reduced during a reaction. Such reactions
are called oxidation-reduction reactions or redox reactions.
• Some other examples of redox reactions are:
• In reaction above, carbon is oxidised to CO and ZnO is reduced to Zn.
• In reaction above, HCl is oxidised to Cl2 whereas MnO2 is reduced to MnCl2.

• From the above examples we can say that
✓ if a substance gains oxygen or loses hydrogen during a reaction, it is oxidised.
✓ If a substance loses oxygen or gains hydrogen during a reaction, it is reduced.
The effects of oxidation reactions in everyday life
Corrosion
• When a metal is attacked by substances around it such as moisture, acids, etc., it is said to corrode, and this
process is called corrosion.
• The black coating on silver and the green coating on copper are other examples of corrosion.
• Corrosion causes damage to car bodies, bridges, iron railings, ships and to all objects made of metals, espe-
cially those of iron. Corrosion of iron is a serious problem.
Rancidity
• Have you ever tasted or smelt the fat/oil containing food materials left for a long time?
• When fats and oils are oxidised, they become rancid and their smell and taste change. 35
• Usually substances which prevent oxidation (antioxidants) are added to foods containing fats and oil.
• Keeping food in airtight containers helps to slow down oxidation.

• Do you know that chips manufacturers usually flush bags of chips with gas such as nitrogen to prevent the
chips from getting oxidised?
• This is because Nitrogen gas is an inert gas with low reactivity compared to O2.
Electric Current & Chemical Reactions

• In 1800, a British chemist, William Nicholson (1753–1815), had shown that if electrodes were immersed in
water, and a current was passed, bubbles of oxygen and hydrogen were produced.
• Oxygen bubbles formed on the electrode connected to the positive terminal of the battery and hydrogen
bubbles formed on the other electrode.
Positive Terminal → Anode → Oxygen

Negative Terminal → Cathode → Hydrogen
• The passage of an electric current through a conducting solution causes chemical reactions.
• As a result, bubbles of a gas may be formed on the electrodes.
• Deposits of metal may be seen on electrodes.
• Changes of colour of solutions may occur.
• The reaction would depend on what solution and electrodes are used.
• These are some of the chemical effects of the electric current.
• When electric current is passed through the copper sulphate solution, copper sulphate dissociates into cop-
per and sulphate.
• The free copper gets drawn to the electrode connected to the negative terminal of the battery and gets
deposited on it. But what about the loss of copper from the solution? 36
• From the other electrode, a copper plate, an equal amount of copper gets dissolved in the solution.
• Thus, the loss of copper from the solution is restored and the process keeps going. This means that copper
gets transferred from one electrode to the other.
• The process of depositing a layer of any desired metal on another material by means of electricity is
called electroplating.
• It is one of the most common applications of chemical effects of electric current.
• Electroplating is a very useful process. It is widely used in industry for coating metal objects with a thin layer
of a different metal.
• The layer of metal deposited has some desired property, which the metal of the object lacks.
• For example, chromium plating is done on many objects such as car parts, bath taps, kitchen gas burners,
bicycle handlebars, wheel rims and many others.
• Chromium has a shiny appearance. It does not corrode. It resists scratches.
• However, chromium is expensive, and it may not be economical to make the whole object out of chromium.
• So, the object is made from a cheaper metal and only a coating of chromium over it is deposited.
• Jewellery makers electroplate silver and gold on less expensive metals. These ornaments have the appearance
of silver or gold but are much less expensive.
• Tin cans, used for storing food, are made by electroplating tin onto iron. Tin is less reactive than iron.
• Thus, food does not come into contact with iron and is protected from getting spoilt
• Iron is used in bridges and automobiles to provide strength. However, iron tends to corrode and rust.
• So, a coating of zinc is deposited on iron to protect it from corrosion and formation of rust.
• In the electroplating factories the disposal of the used conducting solution is a major concern.
Summary
• A complete chemical equation represents the reactants, products and their physical states symbolically.
• A chemical equation is balanced so that the numbers of atoms of each type involved in a chemical reaction
are the same on the reactant and product sides of the equation. Equations must always be balanced.
• In a combination reaction two or more substances combine to form a new single substance.
• Decomposition reactions are opposite to combination reactions.
• In a decomposition reaction, a single substance decomposes to give two or more substances.
• Reactions in which heat is given out along with the products are called exothermic reactions.
• Reactions in which energy is absorbed are known as endothermic reactions. 37
• When an element displaces another element from its compound, a displacement reaction occurs.
• Two different atoms or groups of atoms (ions) are exchanged in double displacement reactions.
• Precipitation reactions produce insoluble salts.
• Reactions also involve the gain or loss of oxygen or hydrogen by substances.
• Oxidation is the gain of oxygen or loss of hydrogen.
• Reduction is the loss of oxygen or gain of hydrogen.
Questions
• Which of the statements about the reaction below are incorrect? 2PbO(s) + C(s) → 2Pb(s) + CO2(g)
a) Lead is getting reduced.
b) Carbon dioxide is getting oxidised.
c) Carbon is getting oxidised.
d) Lead oxide is getting reduced.
(i) (a) and (b) (ii) (a) and (c) (iii) (a), (b) and (c) (iv) all
• Fe2O3 + 2Al → Al2O3 + 2Fe. The reaction is an example of a

a) combination reaction.
b) double displacement reaction.
c) decomposition reaction.
d) displacement reaction.
• What happens when dilute hydrochloric acid is added to iron fillings? Tick the correct answer.
a) Hydrogen gas and iron chloride are produced.
b) Chlorine gas and iron hydroxide are produced.
c) No reaction takes place.
d) Iron salt and water are produced
• Translate the following statements into chemical equations and then balance them.
a) Hydrogen gas combines with nitrogen to form ammonia.
b) Hydrogen sulphide gas burns in air to give water and sulphur dioxide
c) Barium chloride reacts with aluminium sulphate to give aluminium chloride and a precipitate of barium
sulphate.
d) Potassium metal reacts with water to give potassium hydroxide and hydrogen gas.
• Hydrogen, it is colourless, odourless and combustible. The gas obtained by GROUP II is hydrogen 38
sulphide. It is a colourless gas with the smell of rotten eggs.

• What does one mean by exothermic and endothermic reactions? Give examples.
• Why is respiration considered an exothermic reaction? Explain.
• Why are decomposition reactions called the opposite of combination reactions? Write equations for these
reactions.
• Write one equation each for decomposition reactions where energy is supplied in the form of heat, light or
electricity.
• What is the difference between displacement and double displacement reactions? Write equations for these
reactions.
• What do you mean by a precipitation reaction? Explain by giving examples.
• Explain the following in terms of gain or loss of oxygen with two examples each. (a) Oxidation (b) Reduction
• Why do we apply paint on iron articles?
• Oil and fat containing food items are flushed with nitrogen. Why?
• Explain the following terms with one example each. (a) Corrosion (b) Rancidity
5. Acids, Bases and Salts
• Curd, lemon juice, vinegar, etc. taste sour because they contain acids.
• The chemical nature of such substances is acidic.
• Each cell in our body contains an acid, the deoxyribonucleic acid or DNA.
• It controls every feature of the body such as our looks, colour of our eyes, our height etc.
• Proteins that build part of our cells are also made of amino acids.
• The fats in our body contain fatty acids.
39
• The atmosphere of Venus is made up of thick white & yellowish clouds of sulphuric acid.
• Venus is bright (it has a high albedo) because it is blanketed by highly reflective sulphuric acid clouds. 40
• Baking soda does not taste sour as it has no acids in it. It is bitter in taste. Substances like these which are
bitter in taste and feel soapy on touching are known as bases. The nature of such substances is basic.
Acid rain
• When pH of rainwater is less than 5.6, it is called acid rain.

• The rain becomes acidic because
1. carbon dioxide,
2. sulphur dioxide (released by the combustion of coal or diesel) and
3. nitrogen dioxide (released by the combustion of petrol) (which are released into the air as pollutants)
• dissolve in rain drops to form
1. carbonic acid,
2. sulphuric acid and
3. nitric acid respectively.
• Acid rain can cause damage to buildings, historical monuments, plants and animals.
Indicators
• Indicators are special type of substances used to test whether a substance is acidic or basic.
• Turmeric, litmus, red cabbage leaves, China rose petals (Gudhal), etc., are some of the naturally occurring
indicators.
Litmus: A natural dye
• The most commonly used natural indicator is litmus. It is extracted from lichens.
• A lichen is a composite organism that emerges from algae or cyanobacteria (or both) living among fila-
ments of a fungus in a mutually beneficial (symbiotic) relationship.
 Lichen ➔ Symbiotic relationship of Algae & Fungus (previous prelims question)
• Litmus solution has a mauve (purple) colour in distilled water.
• When added to an acidic solution, it turns red and when added to a basic solution, it turns blue.
41
• The solutions which do not change the colour of either red or blue litmus are known as neutral solutions.
Phenolpthalein
• Phenolpthalein and methyl orange are synthetic indicators.

• When the solution is basic, phenolphthalein gives a pink colour.
• On the other hand, when the solution is acidic, it remains colourless.
 Acidic ➔ Litmus solution turns RED
 Basic ➔ Litmus solution turns BLUE
 Acids ➔ Change the colour of blue litmus to RED
 Bases ➔ Change the colour of the red litmus to BLUE
 Acidic ➔ Phenolphthalein gives No Colour
 Basic ➔ Phenolphthalein gives PINK Colour
How do Acids React with Metals?
• The metal in the above reactions displaces hydrogen from the acids. This is seen as hydrogen gas.
• The metal combines with the remaining part of the acid and forms a compound called a salt.
• Thus, the reaction of a metal with an acid can be summarised as
Acid + Metal → Salt + Hydrogen gas

42
How do Metal Carbonates & Metal Hydrogen carbonates React with Acids?
• Limestone, chalk and marble are different forms of calcium carbonate.
• All metal carbonates and hydrogen carbonates react with acids to give a corresponding salt, carbon dioxide
and water.
• Thus, the reaction can be summarised as –
Metal carbonate/Metal hydrogen carbonate + Acid → Salt + Carbon dioxide + Water
Preparing a soda-acid fire extinguisher
• The reaction of acids with metal hydrogen carbonates is used in the fire extinguishers which produce carbon 43
dioxide.
Reaction of Metallic Oxides with Acids
• Take a small amount of copper oxide in a beaker and add dilute hydrochloric acid slowly while stirring.
• You will notice that the colour of the solution becomes blue-green and the copper oxide dissolves.
• The blue-green colour of the solution is due to the formation of copper(II) chloride in the reaction.
• The general reaction between a metal oxide and an acid can be written as –
Metal oxide + Acid → Salt + Water
How do acids react with bases (Neutralisation)?
• When an acid solution and a base solution are mixed in suitable amounts, both the acidic nature of the acid
and the basic nature of the base are destroyed. The resulting solution is neither acidic nor basic.
• In neutralization reaction, heat is always produced. The evolved heat raises the temperature of the reaction
mixture. (Exothermic Reaction)
• In neutralization reaction a new substance is formed. This is called salt.
44
• Salt may be acidic, basic or neutral in nature.
Thus, neutralisation can be defined as follows:
• The reaction between an acid and a base is known as neutralisation. Salt and water are produced in this
process with the evolution of heat.
• Example: Hydrochloric acid (HCl) + Sodium hydroxide (NaOH) ⟶ Sodium chloride (NaCl) + Water (H2O)
NaOH(aq) + HCl(aq) → NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)
• In the above reaction, we see that the effect of a base is nullified by an acid and vice-versa.
• In general, a neutralisation reaction can be written as –
Base + Acid → Salt + Water
Reaction of a Non-metallic Oxide with Base
• Calcium hydroxide, which is a base, reacts with carbon dioxide to produce a salt and water.
• Since this is similar to the reaction between a base and an acid, we can conclude that non-metallic oxides
are acidic in nature.
Uses of Neutralization
Indigestion
• Our stomach contains hydrochloric acid. It helps us to digest food.

• But too much of acid in the stomach causes indigestion.
• To relieve indigestion, we take an antacid (base) such as milk of magnesia, which contains magnesium
hydroxide. It neutralizes the effect of excessive acid.
Ant sting
• The sting of an ant contains formic acid.

• When an ant bites, it injects the acidic liquid into the skin.
• The effect of the sting can be neutralized by rubbing moist baking soda (sodium hydrogen carbonate;
baking soda → Sodium bicarbonate) or calamine solution, which contains zinc carbonate.
Soil treatment
45
• Excessive use of chemical fertilizers makes the soil acidic.
• Plants do not grow well when the soil is either too acidic or too basic.
• The pH range of 5.5 to 7.0 is highly suitable for plant growth.
• When the soil is too acidic, it is treated with bases like quick lime (calcium oxide) or slaked lime (calcium
hydroxide).
• If the soil is basic, organic matter is added to it.
• Organic matter releases acids which neutralises the basic nature of the soil.
What do all acids and all bases have in common?
• Glucose and alcohol solutions do not conduct electricity.

• But the bulb will start glowing in the case of acids, as shown in Fig. 2.3.
• Glowing of the bulb indicates that there is a flow of electric current through the solution.
• The electric current is carried through the solution by ions.
• Since the cation present in acids is H+, this suggests that acids produce hydrogen ions, H+(aq), in solu-
tion, which are responsible for their acidic properties.
What Happens to an Acid or a Base in a Water Solution?
• Hydrogen ions in HCl are produced in the presence of water.

• The separation of H+ ion from HCl molecules cannot occur in the absence of water.
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• Hydrogen ions cannot exist alone, but they exist after combining with water molecules.
• Thus, hydrogen ions must always be shown as H+(aq) or hydronium ion (H3O+).
• We have seen that acids give H3O+ or H+(aq) ion in water.

• Let us see what happens when a base is dissolved in water.
• Bases generate hydroxide (OH–) ions in water.

• All bases do not dissolve in water. Bases which are soluble in water are called alkalis.
• Alkalis are soapy to touch, bitter and corrosive.
• Now as we have identified that all acids generate H+(aq) and all bases generate OH–(aq), we can view the
neutralisation reaction as follows –
• The process of dissolving an acid or a base in water is a highly exothermic one.

• Care must be taken while mixing concentrated nitric acid or sulphuric acid with water.
• The acid must always be added slowly to water with constant stirring.
• Mixing an acid or base with water results in decrease in the concentration of ions (H3O+/OH–) per unit volume.
• Such a process is called dilution and the acid, or the base is said to be diluted.
How strong are acid or base solutions?
• The strength of acids and bases depends on the number of H+ ions and OH– ions produced, respectively.
• If we take hydrochloric acid and acetic acid of the same concentration, say one molar, then these produce
different amounts of hydrogen ions. 47
• Acids that give rise to more H+ ions are said to be strong acids, and acids that give less H+ ions are said to
be weak acids.
• The universal indicator shows different colours at different concentrations of hydrogen ions in a solution.
• A scale for measuring hydrogen ion concentration in a solution, called pH scale has been developed.
• The p in pH stands for ‘potenz’ in German, meaning power.
• On the pH scale we can measure pH from 0 (very acidic) to 14 (very alkaline).
• pH should be thought of simply as a number which indicates the acidic or basic nature of a solution.
• Higher the hydronium ion concentration, lower is the pH value.
• The pH of a neutral solution is 7.
• Values less than 7 on the pH scale represent an acidic solution.
• As the pH value increases from 7 to 14, it represents an increase in OH– ion concentration in the solution,
that is, increase in the strength of alkali.
• Generally, paper impregnated with the universal indicator is used for measuring pH.
Importance of pH in Everyday
• Our body works within the pH range of 7.0 to 7.8. 48

• Living organisms can survive only in a narrow range of pH change.
• When pH of rainwater is less than 5.6, it is called acid rain.

• When acid rain flows into the rivers, it lowers the pH of the river water.
• The survival of aquatic life in such rivers becomes difficult.
pH in our digestive system

• It is very interesting to note that our stomach produces hydrochloric acid.
• It helps in the digestion of food without harming the stomach.
• During indigestion the stomach produces too much acid and this causes pain and irritation.
• To get rid of this pain, people use bases called antacids.
• These antacids neutralise the excess acid.
• Magnesium hydroxide (Milk of magnesia), a mild base, is often used for this purpose.
pH change as the cause of tooth decay
• Tooth decay starts when the pH of the mouth is lower than 5.5.
• Tooth enamel made up of calcium phosphate is the hardest substance in the body.
• It does not dissolve in water but is corroded when the pH in the mouth is below 5.5.
• Bacteria produce acids by degradation of sugar and food particles remaining in the mouth after eating.
• The best way to prevent this is to clean the mouth after eating food.
• Using toothpastes, which are generally basic, for cleaning the teeth can neutralise the excess acid and prevent
tooth decay.
Self-defence by animals and plants through chemical warfare
• Have you ever been stung by a honey-bee? Bee-sting leaves an acid which causes pain and irritation.
• Use of a mild base like baking soda on the stung area gives relief.
• Stinging hair of nettle leaves inject methanoic acid causing burning pain.
Nature provides neutralisation options
• Nettle is a herbaceous plant which grows in the wild. Its leaves have stinging hair, which cause painful stings
when touched accidentally. This is due to the methanoic acid secreted by them.
• A traditional remedy is rubbing the area with the leaf of the dock plant, which often grows beside the nettle
49
in the wild.
More about salts
• Potassium sulphate, sodium sulphate, calcium sulphate, magnesium sulphate, copper sulphate, sodium chlo-
ride, sodium nitrate, sodium carbonate and ammonium chloride are examples for salts.
• Salts having the same positive or negative radicals are said to belong to a family.
• For example, NaCl and Na2SO4 belong to the family of sodium salts.
• Similarly, NaCl and KCl belong to the family of chloride salts.
pH of Salts
 Salts of a strong acid and a strong base are neutral with pH value of 7.
 Salts of a strong acid and weak base are acidic with pH value less than 7.
 Salts of a strong base and weak acid are basic in nature, with pH value more than 7.
Common Salt
• The combination of hydrochloric acid and sodium hydroxide solution is called sodium chloride.
• Seawater contains many salts dissolved in it. Sodium chloride is separated from these salts.
• Deposits of solid salt are also found in several parts of the world. These large crystals are often brown due to
impurities. This is called rock salt.
• Beds of rock salt were formed when seas of bygone ages dried up. Rock salt is mined like coal.
• The common salt thus obtained is an important raw material for various materials of daily use, such as sodium
hydroxide, baking soda, washing soda, bleaching powder and many more.
• Let us see how one substance is used for making all these different substances.
Sodium hydroxide
• When electricity is passed through an aqueous solution of sodium chloride (called brine), it decomposes to
form sodium hydroxide.
• The process is called the chlor-alkali process because of the products formed– chlor for chlorine and alkali
for sodium hydroxide.
2NaCl(aq) + 2H2O(l) → 2NaOH(aq) + Cl2(g) + H2(g)
• Chlorine gas is given off at the anode, and hydrogen gas at the cathode.
50
• Sodium hydroxide solution is formed near the cathode.
• The three products produced in this process are all useful.

Bleaching powder (Calcium hypochlorite)
• You have already come to know that chlorine is produced during the electrolysis of aqueous sodium chloride.
• This chlorine gas is used for the manufacture of bleaching powder.
• Bleaching powder is produced by the action of chlorine on dry slaked lime (Ca(OH)2).
• Bleaching powder is represented as CaOCl2, though the actual composition is quite complex.
51
Ca(OH)2 + Cl2 → CaOCl2 + H2O
• Bleaching powder is used – (i) for bleaching cotton and linen in the textile industry, for bleaching wood pulp
in paper factories and for bleaching washed clothes in laundry; (ii) as an oxidising agent in many chemical
industries; and (iii) for disinfecting drinking water to make it free of germs.
Baking soda (Sodium hydrogen carbonate)
• The soda commonly used in the kitchen for making tasty crispy pakoras is baking soda.
• Sometimes it is added for faster cooking.
• The chemical name of the compound is sodium hydrogen carbonate (NaHCO3).
• It is produced using sodium chloride as one of the raw materials.
• It is a mild non-corrosive base.
Uses of sodium hydrogen carbonate (NaHCO3)
• Baking powder is a mixture of baking soda and a mild edible acid such as tartaric acid.
• When baking powder is heated or mixed in water, the following reaction takes place –
• Carbon dioxide produced during the reaction causes bread or cake to rise making them soft and spongy.
• Sodium hydrogen carbonate is also an ingredient in antacids.
• Being alkaline, it neutralises excess acid in the stomach and provides relief.
• It is also used in soda-acid fire extinguishers.
Washing soda (Sodium carbonate)
• Another chemical that can be obtained from sodium chloride is Na2CO3.10H2O (washing soda).
• Sodium carbonate can be obtained by heating baking soda; recrystallisation of sodium carbonate gives wash-
ing soda. It is also a basic salt.
Uses of washing soda
• Sodium carbonate and sodium hydrogen carbonate are useful chemicals for many industrial processes.
• Sodium carbonate (washing soda) is used in glass, soap and paper industries.
• It is used in the manufacture of sodium compounds such as borax.
• Sodium carbonate can be used as a cleaning agent for domestic purposes. 52
• It is used for removing permanent hardness of water.
Are the crystals of salt really dry?
• Copper sulphate crystals which seem to be dry contain water of crystallisation.

• When we heat the crystals, this water is removed, and the salt turns white.
• If you moisten the crystals again with water, you will find that blue colour of the crystals reappears.
• Chemical formula for hydrated copper sulphate is Cu SO4. 5H2O.
• Similarly, the molecule of Na2CO3.10H2O is wet.
• One other salt, which possesses water of crystallisation is gypsum.
• It has two water molecules as water of crystallisation.
• Let us look into the use of this salt.
Plaster of Paris
• On heating gypsum at 373 K, it loses water molecules and becomes calcium sulphate hemihydrate.
• This is called Plaster of Paris, the substance which doctors use as plaster for supporting fractured bones
in the right position.
• Plaster of Paris is a white powder and on mixing with water, it changes to gypsum once again giving a hard
solid mass.
Summary
• Acids are sour in taste. Bases are bitter in taste and soapy to touch.
• Acid turns blue litmus red. Bases turn red litmus blue.
• Substances which are neither acidic nor basic are called neutral.
• Mixing concentrated acids or bases with water is a highly exothermic process.
• Acids and bases neutralise each other to form corresponding salts and water.
• A salt may be acidic, basic or neutral in nature.
• Acid-base indicators are dyes or mixtures of dyes which are used to indicate the presence of acids and bases.
• Acidic nature of a substance is due to the formation of H+(aq) ions in solution.
• Formation of OH–(aq) ions in solution is responsible for the basic nature of a substance.
• When an acid reacts with a metal, hydrogen gas is evolved, and a corresponding salt is formed.
• When a base reacts with a metal, along with the evolution of hydrogen gas a salt is formed which has a
53
negative ion composed of the metal and oxygen.
• When an acid reacts with a metal carbonate or metal hydrogen carbonate, it gives the corresponding salt,
carbon dioxide gas and water.
• Acidic and basic solutions in water conduct electricity because they produce hydrogen and hydroxide
ions respectively.
• The strength of an acid or an alkali can be tested by using a scale called the pH scale (0-14) which gives the
measure of hydrogen ion concentration in a solution.
• A neutral solution has a pH of exactly 7, while an acidic solution has a pH less than 7 and a basic
solution a pH more than 7.
• Water of crystallisation is the fixed number of water molecules chemically attached to each formula unit of a
salt in its crystalline form.
Questions
• Mark ‘T’ if the statement is true and ‘F’ if it is false:

1. Nitric acid turns red litmus blue. (T/F)
2. Sodium hydroxide turns blue litmus red. (T/F)
3. Sodium hydroxide and hydrochloric acid neutralise each other and form salt and water. (T/F)
4. Indicator is a substance which shows different colours in acidic and basic solutions. (T/F)
5. Tooth decay is caused by the presence of a base. (T/F)
• Ammonia is found in many household products, such as window cleaners. It turns red litmus blue. What is its
nature?
• Explain why:
1. An antacid tablet is taken when you suffer from acidity.
2. Calamine solution is applied on the skin when an ant bites.
3. Factory waste is neutralised before disposing it into the water bodies.
• Blue litmus paper is dipped in a solution. It remains blue. What is the nature of the solution?
Consider the following statements:
a) Both acids and bases change colour of all indicators.

b) If an indicator gives a colour change with an acid, it does not give a change with a base.
c) If an indicator changes colour with a base, it does not change colour with an acid.
d) Change of colour in an acid and a base depends on the type of the indicator.
54
Which of these statements are correct?
(i) All four (ii) a and d (iii) b and c (iv) only d
• Why do HCl, HNO3, etc., show acidic characters in aqueous solutions while solutions of compounds like
alcohol and glucose do not show acidic character?
• Why does an aqueous solution of an acid conduct electricity?
• While diluting an acid, why is it recommended that the acid should be added to water and not water to the
acid?
• How is the concentration of hydronium ions (H3O+) affected when a solution of an acid is diluted?
• How is the concentration of hydroxide ions (OH–) affected when excess base is dissolved in a solution of
sodium hydroxide?
• Why should curd and sour substances not be kept in brass and copper vessels?
• Which gas is usually liberated when an acid reacts with a metal?
• You have two solutions, A and B. The pH of solution A is 6 and pH of solution B is 8. Which solution has more
hydrogen ion concentration? Which of this is acidic and which one is basic?
• What effect does the concentration of H+(aq) ions have on the nature of the solution?
• Do basic solutions also have H+(aq) ions? If yes, then why are these basic?
• Under what soil condition do you think a farmer would treat the soil of his fields with quick lime (calcium
oxide) or slaked lime (calcium hydroxide) or chalk (calcium carbonate)?
• A solution turns red litmus blue, its pH is likely to be (a) 1 (b) 4 (c) 5 (d) 10
• A solution reacts with crushed egg-shells to give a gas that turns lime-water milky. The solution contains (a)
NaCl (b) HCl (c) LiCl (d) KCl
• Which one of the following types of medicines is used for treating indigestion? (a) Antibiotic (b) Analgesic (c)
Antacid (d) Antiseptic
• Compounds such as alcohols and glucose also contain hydrogen but are not categorised as acids. Why?
• Why does distilled water not conduct electricity, whereas rainwater does?
• Why do acids not show acidic behaviour in the absence of water?
• Five solutions A,B,C,D and E when tested with universal indicator showed pH as 4,1,11,7 and 9, respectively.
Which solution is (a) neutral? (b) strongly alkaline? (c) strongly acidic? (d) weakly acidic? (e) weakly alkaline?
• Fresh milk has a pH of 6. How do you think the pH will change as it turns into curd? Explain your answer.
• A milkman adds a very small amount of baking soda to fresh milk. (a) Why does he shift the pH of the fresh
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milk from 6 to slightly alkaline? (b) Why does this milk take a long time to set as curd?
• Plaster of Paris should be stored in a moisture-proof container. Explain why?
6. Metals and Non-metals
• There are no more than 92 naturally occurring elements.

• An important classification of elements is in terms of metals and non-metals.
• Most of the elements are metals. Less than 20 are non-metals.
• A few are metalloids which possess characters of both metals and non-metals.
• The property of metals by which they can be beaten into thin sheets is called malleability.
• The property of metal by which it can be drawn into wires is called ductility.
• Gold is the most ductile metal. A wire of about 2 km length can be drawn from one gram of gold.
• It is because of their malleability and ductility that metals can be given different shapes.
• Since metals produce ringing sounds, they are said to be sonorous.
• Sodium metal is very reactive. It reacts vigorously with oxygen and water.
• A lot of heat is generated in the reaction. It is, therefore, stored in kerosene.
• Generally, non-metals do not react with water though they may be very reactive in air.
• Such non-metals are stored in water. For example, phosphorus is a very reactive non-metal.
• It catches fire if exposed to air. Hence it is stored in water.
• Non-metals generally do not react with acids, but metals react with acids and produce hydrogen gas that
burns with a ‘pop’ sound.
• On burning, metals react with oxygen to produce metal oxides which are basic in nature.
• Non-metals react with oxygen to produce non-metallic oxides which are acidic in nature.
• Most non-metals produce acidic oxides when dissolved in water.
• On the other hand, most metals, give rise to basic oxides.
• Metals are good conductors of heat and have high melting points.
• The best conductors of heat are silver and copper.
• Lead and mercury are comparatively poor conductors of heat.
• Metals have high melting points, but gallium and caesium have very low melting points.
• These two metals will melt if you keep them on your palm.
• Alkali metals (lithium, sodium, potassium) are so soft that they can be cut with a knife.
• They have low densities and low melting points.
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• Mercury is the only metal which is found in liquid state at room temperature. These are exceptions.
• Iodine is a non-metal, but it is lustrous.
Chemical properties of metals
What happens when Metals are burnt in Air?
• Almost all metals combine with oxygen to form metal oxides.

Metal + Oxygen → Metal oxide
• For example, when copper is heated in air, it combines with oxygen to form copper(II) oxide, a black oxide.
2Cu + O 2 → 2CuO (Copper) (Copper(II) oxide)
• Metal oxides are basic in nature.

• But some metal oxides, such as aluminium oxide, zinc oxide, etc., show both acidic as well as basic behaviour.
• Such metal oxides which react with both acids as well as bases to produce salts and water are known as
amphoteric oxides.
• Most metal oxides are insoluble in water but some of these dissolve in water to form alkalis.
• All metals do not react with oxygen at the same rate.
• Metals such as potassium and sodium react so vigorously that they catch fire if kept in the open.
• Hence, to protect them and to prevent accidental fires, they are kept immersed in kerosene oil.
• At ordinary temperature, the surfaces of metals such as magnesium, aluminium, zinc, lead, etc., are covered
with a thin layer of oxide. The protective oxide layer prevents the metal from further oxidation.
• Iron does not burn on heating, but iron filings burn vigorously when sprinkled in the flame of the burner.
• Silver and gold do not react with oxygen even at high temperatures.
• Anodising is a process of forming a thick oxide layer of aluminium.
• This aluminium oxide coat makes it resistant to further corrosion.
• During anodising, a clean aluminium article is made the anode and is electrolysed with dilute sulphuric acid.
• The oxygen gas evolved at the anode reacts with aluminium to make a thicker protective oxide layer.
• This oxide layer can be dyed easily to give aluminium articles an attractive finish.
What happens when Metals react with Water?
• Metals react with water and produce a metal oxide and hydrogen gas.
• Metal oxides that are soluble in water dissolve in it to further form metal hydroxide. 57
• But all metals do not react with water.
Metal + Water → Metal oxide + Hydrogen

Metal oxide + Water → Metal hydroxide
• In case of sodium and potassium, the reaction is so violent and exothermic that the evolved hydrogen
immediately catches fire.
• The reaction of calcium with water is less violent. The heat evolved is not sufficient for the hydrogen to catch
fire.
• Calcium starts floating because the bubbles of hydrogen gas formed stick to the surface of the metal.
• Magnesium does not react with cold water. It reacts with hot water to form magnesium hydroxide and hy-
drogen. It also starts floating due to the bubbles of hydrogen gas sticking to its surface.
• Metals like aluminium, iron and zinc do not react either with cold or hot water.
• But they react with steam to form the metal oxide and hydrogen.
• Metals such as lead, copper, silver and gold do not react with water at all.
What happens when Metals react with Acids?
• Metals react with acids and produce metal salts and hydrogen gas.
Metal + Dilute acid → Salt + Hydrogen
• Hydrogen gas is not evolved when a metal reacts with nitric acid.
• It is because HNO3 is a strong oxidising agent.
• It oxidises the H2 produced to water and itself gets reduced to any of the nitrogen oxides.
• But magnesium (Mg) and manganese (Mn) react with very dilute HNO3 to evolve H2 gas.
• The reactivity decreases in the order Mg > Al > Zn > Fe.
• Aqua regia, (Latin for ‘royal water’) is a freshly prepared mixture of concentrated hydrochloric acid and
concentrated nitric acid in the ratio of 3:1.
• It can dissolve gold, even though neither of these acids can do so alone.
• Aqua regia is a highly corrosive, fuming liquid.
• It is one of the few reagents that is able to dissolve gold and platinum.
How do Metals react with Solutions of other Metal Salts?

58
• Reactive metals can displace less reactive metals from their compounds in solution or molten form.
• All metals are not equally reactive.

• Displacement reactions studied earlier give better evidence about the reactivity of metals.
• It is simple and easy if metal A displaces metal B from its solution, it is more reactive than B
Metal A + Salt solution of B → Salt solution of A + Metal B
The Reactivity Series

• The reactivity series is a list of metals arranged in the order of their decreasing activities.
• After performing displacement experiments, the following series, known as the reactivity or activity series has
been developed.
How do metals and non-metals react?
• We learnt that noble gases, which have a completely filled valence shell, show little chemical activity.
• We, therefore, explain the reactivity of elements as a tendency to attain a completely filled valence shell.
59
• Sodium and chloride ions, being oppositely charged, attract each other and are held by strong electrostatic
forces of attraction to exist as sodium chloride (NaCl).
60
• Sodium chloride does not exist as molecules but aggregates of oppositely charged ions.
• The compounds formed in this manner by the transfer of electrons from a metal to a non-metal are
known as ionic compounds or electrovalent compounds.

Properties of Ionic Compounds
Physical nature
• Ionic compounds are solids and are somewhat hard because of the strong force of attraction between the
positive and negative ions.
• These compounds are generally brittle and break into pieces when pressure is applied.
Melting and Boiling points
• Ionic compounds have high melting and boiling points (because of the strong force of attraction).
• This is because a considerable amount of energy is required to break the strong inter-ionic attraction.
Solubility
• Electrovalent compounds are generally soluble in water & insoluble in solvents such as kerosene & petrol.
Conduction of Electricity
• The conduction of electricity through a solution involves the movement of charged particles.
61
• A solution of an ionic compound in water contains ions, which move to the opposite electrodes when elec-
tricity is passed through the solution.

• Ionic compounds in the solid state do not conduct electricity because movement of ions in the solid
is not possible due to their rigid structure.
• But ionic compounds conduct electricity in the molten state.
• This is possible in the molten state since the electrostatic forces of attraction between the oppositely
charged ions are overcome due to the heat. Thus, the ions move freely and conduct electricity.
Occurrence of metals
• The elements or compounds, which occur naturally in the earth’s crust, are known as minerals.
• At some places, minerals contain a very high percentage of a particular metal and the metal can be profitably
extracted from it. These minerals are called ores.
Extraction of Metals
• Some metals are found in the earth’s crust in the free state.
• Some are found in the form of their compounds.
• The metals at the bottom of the activity series are the least reactive. They are often found in a free state.
• For example, gold, silver, platinum and copper are found in the free state.
• Copper and silver are also found in the combined state as their sulphide or oxide ores.
• The metals at the top of the activity series (K, Na, Ca, Mg and Al) are so reactive that they are never
found in nature as free elements.
• The metals in the middle of the activity series (Zn, Fe, Pb, etc.) are moderately reactive.
• They are found in the earth’s crust mainly as oxides, sulphides or carbonates.
• You will find that the ores of many metals are oxides. This is because oxygen is a very reactive element
and is very abundant on the earth.
• Thus, on the basis of reactivity, we can group the metals into the following three categories (Fig. 3.9) – (i)
Metals of low reactivity; (ii) Metals of medium reactivity; (iii) Metals of high reactivity.
62
Enrichment of Ores
• Ores mined from the earth are usually contaminated with large amounts of impurities such as soil, sand, etc.,
called gangue.
• The impurities must be removed from the ore prior to the extraction of the metal.
• The processes used for removing the gangue from the ore are based on the differences between the physical
or chemical properties of the gangue and the ore.
Extracting Metals Low in the Activity Series
• Metals low in the activity series are very unreactive.

• The oxides of these metals can be reduced to metals by heating alone.
• For example, cinnabar (HgS) is an ore of mercury.
• When it is heated in air, it is first converted into mercuric oxide (HgO).
• Mercuric oxide is then reduced to mercury on further heating
• Similarly, copper which is found as Cu2S in nature can be obtained from its ore by just heating in air.
Extracting Metals in the Middle of the Activity Series
• The metals in the middle of the activity series such as iron, zinc, lead, copper, etc., are moderately reactive.
• These are usually present as sulphides or carbonates in nature.
• It is easier to obtain a metal from its oxide, as compared to its sulphides and carbonates.
• Therefore, prior to reduction, the metal sulphides and carbonates must be converted into metal oxides.
• The sulphide ores are converted into oxides by heating strongly in the presence of excess air. This
process is known as roasting.
• The carbonate ores are changed into oxides by heating strongly in limited air. This process is known as cal-
cination.
• The metal oxides are then reduced to the corresponding metals by using suitable reducing agents such as 64
carbon. For example, when zinc oxide is heated with carbon, it is reduced to metallic zinc.
• Besides using carbon (coke) to reduce metal oxides to metals, sometimes displacement reactions can also
be used.
• The highly reactive metals such as sodium, calcium, aluminium, etc., are used as reducing agents be-
cause they can displace metals of lower reactivity from their compounds.
• These displacement reactions are highly exothermic.
• The amount of heat evolved is so large that the metals are produced in the molten state.
• In fact, the reaction of iron(III) oxide (Fe2O3) with aluminium is used to join railway tracks or cracked machine
parts. This reaction is known as the thermite reaction.
Extracting Metals towards the Top of the Activity Series
• The metals high up in the reactivity series are very reactive.

• They cannot be obtained from their compounds by heating with carbon.
• For example, carbon cannot reduce the oxides of sodium, magnesium, calcium, aluminium, etc., to the re-
spective metals. This is because these metals have more affinity for oxygen than carbon.
• These metals are obtained by electrolytic reduction.
• For example, sodium, magnesium and calcium are obtained by the electrolysis of their molten chlorides.
• The metals are deposited at the cathode (the negatively charged electrode), whereas, chlorine is liber-
ated at the anode (the positively charged electrode).
• Similarly, aluminium is obtained by the electrolytic reduction of aluminium oxide.
Refining of Metals
• The metals produced by various reduction processes described above are not very pure.
65
• They contain impurities, which must be removed to obtain pure metals.
• The most widely used method for refining impure metals is electrolytic refining.
Electrolytic Refining
• Many metals, such as copper, zinc, tin, nickel, silver, gold, etc., are refined electrolytically.
• In this process, the impure metal is made the anode and a thin strip of pure metal is made the cathode.
• A solution of the metal salt is used as an electrolyte.
• On passing the current through the electrolyte, the pure metal from the anode dissolves into the electrolyte.
• An equivalent amount of pure metal from the electrolyte is deposited on the cathode.
• The soluble impurities go into the solution, whereas, the insoluble impurities settle down at the bottom of
the anode and are known as anode mud.
Corrosion
• Silver articles become black after some time when exposed to air. This is because it reacts with sulphur in the
air to form a coating of silver sulphide.
• When a copper vessel is exposed to moist air for long, it acquires a dull green coating. The green material is 66
a mixture of copper hydroxide (Cu(OH)2) and copper carbonate (CuCO3).
• Iron when exposed to moist air for a long time acquires a coating of a brown flaky substance called rust.
• In the test tube A, the nails are exposed to both air and water. In the test tube B, the nails are exposed to
only water, and the nails in test tube C are exposed to dry air.
• You will observe that iron nails rust in test tube A, but they do not rust in test tubes B and C.
Prevention of Corrosion
• The rusting of iron can be prevented by painting, oiling, greasing, galvanising, chrome plating, anodising
or making alloys.
• Galvanisation is a method of protecting steel and iron from rusting by coating them with a thin layer of zinc. 67
• The galvanised article is protected against rusting even if the zinc coating is broken.
• Alloying is a very good method of improving the properties of a metal. We can get the desired properties by
this method.
• For example, iron is the most widely used metal. But it is never used in its pure state. This is because pure
iron is very soft and stretches easily when hot.
• But, if it is mixed with a small amount of carbon (about 0.05 %), it becomes hard and strong.
• When iron is mixed with nickel and chromium, we get stainless steel, which is hard and does not rust.
• An alloy is a homogeneous mixture of two or more metals, or a metal and a non-metal.
• It is prepared by first melting the primary metal, and then, dissolving the other elements in it in definite
proportions. It is then cooled to room temperature.
• Pure gold, known as 24 carat gold, is very soft. It is, therefore, not suitable for making jewellery.
• It is alloyed with either silver or copper to make it hard.
• Generally, in India, 22 carat gold is used for making ornaments. It means that 22 parts of pure gold is alloyed
with 2 parts of either copper or silver.
• If one of the metals is mercury, then the alloy is known as an amalgam.
• The electrical conductivity and melting point of an alloy is less than that of pure metals.
• For example, brass, an alloy of copper and zinc (Cu and Zn), and bronze, an alloy of copper and tin (Cu
and Sn), are not good conductors of electricity whereas copper is used for making electrical circuits.
• Solder, an alloy of lead and tin (Pb and Sn), has a low melting point and is used for welding electrical wires
together.
The wonder of ancient Indian metallurgy
• The iron pillar near the Qutub Minar in Delhi was made around 400 BC by the iron workers of India.
• They had developed a process which prevented wrought iron from rusting.
• This is likely because of formation of a thin film of magnetic oxide (Fe3O4) on the surface, as a result of
finishing treatment given to the pillar, painting it with a mixture of different salts, then heating and quenching.
Summary
• Elements can be classified as metals and non-metals.

• Metals are lustrous, malleable, ductile and are good conductors of heat and electricity. They are solids at
room temperature, except mercury which is a liquid.
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• Metals can form positive ions by losing electrons to non-metals.
• Metals combine with oxygen to form basic oxides.

• Aluminium oxide and zinc oxide show the properties of both basic as well as acidic oxides. These oxides are
known as amphoteric oxides.
• Different metals have different reactivities with water and dilute acids.
• A list of common metals arranged in order of their decreasing reactivity is known as an activity series.
• Metals above hydrogen in the Activity series can displace hydrogen from dilute acids.
• A more reactive metal displaces a less reactive metal from its salt solution.
• Metals occur in nature as free elements or in the form of their compounds.
• The extraction of metals from their ores and then refining them for use is known as metallurgy.
• An alloy is a homogeneous mixture of two or more metals, or a metal and a non-metal.
• The surface of some metals, such as iron, is corroded when they are exposed to moist air for a long period
of time. This phenomenon is known as corrosion.
• Non-metals have properties opposite to that of metals. They are neither malleable nor ductile. They are bad
conductors of heat and electricity, except for graphite, which conducts electricity.
• Non-metals form negatively charged ions by gaining electrons when reacting with metals.
• Non-metals form oxides which are either acidic or neutral.
• Non-metals do not displace hydrogen from dilute acids. They react with hydrogen to form hydrides.
Questions
• Which of the following pairs will give displacement reactions? (a) NaCl solution and copper metal (b) MgCl2
solution and aluminium metal (c) FeSO4 solution and silver metal (d) AgNO3 solution and copper metal.
• Which of the following methods is suitable for preventing an iron frying pan from rusting? (a) Applying grease
(b) Applying paint (c) Applying a coating of zinc (d) All of the above.
• An element reacts with oxygen to give a compound with a high melting point. This compound is also soluble
in water. The element is likely to be (a) calcium (b) carbon (c) silicon (d) iron.
• Food cans are coated with tin and not with zinc because (a) zinc is costlier than tin. (b) zinc has a higher
melting point than tin. (c) zinc is more reactive than tin. (d) zinc is less reactive than tin.
• What are amphoteric oxides? Give two examples of amphoteric oxides.
• In the electrolytic refining of a metal M, what would you take as the anode, the cathode and the electrolyte?
• Give reasons (a) Platinum, gold and silver are used to make jewellery. (b) Sodium, potassium and lithium are
stored under oil. (c) Aluminium is a highly reactive metal, yet it is used to make utensils for cooking. (d) 69
Carbonate and sulphide ores are usually converted into oxides during the process of extraction.
• You must have seen tarnished copper vessels being cleaned with lemon or tamarind juice. Explain why these
sour substances are effective in cleaning the vessels.
• Give reasons why copper is used to make hot water tanks and not steel (an alloy of iron).
7. Carbon and its Compounds

• The amount of carbon present in the earth’s crust and in the atmosphere is quite meagre.
• The earth’s crust has only 0.02% carbon in the form of minerals (like carbonates, hydrogen carbonates,
coal and petroleum) and the atmosphere has 0.03% of carbon dioxide.
Bonding in carbon – the covalent bond
• Ionic compounds have high melting and boiling points and conduct electricity in solution or in the
molten state.
• Most carbon compounds are poor conductors of electricity.
• From the data on the boiling and melting points of the above compounds, we can conclude that the forces
of attraction between these molecules are not very strong.
• Since these compounds are largely non-conductors of electricity, we can conclude that the bonding in
these compounds does not give rise to any ions.
• The combining capacity of various elements and how it depends on the number of valence electrons.
• The atomic number of carbon is 6.
• We know that the reactivity of elements is explained as their tendency to attain a completely filled outer shell,
that is, attain noble gas configuration.
• Elements forming ionic compounds achieve this by either gaining or losing electrons from the outermost 70
shell.
• In the case of carbon, it has four electrons in its outermost shell and needs to gain or lose four electrons
to attain noble gas configuration. If it were to gain or lose electrons –
1. It could gain four electrons forming C4– anion. But it would be difficult for the nucleus with six protons
to hold on to ten electrons, that is, four extra electrons.
2. It could lose four electrons forming C4+ cation. But it would require a large amount of energy to remove
four electrons leaving behind a carbon cation with six protons in its nucleus holding on to just two elec-
trons.
• Carbon overcomes this problem by sharing its valence electrons with other atoms of carbon or with
atoms of other elements.
• Not just carbon, but many other elements form molecules by sharing electrons in this manner.
• The shared electrons ‘belong’ to the outer shells of both the atoms and lead to both atoms attaining the
noble gas configuration.
• Before going on to compounds of carbon, let us look at some simple molecules formed by the sharing of
valence electrons.
• The simplest molecule formed in this manner is that of hydrogen.
• The atomic number of hydrogen is 1.

• Hence hydrogen has one electron in its K shell and it requires one more electron to fill the K shell.
• So two hydrogen atoms share their electrons to form a molecule of hydrogen, H2.
• This allows each hydrogen atom to attain the electronic configuration of the nearest noble gas, helium. 71
• The shared pair of electrons is said to constitute a single bond between the two hydrogen atoms.
• A single bond is also represented by a line between the two atoms.

• In the case of oxygen, we see the formation of a double bond between two oxygen atoms.
• This is because an oxygen atom has six electrons in L shell and it requires two electrons to complete its octet.
• The two electrons contributed by each oxygen atom give rise to two shared pairs of electrons. This is said to
constitute a double bond between the two atoms.
• Nitrogen has the atomic number 7. In order to attain an octet, each nitrogen atom in a molecule of nitrogen
contributes three electrons giving rise to three shared pairs of electrons.
• This is said to constitute a triple bond between the two atoms.
• Methane has a formula CH4. Hydrogen has a valency of 1. Carbon is tetravalent.
• In order to achieve noble gas configuration, carbon shares these electrons with four atoms of hydrogen.
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• Such bonds which are formed by the sharing of an electron pair between two atoms are known as
covalent bonds.
• Covalently bonded molecules are seen to have strong bonds within the molecule, but intermolecular
forces are small. This gives rise to the low melting and boiling points of these compounds.
• Since the electrons are shared between atoms and no charged particles are formed, such covalent com-
pounds are generally poor conductors of electricity.
Allotropes of carbon 73
• The element carbon occurs in different forms in nature with widely varying physical properties.
• Both diamond and graphite are formed by carbon atoms, the difference lies in the manner in which the
carbon atoms are bonded to one another.
• In diamond, each carbon atom is bonded to four other carbon atoms forming a rigid three-dimensional
structure.
• In graphite, each carbon atom is bonded to three other carbon atoms in the same plane giving a hexagonal
array.
• One of these bonds is a double-bond, and thus the valency of carbon is satisfied.
• Graphite structure is formed by the hexagonal arrays being placed in layers one above the other.
• These two different structures result in diamond and graphite having very different physical properties
even though their chemical properties are the same.
• Diamond is the hardest substance known while graphite is smooth and slippery.
• Graphite is also a very good conductor of electricity unlike other non-metals.
• Diamonds can be synthesised by subjecting pure carbon to very high pressure and temperature.
• These synthetic diamonds are small but are otherwise indistinguishable from natural diamonds.
• Fullerenes form another class of carbon allotropes.
• The first one to be identified was C-60 which has carbon atoms arranged in the shape of a football.
Versatile nature of carbon
• The numbers of carbon compounds whose formulae are known was estimated to be about three million!
• This outnumbers by a large margin the compounds formed by all the other elements put together.
• The nature of the covalent bond enables carbon to form a large number of compounds. 74
Catenation
• Carbon has the unique ability to form bonds with other atoms of carbon, giving rise to large molecules.
• This property is called catenation.
• These compounds may have long chains of carbon, branched chains of carbon or even carbon atoms ar-
ranged in rings. In addition, carbon atoms may be linked by single, double or triple bonds.
• Compounds of carbon, which are linked by only single bonds between the carbon atoms are called satu-
rated compounds.
• Compounds of carbon having double or triple bonds between their carbon atoms are called unsaturated
compounds.
• No other element exhibits the property of catenation to the extent seen in carbon compounds.
• Silicon forms compounds with hydrogen which have chains of upto seven or eight atoms, but these com-
pounds are very reactive.
• The carbon-carbon bond is very strong and hence stable.
• This gives us the large number of compounds with many carbon atoms linked to each other.
Tetravalency
• Since carbon has a valency of four, it is capable of bonding with four other atoms of carbon or atoms of some
other mono-valent element.
• Compounds of carbon are formed with oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, sulphur, chlorine, etc. giving rise to com-
pounds with specific properties which depend on the elements other than carbon present in the molecule.
• Again, the bonds that carbon forms with most other elements are very strong making these compounds
exceptionally stable.
• One reason for the formation of strong bonds by carbon is its small size. This enables the nucleus to
hold on to the shared pairs of electrons strongly.
• The bonds formed by elements having larger atoms are much weaker.
Organic compounds
• The two characteristic features seen in carbon, that is, tetravalency and catenation, put together give rise
to a large number of compounds.
• Many have the same non-carbon atom or group of atoms attached to different carbon chains. 75
• These compounds were initially extracted from natural substances and it was thought that these carbon
compounds or organic compounds could only be formed within a living system.

• Friedrich Wöhler disproved this in 1828 by preparing urea from ammonium cyanate.
• But carbon compounds, except for oxides of carbon, carbonate and hydrogen carbonate salts continue to be
studied under organic chemistry.
Saturated and Unsaturated Carbon Compounds

• In order to arrive at the structure of simple carbon compounds, the first step is to link the carbon atoms
together with a single bond and then use the hydrogen atoms to satisfy the remaining valencies of carbon.
• For example, the structure of ethane is arrived in the following steps
• Figure 4.6 (a) Carbon atoms linked together with a single bond Three valencies of each carbon atom remain
unsatisfied, so each is bonded to three hydrogen atoms giving:
• You will see that the valencies of all the atoms are satisfied by single bonds between them.
• Such carbon compounds are called saturated compounds.
• These compounds are normally not very reactive.
• However, another compound of carbon and hydrogen has the formula C2H4 and is called ethene.
• How can this molecule be depicted? We follow the same step-wise approach as above. 76
• Each carbon atom gets two hydrogen atoms to give – We see that one valency per carbon atom remains
unsatisfied. This can be satisfied only if there is a double bond between the two carbons giving us –
• Yet another compound of hydrogen and carbon has the formula C2H2 and is called ethyne.
• Such compounds of carbon having double or triple bonds between the carbon atoms are known as un-
saturated carbon compounds and they are more reactive than the saturated carbon compounds.
Chains, Branches and Rings
• In the earlier section, we mentioned the carbon compounds methane, ethane and propane, containing re-
spectively 1, 2 and 3 carbon atoms.
• Such ‘chains’ of carbon atoms can contain tens of carbon atoms.
• The names and structures of six of these are given in Table 4.2
77
• But, let us take another look at butane. If we make the carbon ‘skeleton’ with four carbon atoms, we see that
two different ‘skeletons’ are possible –
78
• We see that both these structures have the same formula C4H10.
• Such compounds with identical molecular formula but different structures are called structural isomers.
• In addition to straight and branched carbon chains, some compounds have carbon atoms arranged in the
form of a ring. For example, cyclohexane has the formula C6H12 and the following structure –
• Straight chain, branched chain and cyclic carbon compounds, all may be saturated or unsaturated.
• For example, benzene, C6H6, has the following structure –
79
• All these carbon compounds which contain just carbon and hydrogen are called hydrocarbons.
 Among these, the saturated hydrocarbons are called alkanes.
 The unsaturated hydrocarbons which contain one or more double bonds are called alkenes.
 Those containing one or more triple bonds are called alkynes.
Functional groups
• Carbon also forms bonds with other elements such as halogens, oxygen, nitrogen and sulphur.
• In a hydrocarbon chain, one or more hydrogens can be replaced by these elements, such that the valency
of carbon remains satisfied.
• In such compounds, the element replacing hydrogen is referred to as a heteroatom.
• These heteroatoms confer specific properties to the compound, regardless of the length and nature of the
carbon chain and hence are called functional groups.
• Free valency or valencies of the group are shown by the single line. 80
• The functional group is attached to the carbon chain through this valency by replacing one hydrogen
atom or atoms.
Homologous Series
• The presence of a functional group such as alcohol dictates the properties of the carbon compound,
regardless of the length of the carbon chain.
• For example, the chemical properties of CH3OH, C2H5OH, C3H7OH and C4H9OH are all very similar.
• Hence, such a series of compounds in which the same functional group substitutes for hydrogen in a carbon
chain is called a homologous series.
• Let us look at the homologous series that we saw earlier in Table 4.2. If we look at the formulae of successive
compounds, say –
• The difference between the next pair – propane and butane (C4H10) is also a –CH2–unit.
• Similarly, take the homologous series for alkenes. The first member of the series is ethene.
• The succeeding members have the formula C3H6, C4H8 and C5H10. These also differ by a –CH2–unit.
• Hence, the general formula for alkenes can be written as CnH2n, where n = 2, 3, 4.
• Similarly, the general formula for alkanes and alkynes is CnH2n+2 and CnH2n-1, respectively.
• As the molecular mass increases in any homologous series, a gradation in physical properties is seen.
• This is because the melting points and boiling points increase with increasing molecular mass.
• Other physical properties such as solubility in a particular solvent also show a similar gradation.
• But the chemical properties, which are determined solely by the functional group, remain similar in a
homologous series.
Nomenclature of Carbon Compounds

81
• The names of compounds in a homologous series are based on the name of the basic carbon chain modified
by a “prefix” “phrase before” or “suffix” “phrase after” indicating the nature of the functional group.
• For example, the names of the alcohols are methanol, ethanol, propanol and butanol.
• Naming a carbon compound can be done by the following method –
1. Identify the number of carbon atoms in the compound. A compound having three carbon atoms would
have the name propane.
2. In case a functional group is present, it is indicated in the name of the compound with either a prefix or
a suffix (as given in Table 4.4).
3. If the name of the functional group is to be given as a suffix, the name of the carbon chain is modified by
deleting the final ‘e’ and adding the appropriate suffix. For example, a three-carbon chain with a ketone
group would be named in the following manner – Propane – ‘e’ = propan + ‘one’ = propanone.
4. If the carbon chain is unsaturated, then the final ‘ane’ in the name of the carbon chain is substituted by
‘ene’ or ‘yne’ as given in Table 4.4. For example, a three-carbon chain with a double bond would be called
propene and if it has a triple bond, it would be called propyne.
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83
Combustion of Carbon
• Carbon, in all its allotropic forms, burns in oxygen to give carbon dioxide along with the release of heat and
light.
• Most carbon compounds also release a large amount of heat and light on burning.
• These are the oxidation reactions –
• Saturated hydrocarbons will generally give a clean flame while unsaturated carbon compounds will
give a yellow flame with lots of black smoke. This results in a sooty deposit on the metal plate.
• However, limiting the supply of air results in incomplete combustion of even saturated hydrocarbons
giving a sooty flame.
• The gas/kerosene stove used at home has inlets for air so that a sufficiently oxygen-rich mixture is burnt to
give a clean blue flame.
• If you observe the bottoms of cooking vessels getting blackened, it means that the air holes are blocked and
fuel is getting wasted.
• Fuels such as coal and petroleum have some amount of nitrogen and sulphur in them.
• Their combustion results in the formation of oxides of sulphur and nitrogen which are major pollutants.
Why do substances burn with or without a flame?
• A candle or the LPG in the gas stove burns with a flame.

• However, coal or charcoal sometimes just glows red and gives out heat without a flame.
• This is because a flame is only produced when gaseous substances burn.
• When charcoal is ignited, the volatile substances present vaporise and burn with a flame in the beginning.
• A luminous flame is seen when the atoms of the gaseous substance are heated and start to glow.
• The colour produced by each element is a characteristic property of that element.
Formation of coal and petroleum
• Coal and petroleum have been formed from biomass which has been subjected to various biological and 84
geological processes.
• Coal is the remains of trees, ferns, and other plants that lived millions of years ago.
• These were crushed into the earth, perhaps by earthquakes or volcanic eruptions.
• They were pressed down by layers of earth and rock. They slowly decayed into coal.
• Oil and gas are the remains of millions of tiny plants and animals that lived in the sea.
• When they died, their bodies sank to the seabed and were covered by silt.
• Bacteria attacked the dead remains, turning them into oil and gas under the high pressures they were being
subjected to.
• Meanwhile, the silt was slowly compressed into rock.
• The oil and gas seeped into the porous parts of the rock and got trapped like water in a sponge.
Reactions in Carbon Compounds
Oxidation
• Carbon compounds can be easily oxidised on combustion.

• In addition to complete oxidation, we have reactions in which alcohols are converted to carboxylic acids:
• We see that some substances are capable of adding oxygen to others. These substances are known as
oxidising agents.
• Alkaline potassium permanganate or acidified potassium dichromate are oxidising alcohols to acids, that is,
adding oxygen to the starting material. Hence, they are known as oxidising agents.
Addition Reaction
• Unsaturated hydrocarbons add hydrogen in the presence of catalysts such as palladium or nickel to give
saturated hydrocarbons.
• Catalysts are substances that cause a reaction to occur or proceed at a different rate without the reac-
tion itself being affected.
• This reaction is commonly used in the hydrogenation of vegetable oils using a nickel catalyst.
• Vegetable oils generally have long unsaturated carbon chains while animal fats have saturated carbon
chains. 85
• You must have seen advertisements stating that some vegetable oils are ‘healthy’.
• Animal fats generally contain saturated fatty acids which are said to be harmful for health.
• Oils containing unsaturated fatty acids should be chosen for cooking.
Suggested Reading: https://www.pmfias.com/fats-saturated-unsaturated-trans-fat/
Substitution Reaction
• Saturated hydrocarbons are fairly unreactive and are inert in the presence of most reagents.
• However, in the presence of sunlight, chlorine is added to hydrocarbons in a very fast reaction.
• Chlorine can replace the hydrogen atoms one by one.
• It is called a substitution reaction because one type of atom or a group of atoms takes the place of another.
• A number of products are usually formed with the higher homologues of alkanes.
Some important carbon compounds – ethanol and ethanoic acid
• Ethanol is a liquid at room temperature.

• Ethanol is commonly called alcohol and is the active ingredient of all alcoholic drinks.
• In addition, because it is a good solvent, it is also used in medicines such as tincture iodine, cough syrups,
and many tonics.
• Ethanol is also soluble in water in all proportions.
• Consumption of small quantities of dilute ethanol causes drunkenness.
• However, intake of even a small quantity of pure ethanol (called absolute alcohol) can be lethal.
Reactions of Ethanol
Reaction with sodium –
• Alcohols react with sodium leading to the evolution of hydrogen.

• With ethanol, the other product is sodium ethoxide.
Reaction to give unsaturated hydrocarbon

86
• Heating ethanol at 443 K with excess concentrated sulphuric acid results in the dehydration of ethanol to
give ethene –
• The concentrated sulphuric acid can be regarded as a dehydrating agent which removes water from ethanol.
How do alcohols affect living beings?

• When large quantities of ethanol are consumed, it tends to slow metabolic processes and to depress the
central nervous system.
• This results in lack of coordination, drowsiness, lowering of the normal inhibitions, and finally stupor.
• The individual may feel relaxed but does not realise that his sense of judgement, sense of timing, and mus-
cular coordination has been seriously impaired.
• Unlike ethanol, intake of methanol in very small quantities can cause death.
• Methanol is oxidised to methanal in the liver. Methanal reacts rapidly with the components of cells.
• It causes the protoplasm to get coagulated, in much the same way an egg is coagulated by cooking.
• Methanol also affects the optic nerve, causing blindness.
• Ethanol is an important industrial solvent.
• To prevent the misuse of ethanol produced for industrial use, it is made unfit for drinking by adding
poisonous substances like methanol to it.
• Dyes are also added to colour the alcohol blue so that it can be identified easily. This is called denatured
alcohol.
Alcohol as a fuel
• Sugarcane plants are one of the most efficient convertors of sunlight into chemical energy.
• Sugarcane juice can be used to prepare molasses which is fermented to give alcohol (ethanol).
• Some countries now use alcohol as an additive in petrol since it is a cleaner fuel which gives rise to only
carbon dioxide and water on burning in sufficient air (oxygen).
Properties of Ethanoic Acid
• Ethanoic acid is commonly called acetic acid and belongs to a group of acids called carboxylic acids.
• 5-8% solution of acetic acid in water is called vinegar and is used widely as a preservative in pickles.
• The melting point of pure ethanoic acid is 290 K and hence it often freezes during winter in cold climates.
87
• This gave rise to its name glacial acetic acid.
• The group of organic compounds called carboxylic acids are obviously characterised by a special acidity.
• However, unlike mineral acids like HCl, which are completely ionised, carboxylic acids are weak acids.
Reactions of ethanoic acid:
Esterification reaction
• Esters are most commonly formed by reaction of an acid and an alcohol.
• Ethanoic acid reacts with absolute ethanol in the presence of an acid catalyst to give an ester –
• Esters are sweet-smelling substances. These are used in making perfumes and as flavouring agents.
• Esters react in the presence of an acid or a base to give back the alcohol and carboxylic acid. This reaction
is known as saponification because it is used in the preparation of soap.
Reaction with a base
• Like mineral acids, ethanoic acid reacts with a base such as sodium hydroxide to give a salt (sodium ethanoate
or commonly called sodium acetate) and water.
Reaction with carbonates and hydrogen carbonates:
• Ethanoic acid reacts with carbonates and hydrogen carbonates to give rise to a salt, carbon dioxide and water.
• The salt produced is commonly called sodium acetate.
Soaps and detergents
• Most dirt is oily in nature and as you know, oil does not dissolve in water.
• The molecules of soap are sodium or potassium salts of long-chain carboxylic acids.
• The ionic-end of soap dissolves in water while the carbon chain dissolves in oil.
• The soap molecules, thus form structures called micelles where one end of the molecules is towards the
oil droplet while the ionic-end faces outside. This forms an emulsion in water.
• The soap micelle thus helps in dissolving the dirt in water and we can wash our clothes clean.
How soaps work? 88
• Soaps are molecules in which the two ends have differing properties, one is hydrophilic, that is, it dissolves
in water, while the other end is hydrophobic, that is, it dissolves in hydrocarbons.
• When soap is at the surface of water, the hydrophobic ‘tail’ of soap will not be soluble in water and the
soap will align along the surface of water with the ionic end in water and the hydrocarbon ‘tail’ protruding
out of water.
• Inside water these molecules have a unique orientation that keeps the hydrocarbon portion out of the water.
• This is achieved by forming clusters of molecules in which the hydrophobic tails are in the interior of the
cluster and the ionic ends are on the surface of the cluster. This formation is called a micelle.
• Soap is able to clean, since the oily dirt will be collected in the centre of the micelle. 89
• The micelles stay in solution as a colloid and will not come together to precipitate because of ion-ion repul-
sion. Thus, the dirt suspended in the micelles is also easily rinsed away.
• The soap micelles are large enough to scatter light. Hence a soap solution appears cloudy.
Scum
• Have you ever observed while bathing that foam is formed with difficulty and an insoluble substance (scum)
remains after washing with water?
• This is caused by the reaction of soap with the calcium and magnesium salts, which cause the hardness
of water.
• Hence you need to use a larger amount of soap.
• This problem is overcome by using another class of compounds called detergents as cleansing agents.
• Detergents are generally ammonium or sulphonate salts of long chain carboxylic acids.
• The charged ends of these compounds do not form insoluble precipitates with the calcium and magne-
sium ions in hard water. Thus, they remain effective in hard water.
• Detergents are usually used to make shampoos and products for cleaning clothes.
Summary
• Carbon is a versatile element that forms the basis for all living organisms and many of the things we use.
• This large variety of compounds is formed by carbon because of its tetravalency and the property of cate-
nation that it exhibits.
• Covalent bonds are formed by the sharing of electrons between two atoms so that both can achieve a
completely filled outermost shell.
• Carbon forms covalent bonds with itself and other elements such as hydrogen, oxygen, sulphur, nitrogen and
chlorine.
• Carbon also forms compounds containing double and triple bonds between carbon atoms. These carbon
chains may be in the form of straight chains, branched chains or rings.
• The ability of carbon to form chains gives rise to a homologous series of compounds in which the same
functional group is attached to carbon chains of different lengths.
• The functional groups such as alcohols, aldehydes, ketones and carboxylic acids bestow characteristic
properties to the carbon compounds that contain them. 90
• Carbon and its compounds are some of our major sources of fuels.
• Ethanol and ethanoic acid are carbon compounds of importance in our daily lives.
• The action of soaps and detergents is based on the presence of both hydrophobic and hydrophilic groups in
the molecule and this helps to emulsify the oily dirt and hence its removal.
Questions
• Ethane, with the molecular formula C2H6 has (a) 6 covalent bonds. (b) 7 covalent bonds. (c) 8 covalent bonds.
(d) 9 covalent bonds
• Butanone is a four-carbon compound with the functional group (a) carboxylic acid. (b) aldehyde. (c) ketone.
(d) alcohol.
• While cooking, if the bottom of the vessel is getting blackened on the outside, it means that (a) the food is
not cooked completely. (b) the fuel is not burning completely. (c) the fuel is wet. (d) the fuel is burning
completely
• What is an homologous series? Explain with an example.
• How can ethanol and ethanoic acid be differentiated on the basis of their physical and chemical properties?
• What is hydrogenation? What is its industrial application?
• Which of the following hydrocarbons undergo addition reactions: C2H6, C3H8, C3H6, C2H2 and CH4?
8. Chemistry in everyday life
• Drugs are chemicals of low molecular masses (~100 – 500u) interact with macromolecular targets and pro-
duce a biological response.
• When the biological response is therapeutic and useful, these chemicals are called medicines and are used
in diagnosis, prevention and treatment of diseases.
• Use of chemicals for therapeutic effect is called chemotherapy.
• If taken in doses higher than those recommended, most of the drugs used as medicines are potential poisons.
• Barium Sulphate is insoluble and can be used as an X-ray contrast medium.
• Barium Sulphite (or Sulphite) on the other hand is water soluble and poisonous.
Classification of Drugs
On the basis of pharmacological effect

91
• This classification is based on pharmacological effect of the drugs.
• For example, analgesics have pain killing effect, antiseptics kill or arrest the growth of microorganisms.
On the basis of drug action
• It is based on the action of a drug on a particular biochemical process.

• E.g. All antihistamines inhibit the action of the compound histamine which causes inflammation.
On the basis of chemical structure

• It is based on the chemical structure of the drug.
• Drugs classified in this way share common structural features and often have similar pharmacological activity.
On the basis of molecular targets
• Drugs usually interact with biomolecules such as carbohydrates, lipids, proteins and nucleic acids.
• These are called target molecules or drug targets.
• Drugs possessing some common structural features may have the same mechanism of action on targets.
• The classification based on molecular targets is the most useful classification for medicinal chemists.
Macromolecules of biological origin perform various functions in the body.
• For example, proteins which perform the role of biological catalysts in the body are called enzymes,
those which are crucial to communication system in the body are called receptors.
• Carrier proteins carry polar molecules across the cell membrane.
• Nucleic acids have coded genetic information for the cell.
• Lipids and carbohydrates are structural parts of the cell membrane.
Antacids
• Over production of acid in the stomach causes irritation and pain.

• In severe cases, ulcers are developed in the stomach.
• Until 1970, only treatment for acidity was administration of antacids, such as sodium hydrogen carbonate
or a mixture of aluminium and magnesium hydroxide.
• However, excessive hydrogen carbonate can make the stomach alkaline and trigger the production of even
more acid.
• Metal hydroxides are better alternatives because of being insoluble, these do not increase the pH above
neutrality.
• These treatments control only symptoms, and not the cause. 92
• Therefore, with these metal salts, the patients cannot be treated easily.
• In advanced stages, ulcers become life threatening and the affected part of the stomach needs to be removed.
Antihistamines
• A major breakthrough in the treatment of hyperacidity came through the discovery according to which a
chemical, histamine, stimulates the secretion of pepsin and hydrochloric acid in the stomach.
• The drug cimetidine (Tegamet), was designed to prevent the interaction of histamine with the receptors
present in the stomach wall. This resulted in release of lesser amount of acid.
• The importance of the drug was so much that it remained the largest selling drug in the world until another
drug, ranitidine (Zantac), was discovered.
• Histamine is a potent vasodilator. It has various functions.
• It contracts the smooth muscles in the bronchi and gut and relaxes other muscles, such as those in the walls
of fine blood vessels.
• Histamine is also responsible for the nasal congestion associated with common cold and allergic response
to pollen.
• Synthetic drugs, brompheniramine (Dimetapp) and terfenadine (Seldane), act as antihistamines.
Neurologically Active Drugs: Tranquilizers
• Tranquilizers and analgesics are neurologically active drugs.

• These affect the message transfer mechanism from nerve to receptor.
• Tranquilizers are a class of chemical compounds used for the treatment of stress, and mild or even severe
mental diseases.
• These relieve anxiety, stress, irritability or excitement by inducing a sense of well-being.
• They form an essential component of sleeping pills.
• There are various types of tranquilizers. They function by different mechanisms.
• For example, noradrenaline is one of the neurotransmitters that plays a role in mood changes.
• If the level of noradrenaline is low for some reason, then the signal-sending activity becomes low, and the
person suffers from depression.
• In such situations, antidepressant drugs are required.
• These drugs inhibit the enzymes which catalyse the degradation of noradrenaline.
• If the enzyme is inhibited, this important neurotransmitter is slowly metabolised and can activate its receptor
93
for longer periods of time, thus counteracting the effect of depression.
• Iproniazid and phenelzine are two such drugs.

• Some tranquilizers namely, chlordiazepoxide and meprobamate, are relatively mild tranquilizers suitable for
relieving tension.
• Equanil is used in controlling depression and hypertension.
• Derivatives of barbituric acid constitute an important class of tranquilizers.
• These derivatives are called barbiturates. Barbiturates are hypnotic, i.e., sleep producing agents.
Analgesics
• Analgesics reduce or abolish pain without causing impairment of consciousness, mental confusion, inco-
ordination or paralysis or some other disturbances of nervous system.
• These are classified as follows: (i) Non-narcotic (non-addictive) analgesics (ii) Narcotic drugs
Non-narcotic (non-addictive) analgesics
• Aspirin and paracetamol belong to the class of non-narcotic analgesics.

• Aspirin is the most familiar example.
• Aspirin inhibits the synthesis of chemicals known as prostaglandins which stimulate inflammation in the tissue
and cause pain.
• These drugs are effective in relieving skeletal pain such as that due to arthritis.
• These drugs have many other effects such as reducing fever (antipyretic) and preventing platelet coagu-
lation.
• Because of its anti-blood clotting action, aspirin finds use in prevention of heart attacks.
Narcotic analgesics
• Morphine and many of its homologues, when administered in medicinal doses, relieve pain and produce
sleep. In poisonous doses, these produce stupor, coma, convulsions and ultimately death.
• Morphine narcotics are sometimes referred to as opiates, since they are obtained from the opium poppy.
• These analgesics are chiefly used for the relief of postoperative pain, cardiac pain and pains of terminal can-
cer, and in childbirth.
Antimicrobials
• Diseases in human beings and animals may be caused by a variety of microorganisms such as bacteria, virus,
fungi and other pathogens. 94
• An antimicrobial tends to destroy/prevent development or inhibit the pathogenic action of microbes such as
bacteria (antibacterial drugs), fungi (antifungal agents), virus (antiviral agents), or other parasites (antiparasitic
drugs) selectively.
• Antibiotics, antiseptics and disinfectants are antimicrobial drug
Antibiotics
• An antibiotic now refers to a substance produced wholly or partly by chemical synthesis, which in low
concentrations inhibits the growth or destroys microbes by intervening in their metabolic processes.
• The real revolution in antibacterial therapy began with the discovery of Alexander Fleming in 1929, of the
antibacterial properties of a Penicillium fungus.
• Isolation and purification of active compound to accumulate sufficient material for clinical trials took thirteen
years.
• Antibiotics have either cidal (killing) effect or a static (inhibitory) effect on microbes.
• A few examples of the two types of antibiotics are as follows:
• Chloramphenicol, isolated in 1947, is a broad spectrum antibiotic.

• It is rapidly absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract and hence can be given orally in case of typhoid, dysen-
tery, acute fever, certain form of urinary infections, meningitis and pneumonia.
• Vancomycin and ofloxacin are the other important broad spectrum antibiotics.
• The antibiotic dysidazirine is supposed to be toxic towards certain strains of cancer cells.
Antiseptics and disinfectants
• Antiseptics and disinfectants are also the chemicals which either kill or prevent the growth of microorganisms.
• Antiseptics are applied to the living tissues such as wounds, cuts, ulcers and diseased skin surfaces.
• Examples are furacine, soframicine, etc. These are not ingested like antibiotics.
• Commonly used antiseptic, Dettol is a mixture of chloroxylenol and terpineol.
• Bithionol (the compound is also called bithional) is added to soaps to impart antiseptic properties. 95
• Iodine is a powerful antiseptic. Its 2-3% solution in alcohol water mixture is known as tincture of iodine.
• It is applied on wounds. Iodoform is also used as an antiseptic for wounds.

• Boric acid in dilute aqueous solution is weak antiseptic for eyes.
• Disinfectants are applied to inanimate objects such as floors, drainage system, instruments, etc.
• Same substances can act as an antiseptic as well as disinfectant by varying the concentration.
• For example, 0.2 per cent solution of phenol is an antiseptic while its one percent solution is disinfectant.
• Chlorine in the concentration of 0.2 to 0.4 ppm in aqueous solution and sulphur dioxide in very low concen-
trations, are disinfectants.
Antifertility drugs
• Birth control pills essentially contain a mixture of synthetic estrogen and progesterone derivatives.
• Both of these compounds are hormones. It is known that progesterone suppresses ovulation.
• Synthetic progesterone derivatives are more potent than progesterone.
• Norethindrone is an example of synthetic progesterone derivative most widely used as antifertility drug.
• The estrogen derivative which is used in combination with progesterone derivative is ethynylestradiol
(novestrol).
Chemicals in Foods
• Chemicals are added to food for (i) their preservation, (ii) enhancing their appeal, and (iii) adding nutritive
value in them.
• Main categories of food additives are as follows: (i) Food colours (ii) Flavours and sweeteners (iii) Fat emulsi-
fiers and stabilising agents (iv) Flour improvers - antistaling agents and bleaches (v) Antioxidants (vi) Pre-
servatives (vii) Nutritional supplements such as minerals, vitamins and amino acids.
Artificial Sweetening Agents
• Natural sweeteners, e.g., sucrose add to calorie intake and therefore many people prefer to use artificial
sweeteners.
• Ortho-sulphobenzimide, also called saccharin, is the first popular artificial sweetening agent.
• Aspartame is the most successful and widely used artificial sweetener.
• It is roughly 100 times as sweet as cane sugar.
• Use of aspartame is limited to cold foods and soft drinks because it is unstable at cooking temperature. 96
• Alitame is high potency sweetener, although it is more stable than aspartame, the control of sweetness of
food is difficult while using it.

• Sucrolose is trichloro derivative of sucrose. Its appearance and taste are like sugar. It is stable at cooking
temperature. It does not provide calories.
Food Preservatives
• Food preservatives prevent spoilage of food due to microbial growth.

• The most commonly used preservatives include table salt, sugar, vegetable oils and sodium benzoate.
• Sodium benzoate is used in limited quantities and is metabolised in the body.
• Salts of sorbic acid and propanoic acid are also used as preservatives.
Soaps and detergents
• Two types of detergents are used as cleansing agents. These are soaps and synthetic detergents.
• These improve cleansing properties of water. These help in removal of fats which bind other materials to the
fabric or skin.
• Soaps are the detergents used since long. Soaps used for cleaning purpose are sodium or potassium salts
of long chain fatty acids, e.g., stearic, oleic and palmitic acids.
• Soaps containing sodium salts are formed by heating fat with aqueous sodium hydroxide solution. This
reaction is known as saponification.
• In this reaction, esters of fatty acids are hydrolysed and the soap obtained remains in colloidal form.
• It is precipitated from the solution by adding sodium chloride.
• The solution left after removing the soap contains glycerol, which can be recovered by fractional distillation.
• Only sodium and potassium soaps are soluble in water and are used for cleaning purposes.
• Generally, potassium soaps are soft to the skin than sodium soaps.
Soaps
• Basically, all soaps are made by boiling fats or oils with suitable soluble hydroxide.
• Variations are made by using different raw materials.
• Toilet soaps are prepared by using better grades of fats and oils and care is taken to remove excess alkali.
• Colour and perfumes are added to make these more attractive.
• Soaps that float in water are made by beating tiny air bubbles before their hardening.
• Transparent soaps are made by dissolving the soap in ethanol and then evaporating the excess solvent. 97
• In medicated soaps, substances of medicinal value are added. In some soaps, deodorants are added.
• Shaving soaps contain glycerol to prevent rapid drying.
Why do soaps not work in hard water?
• Hard water contains calcium and magnesium ions.

• These ions form insoluble calcium and magnesium soaps respectively when sodium or potassium soaps
are dissolved in hard water.
• These insoluble soaps separate as scum in water and are useless as cleansing agent.
• In fact, these are hinderance to good washing, because the precipitate adheres onto the fibre of the cloth.
• Hair washed with hard water looks dull because of this sticky precipitate.
• Dye does not absorb evenly on cloth washed with soap using hard water, because of this gummy mass.
Synthetic Detergents
• Synthetic detergents are cleansing agents which have all the properties of soaps, but which actually do not
contain any soap.
• These can be used both in soft and hard water as they give foam even in hard water.
• Some of the detergents give foam even in ice cold water.
• Synthetic detergents are mainly classified into three categories:
1. Anionic detergents
2. Cationic detergents and
3. Non-ionic detergents
4. Anionic Detergents
Anionic detergents
• Anionic detergents are sodium salts of sulphonated long chain alcohols or hydrocarbons.
• In anionic detergents, the anionic part of the molecule is involved in the cleansing action.
• Sodium salts of alkylbenzenesulphonates are an important class of anionic detergents.
• They are mostly used for household work. Anionic detergents are also used in toothpastes.
Cationic Detergents
• Cationic part possesses a long hydrocarbon chain and a positive charge on nitrogen atom.
• Hence, these are called cationic detergents.
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• Cetyltrimethylammonium bromide is a popular cationic detergent and is used in hair conditioners.
• Cationic detergents have germicidal properties and are expensive, therefore, these are of limited use.
Non-ionic Detergents
• Non-ionic detergents do not contain any ion in their constitution.

• One such detergent is formed when stearic acid reacts with polyethyleneglycol.
• Liquid dishwashing detergents are non-ionic type.
• Mechanism of cleansing action of this type of detergents is the same as that of soaps. These also remove
grease and oil by micelle formation.
• Main problem that appears in the use of detergents is that if their hydrocarbon chain is highly branched, then
bacteria cannot degrade this easily.
• Slow degradation of detergents leads to their accumulation.
• Effluents containing such detergents reach the rivers, ponds, etc. These persist in water even after sewage
treatment and cause foaming in rivers, ponds and streams and their water gets polluted.
• These days the branching of the hydrocarbon chain is controlled and kept to the minimum.
• Unbranched chains can be biodegraded more easily and hence pollution is prevented.
9. Periodic Table
Mendeléev’s Periodic Table
• The main credit for classifying elements goes to Dmitri Ivanovich Mendeléev, a Russian chemist.
• He was the most important contributor to the early development of a Periodic Table of elements wherein the
elements were arranged on the basis of their fundamental property, the atomic mass.
• Mendeléev formulated a Periodic Law, which states that ‘the properties of elements are the periodic func-
tion of their atomic masses’.
Achievements of Mendeléev’s Periodic Table
• Mendeléev boldly predicted the existence of some elements that had not been discovered at that time.
• This provided convincing evidence for both the correctness and usefulness of Mendeléev’s Periodic Table.
• Noble gases like helium (He), neon (Ne) and argon (Ar) have been mentioned in many a context before this.
• These gases were discovered very late because they are very inert and present in extremely low concentra-
tions in our atmosphere. 99
• One of the strengths of Mendeléev’s Periodic Table was that, when these gases were discovered, they could
be placed in a new group without disturbing the existing order.
Limitations of Mendeléev’s Classification
• Electronic configuration of hydrogen resembles that of alkali metals.

• Like alkali metals, hydrogen combines with halogens, oxygen and sulphur to form compounds having similar
formulae, as shown in the examples here.
• On the other hand, just like halogens, hydrogen also exists as diatomic molecules and it combines with metals
and non-metals to form covalent compounds.
• Certainly, no fixed position can be given to hydrogen in the Periodic Table. This was the first limitation of
Mendeléev’s Periodic Table.
• Isotopes were discovered long after Mendeléev had proposed his periodic classification of elements.
• Thus, isotopes of all elements posed a challenge to Mendeleev’s Periodic Law.
100
Modern Periodic Table
• In 1913, Henry Moseley showed that the atomic number of an element is a more fundamental property
than its atomic mass as described below.
• Accordingly, Mendeléev’s Periodic Law was modified and atomic number was adopted as the basis of Modern
Periodic Table and the Modern Periodic Law can be stated as follows: ‘Properties of elements are a periodic
function of their atomic number.’
• Let us recall that the atomic number gives us the number of protons in the nucleus of an atom and this
number increases by one in going from one element to the next.
• Elements, when arranged in order of increasing atomic number Z, lead us to the classification known as the
Modern Periodic Table (Table 5.6).
• Prediction of properties of elements could be made with more precision when elements were arranged on
the basis of increasing atomic number
• Modern Periodic Table overcomes the limitations of Mendléev’s Periodic Table.
Position of Elements in the Modern Periodic Table
• The Modern Periodic Table has

1) 18 vertical columns known as ‘groups’ and
2) 7 horizontal rows known as ‘periods’.
101
• Elements present in any one group have the same number of valence electrons.
• Hence, we can say that groups in the Periodic Table signify an identical outershell electronic configuration.
• On the other hand, the number of shells increases as we go down the group.
• The number of valence shell electrons increases by one unit, as the atomic number increases by one unit on
moving from left to right in a period.
• Or we can say that atoms of different elements with the same number of occupied shells are placed in the 102
same period.
• Each period marks a new electronic shell getting filled.

• The position of an element in the Periodic Table tells us about its chemical reactivity. As you have learnt, the
valence electrons determine the kind and number of bonds formed by an element.
Trends in the Modern Periodic Table

• Valency: As you know, the valency of an element is determined by the number of valence electrons present
in the outermost shell of its atom.
• Atomic size: The term atomic size refers to the radius of an atom. The atomic size may be visualised as the
distance between the centre of the nucleus and the outermost shell of an isolated atom.
• The atomic radius of hydrogen atom is 37 pm (picometre, 1 pm = 10–12 m).
• You will see that the atomic radius decreases in moving from left to right along a period.
• This is due to an increase in nuclear charge which tends to pull the electrons closer to the nucleus and
reduces the size of the atom.
• You will see that the atomic size increases down the group.
• This is because new shells are being added as we go down the group.
• This increases the distance between the outermost electrons and the nucleus so that the atomic size increases
in spite of the increase in nuclear charge.
Metallic and Non-metallic Properties
• As we can see, the metals like Na and Mg are towards the left-hand side of the Periodic Table while the non-
metals like sulphur and chlorine are found on the right-hand side.
• In the middle, we have silicon, which is classified as a semi-metal or metalloid because it exhibits some
properties of both metals and non-metals.
• In the Modern Periodic Table, a zig-zag line separates metals from non-metals.
• The borderline elements – boron, silicon, germanium, arsenic, antimony, tellurium and polonium – are
intermediate in properties and are called metalloids or semi-metals.
• Metals tend to lose electrons while forming bonds, that is, they are electropositive in nature.
• As the effective nuclear charge acting on the valence shell electrons increases across a period, the tendency
to lose electrons will decrease.
• Down the group, the effective nuclear charge experienced by valence electrons is decreasing because the 103
outermost electrons are farther away from the nucleus.
• Therefore, these can be lost easily.

• Hence metallic character decreases across a period and increases down a group.
• Non-metals, on the other hand, are electronegative.
• They tend to form bonds by gaining electrons.
• As the trends in the electronegativity show, non-metals are found on the right-hand side of the Periodic
Table towards the top.
• These trends also help us to predict the nature of oxides formed by the elements because it is known to you
that the oxides of metals are basic and that of non-metals are acidic in general.
Summary
• Mendeléev arranged the elements in increasing order of their atomic masses and according to their chemical
properties.
• Mendeléev even predicted the existence of some yet to be discovered elements on the basis of gaps in his
Periodic Table.
• Anomalies in arrangement of elements based on increasing atomic mass could be removed when the ele-
ments were arranged in order of increasing atomic number, a fundamental property of the element discov-
ered by Moseley.
• Elements in the Modern Periodic Table are arranged in 18 vertical columns called groups and 7 horizontal
rows called periods.
• Elements thus arranged show periodicity of properties including atomic size, valency or combining capacity
and metallic and non-metallic character.
Questions
• Which of the following statements is not a correct statement about the trends when going from left to right
across the periods of periodic Table?
a) The elements become less metallic in nature.
b) The number of valence electrons increases.
c) The atoms lose their electrons more easily.
d) The oxides become more acidic.
10. Misc. Topics 104
Combustion and flame

Ignition temperature
• The lowest temperature at which a substance catches fire is called its ignition temperature.
• We find that the gas burns rapidly. Such combustion is known as rapid combustion.
Inflammable Substances
• The substances which have very low ignition temperature and can easily catch fire with a flame are called
inflammable substances.
• Examples of inflammable substances are petrol, alcohol, Liquified Petroleum Gas (LPG), etc.
Spontaneous combustion
• There are substances like phosphorus which burn in air at room temperature.
• The type of combustion in which a material suddenly bursts into flames, without the application of any ap-
parent cause is called spontaneous combustion.
• Spontaneous combustion of coal dust has resulted in many disastrous fires in coal mines.
• Spontaneous forest fires are sometimes due to the heat of the sun or due to lightning strike.
Give reasons
• Paper by itself catches fire easily whereas a piece of paper wrapped around an aluminium pipe does not.
• The wrapped paper around an aluminium pipe do not heat as quickly because heat is conducted away.
• Also, a free paper has more access to air (Oxygen) to catches fire.
Incomplete combustion
• Incomplete combustion of fuels gives carbon monoxide gas. It is a very poisonous gas. It is dangerous to
burn coal in a closed room. The carbon monoxide gas produced can kill persons sleeping in that room.
Vapourisation and Flame
• The substances which vaporize during burning, give flames.

• For example, kerosene oil and molten wax rise through the wick and are vaporized during burning and form
flames.
• Charcoal, on the other hand, does not vaporize and so does not produce a flame.
105
Zones of Candle Flame
• There are three different zones of a flame – dark zone, luminous zone and non-luminous zone.
• Non-luminous zone of the flame has a high temperature. In fact, this part of the flame is the hottest part.
Matchstick
• Matchstick is a mixture of
1. antimony trisulphide
2. potassium chlorate
3. white phosphorus
• When struck against a rough surface, white phosphorus ignites due to the heat of friction. This starts the
combustion of the match.
• However, white phosphorus proved to be dangerous both for the workers involved in the manufacturing of
matches and for the users.
• These days the head of the safety match contains only antimony trisulphide and potassium chlorate.
• The rubbing surface has powdered glass and a little red phosphorus (which is much less dangerous).
• When the match is struck against the rubbing surface, some red phosphorus gets converted into white phos-
phorus.
• This immediately reacts with potassium chlorate in the matchstick head to produce enough heat to ignite
106
antimony trisulphide and start the combustion.
Water vs Carbon Dioxide as fire extinguisher
• The most common fire extinguisher is water.

• But water works only when things like wood and paper are on fire.
• If electrical equipment is on fire, water may conduct electricity and harm those trying to douse the fire.
• Water is also not suitable for fires involving oil and petrol.
• Water is heavier than oil. So, it sinks below the oil, and oil keeps burning on top.
• For fires involving electrical equipment and inflammable materials like petrol, carbon dioxide (CO2) is the
best extinguisher.
• CO2, being heavier than oxygen, covers the fire like a blanket.
• Since the contact between the fuel and oxygen is cut off, the fire is controlled.
• The added advantage of CO2 is that in most cases it does not harm the electrical equipment.
• When released from the cylinder, CO2 expands enormously in volume and cools down.
• So, it not only forms a blanket around the fire, it also brings down the temperature of the fuel.
• That is why it is an excellent fire extinguisher.
• Another way to get CO2 is to release a lot of dry powder of chemicals like sodium bicarbonate (baking
soda) or potassium bicarbonate. Near the fire, these chemicals give off CO2.
Calorific value
• The amount of heat energy produced on complete combustion of 1 kg of a fuel is called its calorific value.
• The calorific value of a fuel is expressed in a unit called kilojoule per kg(kJ/kg).
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Hydrogen > LPG > CNG, Methane > Petrol, Diesel, Kerosene > Biogas > Coal > Wood > Cow dung
Fossil Fuels
Coal
• About 300 million years ago the earth had dense forests in low lying wetland areas.
• Due to natural processes, like flooding, these forests got buried under the soil.
• As more soil deposited over them, they were compressed.
• The temperature also rose as they sank deeper and deeper.
• Under high pressure and high temperature, dead plants got slowly converted to coal.
• As coal contains mainly carbon, the slow process of conversion of dead vegetation into coal is called carbon-
ization.
• Since it was formed from the remains of vegetation, coal is also called a fossil fuel.
• Coal is processed in industry to get some useful products such as coke, coal tar and coal gas.
Coke
• It is a tough, porous and black substance. It is almost pure form of carbon.

• Coke is used in the manufacture of steel and in the extraction of many metals.
Coal tar
• It is a black, thick liquid with unpleasant smell. It is a mixture of about 200 substances.
• Products obtained from coal tar are used as starting materials for manufacturing various substances used in
everyday life and in industry, like synthetic dyes, explosives, perfumes, plastics, paints, photographic materi-
als, roofing materials, etc.
• Interestingly, naphthalene balls used to repel moths and other insects are also obtained from coal tar.
• These days, bitumen, a petroleum product, is used in place of coal-tar for metalling the roads.
Coal gas
• Coal gas is obtained during the processing of coal to get coke.

• It is used as a fuel in many industries situated near the coal processing plants.
Petroleum 108
• Petroleum was formed from organisms living in the sea.

• As these organisms died, their bodies settled at the bottom of the sea and got covered with layers of sand
and clay.
• Over millions of years, absence of air, high temperature and high pressure transformed the dead organisms
into petroleum and natural gas.
• The world’s first oil well was drilled in Pennsylvania, USA, in 1859.
• Eight years later, in 1867, oil was stuck at Makum in Assam.
• In India, oil is found in Assam, Gujarat, Mumbai High and in the river basins of Godavari and Krishna.
• Petroleum is a dark oily liquid. It has an unpleasant odour.
• It is a mixture of various constituents such as petroleum gas, petrol, diesel, lubricating oil, paraffin wax, etc.
• The process of separating the various constituents is done by fractional distillation.
• Many useful substances are obtained from petroleum and natural gas. These are termed as ‘Petrochemicals’.
• These are used in the manufacture of detergents, fibres (polyester, nylon, acrylic etc.), polythene and
other man-made plastics.
109
• Hydrogen gas obtained from natural gas, is used in the production of fertilizers (urea).
• Due to its great commercial importance, petroleum is also called ‘black gold’.
Natural Gas
• Natural gas is a very important fossil fuel because it is easy to transport through pipes.
• Natural gas is stored under high pressure as compressed natural gas (CNG). CNG is used for power gener-
ation. It is now being used as a fuel for transport vehicles because it is less polluting. It is a cleaner fuel.
• The great advantage of CNG is that it can be used directly for burning in homes and factories where it can
be supplied through pipes.
• Natural gas is also used as a starting material for the manufacture of a number of chemicals and fertilizers.
• India has vast reserves of natural gas. In our country, natural gas has been found in Tripura, Rajasthan,
Maharashtra and in the Krishna Godavari delta.
Important alloys and their contents
• Alloys are homogeneous mixtures of metals and cannot be separated into their components by physical
methods.
• But still, an alloy is considered as a mixture because it shows the properties of its constituents and can have
variable composition.
• For example, brass is a mixture of approximately 30% zinc and 70% copper.
Steel
Steel can be categorized into three groups;
1. "carbon steel" has limited amounts of carbon, copper, manganese, phosphorus, silicon, and sulfur, while
2. "alloy steel" has higher concentrations of these additive metals and
3. "stainless steel" contains at least 10% chromium.
Copper alloys
• Copper is widely used for electricity and thermal conduction, though it is extremely soft in its purest form, so
alloys are created to help it retain its shape.
• One of the oldest types of copper alloys is bronze, which is made by adding tin (in most cases), as well as
phosphorus, lead, silicon, nickel, and aluminum in varying concentrations.
• Also popular is brass, which is made mostly with copper and zinc, but may also contain tin, lead, manganese,
110
and silicon in smaller concentrations.

• Copper and other metals can either be melted together or cold-worked to mix the metals.
Bronze = copper + aluminium + nickel + some other metals

Brass = copper + zinc + tin + manganese + some other metals
Gold and platinum alloys

• Yellow gold contains cobalt, copper, silver, and/or zinc, while
• White gold contains either nickel or palladium,
• Platinum is typically mixed with iridium, ruthenium, or cobalt.
Aluminum alloys
• Pure aluminum is soft, resists corrosion, conducts electricity well, so it is great for products like kitchen foil,
but for applications requiring a stronger metal, an aluminum alloy needs to be created.
• Alloys and their contents
Composition Use
Name
Brass Cu (60 to 80%), Zn (Zinc) (40 to 20%) For making household utensils
Bronze Cu (75 to 90%), Sn (Tin) (25 to 10%) For making coins, idols, utensils
German silver Cu (60%), Zn (25%), Ni (15%) For making utensils
Magnelium Mg (5%), Al (95%) For making aircraft frame
Rolled gold Cu (90%), Ni (10%) For making cheap ornaments
Bell metal Cu (80%), Sn (20%) For making bells
Gun metal Cu (85%), Zn (10%), Sn (5%) Used for engineering purposes
Solder Sn (50-75%), Pb (50-25%) Soldering of metals
Duralium Al (95%), Cu (4%), Mg (0.5%), Mn (0.5%) In aircraft manufacturing
Steel Fe (98%), C (2%) For making nails, screws, bridges
Stainless steel Fe (82%) Cr, Ni (18%) For making cooking utensils, knives
Synthetic materials
• The fibres of some fabrics such as cotton, jute, silk and wool are obtained from plants and animals. These are 111
called natural fibres.
• For thousands of years natural fibres were the only ones available for making fabrics.
• In the last hundred years or so, fibres are also made from chemical substances, which are not obtained from
plant or animal sources. These are called synthetic fibres.
• Some examples of synthetic fibres are polyester, nylon and acrylic.
• A synthetic fibre is a chain of small units joined together. Each small unit is actually a chemical substance.
Many such small units combine to form a large single unit called a polymer.
Polymer ➔ a substance with a molecular structure formed from many identical small molecules or other units
bonded together.
Monomer ➔ a molecule that can be bonded to other identical molecules to form a polymer.
• Polymers occur in nature also. Cotton, for example, is a polymer called cellulose.
• Cellulose is made up of a large number of glucose units.
• All the synthetic fibres are prepared by a number of processes using raw materials of petroleum origin, called
petrochemicals.
Some Generally Used Synthetic Fibres
• Synthetic fibres are more durable and affordable which makes them more popular than natural fibres.
• Major ones include Rayon, Nylon, Polyester, Terylene, Acrylic etc.
Rayon
• Scientists were successful in obtaining a fibre having properties similar to that of silk.
• Such a fibre was obtained by chemical treatment of wood pulp. This fibre was called rayon or artificial silk.
• Although rayon is obtained from a natural source, wood pulp, yet it is a man-made fibre.
• It is cheaper than silk and can be woven like silk fibres. It can also be dyed in a wide variety of colours.
• Rayon is mixed with cotton to make bed sheets or mixed with wool to make carpets.
Nylon
• Nylon was made without using any natural raw material (from plant or animal).
• It was prepared from coal, water and air. It was the first fully synthetic fibre.
• Nylon fibre was strong, elastic and light. It was lustrous and easy to wash. So, it became very popular for
making clothes. A nylon thread is actually stronger than a steel wire.
Polyester
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• Fabric made from this fibre does not get wrinkled easily. It remains crisp and is easy to wash.
• So, it is quite suitable for making dress material.

• PET is a very familiar form of polyester.
• It is used for making bottles, utensils, films, wires and many other useful products.
• Polyester (Poly+ester) is actually made up of the repeating units of a chemical called an ester. Esters are the
chemicals which give fruits their smell.
Terylene
• Terylene is a popular polyester.

• It can be drawn into very fine fibres that can be woven like any other yarn.
Acrylic
• We wear sweaters and use shawls or blankets in the winter.

• Many of these are actually not made from natural wool, though they appear to resemble wool.
• These are prepared from another type of synthetic fibre called Acrylic.
• The wool obtained from natural sources is quite expensive, whereas clothes made from acrylic are relatively
cheap. They are available in a variety of colours.
Mixing of fibers
• Fabrics are sold by names like polycot, polywool, terrycot etc.

• As the name suggests, these are made by mixing two types of fibres.
• Polycot is a mixture of polyester and cotton.
• Polywool is a mixture of polyester and wool.
Plastic
• Plastic is also a polymer like the synthetic fibre.

• All plastics do not have the same type of arrangement of units. In some it is linear, whereas in others it is
cross-linked.
Polythene
• Polythene (Poly+ethene) is an example of a plastic. It is used for making commonly used polythene bags.
Thermoplastics vs Thermosetting Plastics

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• Plastic which gets deformed easily on heating and can be bent easily are known as thermoplastics.
• Polythene and PVC (polyvinyl chloride) are some of the examples of thermoplastics.
• These are used for manufacturing toys, combs and various types of containers.
• On the other hand, there are some plastics which when moulded once, cannot be softened by heating. These
are called thermosetting plastics. Two examples are bakelite and melamine.
 Bakelite ➔ poor conductor of heat and electricity. It is used for making electrical switches, handles of various
utensils, etc.
 Melamine ➔ It resists fire and can tolerate heat better than other plastics. It is used for making floor tiles,
kitchenware and fabrics which resist fire.
Fire-proof plastics
• Although synthetic fibre catches fire easily, it is interesting to know that the uniforms of firemen have coating
of melamine plastic to make them flame resistant.
• Special plastic cookware is used in microwave ovens for cooking food. In microwave ovens, the heat cooks
the food but does not affect the plastic vessel.
Teflon
• Teflon is a special plastic on which oil and water do not stick.

• It is used for nonstick coating on cookwares.
Properties of a solution
• A solution is a homogeneous mixture.

• The particles of a solution are smaller than 1 nm (10-9 metre) in diameter.
• So, they cannot be seen by naked eyes.
• Because of very small particle size, they do not scatter a beam of light passing through the solution.
• So, the path of light is not visible in a solution.
• The solute particles cannot be separated from the mixture by the process of filtration.
• The solute particles do not settle down when left undisturbed, that is, a solution is stable.
• When no more solute can be dissolved in a solution at a given temperature, it is called a saturated solution.
• The amount of the solute present in the saturated solution at this temperature is called its solubility.
Non-homogeneous systems
• Solids are dispersed in liquids, are called suspensions.

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• A suspension is a heterogeneous mixture in which the solute particles do not dissolve but remain suspended
throughout the bulk of the medium. Particles of a suspension are visible to the naked eye.
Properties of a suspension
• Suspension is a heterogeneous mixture

• The particles of a suspension can be seen by the naked eye.
• The particles of a suspension scatter a beam of light passing through it and make its path visible.
• The solute particles settle down when a suspension is left undisturbed, that is, a suspension is unstable.
• They can be separated from the mixture by the process of filtration.
What is a colloidal solution?
• The particles of a colloid are uniformly spread throughout the solution.

• Due to the relatively smaller size of particles, as compared to that of a suspension, the mixture appears to
be homogeneous.
• But actually, a colloidal solution is a heterogeneous mixture, for example, milk.
• Because of the small size of colloidal particles, we cannot see them with naked eyes.
• But these particles can easily scatter a beam of visible light.
• This scattering of a beam of light is called the Tyndall effect after the name of the scientist who discovered
this effect.
• Tyndall effect can also be observed when a fine beam of light enters a room through a small hole.
• This happens due to the scattering of light by the particles of dust and smoke in the air.
• Tyndall effect can be observed when sunlight passes through the canopy of a dense forest.
• In the forest, mist contains tiny droplets of water, which act as particles of colloid dispersed in air.
Properties of a colloid
• A colloid is a heterogeneous mixture.

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• The size of particles of a colloid is too small to be individually seen by naked eyes.
• Colloids are big enough to scatter a beam of light passing through it and make its path visible.
• They do not settle down when left undisturbed, that is, a colloid is quite stable.
• They cannot be separated from the mixture by the process of filtration.
• But, a special technique of separation known as centrifugation can be used to separate the colloidal parti-
cles.
• The components of a colloidal solution are the dispersed phase and the dispersion medium.
• The solute-like component or the dispersed particles in a colloid form the dispersed phase, and the compo-
nent in which the dispersed phase is suspended is known as the dispersing medium.
• Colloids are classified according to the state (solid, liquid or gas) of the dispersing medium and the dispersed
phase.
Questions
Match the following
Column II
Column I
1. Polyester a) Prepared by using wood pulp
2. Teflon b) Used for making parachutes and stockings
3. Rayon c) Used to make nonstick cookwares
4. Nylon d) Fabrics do not wrinkle easily
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Multiple Choice
• Rayon is different from synthetic fibres because (a) it has a silk like appearance (b) it is obtained from wood
pulp (c) its fibres can also be woven like those of natural fibres.
Gist of NCERT Economy by Teju, NEXTGEN IAS
PDF – Table of Contents
Class 9 : Chapter 1 – THE STORY OF VILLAGE PALAMPUR ........................................................................10
Sectors of Economy ....................................................................................................................................................................... 10

Primary Sector: ................................................................................................................................................................................................... 10
Secondary Sector: ............................................................................................................................................................................................. 11

Tertiary Sector: ................................................................................................................................................................................................... 11
Organisation of Production: ....................................................................................................................................................... 13

Differences between Organised Sector and Unorganised Sector:............................................................................... 13
Multiple Cropping: ......................................................................................................................................................................... 13
Yield: .................................................................................................................................................................................................... 14
High yielding varieties (HYVs):................................................................................................................................................... 14
Modern farming method: ............................................................................................................................................................ 14
Chemical fertilizers: ........................................................................................................................................................................ 14
Lack of Surplus: ............................................................................................................................................................................... 14
Class 9 : Chapter 2 – PEOPLE AS A RESOURCE ............................................................................................15
Human Capital: ................................................................................................................................................................................ 15

'People as Resource': ....................................................................................................................................................................................... 15
Human Capital Formation: ............................................................................................................................................................................ 15
Economic Activities: ....................................................................................................................................................................... 15

Major determinants of the earning of any individual:........................................................................................................................ 15
Quality of Population: ................................................................................................................................................................... 16

Mid-day meal scheme: ................................................................................................................................................................. 16
Sarva Siksha Abhiyan: ................................................................................................................................................................... 16
Infant Mortality Rate (IMR): ........................................................................................................................................................ 16
Birth Rate: .......................................................................................................................................................................................... 16
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Death Rate:........................................................................................................................................................................................ 16
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Unemployment:............................................................................................................................................................................... 16
Seasonal Unemployment: .............................................................................................................................................................................. 16
Disguised Unemployment: ............................................................................................................................................................................ 17
Class 9 : Chapter 3 – POVERTY AS A CHALLENGE .......................................................................................17
Poverty Line: ..................................................................................................................................................................................... 17

Poverty – The Biggest Challenge: ............................................................................................................................................. 17
Indicators: ............................................................................................................................................................................................................. 17
Social Exclusion: ................................................................................................................................................................................................. 18
Vulnerability: ....................................................................................................................................................................................................... 18
International Poverty Line: .......................................................................................................................................................... 18

Causes of Poverty ........................................................................................................................................................................... 18
Class 9 : Chapter 4 – Food Security in India .................................................................................................19
Food Security: .................................................................................................................................................................................. 19

Dimensions: ......................................................................................................................................................................................................... 19
Famine: ............................................................................................................................................................................................... 20
Most food insecure people: .......................................................................................................................................................................... 20
Hunger: ............................................................................................................................................................................................... 20
Chronic Hunger ................................................................................................................................................................................................. 20
Seasonal Hunger: .............................................................................................................................................................................................. 21
Self-sufficiency in foodgrains:.................................................................................................................................................... 21
Buffer Stock:...................................................................................................................................................................................... 21
Why this buffer stock is created by the government? ....................................................................................................................... 21
Subsidy: .............................................................................................................................................................................................. 22
Maintenance cost of procuring foodgrains: ......................................................................................................................... 22
Role of cooperatives in food security: .................................................................................................................................... 22
Class 10 : Chapter 1 – Development .............................................................................................................22
Average Income or Per Capita Income .................................................................................................................................. 22

Infant Mortality Rate: .................................................................................................................................................................... 22
Literacy Rate: .................................................................................................................................................................................... 23
Net Attendance Ratio: .................................................................................................................................................................. 23
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Human Development Report: .................................................................................................................................................... 23

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Life Expectancy at Birth: ............................................................................................................................................................... 23

Gross Enrolment Ratio: ................................................................................................................................................................. 23
Class 10 : Chapter 2 – Sectors of the Indian Economy ................................................................................23

Why are only ‘final goods and services’ counted?............................................................................................................. 24
Gross Domestic Product (GDP):................................................................................................................................................................... 25
NREGA 2005: .................................................................................................................................................................................... 25

Public Sector: .................................................................................................................................................................................... 25
Private Sector: .................................................................................................................................................................................. 25
Class 10 : Chapter 3 – Money and Credit .....................................................................................................25
Double Coincidence of wants: ................................................................................................................................................... 25

Medium of Exchange: ................................................................................................................................................................... 26
Currency: ............................................................................................................................................................................................ 26
Deposits with Banks: ........................................................................................................................................................................................ 26
Loan Activities of Banks: ................................................................................................................................................................................. 27
Class 10 : Chapter 4 – Globalisation and the Indian Economy ...................................................................28
Multinational corporations (MNCs): ........................................................................................................................................ 28

Foreign Trade: .................................................................................................................................................................................. 28
Globalisation:.................................................................................................................................................................................... 28
Factors that have enabled Globalisation: ................................................................................................................................................ 28
Liberalisation: ................................................................................................................................................................................... 28
World Trade Organisation (WTO): ........................................................................................................................................... 29
Class 11 : Chapter 1 – Indian Economy on the eve of Independence .......................................................29
Muslin: ................................................................................................................................................................................................ 29
British Colonial Rule:...................................................................................................................................................................... 29
National and Per Capita Income Estimates: ......................................................................................................................... 29
Agricultural Sector: ........................................................................................................................................................................................... 30
Industrial Sector:................................................................................................................................................................................................ 31
Foreign Trade: .................................................................................................................................................................................. 32

Demographic Conditions: ........................................................................................................................................................... 33
Occupational Structure:................................................................................................................................................................ 34
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Infrastructure: ................................................................................................................................................................................... 34
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Class 11 : Chapter 2 – Indian Economy 1950 - 1990 ...................................................................................35
Types of Economic Systems ....................................................................................................................................................... 36

Growth: .................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 39
Modernisation: ................................................................................................................................................................................................... 40
Self-reliance:........................................................................................................................................................................................................ 40
Equity: ................................................................................................................................................................................................. 40
Addressing agricultural needs ................................................................................................................................................ 41
1st phase of the green revolution (approximately mid 1960s upto mid 1970s) ..................................................................... 42
2nd Phase of the green revolution (mid-1970s to mid-1980s): ....................................................................................................... 42
Subsidies ............................................................................................................................................................................................ 43
Industry & Trade ............................................................................................................................................................................. 44
Small-scale Industry:...................................................................................................................................................................... 45
Trade Policy—Import Substitution .......................................................................................................................................... 45
Mahalanobis: The Architect of Indian Planning .................................................................................................................. 46
Marketed Surplus: .......................................................................................................................................................................... 46
Class 11 : Chapter 3 – LIBERALISATION, PRIVATISATION AND GLOBALISATION: AN APPRAISAL ......46
Expenditure > Income .................................................................................................................................................................. 46

Development Policies: ..................................................................................................................................................................................... 46
Govt. Expenditure @ late 1980s: ................................................................................................................................................................. 47
Support from IBRD and IMF: ........................................................................................................................................................................ 47
New Economic Policy (NEP):....................................................................................................................................................... 47

LPG: ...................................................................................................................................................................................................... 47
Liberalisation: ...................................................................................................................................................................................................... 48
Privatisation: ........................................................................................................................................................................................................ 50
Globalisation: ...................................................................................................................................................................................................... 50
Growth and Employment: ........................................................................................................................................................... 51

Reforms in Agriculture: ................................................................................................................................................................................... 51
Reforms in Industry .......................................................................................................................................................................................... 51
Disinvestment: ................................................................................................................................................................................. 51
Reforms and Fiscal Policies: ........................................................................................................................................................ 52
Class 11 : Chapter 4 – Poverty .......................................................................................................................52

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Pre-Independent India: ................................................................................................................................................................ 52

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Post-Independent India: .............................................................................................................................................................. 53

Categorising Poverty: .................................................................................................................................................................... 53
Aim of Poverty Alleviation Schemes:....................................................................................................................................... 53
Sen Index: .......................................................................................................................................................................................... 53
Head Count Ratio: .......................................................................................................................................................................... 54
Absolute Poverty:............................................................................................................................................................................ 54
Approaches to reduce Poverty: ................................................................................................................................................. 54
Class 11 : Chapter 5 – Human Capital Formation in India ..........................................................................54
Human Capital Formation: .......................................................................................................................................................... 54

Sources of Human Capital: ............................................................................................................................................................................ 54
Human Capital and Economic Growth: .................................................................................................................................................... 54
Human Capital and Human Development: ............................................................................................................................................. 55
Growth in Government Expenditure on Education:........................................................................................................... 55
Class 11 : Chapter 6 – Rural Develpment .....................................................................................................55
Credit and Marketing in Rural Areas: ...................................................................................................................................... 55

Diversification: ................................................................................................................................................................................. 56
Golden Revolution: ........................................................................................................................................................................ 56
Class 11 : Chapter 7 – EMPLOYMENT : GROWTH, INFORMALISATION AND OTHER ISSUES ................56
Economic Activities: ....................................................................................................................................................................... 56

Worker-population ratio:............................................................................................................................................................. 56
Population: ........................................................................................................................................................................................ 56
Industrial Divisions: .......................................................................................................................................................................................... 56
Jobless Growth: .................................................................................................................................................................................................. 57
Formal Sector Employment: ......................................................................................................................................................................... 57
Sources of Data on Unemployment: ....................................................................................................................................... 57
Class 11 : Chapter 7 – Infrastructure ............................................................................................................57
Composition of Infrastructure requirements: ...................................................................................................................... 58

Indian Systems of Medicine (ISM): ........................................................................................................................................... 58
Class 11 : Chapter 9 – Environment and Sustainable Development..........................................................58

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Functions of the Environment: .................................................................................................................................................. 58

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Absorptive Capacity:...................................................................................................................................................................... 58
Global Warming: ............................................................................................................................................................................. 59
Ozone Depletion: ............................................................................................................................................................................ 59
Chipko: ................................................................................................................................................................................................ 59
Appiko:................................................................................................................................................................................................ 59
Central Pollution Control Board: ............................................................................................................................................... 59
Threat to India’s Environment:................................................................................................................................................... 59
Sustainable Development: .......................................................................................................................................................... 59
Class 12 : Chapter 1 – Introductory Macroeconomics ................................................................................59
Economic Agents: ........................................................................................................................................................................... 59

Adam Smith: ..................................................................................................................................................................................... 60
Macroeconomic decision makers: ............................................................................................................................................ 60
John Maynard Keynes: .................................................................................................................................................................................... 60
1929 Great Depression: ................................................................................................................................................................ 60

Capitalist Economy:........................................................................................................................................................................ 60
External Sector: ................................................................................................................................................................................ 61
Rate of Interest: ............................................................................................................................................................................... 61
Four factors of production: ......................................................................................................................................................... 61
Unemployment Rate: .................................................................................................................................................................... 61
Capital: ................................................................................................................................................................................................ 61
Investment Expenditure: .............................................................................................................................................................. 61
Class 12 : Chapter 2 – National Income Accounting ...................................................................................61
Final Goods: ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 61

Consumption Goods: .................................................................................................................................................................... 62
Capital Goods:.................................................................................................................................................................................. 62
Consumer Durables: ...................................................................................................................................................................... 62
Intermediate Goods: ...................................................................................................................................................................... 62
Stock: ................................................................................................................................................................................................... 62
Flow:..................................................................................................................................................................................................... 62
Gross Investment: ........................................................................................................................................................................... 62
Depreciation: .................................................................................................................................................................................... 63
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Circular flow of income: ............................................................................................................................................................... 63

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Value added:..................................................................................................................................................................................... 64
Inventory: ........................................................................................................................................................................................... 64
Factor Cost, Basic Prices and Market Prices: ........................................................................................................................ 64
Undistributed Profits: .................................................................................................................................................................... 65
National Disposable Income: ..................................................................................................................................................... 65
Gross Domestic Product at Market Prices : .......................................................................................................................... 65
GDP at Factor Cost: ........................................................................................................................................................................ 65
Net Domestic Product at Market Prices:................................................................................................................................ 66
NDP at Factor Cost:........................................................................................................................................................................ 66
Gross National Product at Market Prices:.............................................................................................................................. 66
GNP at Factor Cost:........................................................................................................................................................................ 66
Net National Product at Market Prices: ................................................................................................................................. 66
NNP at Factor Cost (NNP FC) Or National Income (NI): .................................................................................................. 67
Gross Value Added (GVA): .......................................................................................................................................................... 67
Base Year:........................................................................................................................................................................................... 67
GDP Deflator: ................................................................................................................................................................................... 67
Nominal GDP:................................................................................................................................................................................... 67
Real GDP: ........................................................................................................................................................................................... 67
Externalities: ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 68
Class 12 : Chapter 3 – Money and Banking..................................................................................................68
Cashless Society: ............................................................................................................................................................................. 68

Demand for Money:....................................................................................................................................................................... 68
Supply of Money:............................................................................................................................................................................ 68
Assets: ................................................................................................................................................................................................. 69
Reserves: ............................................................................................................................................................................................ 69
Liabilities: ........................................................................................................................................................................................... 69
Cash Reserve Ratio:........................................................................................................................................................................ 69
Open Market Operations:............................................................................................................................................................ 69
Repo: ...................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 70
Reverse repurchase agreement or reverse repo: ................................................................................................................................. 70
Bank Rate: ............................................................................................................................................................................................................ 70
Fiat Money: ....................................................................................................................................................................................... 70

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Narrow and Broad Money: .......................................................................................................................................................... 70

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Demonetisation: .............................................................................................................................................................................. 71
Barter Exchange: ............................................................................................................................................................................. 71
Class 12: Chapter 4 – Determination of Income and Employment ...........................................................71

Ceteris paribus: ................................................................................................................................................................................ 71
Ex-ante and Ex-post:...................................................................................................................................................................... 71
Consumption:................................................................................................................................................................................... 72
Autonomous consumption: .......................................................................................................................................................................... 72
Investment:........................................................................................................................................................................................ 72
Full employment level of income: ............................................................................................................................................ 72
Deficient demand: .......................................................................................................................................................................... 72
Excess demand: ............................................................................................................................................................................... 73
Marginal propensity to consume: ............................................................................................................................................ 73
Aggregate demand:....................................................................................................................................................................... 73
Aggregate supply: .......................................................................................................................................................................... 73
Ex-ante consumption: ................................................................................................................................................................... 73
Ex-ante or planned investment: ................................................................................................................................................ 73
Parametric Shift: .............................................................................................................................................................................. 73
Expenditure Multiplier: ................................................................................................................................................................. 74
Class 12: Chapter 5 - Government Budget and the Economy ....................................................................74
Mixed Economy:.............................................................................................................................................................................. 74
Main Budget Document:.............................................................................................................................................................. 74
Revenue Account: ........................................................................................................................................................................... 74
Capital Account: .............................................................................................................................................................................. 74
Public provision: .............................................................................................................................................................................. 74
Public Production: .......................................................................................................................................................................... 75
Redistribution function:................................................................................................................................................................ 75
Stabilisation Function:................................................................................................................................................................... 75
Revenue Receipts: .......................................................................................................................................................................... 75
Tax Revenue: ....................................................................................................................................................................................................... 75
Paper Taxes: ........................................................................................................................................................................................................ 75
Non-Tax Revenue: ............................................................................................................................................................................................ 75

Capital Receipts: ................................................................................................................................................................................................ 75
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Revenue Expenditure: ................................................................................................................................................................... 76

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Plan Revenue Expenditure: ............................................................................................................................................................................ 76
Non-Plan Expenditure: .................................................................................................................................................................................... 76
Capital Expenditure: ......................................................................................................................................................................................... 77

Fiscal Responsibility and Budget Management Act: ......................................................................................................... 77
Balanced , Surplus and Deficit Budget: .................................................................................................................................. 77
Revenue Deficit: .............................................................................................................................................................................. 77
Fiscal Deficit: ..................................................................................................................................................................................... 78
Primary Deficit: ................................................................................................................................................................................ 78
Government Debt: .......................................................................................................................................................................... 79
Ricardian equivalence: .................................................................................................................................................................. 79
Goods and Service Tax: ................................................................................................................................................................ 79
Class 12: Chapter 6 - Open Economy Macroeconomics .............................................................................80
Open Economy: ............................................................................................................................................................................... 80

Output Market: ................................................................................................................................................................................ 80
Financial Market: ............................................................................................................................................................................. 80
Labour Market: ................................................................................................................................................................................ 81
International monetary system: ................................................................................................................................................ 81
Influence of Foreign Trade on Aggregate Demand: ......................................................................................................... 81
Foreign Exchange Rate: ................................................................................................................................................................ 81
Balance of Payments: .................................................................................................................................................................... 81
Current Account: ............................................................................................................................................................................. 81
Balance on Current Account: ........................................................................................................................................................................ 82
Services trade: .................................................................................................................................................................................. 83

Capital Account: .............................................................................................................................................................................. 83
Balance on Capital Account: ......................................................................................................................................................................... 83
Balance of Payments Surplus and Deficit: ............................................................................................................................. 83

Autonomous Transactions: ......................................................................................................................................................... 84
Accommodating transactions: ................................................................................................................................................... 84
Balance of Payments Accounts: ................................................................................................................................................ 84
Foreign Exchange Market: ........................................................................................................................................................... 85
Foreign Exchange Rate: ................................................................................................................................................................ 85
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Flexible or Floating Exchange Rate: ......................................................................................................................................... 85

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Depreciation of domestic currency:......................................................................................................................................... 85

Appreciation of domestic currency:......................................................................................................................................... 85
Purchasing Power (PPP) theory: ................................................................................................................................................ 85
Fixed Exchange Rate System: ..................................................................................................................................................... 85
Devaluation and Revaluation: .................................................................................................................................................... 86
Managed floating exchange rate system: ............................................................................................................................. 86
Gold Standard: ................................................................................................................................................................................. 86
Bretton Woods System:................................................................................................................................................................ 86
‘Smithsonian Agreement’: ........................................................................................................................................................... 87
Currency Board System: ............................................................................................................................................................... 87
India’s exchange rate policy: ...................................................................................................................................................... 87
Liberalised Exchange Rate Management System: .............................................................................................................. 87
Class 9 : Chapter 1 – THE STORY OF VILLAGE PALAMPUR
Sectors of Economy
Primary Sector:
➔ The primary sector is directly concerned with natural resources of the country.
➔ Economic description: It is concerned with the extraction of raw materials.
➔ It includes agriculture, forestry, fishing and mining.
➔ Amongst the primary sector, agriculture is the predominant occupation.
➔ The primary sector utilizes the natural resources and produces raw materials and basic goods which may
10
be used by the industries or by the end-users.

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➔ It can be said that the primary sector serves as a basic sector assisting the growth of the secondary
and tertiary sectors.
Secondary Sector:
➢ Secondary sector consists of the industrial sector, engaged in construction activities and
manufacturing of finished goods and tangible products.
➢ The secondary sector performs the vital role of catering to the needs of potential consumers of the
nation.
Tertiary Sector:
➢ Tertiary sector is intangible in nature, concentrating on the services sector.

➢ This sector consists of provision of services such as education, medical, hotel and finance needed by the
consumers.
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Quaternary Activities:
➢ Involves the research and development needed to produce products from natural resources.
➢ These are specialized tertiary activities in the ‘Knowledge Sector’ which demands a separate
classification
➢ The quaternary sector is the intellectual aspect of the economy.
➢ It is the process which enables entrepreneurs to innovate and improve the quality of services offered in
the economy.
➢ Elementary schools and university classrooms, hospitals and doctors’ offices, theatres, accounting and
brokerage firms all belong to this category of services
12
Quinary Activities:
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➢ The quinary sector is the part of the economy where the top-level decisions are made.
➢ This includes the government which passes legislation.
➢ It also comprises the top decision-makers in industry, commerce and also the education sector
Organisation of Production:
➢ Aim of Production → To produce the goods and services that we want
The first requirement is land, and other natural resources such as water, forests, minerals
The second requirement is labour, i.e. people who will do the work → Highly educated + Manual
workers [Most abundant factor of production]
The third requirement is physical capital, i.e. the variety of inputs required at every stage during
production
[PHYSICAL CAPITAL: Tools, machines, buildings, raw materials and money in hand]
Fourth requirement is human capital
[HUMAN CAPITAL: It denotes the monetary value of the knowledge, skills, and competencies of a
person]
Differences between Organised Sector and Unorganised Sector:
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Multiple Cropping:
➔ To grow more than one crop on a piece of land during the year is known as multiple cropping.
➔ It is the most common way of increasing production on a given piece of land
Yield:
➔ Yield is measured as crop produced on a given piece of land during a single season
High yielding varieties (HYVs):
➔ Green Revolution in the late 1960s introduced the Indian farmer to cultivation of wheat and rice using
high yielding varieties (HYVs) of seeds.
➔ Compared to the traditional seeds, the HYV seeds promised to produce much greater amounts of
grain on a single plant.
➔ As a result, the same piece of land would now produce far larger quantities of foodgrains than was
possible earlier.
➔ HYV seeds needed plenty of water and also chemical fertilizers and pesticides to produce best results.
➔ Higher yields were possible only from a combination of HYV seeds, irrigation, chemical fertilisers,
pesticides etc.
Modern farming method:
➔ Farmers of Punjab, Haryana and Western Uttar Pradesh were the first to try out the modern farming
method in India.
➔ The farmers in these regions set up tubewells for irrigation, and made use of HYV seeds, chemical
fertilizers and pesticides in farming.
➔ They were rewarded with high yields of wheat.
➔ Scientific reports indicate that the modern farming methods have overused the natural resource base.
➔ Green Revolution is associated with the loss of soil fertility due to increased use of chemical
fertilizers.
➔ Continuous use of groundwater for tubewell irrigation has reduced the water-table below the ground.
Chemical fertilizers:
➔ Chemical fertilizers provide minerals which dissolve in water and are immediately available to plants.
➔ Chemical fertilizers can also kill bacteria and other microorganisms in the soil. This means some time
after their use, the soil will be less fertile than ever before.
➔ The continuous use of chemical fertilizers has led to degradation of soil health.
➔ Farmers are now forced to use more and more chemical fertilizers and other inputs to achieve the same
production level. This means cost of cultivation is rising very fast.
14
Lack of Surplus:
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➔ Lack of surplus means that farmers are unable to obtain capital from their own savings, and have to
borrow
Class 9 : Chapter 2 – PEOPLE AS A RESOURCE
Population → Asset for the economy rather than a liability
Human Capital:
➔ Human capital is the stock of skill and productive knowledge embodied in them.
➔ Population becomes human capital when there is investment made in the form of education,
training and medical care.
'People as Resource':
➔ It is a way of referring to a country’s working people in terms of their existing productive skills and
abilities.
Human Capital Formation:
➔ When the existing 'human resource' is further developed by becoming more educated and
healthy, we call it 'human capital formation' that adds to the productive power of the country
IT revolution:
➔ India’s IT revolution is a striking instance of how the importance of human capital has come to acquire a
higher position than that of material plant and machinery.
Productive asset by investment in human capital:
➔ Several years of your education added to the quality of labour. This enhanced your total productivity.
➔ Total productivity adds to the growth of the economy. This in turn pays you through salary or in
some other form of his choice.
Economic Activities:
Economic activities have two parts: market activities and non-market activities
Market activities: Market activities involve remuneration to anyone who performs i.e., activity performed
for pay or profit. These include production of goods or services including govt service.
Non-market activities: Non-market activities are the production for self-consumption.
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Major determinants of the earning of any individual:

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➔ Education and skill are the major determinants of the earning of any individual in the market.
➔ A majority of the women have meagre education and low skill formation.
➔ Women are paid low compared to men.
Quality of Population:
➔ The quality of population depends upon the literacy rate, health of a person indicated by life
expectancy and skill formation acquired by the people of the country.
➔ The quality of the population ultimately decides the growth rate of the country.
➔ Illiterate and unhealthy population are a liability for the economy.
➔ Literate and healthy population are an asset.
Mid-day meal scheme:
➔ Mid-day meal scheme has been implemented to encourage attendance and retention of children
and improve their nutritional status.
Sarva Siksha Abhiyan:
➔ Sarva Siksha Abhiyan is a significant step towards providing elementary education to all children in
the age group of 6 to 14 years.
Infant Mortality Rate (IMR):
➔ Infant Mortality Rate is the death of a child under one year of age.
Birth Rate:
➔ Birth rates is the number of babies born there for every 1,000 people during a particular period of
time.
Death Rate:
➔ Death Rate is the number of people per 1,000 who die during a particular period of time.
Unemployment:
➔ Unemployment is said to exist when people who are willing to work at the going wages cannot
find jobs.
➔ Unemployment leads to wastage of manpower resource. People who are an asset for the economy
turn into a liability.
➔ Unemployment tends to increase economic overload. The dependence of the unemployed on the
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working population increases.

➔ Increase in unemployment is an indicator of a depressed economy.
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➔ Rural Areas: seasonal and disguised unemployment

➔ Urban Areas: educated unemployment
Seasonal Unemployment:
➔ Seasonal unemployment happens when people are not able to find jobs during some months of the
year.
➔ People dependant upon agriculture usually face such kind of problem.
Disguised Unemployment:
➔ In case of disguised unemployment people appear to be employed.

➔ They have agricultural plot where they find work.
➔ This usually happens among family members engaged in agricultural activity.
Workforce Population:
➔ Workforce population includes people from 15 years to 59 years.
Class 9 : Chapter 3 – POVERTY AS A CHALLENGE
Poverty Line:
➔ Poverty trends in India and the world are illustrated through the concept of the poverty line.
➔ A common method used to measure poverty is based on the income or consumption levels.
➔ A person is considered poor if his or her income or consumption level falls below a given
“minimum level” necessary to fulfill basic needs.
➔ While determining the poverty line in India, a minimum level of food requirement, clothing, footwear,
fuel and light, educational and medical requirement etc. are determined for subsistence. These physical
quantities are multiplied by their prices in rupees.
➔ The present formula for food requirement while estimating the poverty line is based on the desired
calorie requirement.
➔ The accepted average calorie requirement in India is 2400 calories per person per day in rural areas
and 2100 calories per person per day in urban areas.
➔ Since people living in rural areas engage themselves in more physical work, calorie requirements in rural
areas are considered to be higher than urban areas.
➔ The poverty line is estimated periodically (normally every five years) by conducting sample surveys.
These surveys are carried out by the National Sample Survey Organisation (NSSO).
Poverty – The Biggest Challenge:
➔ One of the biggest challenges of independent India has been to bring millions of its people out of
abject poverty.
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➔ Mahatma Gandhi always insisted that India would be truly independent only when the poorest of its
people become free of human suffering.
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Indicators:
➔ Usually the indicators used relate to the levels of income and consumption.
➔ But now poverty is looked through other social indicators like illiteracy level, lack of general resistance
due to malnutrition, lack of access to healthcare, lack of job opportunities, lack of access to safe
drinking water, sanitation etc.
Social Exclusion:
➔ It is a process through which individuals or groups are excluded from facilities, benefits and
opportunities that others (their “betters”) enjoy
➔ A typical example is the working of the caste system in India in which people belonging to certain castes
are excluded from equal opportunities.
Vulnerability:
➔ Vulnerability to poverty is a measure, which describes the greater probability of certain communities
(say, members of a backward caste) or individuals (such as a widow or a physically handicapped person)
of becoming, or remaining, poor in the coming years.
Vulnerable Groups:
➔ Social groups which are most vulnerable to poverty are scheduled caste and scheduled tribe
households.
➔ Among the economic groups, the most vulnerable groups are the rural agricultural labour
households and the urban casual labour households.
➔ The double disadvantage, of being a landless casual wage labour household in the socially
disadvantaged social groups of the scheduled caste or the scheduled tribe population highlights the
seriousness of the problem.
International Poverty Line:
➔ The international poverty line is a monetary threshold under which an individual is considered to be
living in poverty.
➔ It is calculated by taking the poverty threshold from each country—given the value of the goods
needed to sustain one adult—and converting it into dollars.
➔ Current international poverty line is $1.90 per day.
Causes of Poverty
Low level of economic development under the British colonial administration:

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✓ Policies of the colonial government ruined traditional handicrafts and discouraged development of
industries like textiles.
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Low Rate of Growth until 1980s:
✓ This resulted in less job opportunities and low growth rate of incomes.
✓ This was accompanied by a high growth rate of population.
✓ The two combined to make the growth rate of per capita income very low.
✓ The failure at both the fronts: promotion of economic growth and population control perpetuated the
cycle of poverty.
Irrigation and Green Revolution:
✓ With the spread of irrigation and the Green revolution, many job opportunities were created in the
agriculture sector.
✓ But the effects were limited to some parts of India.
Industries:
✓ The industries, both in the public and the private sector, did provide some jobs. But these were not
enough to absorb all the job seekers.
✓ Unable to find proper jobs in cities, many people started working as rickshaw pullers, vendors,
construction workers, domestic servants etc.
✓ With irregular small incomes, these people could not afford expensive housing.
✓ They started living in slums on the outskirts of the cities and the problems of poverty, largely a rural
phenomenon also became the feature of the urban sector.
Income inequalities:
✓ Another feature of high poverty rates has been the huge income inequalities.
✓ One of the major reasons for this is the unequal distribution of land and other resources.
✓ Since lack of land resources has been one of the major causes of poverty in India, proper
implementation of policy could have improved the life of millions of rural poor.
Class 9 : Chapter 4 – Food Security in India
Food Security:
➔ Food security means availability, accessibility and affordability of food to all people at all times.
➔ The poor households are more vulnerable to food insecurity whenever there is a problem of
production or distribution of food crops.
➔ Food security depends on the Public Distribution System (PDS), Government vigilance and action at
times when this security is threatened.
Dimensions:
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(a) Availability of food means food production within the country, food imports and the previous years
stock stored in government granaries.
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(b) Accessibility means food is within reach of every person.

(c) Affordability implies that an individual has enough money to buy sufficient, safe and nutritious food to
meet one's dietary needs
Food security is ensured in a country only if
 Enough food is available for all the persons

 All persons have the capacity to buy food of acceptable quality
 There is no barrier on access to food
How is food security affected during a calamity?
➔ Due to a natural calamity, say drought, total production of foodgrains decreases. It creates a shortage of
food in the affected areas.
➔ Due to shortage of food, the prices go up.
➔ At the high prices, some people cannot afford to buy food.
➔ If such calamity happens in a very wide spread area or is stretched over a longer time period, it may
cause a situation of starvation.
➔ A massive starvation might take a turn of famine.
Famine:
➔ A Famine is characterised by wide spread deaths due to starvation and epidemics caused by forced
use of contaminated water or decaying food and loss of body resistance due to weakening from
starvation
➔ The most devastating famine that occurred in India was the FAMINE OF BENGAL in 1943. This famine
killed 30 lakh people in the province of Bengal.
Most food insecure people:
➔ The social composition along with the inability to buy food also plays a role in food insecurity.
➔ The SCs, STs and some sections of the OBCs (lower castes among them) who have either poor land-base
or very low land productivity are prone to food insecurity.
➔ The people affected by natural disasters, who have to migrate to other areas in search of work, are also
among the most food insecure people.
Hunger:
➔ Hunger is another aspect indicating food insecurity.

➔ Hunger is not just an expression of poverty, it brings about poverty.
➔ The attainment of food security therefore involves eliminating current hunger and reducing the risks of
future hunger.
➔ Hunger has chronic and seasonal dimensions.
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Chronic Hunger
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➔ Chronic hunger is a consequence of diets persistently inadequate in terms of quantity and/or quality.
➔ Poor people suffer from chronic hunger because of their very low income and in turn inability to buy
food even for survival.
Seasonal Hunger:
➔ Seasonal hunger is related to cycles of food growing and harvesting.

➔ This is prevalent in rural areas because of the seasonal nature of agricultural activities and in urban areas
because of the casual labour, e.g., there is less work for casual construction labour during the rainy
season.
➔ This type of hunger exists when a person is unable to get work for the entire year.
Self-sufficiency in foodgrains:
➔ After independence, Indian policy makers adopted all measures to achieve self-sufficiency in food
grains.
➔ India adopted a new strategy in agriculture, which resulted in the ‘Green Revolution’ especially in the
production of wheat and rice.
➔ Indira Gandhi, the then Prime Minister of India, officially recorded the impressive strides of the Green
revolution in agriculture by releasing a special stamp entitled ‘Wheat Revolution’ in July 1968. The
success of wheat was later replicated in rice.
Buffer Stock:
➔ Buffer Stock is the stock of foodgrains, namely wheat and rice procured by the government
through Food Corporation of India (FCI).
➔ The FCI purchases wheat and rice from the farmers in states where there is surplus production.
➔ The farmers are paid a pre-announced price for their crops. This price is called Minimum Support
Price.
➔ The MSP is declared by the government every year before the sowing season to provide incentives
to the farmers for raising the production of these crops.
Why this buffer stock is created by the government?
➔ This is done to distribute foodgrains in the deficit areas and among the poorer strata of society at a
price lower than the market price also known as Issue Price.
➔ This also helps resolve the problem of shortage of food during adverse weather conditions or during
the periods of calamity.
Public Distribution System:
➔ The food procured by the FCI is distributed through government regulated ration shops among the
poorer section of the society. This is called the public distribution system (PDS).
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Fair Price Shops:

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➔ Ration shops also known as Fair Price Shops keep stock of foodgrains, sugar, kerosene oil for cooking.
➔ These items are sold to people at a price lower than the market price.
Rationing:
➔ The introduction of Rationing in India dates back to the 1940s against the backdrop of the Bengal
famine.
➔ The rationing system was revived in the wake of an acute food shortage during the 1960s, prior to
the Green Revolution.
➔ In the wake of the high incidence of poverty levels, as reported by the NSSO in the mid-1970s, three
important food intervention programmes were introduced:
1) Public Distribution System (PDS) for food grains (in existence earlier but strengthened
thereafter)
2) Integrated Child Development Services (ICDS) (introduced in 1975 on an experimental basis)
3) Food-for -Work(FFW) (introduced in 1977–78)
Subsidy:
➔ Subsidy is a payment that a government makes to a producer to supplement the market price of a
commodity.
➔ Subsidies can keep consumer prices low while maintaining a higher income for domestic producers.
Maintenance cost of procuring foodgrains:
➔ The rising Minimum Support Prices (MSP) have raised the maintenance cost of procuring foodgrains by
the government.
➔ Rising transportation and storage costs of the FCI are other contributing factors in this increase.
Role of cooperatives in food security:
➔ The cooperative societies set up shops to sell low priced goods to poor people.
➔ For example, out of all fair price shops running in Tamil Nadu, around 94 per cent are being run by the
cooperatives.
Class 10 : Chapter 1 – Development
Average Income or Per Capita Income
➔ It is the total income of the country divided by its total population.

➔ The average income is also called per capita income.
➔ Per Capita Income is calculated in dollars for all countries so that it can be compared.
➔ It is also done in a way so that every dollar would buy the same amount of goods and services in any
country.
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Infant Mortality Rate:

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➔ Infant Mortality Rate (or IMR) indicates the number of children that die before the age of one year as
a proportion of 1000 live children born in that particular year.
Literacy Rate:
➔ Literacy Rate measures the proportion of literate population in the 7 and above age group.
Net Attendance Ratio:
➔ Net Attendance Ratio is the total number of children of age group 6-10 attending school as a
percentage of total number of children in the same age group.
Human Development Report:
➔ Human Development Report published by UNDP compares countries based on the educational levels
of the people, their health status and per capita income.
Life Expectancy at Birth:
➔ Life expectancy at birth denotes, as the name suggests, average expected length of life of a person
at the time of birth.
Gross Enrolment Ratio:
➔ Gross Enrolment Ratio for three levels means enrolment ratio for primary school, secondary school
and higher education beyond secondary school.
Class 10 : Chapter 2 – Sectors of the Indian Economy
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Why are only ‘final goods and services’ counted?
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➔ In contrast to final goods, goods such as wheat and the wheat flour in this example are intermediate
goods.
➔ Intermediate goods are used up in producing final goods and services.
➔ The value of final goods already includes the value of all the intermediate goods that are used in
making the final good.
➔ The value of final goods and services produced in each sector during a particular year provides the total
production of the sector for that year.
Gross Domestic Product (GDP):
➔ The sum of production in the three sectors gives what is called the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) of
a country.
➔ It is the value of all final goods and services produced within a country during a particular year.
NREGA 2005:
➔ Central government made a law implementing the Right to Work.

➔ It is called National Rural Employment Guarantee Act 2005 (NREGA 2005).
➔ Under NREGA 2005, all those who are able to, and are in need of, work have been guaranteed 100
days of employment in a year by the government.
➔ If the government fails in its duty to provide employment, it will give unemployment allowances to the
people.
Public Sector:
➔ In the public sector, the government owns most of the assets and provides all the services.
➔ Railways or post office is an example of the public sector
➔ The purpose of the public sector is not just to earn profits.
➔ Governments raise money through taxes and other ways to meet expenses on the services rendered by
it.
Private Sector:
➔ In the private sector, ownership of assets and delivery of services is in the hands of private
individuals or companies.
➔ Companies like Tata Iron and Steel Company Limited (TISCO) or Reliance Industries Limited (RIL) are
privately owned
➔ Activities in the private sector are guided by the motive to earn profits.
Class 10 : Chapter 3 – Money and Credit
Double Coincidence of wants:

25
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Medium of Exchange:
➔ Since money acts as an intermediate in the exchange process, it is called a medium of exchange.
Currency:
➔ Modern forms of money include currency — paper notes and coins.

26
➔ It is accepted as a medium of exchange because the currency is authorised by the government of the
country.
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➔ In India, the Reserve Bank of India issues currency notes on behalf of the central government.
Deposits with Banks:
➔ The other form in which people hold money is as deposits with banks.
➔ Banks accept the deposits and also pay an interest rate on the deposits.
➔ In this way people’s money is safe with the banks and it earns an interest.
➔ Since the deposits in the bank accounts can be withdrawn on demand, these deposits are called
demand deposits.
Loan Activities of Banks:
➔ Banks keep only a small proportion of their deposits as cash with themselves.
➔ Banks use the major portion of the deposits to extend loans.
➔ There is a huge demand for loans for various economic activities.
➔ Banks make use of the deposits to meet the loan requirements of the people. In this way, banks mediate
between those who have surplus funds (the depositors) and those who are in need of these funds (the
borrowers).
➔ Banks charge a higher interest rate on loans than what they offer on deposits.
➔ The difference between what is charged from borrowers and what is paid to depositors is their main
source of income.
Cheque:
➔ A cheque is a paper instructing the bank to pay a specific amount from the person’s account to the
person in whose name the cheque has been made.
Collateral:
➔ Collateral is an asset that the borrower owns (such as land, building, vehicle, livestocks, deposits with
banks) and uses this as a guarantee to a lender until the loan is repaid.
➔ If the borrower fails to repay the loan, the lender has the right to sell the asset or collateral to obtain
payment.
➔ Property such as land titles, deposits with banks, livestock are some common examples of collateral
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used for borrowing.

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Terms of Credit:
➔ Interest rate, collateral and documentation requirement, and the mode of repayment together
comprise what is called the terms of credit.
➔ The terms of credit vary substantially from one credit arrangement to another.
➔ They may vary depending on the nature of the lender and the borrower.
Loans from Co-operatives:
➔ Besides banks, the other major source of cheap credit in rural areas are the cooperative societies (or
cooperatives).
➔ Members of a cooperative pool their resources for cooperation in certain areas.
➔ There are several types of cooperatives possible such as farmers cooperatives, weavers cooperatives,
industrial workers cooperatives, etc.
Class 10 : Chapter 4 – Globalisation and the Indian Economy
Multinational corporations (MNCs):
➔ A MNC is a company that owns or controls production in more than one nation.
➔ MNCs set up offices and factories for production in regions where they can get cheap labour and
other resources.
➔ This is done so that the cost of production is low and the MNCs can earn greater profits.
➔ Investment made by MNCs is called foreign investment.
Foreign Trade:
➔ Foreign trade creates an opportunity for the producers to reach beyond the domestic markets, i.e.,
markets of their own countries.
➔ Producers can sell their produce not only in markets located within the country but can also compete in
markets located in other countries of the world.
➔ Similarly, for the buyers, import of goods produced in another country is one way of expanding the
choice of goods beyond what is domestically produced.
➔ Foreign trade thus results in connecting the markets or integration of markets in different
countries.
Globalisation:
➔ Globalisation is this process of rapid integration or interconnection between countries.

➔ MNCs are playing a major role in the globalisation process.
➔ More and more goods and services, investments and technology are moving between countries.
Factors that have enabled Globalisation:

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 Rapid improvement in technology

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 Liberalisation of foreign trade and foreign investment policy
Liberalisation:
➔ Removing barriers or restrictions set by the government is what is known as liberalisation.

➔ Tax on imports is an example of trade barrier. It is called a barrier because some restriction has been
set up.
World Trade Organisation (WTO):
➔ World Trade Organisation (WTO) is one such organisation whose aim is to liberalise international
trade.
Class 11 : Chapter 1 – Indian Economy on the eve of Independence
Muslin:
➔ Muslin is a type of cotton textile which had its origin in Bengal, particularly, places in and around
Dhaka (spelled during the pre-independence period as Dacca), now the capital city of Bangladesh.
➔ ‘Daccai Muslin’ had gained worldwide fame as an exquisite type of cotton textile.
➔ The finest variety of muslin was called malmal.
British Colonial Rule:
➔ The sole purpose of the British colonial rule in India was to reduce the country to being a feeder
economy for Great Britain’s own rapidly expanding modern industrial base.
➔ The economic policies pursued by the colonial government in India brought about a fundamental
change in the structure of the Indian economy — transforming the country into a net supplier of raw
materials and consumer of finished industrial products from Britain.
National and Per Capita Income Estimates:
➔ V.K.R.V. Rao estimates of the national and per capita incomes during the colonial period were
considered very significant
29
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Agricultural Sector:
➔ India’s economy under the British colonial rule remained fundamentally agrarian — about 85% of the
country’s population lived mostly in villages and derived livelihood directly or indirectly from
agriculture.
➔ Agricultural Sector continued to experience stagnation and, not infrequently, unusual deterioration.
➔ This stagnation in the agricultural sector was caused mainly because of the various systems of land
settlement that were introduced by the colonial government.
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➔ Particularly, under the zamindari system which was implemented in the then Bengal Presidency, the
profit accruing out of the agriculture sector went to the zamindars instead of the cultivators.
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➔ Low levels of technology, lack of irrigation facilities and negligible use of fertilisers, all added up to
aggravate the plight of the farmers and contributed to the dismal level of agricultural productivity.
➔ Some evidence of a relatively higher yield of cash crops in certain areas of the country due to
commercialisation of agriculture.
➔ India’s agricultural production received a further set back due to the country’s partition at the time of
independence.
➔ A sizeable portion of the undivided country’s highly irrigated and fertile land went to Pakistan; this had
an adverse impact upon India’s output from the agriculture sector.
➔ Particularly affected was India’s jute industry since almost the whole of the jute producing area became
part of East Pakistan (now Bangladesh).
➔ India’s jute goods industry (in which the country had enjoyed a world monopoly so far), thus, suffered
heavily for lack of raw material.
Industrial Sector:
➔ India could not develop a sound industrial base under the colonial rule.
➔ The primary motive of the colonial government behind this policy of systematically
de-industrialising India was two-fold.
➔ The intention was, first, to reduce India to the status of a mere exporter of important raw materials for
the upcoming modern industries in Britain and, second, to turn India into a sprawling market for the
finished products of those industries so that their continued expansion could be ensured to the
maximum advantage of their home country — Britain.
➔ Decline of the indigenous handicraft industries created not only massive unemployment in India but
also a new demand in the Indian consumer market, which was now deprived of the supply of locally
made goods.
➔ This demand was profitably met by the increasing imports of cheap manufactured goods from Britain.
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➔ During the second half of the nineteenth century, modern industry began to take root in India but its
progress remained very slow.
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➔ The cotton textile mills, mainly dominated by Indians, were located in the western parts of the country,
namely, Maharashtra and Gujarat, while the jute mills dominated by the foreigners were mainly
concentrated in Bengal.
➔ Subsequently, the iron and steel industries began coming up in the beginning of the twentieth century.
The Tata Iron and Steel Company (TISCO) was incorporated in 1907.
➔ The growth rate of the new industrial sector and its contribution to the Gross Domestic Product (GDP)
remained very small.
➔ Another significant drawback of the new industrial sector was the very limited area of operation of the
public sector.
➔ This sector remained confined only to the railways, power generation, communications, ports and some
other departmental undertakings.
Foreign Trade:
➔ Restrictive policies of commodity production, trade and tariff pursued by the colonial government
adversely affected the structure, composition and volume of India’s foreign trade.
➔ Consequently, India became exporter of primary products such as raw silk, cotton, wool, sugar, indigo,
jute etc. and an importer of finished consumer goods like cotton, silk and woollen clothes and capital
goods like light machinery produced in the factories of Britain.
➔ The opening of the Suez Canal further intensified British control over India’s foreign trade.
➔ The most important characteristic of India’s foreign trade throughout the colonial period was the
generation of a large export surplus. But this surplus came at a huge cost to the country’s economy.
➔ This export surplus did not result in any flow of gold or silver into India.
32
➔ Export surplus was used to make payments for the expenses incurred by an office set up by the colonial
government in Britain, expenses on war, again fought by the British government, and the import of
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invisible items, all of which led to the drain of Indian wealth.

Demographic Conditions:
➔ Various details about the population of British India were first collected through a census in 1881.
➔ It revealed the unevenness in India’s population growth.
➔ Before 1921, India was in the first stage of demographic transition. The second stage of transition began
after 1921. However, neither the total population of India nor the rate of population growth at this stage
was very high.
➔ The overall literacy level was less than 16 %. Out of this, the female literacy level was at a negligible low
of about seven per cent.
➔ Water and air-borne diseases were rampant and took a huge toll on life.
➔ Infant mortality rate was quite alarming—about 218 per thousand
➔ Life expectancy was also very low — 32 years
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Occupational Structure:
➔ Agriculture sector accounted for largest share of workforce

➔ Another striking aspect was the growing regional variation
➔ Parts of the then Madras Presidency (comprising areas of the present-day states of Tamil Nadu, Andhra
Pradesh, Kerala and Karnataka), Maharashtra and West Bengal witnessed a decline in the dependence of
the workforce on the agricultural sector with a commensurate increase in the manufacturing and the
services sectors.
➔ There had been an increase in the share of workforce in agriculture during the same time in states such
as Orissa, Rajasthan and Punjab.
Infrastructure:
➔ Under the colonial regime, basic infrastructure such as railways, ports, water transport, posts and
telegraphs did develop.
➔ The real motive behind this development was not to provide basic amenities to the people but to sub-
serve various colonial interests.
Roads:
➔ The roads that were built primarily served the purposes of mobilising the army within India and drawing
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out raw materials from the countryside to the nearest railway station or the port to send these to far
away England or other lucrative foreign destinations.
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Railways:
➔ The British introduced the railways in India in 1850 and it is considered as one of their most important
contributions.
➔ The railways affected the structure of the Indian economy in two important ways.
➔ On the one hand it enabled people to undertake long distance travel and thereby break geographical
and cultural barriers
➔ On the other hand, it fostered commercialisation of Indian agriculture which adversely affected the
comparative self-sufficiency of the village economies in India.
➔ The volume of India’s export trade undoubtedly expanded but its benefits rarely accrued to the Indian
people.
Waterways:
➔ The inland waterways, at times, also proved uneconomical as in the case of the Coast Canal on the
Orissa coast.
➔ Though the canal was built at a huge cost to the government exchequer, yet, it failed to compete with
the railways, which soon traversed the region running parallel to the canal, and had to be ultimately
abandoned.
Telegraph:
➔ Introduction of the expensive system of telegraph in India served the purpose of maintaining law and
order
Postal Services:
➔ The postal services, on the other hand, despite serving a useful public purpose, remained all through
inadequate.
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Class 11 : Chapter 2 – Indian Economy 1950 - 1990

To get an insight into—
• Development of Five year Plans

• Development policies in different sectors
• Understand merits and limitations of a regulated economy
Types of Economic Systems
What to produce
How to produce
How to distribute
A. Market economy or Capitalism:
• Production of those consumer goods which are in demand i.e., goods that can be sold profitably
either in the domestic or in the foreign markets
• Goods produced are distributed among people not on the basis of what people need but on the basis of
what people can afford and are willing to purchase
B. Socialist society:
• The government decides what goods are to be produced in accordance with the needs of
society—assumed that the government knows what is good for the people of the country as well as
how they should be distributed.
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• A socialist society has no private property since everything is owned by the state
C. Mixed Economy:
• Most economies are mixed economies, i.e., the government and the market together answer
the three questions of what to produce, how to produce and how to distribute what is produced
• The market will provide whatever goods and services it can produce well, and the government will
provide essential goods and services which the market fails to do
In India…
India would be a ‘socialist’ society with a strong public sector but also with private property and
democracy; the government would ‘plan’ economy with the private sector being encouraged to be
part of the plan effort.
✓ Reflections: The ‘Industrial Policy Resolution’ of 1948 + Directive Principles of the Indian
Constitution
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✓ 1950: The Planning Commission was set up (Prime Minister-its Chairperson)
✓ Led to: An era of five year plans

✓ Plan: To spell out as to how the resources should be distributed in the country
✓ Goals of the five year plans:
1) Growth
2) Modernisation
3) Self-reliance
4) Equity
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Growth:
• Refers to increase in the country’s capacity to produce the output of goods and services within the
country
• Good indicator of economic growth is the steady increase in the Gross Domestic Product (GDP)—the
market value of all the goods and services produced in the country during a year.
• The GDP of a country is derived from the different sectors of the economy—the contribution
made by each of these sectors makes up the structural composition of the economy.
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Modernisation:
• Steps taken by a factory to increase output by using a new type of machine and this adoption of new
technology is called modernisation
• Also, refers to changes in social outlook (the recognition that women should have the same rights as
men)
Self-reliance:
• The first seven five year plans gave more importance to self-reliance which means avoiding
imports of those goods which could be produced in India itself in order to reduce our dependence
on foreign countries, especially for food
• There was a fear that dependence on imported food supplies, foreign technology and foreign
capital may make India’s sovereignty vulnerable to foreign interference in our policies.
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Equity:
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Philosophy: To ensure that the benefits of economic prosperity reach the poor sections as well
instead of being enjoyed only by the rich—every Indian should be able to meet his or her basic needs
such as food, a decent house, education and health care; and inequality in the distribution of wealth
should be reduced.
Addressing agricultural needs
Land Reforms:
Intermediaries (variously called zamindars, jagirdars etc.) merely collected rent from the actual tillers
of the soil without contributing towards improvements on the farm
• Equity in agriculture: Land reforms—change in the ownership of landholdings

• Steps were taken to abolish intermediaries and to make the tillers the owners of land—
ownership of land would give incentives to the tillers to invest in making improvements
provided sufficient capital was made available to them.
Land ceiling: Fixing the maximum size of land which could be owned by an individual—to reduce the
concentration of land ownership in a few hands
Around 200 lakh tenants came into direct contact with the government — they were freed from being
exploited by the zamindars incentive to increase output growth in agriculture
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But there still were cases wherein
• The zamindars continued to own large areas of land (usage of loopholes in legislation)
• Tenants were evicted and the landowners claimed to be self-cultivators (the actual tillers)
Hurdles faced by the land ceiling legislation
• The big landlords challenged the legislation in the courts delayed its implementation
• Used this delay to register their lands in the name of close relatives to escape from the legislation
Success of Land reforms witnessed: Kerala and West Bengal had governments committed to the policy
of land to the tiller
Green Revolution
• During independence: About 75% of the country’s population dependent on agriculture

• Marred with low productivity ➔ use of old technology + absence of required infrastructure
• India’s agriculture ➔ dependant upon monsoon; and if the monsoon fell short the farmers
were in trouble (if no access to irrigation facilities)
Stagnation in agriculture shifted—Green Revolution
• The large increase in production of food grains resulting from the use of high yielding variety (HYV)
seeds especially for wheat and rice
• This also meant usage of fertiliser and pesticide in the correct quantities as well as regular supply of
water; the need for these inputs in correct proportions is vital
Check-list for farmers: Reliable irrigation facilities as well as the financial resources to purchase
fertiliser and pesticide
1st phase of the green revolution (approximately mid 1960s upto mid 1970s)
• The use of HYV seeds was restricted to the more affluent states such as Punjab, Andhra
Pradesh and Tamil Nadu.
• Use of HYV seeds proved beneficial for the wheat-growing regions only
2nd Phase of the green revolution (mid-1970s to mid-1980s):
• Spread of the HYV technology to a larger number of states and this benefited more variety of
crops thus, enabling India to achieve self-sufficiency in food grains
• To increase growth in agricultural output & contribute to the country’s economy—it is important to
keep a substantial amount of agricultural produce to be sold in the market (and not consumed by the
farmers himself)
The portion of agricultural produce which is sold in the market by the farmers is called marketed surplus
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Observations of C.H. Hanumantha Rao

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• A good proportion of the rice and wheat produced during the green revolution period
(available as marketed surplus) was sold by the farmers in the market decline in the price of food grains
• Low-income groups - Benefited from this decline in relative prices (spend a large percentage of their
income on food)
• Enabled the government to procure sufficient amount of food grains to build a stock which
could be used in times of food shortage
Risks involving technology:
• Possibility of increase in the disparities between small and big farmers—since only
the big farmers could afford the required inputs, thereby reaping most of the
benefits of the green revolution
• HYV crops were more prone to attack by pests
Fears remained ‘fears’— because of the steps taken by the government
• Provided loans at a low interest rate to small farmers

• Subsidised fertilisers so that small farmers could also have access to the needed inputs; since the
small farmers could obtain the required inputs, the output on small farms equalled the output on large
farms in the course of time benefited the small as well as rich farmers
• Risks due to pest attack were minimised with the services rendered by research institutes
established by the government
Subsidies
Why: necessary to use subsidies to provide an incentive for adoption of the new HYV technology
by small farmers in particular—to encourage farmers to test the new technology
Case against continuing subsidies—
• Once the technology is found profitable and is widely adopted, subsidies should be phased out since
their purpose has been served— meant to benefit the farmers buta substantial amount of fertiliser
subsidy also benefits the fertiliser industry; and among farmers, the subsidy largely benefits the
farmers in the more prosperous regions
• Ends up not providing benefit to the target group and it is a huge burden on the
government’s finances
Need to continue with agricultural subsidies— Farming in India continues to be a risky business
as most of the farmers are very poor and they will not be able to afford the required inputs
without subsidies will increase the inequality between rich and poor farmers and violate the goal of
equity
Correct way forward: Ensure that only the poor farmers enjoy the benefits
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Observation: As a nation becomes more prosperous, the proportion of GDP contributed by agriculture
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as well as the proportion of population working in the sector declines considerably

Between 1950 and 1990: The proportion of GDP contributed by agriculture declined significantly
but not the population depending on it (67.5 per cent in 1950 to 64.9 per cent by 1990)—the industrial
sector and the service sector did not absorb the people working in the agricultural sector
Industry & Trade
Poor nations can progress only if they have a good industrial sector as industry provides
employment which is more stable than the employment in agriculture; it promotes modernisation
and overall prosperity ➔ more emphasis on its growth in the FYPs
Post-Independence: Need to expand the industrial base with a variety of industries if the economy
was to grow
Market and State in Indian Industrial Development:
• At the time of independence— lack of capital to undertake investment in industrial ventures required
for the development of our economy; small market being unable to encourage industrialists to
undertake major projects ➔ state had to play an extensive role in promoting the industrial sector
• Development of the economy on socialist lines: Policy of the state controlling the
commanding heights of the economy—the state would have complete control of
those industries that were vital for the economy
• Policies of the private sector needed to be complimentary to those of the public
sector, with the public sector leading the way.
Industrial Policy Resolution 1956 (IPR 1956):

Formed the basis of the Second Five Year Plan—to build the basis for a socialist pattern of the
society
Classification of Industries—three categories:
1st: Industries which would be exclusively owned by the state

2nd: Industries in which the private sector could supplement the efforts of the state sector, with the
state taking the sole responsibility for starting new units
3rd: The remaining industries which were to be in the private sector; was kept under state control
through a system of licenses.
• Only with the issuance of license could any industry be established—to promote
industry in backward regions ➔ it was easier to obtain a license if the industrial unit
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was established in an economically backward area

• Were given certain concessions such as tax benefits and electricity at a lower tariff ➔ To promote
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regional equality
• Even an existing industry had to obtain a license for expanding output or for
diversifying production (producing a new variety of goods)➔to ensure that the
quantity of goods produced was not more than what the economy required
• License to expand production was given only if the government was convinced that
the economy required the larger quantity of goods.
Small-scale Industry:
Karve Committee: In 1955 →possibility of using small-scale industries for promoting rural
development
A ‘small-scale industry’ is defined with reference to the maximum investment allowed on the assets of a
unit.
• More ‘labour intensive’ i.e., they use more labour than the large-scale industries and, therefore,
generate more employment
• Inability to compete with bigger firms— reservation of a certain number of products
for the small-scale industry; the criterion of reservation being the ability of these
units to manufacture the goods
• Were given concessions- lower excise duty and bank loans at lower interest rates
Trade Policy—Import Substitution
The industrial policy that we adopted was closely related to the trade policy
1st seven FYPs: Trade was characterised by an inward looking trade strategy ➔ Import substitution;
aiming at replacing or substituting imports with domestic production
Protection from imports took two forms: Tariffs and Quotas

Tariffs: Tax on imported goods; they make imported goods more expensive and discourage their use.
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Quotas: Specify the quantity of goods which can be imported

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Both restrict imports and, therefore, protect the domestic firms from foreign competition
Policy of protection:
• Based on the notion that industries of developing countries are not in a position to compete against
the goods produced by more developed economies—assumed that if the domestic industries are
protected they will learn to compete in the course of time
• Feared the possibility of foreign exchange being spent on import of luxury goods if no restrictions
were placed on imports
Until the mid-1980s: Hardly any promotion of exports until the mid-1980s
Effect of Policies on Industrial Development:
• Proportion of GDP contributed by the industrial sector increased in the period from
11.8 per cent in 1950-51 to 24.6 per cent in 1990-91
• Rise in the industry’s share of GDP—important indicator of development
• Witnessed six per cent annual growth rate of the industrial sector
• Diversification of the Indian industries was ensured
Mahalanobis: The Architect of Indian Planning
➔ Mahalanobis established the Indian Statistical Institute (ISI) in Calcutta and started a journal,
Sankhya, which still serves as a respected forum for statisticians to discuss their ideas.
Marketed Surplus:
➔ The portion of agricultural produce which is sold in the market by the farmers is called marketed
surplus.
Class 11 : Chapter 3 – LIBERALISATION, PRIVATISATION AND GLOBALISATION:

AN APPRAISAL
➔ Since independence, India followed the mixed economy framework by combining the advantages
of the market economic system with those of the planned economic system.
➔ In 1991, India met with an economic crisis relating to its external debt — the government was not
able to make repayments on its borrowings from abroad; foreign exchange reserves, which we generally
maintain to import petrol and other important items, dropped to levels that were not sufficient for even
a fortnight.
[ When we import goods like petroleum, we pay in dollars which we earn from our exports ]
➔ The crisis was further compounded by rising prices of essential goods.
Expenditure > Income

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When expenditure is more than income, the government borrows to finance the deficit from banks and
also from people within the country and from international financial institutions.
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Development Policies:
➔ Development policies required that even though the revenues were very low, the government had to
overshoot its revenue to meet problems like unemployment, poverty and population explosion.
➔ The continued spending on development programmes of the government did not generate additional
revenue.
➔ Govt. was not able to generate sufficiently from internal sources such as taxation.
➔ The income from public sector undertakings was also not very high to meet the growing expenditure.
➔ At times, our foreign exchange, borrowed from other countries and international financial institutions,
was spent on meeting consumption needs.
Govt. Expenditure @ late 1980s:
➔ Government expenditure began to exceed its revenue by such large margins that it became
unsustainable.
➔ Prices of any essential goods rose sharply
➔ Imports grew at a very high rate without matching growth of exports
➔ As pointed out earlier, foreign exchange reserves declined to a level that was not adequate to finance
imports for more than two weeks
➔ There was also not sufficient foreign exchange to pay the interest that needs to be paid to international
lenders
Support from IBRD and IMF:
➔ India approached the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD), popularly known
as World Bank and the International Monetary Fund (IMF), and received $7 billion as loan to manage
the crisis.
➔ For availing the loan, these international agencies expected India to liberalise and open up the economy
by removing restrictions on the private sector, reduce the role of the government in many areas and
remove trade restrictions.
➔ India agreed to the conditionalities of World Bank and IMF and announced the New Economic Policy
(NEP).
New Economic Policy (NEP):
➔ The thrust of the policies was towards creating a more competitive environment in the economy and
removing the barriers to entry and growth of firms.
➔ This set of policies can broadly be classified into two groups: the stabilisation measures and the
structural reform measures.
Stabilisation Measures:
➔ Stabilisation measures are short term measures, intended to correct some of the weaknesses that have
developed in the balance of payments and to bring inflation under control.
➔ In simple words, this means that there was a need to maintain sufficient foreign exchange reserves and
keep the rising prices under control.
Structural Reform Measures:
➔ Structural reform policies are long-term measures, aimed at improving the efficiency of the economy
and increasing its international competitiveness by removing the rigidities in various segments of the
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Indian economy.
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LPG:
➔ The government initiated a variety of policies which fall under three heads viz., liberalisation,
privatisation and globalisation.
➔ The first two are policy strategies and the last one is the outcome of these strategies.
Liberalisation:
➔ Liberalisation was introduced to put an end to these restrictions and open up various sectors of the
economy.
➔ Though a few liberalisation measures were introduced in 1980s in areas of industrial licensing, export-
import policy, technology upgradation, fiscal policy and foreign investment, reform policies initiated in
1991 were more comprehensive.
Deregulation of Industrial Sector:

In India, regulatory mechanisms were enforced in various ways
(i) Industrial licensing under which every entrepreneur had to get permission from government
officials to start a firm, close a firm or to decide the amount of goods that could be produced
(ii) Private sector was not allowed in many industries
(iii) Some goods could be produced only in small scale industries
(iv) Controls on price fixation and distribution of selected industrial products
Lifting the restrictions:
➔ The reform policies introduced in and after 1991 removed many of these restrictions.
➔ Industrial licensing was abolished for almost all but product categories — alcohol, cigarettes, hazardous
chemicals industrial explosives, electronics, aerospace and drugs and pharmaceuticals.
➔ The only industries which are now reserved for the public sector are defence equipments, atomic energy
generation and railway transport.
➔ Many goods produced by small scale industries have now been deserved.
➔ In many industries, the market has been allowed to determine the prices.
Financial Sector Reforms:
➔ Financial sector includes financial institutions such as commercial banks, investment banks, stock
exchange operations and foreign exchange market.
➔ The financial sector in India is controlled by the Reserve Bank of India (RBI).
➔ All the banks and other financial institutions in India are controlled through various norms and
regulations of the RBI.
➔ The RBI decides the amount of money that the banks can keep with themselves, fixes interest rates,
nature of lending to various sectors etc.
➔ One of the major aims of financial sector reforms is to reduce the role of RBI from regulator to facilitator
of financial sector.
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➔ This means that the financial sector may be allowed to take decisions on many matters without
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consulting the RBI.
Establishment of Private Sector Banks:
➔ The reform policies led to the establishment of private sector banks, Indian as well as foreign.
➔ Foreign investment limit in banks was raised to around 50 per cent.
➔ Those banks which fulfil certain conditions have been given freedom to set up new branches without
the approval of the RBI and rationalise their existing branch networks.
➔ Though banks have been given permission to generate resources from India and abroad, certain aspects
have been retained with the RBI to safeguard the interests of the account-holders and the nation.
➔ Foreign Institutional Investors (FII) such as merchant bankers, mutual funds and pension funds are now
allowed to invest in Indian financial markets
Tax Reforms:
➔ Tax reforms are concerned with the reforms in government’s taxation and public expenditure policies
which are collectively known as its fiscal policy.
➔ There are two types of taxes: direct and indirect.
➔ Direct taxes consist of taxes on incomes of individuals as well as profits of business enterprises.
➔ Since 1991, there has been a continuous reduction in the taxes on individual incomes as it was felt that
high rates of income tax were an important reason for tax evasion.
➔ It is now widely accepted that moderate rates of income tax encourage savings and voluntary disclosure
of income.
➔ The rate of corporation tax, which was very high earlier, has been gradually reduced.
➔ Efforts have also been made to reform the indirect taxes, taxes levied on commodities, in order to
facilitate the establishment of a common national market for goods and commodities.
Foreign Exchange Reforms:
➔ The first important reform in the external sector was made in the foreign exchange market.
➔ In 1991, as an immediate measure to resolve the balance of payments crisis, the rupee was devalued
against foreign currencies.
➔ This led to an increase in the inflow of foreign exchange.
➔ It also set the tone to free the determination of rupee value in the foreign exchange market from
government control.
➔ Now, more often than not, markets determine exchange rates based on the demand and supply of
foreign exchange.
Trade and Investment Policy Reforms:
➔ Liberalisation of trade and investment regime was initiated to increase international competitiveness of
industrial production and also foreign investments and technology into the economy.
➔ The aim was also to promote the efficiency of the local industries and the adoption of modern
technologies.
➔ In order to protect domestic industries, India was following a regime of quantitative restrictions on
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imports.
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➔ This was encouraged through tight control over imports and by keeping the tariffs very high.
➔ These policies reduced efficiency and competitiveness which led to slow growth of the manufacturing
sector.
The trade policy reforms aimed at

Dismantling of quantitative restrictions on imports and exports
Reduction of tariff rates
Removal of licensing procedures for imports
➔ Import licensing was abolished except in case of hazardous and environmentally sensitive industries.
➔ Quantitative restrictions on imports of manufactured consumer goods and agricultural products were
also fully removed from April 2001.
➔ Export duties have been removed to increase the competitive position of Indian goods in the
international markets.
Privatisation:
➔ It implies shedding of the ownership or management of a government owned enterprise.

➔ Government companies can be converted into private companies in two ways
(i) By withdrawal of the government from ownership and management of public sector
(ii) By outright sale of public sector companies.
Disinvestment:
➔ Privatisation of the public sector undertakings by selling off part of the equity of PSUs to the public is
known as disinvestment.
➔ The purpose of the sale, according to the government, was mainly to improve financial discipline and
facilitate modernisation.
➔ Government envisaged that privatisation could provide strong impetus to the inflow of FDI.
Navaratnas:
➔ In 1996, in order to improve efficiency, infuse professionalism and enable them to compete more
effectively in the liberalised global environment, the government chose nine PSUs and declared them as
navaratnas.
➔ They were given greater managerial and operational autonomy, in taking various decisions to run the
company efficiently and thus increase their profits.
Miniratnas:
➔ Greater operational, financial and managerial autonomy had also been granted to 97 other profit-
making enterprises referred to as mini ratnas.
Globalisation:
➔ Globalisation is the outcome of the policies of liberalisation and privatisation.

➔ Globalisation attempts to establish links in such a way that the happenings in India can be influenced by
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events happening miles away.

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Outsourcing:
➔ This is one of the important outcomes of the globalisation process.

➔ In outsourcing, a company hires regular service from external sources, mostly from other countries,
which was previously provided internally or from within the country (like legal advice, computer service,
advertisement, security — each provided by respective departments of the company).
➔ As a form of economic activity, outsourcing has intensified, in recent times, because of the growth of
fast modes of communication, particularly the growth of Information Technology (IT).
World Trade Organisation (WTO):
➔ WTO was founded in 1995 as the successor organisation to the General Agreement on Trade and Tariff
(GATT).
➔ GATT was established in 1948 with 23 countries as the global trade organisation to administer all
multilateral trade agreements by providing equal opportunities to all countries in the international
market for trading purposes.
➔ WTO agreements cover trade in goods as well as services to facilitate international trade (bilateral and
multilateral) through removal of tariff as well as non-tariff barriers and providing greater market access
to all member countries
Growth and Employment:
➔ Though the GDP growth rate has increased in the reform period, scholars point out that the reform-led
growth has not generated sufficient employment opportunities in the country.
Reforms in Agriculture:
➔ Reforms have not been able to benefit agriculture, where the growth rate has been decelerating.
➔ Public investment in agriculture sector especially in infrastructure, which includes irrigation, power,
roads, market linkages and research and extension (which played a crucial role in the Green Revolution),
has been reduced in the reform period.
➔ Because of export-oriented policy strategies in agriculture, there has been a shift from production for
the domestic market towards production for the export market focusing on cash crops in lieu of
production of food grains. This puts pressure on prices of food grains.
Reforms in Industry
➔ Industrial growth has also recorded a slowdown

➔ This is because of decreasing demand of industrial products due to various reasons such as cheaper
imports, inadequate investment in infrastructure etc.
➔ Cheaper imports replaced the demand for domestic goods. Domestic manufacturers are facing
competition from imports.
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Disinvestment:
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➔ Every year, the government fixes a target for disinvestment of PSUs. For instance, in
1991-92, it was targeted to mobilise Rs 2,500 crore through disinvestment.
➔ Critics point out that the assets of PSUs have been undervalued and sold to the private sector. This
means that there has been a substantial loss to the government.
➔ The proceeds from disinvestment were used to offset the shortage of government revenues rather than
using it for the development of PSUs and building social infrastructure in the country.
Reforms and Fiscal Policies:
➔ Economic reforms have placed limits on the growth of public expenditure especially in social sectors.
➔ The tax reductions in the reform period, aimed at yielding larger revenue and to curb tax evasion, have
not resulted in increase in tax revenue for the government.
➔ In order to attract foreign investment, tax incentives were provided to foreign investors which further
reduced the scope for raising tax revenues. This has a negative impact on developmental and welfare
expenditures.
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Class 11 : Chapter 4 – Poverty
Pre-Independent India:
➔ In pre-independent India, Dadabhai Naoroji was the first to discuss the concept of a Poverty Line.
Post-Independent India:
➔ In post-independent India, there have been several attempts to work out a mechanism to identify the
number of poor in the country.
➔ For instance, in 1962, the Planning Commission formed a Study Group.
➔ In 1979, another body called the ‘Task Force on Projections of Minimum Needs and Effective
Consumption Demand’ was formed.
Categorising Poverty:
➔ People who are always poor and those who are usually poor but who may sometimes have a little more
money (example: casual workers) are grouped together as the chronic poor.
➔ Another group are the churning poor who regularly move in and out of poverty (example: small farmers
and seasonal workers) and the occasionally poor who are rich most of the time but may sometimes
have a patch of bad luck. They are called the transient poor.
Aim of Poverty Alleviation Schemes:
➔ It should be to improve human lives by expanding the range of things that a person could be and could
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do, such as to be healthy and well-nourished, to be knowledgeable and participate in the life of a
community.
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Sen Index:
➔ Developed by Amartya Sen (Nobel Laurete)

Head Count Ratio:
➔ When the number of poor is estimated as the proportion of people below the poverty line, it is known
as ‘Head Count Ratio’
Absolute Poverty:
➔ The per capita consumption expenditure level which meets the average per capita daily requirement of
2,400 calories in rural areas and 2,100 calories in urban areas, along with a minimum of non-food
expenditure, is called poverty line or absolute poverty.
Approaches to reduce Poverty:
Over the years, the government has been following three approaches to reduce poverty
1) Growth oriented development

2) Specific poverty alleviation programmes
3) Meeting the minimum needs of the poor
Class 11 : Chapter 5 – Human Capital Formation in India
Human Capital Formation:
➔ Human capital formation is the process of transforming the people in a country into workers who
are capable of producing goods and services.
➔ During this process, relatively unskilled individuals are given the tools they need to contribute to the
economy
Sources of Human Capital:
Investment in education
Investment in health
On-the-job training
Migration
Information
Human Capital and Economic Growth:

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➔ Economic growth means the increase in real national income of a country; naturally, the contribution
of the educated person to economic growth is more than that of an illiterate person.
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➔ Education provides knowledge to understand changes in society and scientific advancements, thus,
facilitate inventions and innovations.
➔ Similarly, the availability of educated labour force facilitates adaptation to new technologies.
➔ Higher income causes building of high level of human capital and vice versa, that is, high level of
human capital causes growth of income.
➔ The Seventh Five Year Plan says, “Human resources development (read human capital) has necessarily to
be assigned a key role in any development strategy, particularly in a country with a large population.
Trained and educated on sound lines, a large population can itself become an asset in accelerating
economic growth and in ensuring social change in desired directions.
Human Capital and Human Development:
➔ Human capital considers education and health as a means to increase labour productivity.
➔ Human development is based on the idea that education and health are integral to human well-
being because only when people have the ability to read and write and the ability to lead a long and
healthy life, they will be able to make other choices which they value.
Growth in Government Expenditure on Education:
This expenditure by the government is expressed in two ways

(i) As a percentage of ‘total government expenditure’
(ii) As a percentage of Gross Domestic Product (GDP)
➔ The percentage of ‘education expenditure of GDP’ expresses how much of our income is being
committed to the development of education in the country.
➔ In December 2002, the Government of India, through the 86th Amendment of the Constitution of
India, made free and compulsory education a fundamental right of all children in the age group of 6-14
years.
Class 11 : Chapter 6 – Rural Develpment
Credit and Marketing in Rural Areas:
➔ Growth of rural economy depends primarily on infusion of capital, from time to time, to realise higher
productivity in agriculture and non-agriculture sectors.
➔ National Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development (NABARD) was set up in 1982 as an apex body
to coordinate the activities of all institutions involved in the rural financing system.
SHGs:
➔ Self-Help Groups (SHGs) have emerged to fill the gap in the formal credit system
➔ SHGs promote thrift in small proportions by a minimum contribution from each member
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➔ From the pooled money, credit is given to the needy members to be repayable in small instalments at
reasonable interest rates
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➔ Such credit provisions are generally referred to as micro-credit programmes

➔ SHGs have helped in the empowerment of women but the borrowings are mainly confined to
consumption purposes and negligible proportion is borrowed for agricultural purposes
Agricultural Marketing:
➔ Agricultural marketing is a process that involves the assembling, storage, processing, transportation,
packaging, grading and distribution of different agricultural commodities across the country.
Diversification:
➔ Diversification includes two aspects: one relates to diversification of crop production and the other
relates to a shift of workforce from agriculture to other allied activities (livestock, poultry, fisheries etc.)
and non-agriculture sector.
Golden Revolution:
➔ The period between 1991-2003 is also called an effort to heralding a ‘Golden Revolution’ because
during this period, the planned investment in horticulture became highly productive and the sector
emerged as a sustainable livelihood option.
Class 11 : Chapter 7 – EMPLOYMENT : GROWTH, INFORMALISATION AND

OTHER ISSUES
Economic Activities:
➔ Those activities which contribute to the gross national product are called economic activities.
Worker-population ratio:
➔ Worker-population ratio is an indicator which is used for analysing the employment situation in the
country.
➔ This ratio is useful in knowing the proportion of population that is actively contributing to the
production of goods and services of a country.
➔ If the ratio is higher, it means that the engagement of people is greater; if the ratio for a country is
medium, or low, it means that a very high proportion of its population is not involved directly in
economic activities.
➔ Primary sector is the main source of employment for majority of workers
Population:
➔ Population is defined as the total number of people who reside in a particular locality at a particular
point of time.
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Industrial Divisions:
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We divide all economic activities into eight different industrial divisions.
(i) Agriculture
(ii) Mining and Quarrying
(iii) Manufacturing
(iv) Electricity, Gas and Water Supply
(v) Construction
(vi) Trade
(vii) Transport and Storage
(viii) Services
Jobless Growth:
➔ Disheartening development in the late 1990s: employment growth started declining and reached the
level of growth that India had in the early stages of planning.
➔ During these years, we also find a widening gap between the growth of GDP and employment.
➔ This means that in the Indian economy, without generating employment, we have been able to
produce more goods and services.
➔ Scholars refer to this phenomenon as jobless growth.
Formal Sector Employment:
➔ The information relating to employment in the formal sector is collected by the Union Ministry of
Labour through employment exchanges located in different parts of the country.
Sources of Data on Unemployment:
➔ There are 3 sources of data on unemployment : Reports of Census of India, National Sample Survey
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Organisation’s Reports of Employment and Unemployment Situation and Directorate General of

Employment and Training Data of Registration with Employment Exchanges.
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Class 11 : Chapter 7 – Infrastructure

➔ Infrastructure provides supporting services in the main areas of industrial and agricultural production,
domestic and foreign trade and commerce.
➔ These services include roads, railways, ports, airports, dams, power stations, oil and gas pipelines,
telecommunication facilities, the country’s educational system including schools and colleges, health
system including hospitals, sanitary system including clean drinking water facilities and the monetary
system including banks, insurance and other financial institutions.
Composition of Infrastructure requirements:
➔ In any country, as the income rises, the composition of infrastructure requirements changes significantly.
➔ For low-income countries, basic infrastructure services like irrigation, transport and power are more
important.
➔ As economies mature and most of their basic consumption demands are met, the share of agriculture in
the economy shrinks and more service related infrastructure is required.
➔ This is why the share of power and telecommunication infrastructure is greater in high-income
countries.
Indian Systems of Medicine (ISM):
It includes six systems:
1) Ayurveda
2) Yoga
3) Unani
4) Siddha
5) Naturopathy
6) Homeopathy (AYUSH)
Class 11 : Chapter 9 – Environment and Sustainable Development
➔ Environment is defined as the total planetary inheritance and the totality of all resources. It includes
all the biotic and abiotic factors that influence each other.
Functions of the Environment:
 It supplies resources: resources here include both renewable and non-renewable resources. Renewable
resources are those which can be used without the possibility of the resource becoming depleted or
exhausted. That is, a continuous supply of the resource remains available. Examples of renewable
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resources are the trees in the forests and the fishes in the ocean. Non-renewable resources, on the other
hand, are those which get exhausted with extraction and use, for example, fossil fuel
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 It assimilates waste
 It sustains life by providing genetic and bio diversity
 It also provides aesthetic services like scenery etc.
Absorptive Capacity:
➔ Absorptive capacity means the ability of the environment to absorb degradation. The result — we
are today at the threshold of environmental crisis.
Global Warming:
➔ Global warming is a gradual increase in the average temperature of the earth’s lower atmosphere
as a result of the increase in greenhouse gases since the Industrial Revolution.
Ozone Depletion:
➔ Ozone depletion refers to the phenomenon of reductions in the amount of ozone in the
stratosphere.
➔ The problem of ozone depletion is caused by high levels of chlorine and bromine compounds in the
stratosphere.
Chipko:
➔ Aimed at protecting forests in the Himalayas.
Appiko:
➔ In Karnataka, a similar movement took a different name, ‘Appiko’, which means to hug.
➔ On 8 September 1983, when the felling of trees was started in Salkani forest in Sirsi district, 160 men,
women and children hugged the trees and forced the woodcutters to leave. They kept vigil in the forest
over the next six weeks.
Central Pollution Control Board:
➔ In order to address two major environmental concerns in India, viz., water and air pollution, the
government set up the Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) in 1974.
➔ CPCB has identified 17 categories of industries (large and medium scale) as significantly polluting.
Threat to India’s Environment:
➔ The threat to India’s environment is of two dimensions —threat of poverty induced environmental
degradation and the threat of pollution from affluence and a rapidly growing industrial sector.
Sustainable Development:
➔ Sustainable development is development that meets the need of the present generation without
compromising the ability of the future generation to meet their own needs.
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Class 12 : Chapter 1 – Introductory Macroeconomics

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Economic Agents:
➔ By economic units or economic agents, we mean those individuals or institutions which take
economic decisions.
➔ They can be consumers who decide what and how much to consume.
➔ They may be producers of goods and services who decide what and how much to produce.
➔ They may be entities like the government, corporation, banks which also take different economic
decisions like how much to spend, what interest rate to charge on the credits, how much to tax, etc.
Adam Smith:
➔ Founding father of modern economics

➔ He suggested that if the buyers and sellers in each market take their decisions following only their own
self-interest, economists will not need to think of the wealth and welfare of the country as a whole
separately
➔ He was a Scotsman and a professor at the University of Glasgow.
➔ Philosopher by training, his well known work “An Enquiry into the Nature and Cause of the Wealth
of Nations “ (1776) is regarded as the first major comprehensive book on the subject.
Macroeconomic decision makers:
➔ Macroeconomic policies are pursued by the State itself or statutory bodies like the Reserve Bank of
India (RBI), Securities and Exchange Board of India (SEBI) and similar institutions.
➔ Typically, each such body will have one or more public goals to pursue as defined by law or the
Constitution of India itself.
➔ These goals are not those of individual economic agents maximising their private profit or welfare.
➔ Thus the macroeconomic agents are basically different from the individual decision-makers.
John Maynard Keynes:
➔ John Maynard Keynes, British economist, was born in 1883.

➔ He prophesied the break down of the peace agreement of the War in the book” The Economic
Consequences of the Peace” (1919).
➔ His book General Theory of Employment, Interest and Money (1936) is regarded as one of the most
influential economics books of the twentieth century.
1929 Great Depression:
➔ Great Depression of 1929 and the subsequent years saw the output and employment levels in the
countries of Europe and North America fall by huge amounts.
➔ In USA, from 1929 to 1933, unemployment rate rose from 3% to 25%
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Capitalist Economy:
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Capitalist economy can be defined as an economy in which most of the economic activities have the
following characteristics :
(a) There is private ownership of means of production
(b) Production takes place for selling the output in the market
(c) There is sale and purchase of labour services at a price which is called the wage rate (the labour
which is sold and purchased against wages is referred to as wage labour)
External Sector:
1. The domestic country may sell goods to the rest of the world. These are called exports.
2. The economy may also buy goods from the rest of the world. These are called imports. Besides exports
and imports, the rest of the world affects the domestic economy in other ways as well.
3. Capital from foreign countries may flow into the domestic country, or the domestic country may be
exporting capital to foreign countries
Rate of Interest:
➔ An interest rate is the amount of interest due per period, as a proportion of the amount lent, deposited
or borrowed (called the principal sum).
➔ The total interest on an amount lent or borrowed depends on the principal sum, the interest rate, the
compounding frequency, and the length of time over which it is lent, deposited or borrowed.
Four factors of production:
➔ Land
➔ Labour
➔ Capital
➔ Entrepreneur
Unemployment Rate:
➔ It may be defined as the number of people who are not working and are looking for jobs divided
by the total number of people who are working or looking for jobs
Capital:
➔ In finance and accounting, capital generally refers to financial wealth, especially that used to start or
maintain a business
Investment Expenditure:
➔ Investment expenditure refers to the expenditure incurred either by an individual or a firm or the
government for the creation of new capital assets like machinery, building etc.
Class 12 : Chapter 2 – National Income Accounting

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Final Goods:
➔ An item that is meant for final use and will not pass through any more stages of production or
transformations is called a final good.
Consumption Goods:
➔ Goods like food and clothing, and services like recreation that are consumed when purchased by their
ultimate consumers are called consumption goods or consumer goods.
Capital Goods:
➔ Capital goods are man-made, durable items businesses used to produce goods and services. They
include tools, buildings, vehicles, machinery, and equipment.
➔ In accounting, capital goods are treated as fixed assets.
Consumer Durables:
➔ Some commodities like television sets, automobiles or home computers, although they are for ultimate
consumption, have one characteristic in common with capital goods – they are also durable.
➔ That is, they are not extinguished by immediate or even short period consumption; they have a
relatively long life as compared to articles such as food or even clothing.
➔ They also undergo wear and tear with gradual use and often need repairs and replacements of parts,
i.e., like machines they also need to be preserved, maintained and renewed.
➔ That is why we call these goods consumer durables.
Intermediate Goods:
➔ Of the total production taking place in the economy a large number of products don’t end up in final
consumption and are not capital goods either.
➔ Such goods may be used by other producers as material inputs.
➔ Examples are steel sheets used for making automobiles and copper used for making utensils.
➔ These are intermediate goods, mostly used as raw material or inputs for production of other
commodities. These are not final goods.
Stock:
➔ It is defined as any quantity measured at a particular point of time e.g. number of machines in a
plant, amount in bank account on a specific date
Flow:
➔ It is defined as any quantity measured per unit at a particular period of time e.g. income or
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expenditure over a time period of 1 month or 1 year

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Gross Investment:
➔ Gross Investment of an economy constitutes that part of our final output that comprises of capital
goods
➔ These may be machines, tools and implements; buildings, office spaces, storehouses or infrastructure
like roads, bridges, airports or jetties.
Depreciation:
➔ It is the loss of value of fixed assets in use on account of wear and tear
➔ It is also called as consumption of fixed capital
New addition to capital stock in an economy is measured by net investment or new capital formation, which
is expressed as
Net Investment = Gross investment – Depreciation

4 kinds of contributions that can be made during the production of goods and services:
(a) Contribution made by human labour, remuneration for which is called wage
(b) Contribution made by capital, remuneration for which is called interest
(c) Contribution made by entrepreneurship, remuneration of which is profit
(d) Contribution made by fixed natural resources (called ‘land’), remuneration for which is called rent
Circular flow of income:
➔ The circular flow of Income refers to the flow of money, services, and goods, etc.
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➔ This circulation happens in terms of income in the production process, distribution between the factors
of production, and at the end the circulation of the product from household to a firm in the form of
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consumption expenditure on goods and services manufactured by them.
The three different phases in the circular flow of income are-

Generation Phase: In this phase, the firm manufactures the goods and services with the assistance of factor
services.
Distribution Phase: This phase involves the flow of factor income, which comprises of rent, interests,
wages, and profit from firm to the household.
Disposition Phase: Here, the income collected by the factors of production, is used on the goods and
services manufactured by a firm
There are two types of circular flow
Real Flow: The term real flow means the flow of factor services from household to firms. Similarly, the flow
of goods and services from firms to household
Money Flow: The Money flow refers to the flow of factor payments from firm to household for factor
services. Similarly, the flow of consumption expenditure from household to firm for the purchase of goods
and services manufactured by the firm.
Value added:
➔ The term that is used to denote the net contribution made by a firm is called its value added.
➔ The raw materials that a firm buys from another firm which are completely used up in the process
of production are called ‘intermediate goods’.
➔ Therefore the value added of a firm is, value of production of the firm – value of intermediate goods
used by the firm.
➔ If we include depreciation in value added then the measure of value added that we obtain is called
Gross Value Added.
➔ If we deduct the value of depreciation from gross value added we obtain Net Value Added.
➔ Unlike gross value added, net value added does not include wear and tear that capital has undergone.
Inventory:
➔ The stock of unsold finished goods, or semi-finished goods, or raw materials which a firm carries
from one year to the next is called inventory.
➔ Inventory is a stock variable.
➔ It may have a value at the beginning of the year; it may have a higher value at the end of the year.
➔ In such a case inventories have increased (or accumulated). If the value of inventories is less at the end
of the year compared to the beginning of the year, inventories have decreased
Change of inventories of a firm during a year ≡ production of the firm during the year – sale of the firm
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during the year

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Factor Cost, Basic Prices and Market Prices:

➔ The distinction between factor cost, basic prices and market prices is based on the distinction between
net production taxes (production taxes less production subsidies) and net product taxes (product taxes
less product subsidies).
➔ CSO releases GVA at basic prices. Thus, it includes the net production taxes but not net product taxes.
In order to arrive at the GDP (at market prices) we need to add net product taxes to GVA at basic prices.
GVA at factor costs + Net production taxes = GVA at basic prices

GVA at basic prices + Net product taxes = GVA at market prices
Undistributed Profits:
➔ National Income which is earned by the firms and government enterprises, a part of profit is not
distributed among the factors of production. This is called Undistributed Profits (UP).
National Disposable Income:
➔ The idea behind National Disposable Income is that it gives an idea of what is the maximum amount
of goods and services the domestic economy has at its disposal.
➔ Current transfers from the rest of the world include items such as gifts, aids, etc.
National Disposable Income = Net National Product at market prices + Other current transfers from
the rest of the world
Private Income = Factor income from net domestic product accruing to the private sector + National
debt interest + Net factor income from abroad + Current transfers from government + Other net
transfers from the rest of the world
Gross Domestic Product at Market Prices :
➔ GDP is the market value of all final goods and services produced within a domestic territory of a
country measured in a year
➔ All production done by the national residents or the non-residents in a country gets included, regardless
of whether that production is owned by a local company or a foreign entity
➔ Everything is valued at market prices
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GDP at Factor Cost:

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➔ GDP at factor cost is gross domestic product at market prices, less net product taxes.
➔ Market prices are the prices as paid by the consumers. Market prices also include product taxes and
subsides.
➔ The term factor cost refers to the prices of products as received by the producers.
➔ Thus, factor cost is equal to market prices, minus net indirect taxes.
➔ GDP at factor cost measures money value of output produced by the firms within the domestic
boundaries of a country in a year.
Net Domestic Product at Market Prices:
➔ This measure allows policy-makers to estimate how much the country has to spend just to maintain
their current GDP.
➔ If the country is not able to replace the capital stock lost through depreciation, then GDP will fall
NDP at Factor Cost:
➔ NDP at factor cost is the income earned by the factors in the form of wages, profits, rent, interest, etc.,
within the domestic territory of a country
Gross National Product at Market Prices:
➔ GNP MP is the value of all the final goods and services that are produced by the normal residents
of India and is measured at the market prices, in a year.
➔ GNP refers to all the economic output produced by a nation’s normal residents, whether they are
located within the national boundary or abroad
➔ Everything is valued at the market prices.
GNP at Factor Cost:
➔ GNP at factor cost measures value of output received by the factors of production belonging to a
country in a year
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Net National Product at Market Prices:
➔ This is a measure of how much a country can consume in a given period of time. NNP measures
output regardless of where that production has taken place (in domestic territory or abroad)
NNP at Factor Cost (NNP FC) Or National Income (NI):
➔ NNP at factor cost is the sum of income earned by all factors in the production in the form of wages,
profits, rent and interest, etc., belonging to a country during a year.
➔ It is the National Product and is not bound by production in the national boundaries. It is the net
domestic factor income added with the net factor income from abroad.
Gross Value Added (GVA):
Base Year:
➔ The year whose prices are being used to calculate the real GDP to the current year
GDP Deflator:
➔ In the calculation of real and nominal GDP of the current year, the volume of production is fixed.
➔ Therefore, if these measures differ it is only due to change in the price level between the base year and
the current year.
➔ The ratio of nominal to real GDP is a well known index of prices. This is called GDP Deflator.
Nominal GDP:
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➔ The market value of the final production of goods and services within a country in a given period using
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that year’s prices (also called “current prices”)
Real GDP:
➔ Nominal GDP adjusted for changes in the price level, using prices from a base year (constant prices)
instead of “current prices” used in nominal GDP; real GDP adjusts the level of output for any price
changes that may have occurred over time
Externalities:
➔ Externalities refer to the benefits (or harms) a firm or an individual causes to another for which
they are not paid (or penalised).
➔ Externalities do not have any market in which they can be bought and sold.
Class 12 : Chapter 3 – Money and Banking
➔ Money is the commonly accepted medium of exchange

➔ Economic exchanges without the mediation of money are referred to as barter exchanges.
Cashless Society:
➔ A cashless society describes an economic state whereby financial transactions are not connected
with money in the form of physical bank notes or coins but rather through the transfer of digital
information (usually an electronic representation of money) between the transacting parties.
Demand for Money:
➔ The demand for money tells us what makes people desire a certain amount of money.
➔ Since money is required to conduct transactions, the value of transactions will determine the money
people will want to keep: the larger is the quantum of transactions to be made, the larger is the
quantity of money demanded.
➔ At higher interest rates, money demanded comes down.
Supply of Money:
➔ In a modern economy, money comprises cash and bank deposits.

➔ These are created by a system comprising two types of institutions: central bank of the economy and
the commercial banking system.
Central Bank:
➔ India got its central bank in 1935.

➔ Its name is the ‘Reserve Bank of India’
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➔ It issues the currency of the country.

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➔ It controls money supply of the country through various methods, like bank rate, open market
operations and variations in reserve ratios.
➔ It acts as a banker to the government.
➔ It is the custodian of the foreign exchange reserves of the economy. It also acts as a bank to the
banking system.
➔ Lender of last resort
➔ This currency issued by the central bank can be held by the public or by the commercial banks, and is
called the ‘high-powered money’ or ‘reserve money’ or ‘monetary base’ as it acts as a basis for
credit creation.
Commercial Banks:
➔ They accept deposits from the public and lend out part of these funds to those who want to borrow.
➔ The interest rate paid by the banks to depositors is lower than the rate charged from the borrowers.
➔ This difference between these two types of interest rates, called the ‘spread’ is the profit appropriated
by the bank
Assets:
➔ Assets are things a firm owns or what a firm can claim from others. In case of a bank, apart from
buildings, furniture, etc., its assets are loans given to public.
Reserves:
➔ Reserves are deposits which commercial banks keep with the Central bank, Reserve Bank of India
(RBI) and its cash.
➔ These reserves are kept partly as cash and partly in the form of financial instruments (bonds and
treasury bills) issued by the RBI.
➔ Reserves are similar to deposits we keep with banks.
Liabilities:
➔ Liabilities for any firm are its debts or what it owes to others.
➔ For a bank, the main liability is the deposits which people keep with it.
Cash Reserve Ratio:
➔ RBI decides a certain percentage of deposits which every bank must keep as reserves.
➔ This is done to ensure that no bank is ‘over lending’.
➔ This is a legal requirement and is binding on the banks.
➔ This is called the ‘Required Reserve Ratio’ or the ‘Reserve Ratio’ or ‘Cash Reserve Ratio’ (CRR).
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Open Market Operations:

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➔ Open Market Operations refers to buying and selling of bonds issued by the Government in the
open market.
➔ This purchase and sale is entrusted to the Central bank on behalf of the Government.
There are two types of open market operations: outright and repo.
Outright:
➔ Outright open market operations are permanent in nature: when the central bank buys these
securities (thus injecting money into the system), it is without any promise to sell them later.
➔ Similarly, when the central bank sells these securities (thus withdrawing money from the system), it is
without any promise to buy them later.
➔ As a result, the injection/absorption of the money is of permanent nature.
Repo:
➔ Another type of operation in which when the central bank buys the security, this agreement of
purchase also has specification about date and price of resale of this security.
➔ This type of agreement is called a repurchase agreement or repo.
➔ The interest rate at which the money is lent in this way is called the repo rate.
Reverse repurchase agreement or reverse repo:
➔ Instead of outright sale of securities the central bank may sell the securities through an
agreement which has a specification about the date and price at which it will be repurchased.
➔ This type of agreement is called a reverse repurchase agreement or reverse repo.
➔ The rate at which the money is withdrawn in this manner is called the reverse repo rate.
➔ The Reserve Bank of India conducts repo and reverse repo operations at various maturities: overnight,
7-day, 14- day, etc.
Bank Rate:
➔ RBI can influence money supply by changing the rate at which it gives loans to the commercial
banks. This rate is called the Bank Rate in India.
➔ By increasing the bank rate, loans taken by commercial banks become more expensive; this reduces the
reserves held by the commercial bank and hence decreases money supply.
➔ A fall in the bank rate can increase the money supply
Fiat Money:
➔ Currency notes and coins are called fiat money.

➔ They do not have intrinsic value like a gold or silver coin.
➔ They are also called legal tenders as they cannot be refused by any citizen of the country for settlement
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of any kind of transaction.

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Narrow and Broad Money:

➔ RBI publishes figures for four alternative measures of money supply, viz. M1, M2, M3 and M4.
➔ M1 and M2 are known as narrow money.
➔ M3 and M4 are known as broad money.
➔ These measures are in decreasing order of liquidity.
➔ M1 is most liquid and easiest for transactions whereas M4 is least liquid of all.
➔ M3 is the most commonly used measure of money supply. It is also known as aggregate monetary
resources
Demonetisation:
➔ Demonetisation was a new initiative taken by the Government of India in November 2016 to tackle the
problem of corruption, black money, terrorism and circulation of fake currency in the economy.
➔ Old currency notes of Rs 500, and Rs 1000 were no longer legal tender.
➔ New currency notes in the denomination of Rs 500 and Rs 2000 were launched.
➔ The public were advised to deposit old currency notes in their bank account till 31 December 2016 without
any declaration and upto 31 March 2017 with the RBI with declaration
Barter Exchange:
➔ Exchange of commodities without the mediation of money is called Barter Exchange.

➔ It suffers from lack of double coincidence of wants.
➔ Money facilitates exchanges by acting as a commonly acceptable medium of exchange.
In a modern economy, people hold money broadly for two motives – transaction motive and
speculative motive
Class 12: Chapter 4 – Determination of Income and Employment
Ceteris paribus:
➔ When we concentrate on the determination of a particular variable, we must hold the values of
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all other variables constant.

➔ This is a stylisation typical of almost any theoretical exercise and is called the assumption of ceteris
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paribus, which literally means ‘other things remaining equal.
Ex-ante and Ex-post:

➔ Ex-ante depicts what has been planned, and ex-post depicts what has actually happened.
Consumption:
➔ The most important determinant of consumption demand is household income.

➔ A consumption function describes the relation between consumption and income.
Autonomous consumption:
➔ The simplest consumption function assumes that consumption changes at a constant rate as income
changes.
➔ Of course, even if income is zero, some consumption still takes place.
➔ Since this level of consumption is independent of income, it is called autonomous consumption.
Investment:
➔ Investment is defined as addition to the stock of physical capital (such as machines, buildings, roads
etc., i.e. anything that adds to the future productive capacity of the economy) and changes in the
inventory (or the stock of finished goods) of a producer.
➔ Note that ‘investment goods’ (such as machines) are also part of the final goods – they are not
intermediate goods like raw materials.
➔ Machines produced in an economy in a given year are not ‘used up’ to produce other goods but yield
their services over a number of years.
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Full employment level of income:

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➔ Full employment level of income is that level of income where all the factors of production are fully
employed in the production process.
Deficient demand:
➔ The equilibrium level of output may be more or less than the full employment level of output.
➔ If it is less than the full employment of output, it is due to the fact that demand is not enough to
employ all factors of production.
➔ This situation is called the situation of deficient demand. It leads to decline in prices in the long run.
Excess demand:
➔ If the equilibrium level of output is more than the full employment level, it is due to the fact that the
demand is more than the level of output produced at full employment level.
➔ This situation is called the situation of excess demand.
➔ It leads to rise in prices in the long run.
When, at a particular price level, aggregate demand for final goods equals aggregate supply of final
goods, the final goods or product market reaches its equilibrium.
Aggregate demand for final goods consists of ex ante consumption, ex ante investment,
government spending etc.
Marginal propensity to consume:
➔ The rate of increase in ex ante consumption due to a unit increment in income is called marginal
propensity to consume.
Aggregate demand:
➔ It is the total demand for final goods and services in an economy at a given time.
➔ This is the demand for the gross domestic product of a country.
Aggregate supply:
➔ It is the total supply of goods and services that firms in a national economy plan on selling during a
specific time period.
➔ It is the total amount of goods and services that firms are willing and able to sell at a given price
level in an economy.
Ex-ante consumption:
➔ Ex-ante consumption refers to the consumption expenditure planned to be incurred during a period.
Ex-ante or planned investment:

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➔ Ex-ante or planned investment is the investment which is desired to be made by the firms and planners
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in the economy during a particular period in the beginning of the period.
Parametric Shift:
➔ Parametric shift is a graph due to change in the value of a parameter.
➔ A positively sloping straight line swings upwards as its slope is decreases.
➔ A positively sloping straight line shifts upwards in parallel as its Intercept is increased.
Expenditure Multiplier:
➔ The expenditures multiplier measures the change in aggregate production triggered by changes an
autonomous expenditure, including consumption expenditures, investment expenditures, government
purchases, or net exports.
➔ The expenditures multiplier captures the consequences of a shift in the aggregate expenditures line
in a single measure, a measure that is generally greater than one.
Class 12: Chapter 5 - Government Budget and the Economy
Mixed Economy:
➔ An economy in which there is both the private sector and the Government is known as a mixed
economy.
Main Budget Document:
➔ There is a constitutional requirement in India (Article 112) to present before the Parliament a statement
of estimated receipts and expenditures of the government.
➔ This ‘Annual Financial Statement’ constitutes the main budget document of the government.
Revenue Account:
➔ Those that relate to the current financial year only are included in the revenue account (also called
revenue budget)
Capital Account:
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➔ Those that concern the assets and liabilities of the government into the capital account (also called
capital budget).
Public provision:
➔ Public provision means that they are financed through the budget and can be used without any direct
payment.
Public Production:
➔ When goods are produced directly by the government it is called public production.
Redistribution function:
➔ The government sector affects the personal disposable income of households by making transfers
and collecting taxes.
➔ It is through this that the government can change the distribution of income and bring about a
distribution that is considered ‘fair’ by society. This is the redistribution function.
Stabilisation Function:
➔ The intervention of the government whether to expand demand or reduce it constitutes the stabilisation
function
Revenue Receipts:
➔ Revenue receipts are those receipts that do not lead to a claim on the government.
➔ They are therefore termed non-redeemable.
➔ They are divided into tax and non-tax revenues.
Tax Revenue:
➔ Tax revenues, an important component of revenue receipts, have for long been divided into direct
taxes (personal income tax) and firms (corporation tax), and indirect taxes like excise taxes (duties
levied on goods produced within the country), customs duties (taxes imposed on goods imported into
and exported out of India) and service tax.
Paper Taxes:
➔ Other direct taxes like wealth tax, gift tax and estate duty (now abolished) have never brought in large
amount of revenue and thus have been referred to as ‘paper taxes’
Non-Tax Revenue:
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➔ Non-tax revenue of the central government mainly consists of interest receipts on account of loans by
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the central government, dividends and profits on investments made by the government, fees and other
receipts for services rendered by the government.
➔ Cash grants-in-aid from foreign countries and international organisations are also included.
Capital Receipts:
➔ The government also receives money by way of loans or from the sale of its assets.
➔ Loans will have to be returned to the agencies from which they have been borrowed.
➔ Thus they create liability. Sale of government assets, like sale of shares in Public Sector Undertakings
(PSUs) which is referred to as PSU disinvestment, reduce the total amount of financial assets of the
government.
➔ All those receipts of the government which create liability or reduce financial assets are termed as
capital receipts.
➔ When government takes fresh loans it will mean that in future these loans will have to be returned and
interest will have to be paid on these loans.
➔ Similarly, when government sells an asset, then it means that in future its earnings from that asset, will
disappear. Thus, these receipts can be debt creating or non-debt creating.
Revenue Expenditure:
➔ Revenue Expenditure is expenditure incurred for purposes other than the creation of physical or
financial assets of the central government.
➔ It relates to those expenses incurred for the normal functioning of the government departments and
various services, interest payments on debt incurred by the government, and grants given to state
governments and other parties (even though some of the grants may be meant for creation of assets).
Plan Revenue Expenditure:
➔ Plan revenue expenditure relates to central Plans (the Five-Year Plans) and central assistance for
State and Union Territory plans.
Non-Plan Expenditure:
76
➔ Non-plan expenditure, the more important component of revenue expenditure, covers a vast range of
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general, economic and social services of the government.

➔ The main items of non-plan expenditure are interest payments, defence services, subsidies, salaries and
pensions
➔ Interest payments on market loans, external loans and from various reserve funds constitute the single
largest component of non-plan revenue expenditure.
➔ Defence expenditure, is committed expenditure in the sense that given the national security concerns,
there exists little scope for drastic reduction.
➔ Subsidies are an important policy instrument which aim at increasing welfare
➔ Apart from providing implicit subsidies through under-pricing of public goods and services like
education and health, the government also extends subsidies explicitly on items such as exports,
interest on loans, food and fertilisers.
Capital Expenditure:
➔ Capital expenditure is also categorised as plan and non-plan in the budget documents.
➔ Plan capital expenditure, like its revenue counterpart, relates to central plan and central assistance for
state and union territory plans.
➔ Non-plan capital expenditure covers various general, social and economic services provided by the
government.
Fiscal Responsibility and Budget Management Act:
➔ Along with the budget, three policy statements are mandated by the Fiscal Responsibility and Budget
Management Act, 2003 (FRBMA)
➔ The Medium-term Fiscal Policy Statement sets a three year rolling target for specific fiscal indicators
and examines whether revenue expenditure can be financed through revenue receipts on a sustainable
basis and how productively capital receipts including market borrowings are being utilised.
➔ The Fiscal Policy Strategy Statement sets the priorities of the government in the fiscal area, examining
current policies and justifying any deviation in important fiscal measures.
➔ The Macroeconomic Framework Statement assesses the prospects of the economy with respect to
the GDP growth rate, fiscal balance of the central government and external balance
Balanced , Surplus and Deficit Budget:
➔ The government may spend an amount equal to the revenue it collects. This is known as a balanced
budget.
➔ If it needs to incur higher expenditure, it will have to raise the amount through taxes in order to keep
the budget balanced.
➔ When tax collection exceeds the required expenditure, the budget is said to be in surplus
➔ The most common feature is the situation when expenditure exceeds revenue. This is when the
government runs a budget deficit.
77
Revenue Deficit:
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➔ The revenue deficit refers to the excess of government’s revenue expenditure over revenue receipts
➔ The revenue deficit includes only such transactions that affect the current income and expenditure of
the government.
➔ When the government incurs a revenue deficit, it implies that the government is dissaving and is
using up the savings of the other sectors of the economy to finance a part of its consumption
expenditure.
➔ This situation means that the government will have to borrow not only to finance its investment but also
its consumption requirements.
➔ This will lead to a build up of stock of debt and interest liabilities and force the government eventually,
to cut expenditure.
➔ Since a major part of revenue expenditure is committed expenditure, it cannot be reduced.
➔ Often the government reduces productive capital expenditure or welfare expenditure. This would mean
lower growth and adverse welfare implications.
Fiscal Deficit:
➔ Fiscal deficit is the difference between the government’s total expenditure and its total receipts
excluding borrowing
Non-debt creating capital receipts are those receipts which are not borrowings and, therefore, do not
give rise to debt. Examples are recovery of loans and the proceeds from the sale of PSUs.
The fiscal deficit will have to be financed through borrowing. Thus, it indicates the total borrowing
requirements of the government from all sources.
Net borrowing at home includes that directly borrowed from the public through debt instruments (for
example, the various small savings schemes) and indirectly from commercial banks through Statutory
Liquidity Ratio (SLR).
➔ The gross fiscal deficit is a key variable in judging the financial health of the public sector and the
stability of the economy.
➔ From the way gross fiscal deficit is measured as given above, it can be seen that revenue deficit is a part
of fiscal deficit (Fiscal Deficit = Revenue Deficit + Capital Expenditure - non-debt creating capital
receipts)
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➔ A large share of revenue deficit in fiscal deficit indicated that a large part of borrowing is being used to
meet its consumption expenditure needs rather than investment.
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Primary Deficit:
➔ The borrowing requirement of the government includes interest obligations on accumulated debt.
➔ The goal of measuring primary deficit is to focus on present fiscal imbalances.
➔ To obtain an estimate of borrowing on account of current expenditures exceeding revenues, we need to
calculate what has been called the primary deficit. It is simply the fiscal deficit minus the interest
payments
➔ Net interest liabilities consist of interest payments minus interest receipts by the government on net
domestic lending.
Government Debt:
➔ Budgetary deficits must be financed by either taxation, borrowing or printing money.

Governments have mostly relied on borrowing, giving rise to what is called government debt.
➔ The concepts of deficits and debt are closely related. Deficits can be thought of as a flow which add to
the stock of debt.
➔ If the government continues to borrow year after year, it leads to the accumulation of debt and the
government has to pay more and more by way of interest. These interest payments themselves
contribute to the debt.
Ricardian equivalence:
➔ The consumer will be concerned about future generations because they are the children and
grandchildren of the present generation and the family which is the relevant decision making unit,
continues living.
➔ They would increase savings now, which will fully offset the increased government dissaving so
that national savings do not change.
➔ This view is called Ricardian equivalence after one of the greatest nineteenth century economists, David
Ricardo, who first argued that in the face of high deficits, people save more.
➔ It is called ‘equivalence’ because it argues that taxation and borrowing are equivalent means of
financing expenditure.
➔ When the government increases spending by borrowing today, which will be repaid by taxes in the
future, it will have the same impact on the economy as an increase in government expenditure that is
financed by a tax increase today.
Proportional taxes reduce the autonomous expenditure multiplier because taxes reduce the
marginal propensity to consume out of income.
Goods and Service Tax:

79
➔ Goods and Service Tax (GST) is the single comprehensive indirect tax, operational from 1 July 2017,
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on supply of goods and services, right from the manufacturer/ service provider to the consumer.
➔ It is a destination based consumption tax with facility of Input Tax Credit in the supply chain.
➔ It is applicable throughout the country with one rate for one type of goods/service
➔ It has amalgamated a large number of Central and State taxes and cesses.
➔ It has replaced large number of taxes on goods and services levied on production/ sale of goods or
provision of service.
➔ As there have been a number of intermediate goods/services, which were manufactured/provided in the
economy, the pre GST tax regime imposed taxes not on the value added at each stage but on the total
value of the commodity/service with minimal facility of utilisation of Input Tax Credit (ITC). The total
value included taxes paid on intermediate goods/services. This amounted to cascading of tax.
➔ Under GST, the tax is discharged at every stage of supply and the credit of tax paid at the previous stage
is available for set off at the next stage of supply of goods and/or services
➔ It is thus effectively a tax on value addition at each stage of supply. In view of our large and fast growing
economy, it addresses to establish parity in taxation across the country, and extend principles of ‘value-
added taxation’ to all goods and services.
➔ It has replaced various types of taxes/cesses, levied by the Central and State/UT Governments. Some of
the major taxes that were levied by Centre were Central Excise Duty, Service Tax, Central Sales Tax,
Cesses like KKC and SBC.
➔ The major State taxes were VAT/Sales Tax, Entry Tax, Luxury Tax, Octroi, Entertainment Tax, Taxes on
Advertisements, Taxes on Lottery /Betting/ Gambling, State Cesses on goods etc. These have been
subsumed in GST
➔ GST is the biggest tax reform in the country since independence and was rolled out on the mid-
night of 30 June/1 July, 2017 during a special midnight session of the Parliament.
➔ The 101th Constitution Amendment Act received assent of the President of India on 8 September,
2016.
➔ The amendment introduced Article 246A in the Constitution cross empowering Parliament and
Legislatures of States to make laws with reference to Goods and Service Tax imposed by the Union and
the States. Thereafter CGST Act, UTGST Act and SGST Acts were enacted for GST
➔ It is aimed at reducing the cost of business operations and cascading effect of various taxes on
consumers.
➔ It has also reduced the overall cost of production, which will make Indian products/services more
competitive in the domestic and international markets.
➔ It has expanded the tax base, introduced higher transparency in the taxation system, reduced human
interface between Taxpayer and Government and is furthering ease of doing business.
Class 12: Chapter 6 - Open Economy Macroeconomics
Open Economy:
➔ An open economy is one which interacts with other countries through various channels.
Output Market:
80
➔ An economy can trade in goods and services with other countries. This widens choice in the sense
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that consumers and producers can choose between domestic and foreign goods.
Financial Market:
➔ Most often an economy can buy financial assets from other countries. This gives investors the
opportunity to choose between domestic and foreign assets.
Labour Market:
➔ Firms can choose where to locate production and workers to choose where to work. There are various
immigration laws which restrict the movement of labour between countries
International monetary system:
➔ The purpose of the international monetary system (IMS) is to facilitate international economic exchange
since most countries have national currencies that are not typically accepted as legal payment beyond
their borders.
➔ The essential element of the IMS is to facilitate the exchange of goods, services, and capital among
countries.
Influence of Foreign Trade on Aggregate Demand:
➔ First, when Indians buy foreign goods, this spending escapes as a leakage from the circular flow of
income decreasing aggregate demand.
➔ Second, our exports to foreigners enter as an injection into the circular flow, increasing aggregate
demand for goods produced within the domestic economy.
Foreign Exchange Rate:
➔ The price of one currency in terms of another currency is known as the foreign exchange rate or simply
the exchange rate.
Balance of Payments:
➔ The balance of payments (BoP) record the transactions in goods, services and assets between
residents of a country with the rest of the world for a specified time period typically a year.
➔ There are two main accounts in the BoP — the current account and the capital account
Current Account:
➔ Current Account is the record of trade in goods and services and transfer payments.
➔ Trade in goods includes exports and imports of goods.
81
➔ Trade in services includes factor income and non-factor income transactions.

➔ Transfer payments are the receipts which the residents of a country get for ‘free’, without having to
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provide any goods or services in return. They consist of gifts, remittances and grants. They could be
given by the government or by private citizens living abroad.
➔ Buying foreign goods is expenditure from our country and it becomes the income of that foreign
country. Hence, the purchase of foreign goods or imports decreases the domestic demand for goods
and services in our country.
➔ Similarly, selling of foreign goods or exports brings income to our country and adds to the aggregate
domestic demand for goods and services in our country.
Balance on Current Account:
➔ It has 2 components
➔ Balance of Trade or Trade Balance and Balance on Invisibles
Balance of Trade (BOT):
➔ It is the difference between the value of exports and value of imports of goods of a country in a given
period of time.
➔ Export of goods is entered as a credit item in BOT, whereas import of goods is entered as a debit
item in BOT. It is also known as Trade Balance.
➔ BOT is said to be in balance when exports of goods are equal to the imports of goods.
➔ Surplus BOT or Trade surplus will arise if country exports more goods than what it imports.
➔ Deficit BOT or Trade deficit will arise if a country imports more goods than what it exports.
82
Net Invisibles:
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➔ Net Invisibles is the difference between the value of exports and value of imports of invisibles of a
country in a given period of time.
➔ Invisibles include services, transfers and flows of income that take place between different countries.
Services trade:
➔ Services trade includes both factor and non-factor income.

➔ Factor income includes net international earnings on factors of production (like labour, land and capital).
➔ Non-factor income is net sale of service products like shipping, banking, tourism, software services, etc.
Capital Account:
➔ Capital Account records all international transactions of assets.

➔ An asset is any one of the forms in which wealth can be held, for example: money, stocks, bonds,
Government debt, etc.
➔ Purchase of assets is a debit item on the capital account.
➔ If an Indian buys a UK Car Company, it enters capital account transactions as a debit item (as foreign
exchange is flowing out of India).
➔ On the other hand, sale of assets like sale of share of an Indian company to a Chinese customer is a
credit item on the capital account.
Balance on Capital Account:
➔ Capital account is in balance when capital inflows (like receipt of loans from abroad, sale of assets
or shares in foreign companies) are equal to capital outflows (like repayment of loans, purchase of
assets or shares in foreign countries).
➔ Surplus in capital account arises when capital inflows are greater than capital outflows, whereas deficit
in capital account arises when capital inflows are lesser than capital outflows.
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Balance of Payments Surplus and Deficit:

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➔ The essence of international payments is that just like an individual who spends more than her income
must finance the difference by selling assets or by borrowing, a country that has a deficit in its current
account (spending more than it receives from sales to the rest of the world) must finance it by selling
assets or by borrowing abroad.
➔ Thus, any current account deficit must be financed by a capital account surplus, that is, a net
capital inflow
➔ In this case, in which a country is said to be in balance of payments equilibrium, the current account
deficit is financed entirely by international lending without any reserve movements.
➔ The basic premise is that the monetary authorities are the ultimate financiers of any deficit in the
balance of payments (or the recipients of any surplus).
➔ Official reserve transactions are more relevant under a regime of fixed exchange rates than when
exchange rates are floating.
Autonomous Transactions:
➔ International economic transactions are called autonomous when transactions are made due to some
reason other than to bridge the gap in the balance of payments, that is, when they are independent of
the state of BoP.
➔ One reason could be to earn profit. These items are called ‘above the line’ items in the BoP.
➔ The balance of payments is said to be in surplus (deficit) if autonomous receipts are greater (less) than
autonomous payments.
Accommodating transactions:
➔ Accommodating transactions (termed ‘below the line’ items), on the other hand, are determined by the
gap in the balance of payments, that is, whether there is a deficit or surplus in the balance of payments.
➔ In other words, they are determined by the net consequences of the autonomous transactions.
➔ Since the official reserve transactions are made to bridge the gap in the BoP, they are seen as the
accommodating item in the BoP (all others being autonomous).
Balance of Payments Accounts:

84
➔ Following the new accounting standards introduced by the International Monetary Fund in the sixth
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edition of the Balance of Payments and International Investment Position Manual (BPM6) the
Reserve Bank of India also made changes in the structure of balance of payments accounts.
➔ According to the new classification, the transactions are divided into three accounts: current
account, financial account and capital account.
➔ The most important change is that almost all the transactions arising on account of trade in financial
assets such as bonds and equity shares are now placed in the financial account.
➔ RBI continues to publish the balance of payments accounts as per the old system also, therefore the
details of the new system are not being given here.
Foreign Exchange Market:
➔ The market in which national currencies are traded for one another is known as the foreign exchange
market.
➔ The major participants in the foreign exchange market are commercial banks, foreign exchange brokers
and other authorised dealers and monetary authorities.
Foreign Exchange Rate:
➔ Foreign Exchange Rate (also called Forex Rate) is the price of one currency in terms of another.
➔ It links the currencies of different countries and enables comparison of international costs and prices.
➔ For example, if we have to pay Rs 50 for $1 then the exchange rate is Rs 50 per dollar.
Flexible or Floating Exchange Rate:
➔ This exchange rate is determined by the market forces of demand and supply. It is also known as
Floating Exchange Rate.
Depreciation of domestic currency:
➔ Increase in exchange rate implies that the price of foreign currency (dollar) in terms of domestic
currency (rupees) has increased.
➔ This is called Depreciation of domestic currency (rupees) in terms of foreign currency (dollars).
Appreciation of domestic currency:
➔ In a flexible exchange rate regime, when the price of domestic currency (rupees) in terms of foreign
currency (dollars) increases, it is called Appreciation of the domestic currency (rupees) in terms of
foreign currency (dollars).
➔ This means that the value of rupees relative to dollar has risen and we need to pay fewer rupees in
exchange for one dollar.
Purchasing Power (PPP) theory:

85
➔ The purchasing Power (PPP) theory is used to make long-run predictions about exchange rates in a
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flexible exchange rate system.
Fixed Exchange Rate System:

➔ In this exchange rate system, the Government fixes the exchange rate at a particular level.
➔ At this exchange rate, the supply of dollars exceeds the demand for dollars.
➔ The RBI intervenes to purchase the dollars for rupees in the foreign exchange market in order to absorb
this excess supply
➔ Thus, through intervention, the Government can maintain any exchange rate in the economy. But it will
be accumulating more and more foreign exchange so long as this intervention goes on.
Devaluation and Revaluation:
➔ In a fixed exchange rate system, when some government action increases the exchange rate (thereby,
making domestic currency cheaper) is called Devaluation.
➔ On the other hand, a Revaluation is said to occur, when the Government decreases the exchange rate
(thereby, making domestic currency costlier) in a fixed exchange rate system.
Managed floating exchange rate system:
➔ Without any formal international agreement, the world has moved on to what can be best described as
a managed floating exchange rate system.
➔ It is a mixture of a flexible exchange rate system (the float part) and a fixed rate system (the
managed part).
➔ Under this system, also called dirty floating, central banks intervene to buy and sell foreign currencies
in an attempt to moderate exchange rate movements whenever they feel that such actions are
appropriate.
➔ Official reserve transactions are, therefore, not equal to zero.
Gold Standard:
➔ From around 1870 to the outbreak of the First World War in 1914, the prevailing system was the
gold standard which was the epitome of the fixed exchange rate system.
➔ Fractional reserve banking helped to economise on gold.
➔ Paper currency was not entirely backed by gold; typically, countries held one-fourth gold against its
paper currency.
Bretton Woods System:
➔ Bretton Woods Conference held in 1944 set up the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the
World Bank and re-established a system of fixed exchange rates.
➔ A two-tier system of convertibility was established at the centre of which was the dollar
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➔ In 1967, gold was displaced by creating the Special Drawing Rights (SDRs), also known as ‘paper
gold'
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➔ Originally defined in terms of gold, with 35 SDRs being equal to one ounce of gold (the dollar-gold rate
of the Bretton Woods system), it has been redefined several times since 1974.
➔ At present, it is calculated daily as the weighted sum of the values in dollars of four currencies (euro,
dollar, Japanese yen, pound sterling) of the five countries (France, Germany, Japan, the UK and
the US).
‘Smithsonian Agreement’:
➔ The ‘Smithsonian Agreement’ in 1971, which widened the permissible band of movements of the
exchange rates to 2.5 per cent above or below the new ‘central rates’ with the hope of reducing
pressure on deficit countries, lasted only 14 months
Currency Board System:
➔ Argentina, for example, adopted the currency board system in 1991.

➔ Under this, the exchange rate between the local currency (the peso) and the dollar was fixed by law.
➔ The central bank held enough foreign currency to back all the domestic currency and reserves it had
issued.
➔ In such an arrangement, the country cannot expand the money supply at will.
➔ Also, if there is a domestic banking crisis (when banks need to borrow domestic currency) the central
bank can no longer act as a lender of last resort.
➔ However, following a crisis, Argentina abandoned the currency board and let its currency float in
January 2002
India’s exchange rate policy:
➔ India’s exchange rate policy has evolved over time in line with the gradual opening up of the economy
as part of the broader strategy of macroeconomic reforms and liberalization since the early 1990s.
➔ This change was also warranted by the consensus response of all major countries to excessive exchange
rate fluctuations that accompanied the abolishment of fixed exchange rate system.
➔ The major changes in the exchange rate policy started with the implementation of the
recommendations of the High Level Committee on Balance of Payments (Chairman: Dr. C.
Rangarajan, 1993) to make the exchange rate market determined.
➔ The Expert Group on Foreign Exchange Markets in India (popularly known as Sodhani Committee,
1995) made several recommendations with respect to participants, trading, risk management as well as
selective market intervention by the Reserve Bank to promote greater market development in an orderly
fashion.
➔ Consequently, the period starting from January 1996 saw wide-ranging reforms in the Indian foreign
exchange market. In essence, the exchange rate developments changed in side-by-side with the reform
in the external sector of India.
87
Liberalised Exchange Rate Management System:

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➔ The Finance Minister announced the liberalised exchange rate management system (LERMS) in the
Budget for 1992- 93.
➔ This system introduced partial convertibility of rupee.
➔ Under this system, a dual exchange rate was fixed under which 40 per cent of foreign exchange earnings
were to be surrendered at the official exchange rate while the remaining 60 per cent were to be
converted at a market-determined rate.
➔ The dual rates were converged into one from March 1, 1993; this was an important step towards current
account convertibility, which was finally achieved in August 1994 by accepting Article VIII of the
Articles of Agreement of the IMF.
➔ The exchange rate of the rupee thus became market determined, with the Reserve Bank ensuring
orderly conditions in the foreign exchange market through its sales and purchases.
88
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1. GS3: Major Crops and Cropping Patterns

Websites: https://www.pmfias.com and https://store.pmfias.com

1. GS3: Major Crops and Cropping Patterns ................................................................................................... 1

1.1 Cropping Pattern .................................................................................................................................... 4

1.2 Major Food Crops of India ................................................................................................................... 11

1.2.4 Millets ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 23

1.3 Pulses ..................................................................................................................................................... 25

1.4 Major Cash Crops of India ................................................................................................................... 27

1.5 Oilseed (Cash Crop) Crops in India ..................................................................................................... 43

Conditions for Growth ....................................................................................................................................................................... 46

1.6 Plantation Crops in India ..................................................................................................................... 49

1.7 Spices ..................................................................................................................................................... 56

1.8 Horticulture ........................................................................................................................................... 58

1.2 Cropping Pattern

1.2.1 Factors that influence cropping pattern

• Cropping pattern depends on many physical, social and economic factors.

Areas of Heavy Rainfall

• More than 150 cm of annual rainfall.

Areas of Medium Rainfall

• 75 to 150 cm of annual rainfall.

Areas of Low Rainfall

• 25 to 75 cm of annual rainfall (Semi-arid stretches of India).

• Regur soils are ideal for cotton cultivation.

Free Power, Minimum Support Price (MSP) and other subsidies

Demand and Supply

Size of Land Holdings

1.2.2 Crop Classification

Classification based on the type of crop

Horticulture Crops • Vegetables: Onion, tomato, etc.

• Fruits: Apple, Orange, Mango, banana, citrus fruits, etc.

Classification based on suitable climatic regions

Classification based on growing season

Kharif/Rainy/Monsoon crops Rabi/winter/cold seasons crops Summer/Zaid crops

• Cropping period: June to Oct-Nov • Oct to March • March to June

Classification based on the life of crops/duration of crops

Classification based on water availability

Classification based on length of photoperiod required for floral initiation

1.3 Major Food Crops of India

1.3.1 Rice (Oryza sativa)

• Rice is a preferred staple food in Southern and North-Eastern India.

Rice Crop (Paddy) Season

Crop season Sowing Harvesting

Kharif crop (Rainy season) June-July Sep-Oct

Rabi crop (Winter dry season) Oct-Nov Feb-Mar

Summer dry Mar-Apr Jun-Jul

Two crop seasons (irrigation not available in summer)

Kharif crop (Rainy season) July-Aug Oct-Nov

Rabi crop (Winter dry season) Dec-Jan Mar-Apr

• E.g. South India, Coastal plains, Assam plains, etc.

Kharif crop July-Sep Nov

• E.g. North-Western states.

Conditions for Growth

• Rice crop needs plenty of heat, rain and labour.

• Average annual rainfall above 150 cm is good for the crop.

• Rice cultivation is traditionally labour intensive.

Methods of Rice Cultivation

• Seeds are sown (broadcast) by hand.

• Advanced method of rice cultivation in India.

• Highly mechanized and most advanced rice cultivation.

Rice Production and Productivity

Factors that contribute to low rice productivity in India

60% of the rice area is Rainfed