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COURSE CONTRIBUTORS

NAME DESIGNATION INSTITUTIONAL AFFILIATION

Indrani Sanyal Former Professor Department of Philosophy,
Jadavpur University
Asru Ranjan Panda Retired Professor Department of Political Science,
Scottish Church College,
University of Calcutta
Swatilekha Assistant Professor Department of Political
Bhattacharya Science with Rural
Administration, Vidyasagar
University
Kunal Debnath Assistant Professor Department of Political Science,
Rabindra Bharati University
Shilpa Nandy Assistant Professor Department of Political Science,
Khudiram Bose Central College,
University of Calcutta
Ayan Das Assistant Professor Department of Political
Science, University of Gour
Banga
Rupsa Banerjee Assistant Professor in English Centre for Distance &d Online
Education, Rabindra Bharati
University

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Partha Pratim Basu Professor Department of International
Relations, Jadavpur University

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NAME DESIGNATION INSTITUTIONAL AFFILIATION

Sreetapa Chakrabarty Assistant Professor in Political Centre for Distance & Online
Science Education, Rabindra Bharati
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 C.C : 1.1
Enlightenment and Its Critics

Contents

Unit 1. Background to European Enlightenment 1-9

Unit 2. Rousseau’s position on Enlightenment 10-17
Unit 3. Kant : Notion of Moral Autonomy 18-31
Unit 4. Hegel: Views on Freedom and State 32-38
Unit 5. Marx: Views on History and Modernity 39-52
Unit 6. Nietzsche: Critique of Modernity 53-60
Unit 7. Foucault: Views on Enlightenment 61-69
Unit 8. Rorty: Critique of Cartesian-Kantian Foundation 70-76
 C.C : 1.1
Unit-1

Background to European Enlightenment

Content :
1.1 Objectives
1.2 Introduction
1.3 Impact of Enlightenment: Philosophy, Science, Government, Religion
1.4 Rationalism
1.5 Concept of Natural Rights and Natural Laws
1.6 Conclusion
1.7 Self Assessment Questions
1.8 Suggested Readings

1.1 Objectives
The present unit will focus on the period during which the European culture underwent one of the most
profound and far-reaching changes in its history.
Objectives
The primary objective of this unit is to help the reader understand the nature and scale of the cultural
changes that took place in Europe during the phase that is known as the Enlightenment.The objectives are
detailed as follows:
1. A basic understanding of the cultural climate that existed as the historical period known as
Enlightenment.
2. Several ideas dominated Enlightenment thought, including rationalism, empiricism, progressivism, and
cosmopolitanism.
3. The Enlightenment consisted, in essence, of the belief that the expansion of knowledge, the application
of reason, and dedication to scientific method would result in the greater progress and happiness of
humankind.
4. The Enlightenment was a philosophical movement that dominated in Europe during the 18th century.
It was centered around the idea that reason is the primary source of authority and legitimacy, and
it advocated such ideals as liberty, progress, tolerance, fraternity, constitutional government, and
separation of church and state.

1.2 Introduction
The Enlightenment, also known as the Age of Enlightenment, was a philosophical movement that
dominated the world of ideas in Europe in the 18th century. It was centered around the idea that reason is

1
the primary source of authority and legitimacy, and it advocated such ideals as liberty, progress, tolerance,
fraternity, constitutional government, and separation of church and state. The Enlightenment was marked by
an emphasis on the scientific method and reductionism, along with increased questioning of religious
orthodoxy. The ideas of the Enlightenment undermined the authority of the monarchy and the church, and
paved the way for the political revolutions of the 18th and 19th centuries. French historians traditionally place
the Enlightenment between 1715, the year that Louis XIV died, and 1789, the beginning of the French
Revolution. Some recent historians begin the period in the 1620s, with the start of the scientific revolution.
However, different national varieties of the movement flourished between the first decades of the 18th century
and the first decades of the 19th century.
The ideas of the Enlightenment played a major role in inspiring the French Revolution, which began in
1789 and emphasized the rights of the common men, as opposed to the exclusive rights of the elites.
However, historians of race, gender, and class note that Enlightenment ideals were not originally envisioned
as universal in today’s sense of the word. Although they did eventually inspire the struggle for rights of people
of color, women, or the working masses, most Enlightenment thinkers did not advocate equality for all,
regardless of race, gender, or class, but rather insisted that rights and freedoms were not hereditary. This
perspective directly attacked the traditionally exclusive position of the European aristocracy, but was still
largely limited to expanding the political and individual rights of white males of particular social standing.

1.3 Impact of Enlightenment: Philosophy, Science, Government, Religion

Philosophy
In the mid-18th century, Europe witnessed an explosion of philosophic and scientific activity that
challenged traditional doctrines and dogmas. The philosophic movement was led by Voltaire and Jean-Jacques
Rousseau, who argued for a society based upon reason rather than faith and Catholic doctrine, for a new
civil order based on natural law, and for science based on experiments and observation. The political
philosopher Montesquieu introduced the idea of separation of powers in a government, a concept which was
enthusiastically adopted by the authors of the United States Constitution. While the philosophers of the French
Enlightenment were not revolutionaries, and many were members of the nobility, their ideas played an
important part in undermining the legitimacy of the Old Regime and shaping the French Revolution.
There were two distinct lines of Enlightenment thought: radical enlightenment, inspired by the philosophy
of Spinoza, advocating democracy, individual liberty, freedom of expression, and eradication of religious
authority. A second, more moderate variety, supported by René Descartes, John Locke, Christian Wolff,
Isaac Newton and others, sought accommodation between reform and the traditional systems of power and
faith. Much of what is incorporated in the scientific method (the nature of knowledge, evidence, experience,
and causation), and some modern attitudes towards the relationship between science and religion, were
developed by David Hume and Adam Smith. Hume became a major figure in the skeptical philosophical and
empiricist traditions of philosophy. Immanuel Kant tried to reconcile rationalism and religious belief, individual

2
freedom and political authority, as well as map out a view of the public sphere through private and public
reason. Kant’s work continued to shape German thought, and indeed all of European philosophy, well into
the 20th century. Mary Wollstonecraft was one of England’s earliest feminist philosophers. She argued for a
society based on reason, and that women, as well as men, should be treated as rational beings.

Science
While the Enlightenment cannot be pigeonholed into a specific doctrine or a set of dogmas, science came
to play a leading role in Enlightenment discourse and thought. Many Enlightenment writers and thinkers had
backgrounds in the sciences, and associated scientific advancement with the overthrow of religion and
traditional authority in favor of the development of free speech and thought. Broadly speaking, Enlightenment
science greatly valued empiricism and rational thought, and was embedded with the Enlightenment ideal of
advancement and progress. As with most Enlightenment views, the benefits of science were not seen
universally.
Science during the Enlightenment was dominated by scientific societies and academies, which had largely
replaced universities as centers of scientific research and development. Societies and academies were also the
backbone of the maturation of the scientific profession. Another important development was the popularization
of science among an increasingly literate population. Many scientific theories reached the wide public, notably
through the Encyclopédie (a general encyclopedia published in France between 1751 and 1772) and the
popularization of Newtonianism. The 18th century saw significant advancements in the practice of medicine,
mathematics, and physics; the development of biological taxonomy; a new understanding of magnetism and
electricity; and the maturation of chemistry as a discipline, which established the foundations of modern
chemistry.

Government
The Enlightenment has long been hailed as the foundation of modern western political and intellectual
culture. It brought political modernization to the west, in terms of focusing on democratic values and
institutions, and the creation of modern, liberal democracies. The English philosopher Thomas Hobbes
ushered in a new debate on government with his work Leviathan in 1651. Hobbes also developed some of
the fundamentals of European liberal thought: the right of the individual; the natural equality of all men; the
artificial character of the political order (which led to the later distinction between civil society and the state);
the view that all legitimate political power must be “representative” and based on the consent of the people;
and a liberal interpretation of law which leaves people free to do whatever the law does not explicitly forbid.
John Locke and Rousseau also developed social contract theories. While differing in details, Locke,
Hobbes, and Rousseau agreed that a social contract, in which the government’s authority lies in the consent
of the governed, is necessary for man to live in a civil society. Locke is particularly known for his statement
that individuals have a right to “Life, Liberty and Property,” and his belief that the natural right to property
is derived from labor. His theory of natural rights has influenced many political documents, including the United
States Declaration of Independence and the French National Constituent Assembly’s Declaration of the Rights

3
of Man and of the Citizen. Though much of Enlightenment’s political thought was dominated by social contract
theorists, some Scottish philosophers, most notably David Hume and Adam Ferguson, criticized this camp.
Theirs was the assumption that governments derived from a ruler’s authority and force (Hume) and polities
grew out of social development rather than social contract (Ferguson).
Since the Enlightenment, rationalism in politics historically emphasized a “politics of reason” centered upon
rational choice, utilitarianism, and secularism (later, relationship between rationalism and religion was
ameliorated by the adoption of pluralistic rationalist methods practicable regardless of religious or irreligious
ideology).

Religion
Enlightenment era religious commentary was a response to the preceding century of religious conflict in
Europe. Enlightenment thinkers sought to curtail the political power of organized religion, and thereby prevent
another age of intolerant religious war. A number of novel ideas developed, including deism (belief in God the
Creator, with no reference to the Bible or any other source) and atheism. The latter was much discussed but
there were few proponents. Many, like Voltaire, held that without belief in God who punishes evil, the moral
order of society was undermined.
The radical Enlightenment promoted the concept of separating church and state, an idea often credited
to Locke. According to Locke’s principle of the social contract, the government lacked authority in the realm
of individual conscience, as this was something rational people could not cede to the government for it or
others to control. For Locke, this created a natural right in the liberty of conscience, which he said must
therefore remain protected from any governmental authority. These views on religious tolerance and the
importance of individual conscience, along with the social contract, became particularly influential in the
American colonies and the drafting of the United States Constitution.While the philosophy of the Enlightenment
was dominated by men, the question of women’s rights appeared as one of the most controversial ideas. Mary
Wollstonecraft, one of few female thinkers of the time, was an English writer, philosopher, and advocate of
women’s rights. She is best known for A Vindication of the Rights of Woman (1792), in which she argues
that women are not naturally inferior to men, but appear to be only because they lack education. She suggests
that both men and women should be treated as rational beings and imagines a social order founded on reason.

1.4 Rationalism
Rationalism—as an appeal to human reason as a way of obtaining knowledge—has a philosophical
history dating from antiquity. While rationalism, as the view that reason is the main source of knowledge, did
not dominate the Enlightenment, it laid critical basis for the debates that developed over the course of the 18th
century. As the Enlightenment centered on reason as the primary source of authority and legitimacy, many
philosophers of the period drew from earlier philosophical contributions, most notably those of René
Descartes (1596-1650), a French philosopher, mathematician, and scientist. Descartes was the first of the
modern rationalists. He thought that only knowledge of eternal truths (including the truths of mathematics and

4
the foundations of the sciences) could be attained by reason alone, while the knowledge of physics required
experience of the world, aided by the scientific method. He argued that reason alone determined knowledge,
and that this could be done independently of the senses. For instance, his famous dictum, cogito ergo sum
, or “I think, therefore I am,” is a conclusion reached a priori (i.e., prior to any kind of experience on the
matter). The simple meaning is that doubting one’s existence, in and of itself, proves that an “I” exists to do
the thinking. Descartes laid the foundation for 17th-century continental rationalism, later advocated by Baruch
Spinoza and Gottfried Leibniz, and opposed by the empiricist school of thought consisting of Hobbes, Locke,
Berkeley, and Hume. Leibniz, Spinoza, and Descartes were all well-versed in mathematics, as well as
philosophy, and Descartes and Leibniz contributed greatly to science as well.
Since the Enlightenment, rationalism is usually associated with the introduction of mathematical methods
into philosophy, as seen in the works of Descartes, Leibniz, and Spinoza. This is commonly called continental
rationalism, because it was predominant in the continental schools of Europe, whereas in Britain, empiricism,
or a theory that knowledge comes only or primarily from a sensory experience, dominated. Although
rationalism and empiricism are traditionally seen as opposing each other, the distinction between rationalists
and empiricists was drawn at a later period, and would not have been recognized by philosophers involved
in Enlightenment debates. Furthermore, the distinction between the two philosophies is not as clear-cut as is
sometimes suggested. For example, Descartes and John Locke, one of the most important Enlightenment
thinkers, have similar views about the nature of human ideas. Proponents of some varieties of rationalism argue
that, starting with foundational basic principles, like the axioms of geometry, one could deductively derive the
rest of all possible knowledge. The philosophers who held this view most clearly were Baruch Spinoza and
Gottfried Leibniz, whose attempts to grapple with the epistemological and metaphysical problems raised by
Descartes led to a development of the fundamental approach of rationalism. Both Spinoza and Leibniz
asserted that, in principle, all knowledge, including scientific knowledge, could be gained through the use of
reason alone, though they both observed that this was not possible in practice for human beings, except in
specific areas, such as mathematics. On the other hand, Leibniz admitted in his book, Monadology, that “we
are all mere Empirics in three fourths of our actions.”
Descartes, Spinoza, and Leibniz are usually credited for laying the groundwork for the 18th-century
Enlightenment. During the mature Enlightenment period, Immanuel Kant attempted to explain the relationship
between reason and human experience, and to move beyond the failures of traditional philosophy and
metaphysics. He wanted to put an end to an era of futile and speculative theories of human experience, and
regarded himself as ending and showing the way beyond the impasse between rationalists and empiricists. He
is widely held to have synthesized these two early modern traditions in his thought.
Kant named his brand of epistemology (theory of knowledge) “transcendental idealism,” and he first laid
out these views in his famous work, The Critique of Pure Reason. In it, he argued that there were fundamental
problems with both rationalist and empiricist dogma. To the rationalists he argued, broadly, that pure reason
is flawed when it goes beyond its limits and claims to know those things that are necessarily beyond the realm
of all possible experience (e.g., the existence of God, free will, or the immortality of the human soul). To the
empiricist, he argued that while it is correct that experience is fundamentally necessary for human knowledge,

5
reason is necessary for processing that experience into coherent thought. He therefore concluded that both
reason and experience are necessary for human knowledge. In the same way, Kant also argued that it was
wrong to regard thought as mere analysis. In his views, a priori concepts do exist, but if they are to lead to
the amplification of knowledge, they must be brought into relation with empirical data.

1.5 Concept of Natural Rights and Natural Law

Natural rights are usually juxtaposed with the concept of legal rights. Legal rights are those bestowed onto
a person by a given legal system (i.e., rights which can be modified, repealed, and restrained by human laws).
Natural rights are those that are not dependent on the laws, customs, or beliefs of any particular culture or
government, and are therefore universal and inalienable (i.e., rights that cannot be repealed or restrained by
human laws). Natural rights are closely related to the concept of natural law (or laws). During the
Enlightenment, the concept of natural laws was used to challenge the divine right of kings, and became an
alternative justification for the establishment of a social contract, positive law, and government (and thus, legal
rights) in the form of classical republicanism (built around concepts such as civil society, civic virtue, and mixed
government). Conversely, the concept of natural rights is used by others to challenge the legitimacy of all such
establishments.
The idea of natural rights is also closely related to that of human rights; some acknowledge no difference
between the two, while others choose to keep the terms separate to eliminate association with some features
traditionally associated with natural rights. Natural rights, in particular, are considered beyond the authority of
any government or international body to dismiss. Although natural rights have been discussed since antiquity,
it was the philosophers of the Age of Enlightenment that developed the modern concept of natural rights,
which has been critical to the modern republican government and civil society.
At the time, natural rights developed as part of the social contract theory, which addressed the questions
of the origin of society and the legitimacy of the authority of the state over the individual. Social contract
arguments typically posit that individuals have consented, either explicitly or tacitly, to surrender some of their
freedoms and submit to the authority of the ruler or magistrate (or to the decision of a majority), in exchange
for protection of their remaining rights. The question of the relation between natural and legal rights, therefore,
is often an aspect of social contract theory.Thomas Hobbes’ conception of natural rights extended from his
conception of man in a “state of nature.” He argued that the essential natural (human) right was “to use his
own power, as he will himself, for the preservation of his own Nature; that is to say, of his own Life.” Hobbes
sharply distinguished this natural “liberty” from natural “laws.” In his natural state, according to Hobbes, man’s
life consisted entirely of liberties, and not at all of laws. He objected to the attempt to derive rights from
“natural law,” arguing that law (“lex”) and right (“jus”) though often confused, signify opposites, with law
referring to obligations, while rights referring to the absence of obligations. Since by our (human) nature, we
seek to maximize our well being, rights are prior to law, natural or institutional, and people will not follow the
laws of nature without first being subjected to a sovereign power, without which all ideas of right and wrong
are meaningless.

6
 The most famous natural right formulation comes from John Locke in his Second Treatise, when he
introduces the state of nature. For Locke, the law of nature is grounded on mutual security, or the idea that
one cannot infringe on another’s natural rights, as every man is equal and has the same inalienable rights. These
natural rights include perfect equality and freedom and the right to preserve life and property. Such
fundamental rights could not be surrendered in the social contract. Another 17th-century Englishman, John
Lilburne (known as Freeborn John) argued for level human rights that he called “freeborn rights,” which he
defined as being rights that every human being is born with, as opposed to rights bestowed by government
or by human law. The distinction between alienable and unalienable rights was introduced by Francis
Hutcheson, who argued that “Unalienable Rights are essential Limitations in all Governments.” In the German
Enlightenment, Georg Hegel gave a highly developed treatment of the inalienability argument. Like Hutcheson,
he based the theory of inalienable rights on the de facto inalienability of those aspects of personhood that
distinguish persons from things. A thing, like a piece of property, can in fact be transferred from one person
to another. According to Hegel, the same would not apply to those aspects that make one a person.
Consequently, the question of whether property is an aspect of natural rights remains a matter of debate.Late
18th-century radicals were especially inspired by the writings of Thomas Paine, whose influence on
revolutionary politics was felt in both America and France. Born into humble beginnings in England in 1737,
by the 1770s Paine had arrived in America where he began agitating for revolution. Paine’s most radical
works, The Rights of Man and later The Age of Reason (both successful best-sellers in Europe), drew
extensively on Rousseau’s notions of the social contract. Paine reserved particular criticism for the hereditary
privileges of ruling elites, whose power over the people, he believed, was only ever supported through simple
historical tradition and the passive acceptance of the social order among the common people.
Though grounded in a sense of outrage at social and economic injustice, the political revolutions of both
America (1765 to 1783) and France (1789 to 1799) can thus be fairly judged to have been driven by
enlightened political dogma, which criticised despotic monarchies as acutely incompatible with the ideals of
democracy, equality under the rule of law and the rights to property ownership. These new movements for
political reform argued in favour of protecting certain inalienable natural rights that some enlightened thinkers
believed were innate in all men (though rarely in women as well): in the freedom of speech and protection
from arbitrary arrest, for example, later enshrined in the American Constitution.

1.6 Conclusion
The Enlightenment, also known as the Age of Reason, was a philosophical movement that took place
primarily in Europe and, later, in North America, during the late 17th and early 18thcentury. Its participants
thought they were illuminating human intellect and culture after the “dark” Middle Ages. Characteristics of the
Enlightenment include the rise of concepts such as reason, liberty and the scientific method. Enlightenment
philosophy was skeptical of religion — especially the powerful Catholic Church — monarchies and hereditary
aristocracy. Enlightenment philosophy was influential in ushering in the French and American revolutions and
constitutions.Enlightenment thinkers in Britain, in France and throughout Europe questioned traditional

7
authority and embraced the notion that humanity could be improved through rational change. The Enlightenment
produced numerous books, essays, inventions, scientific discoveries, laws, wars and revolutions.The American
and French Revolutions were directly inspired by Enlightenment ideals and respectively marked the peak of
its influence and the beginning of its decline. The outcomes of the Enlightenment were thus far-reaching and,
indeed, revolutionary. By the early 1800s a new ‘public sphere’ of political debate was evident in European
society, having emerged first in the culture of coffee-houses and later fuelled by an explosion of books,
magazines, pamphlets and newspapers (the new ‘Augustan’ age of poetry and prose was coined at the same
time). Secular science and invention, fertilised by a spirit of enquiry and discovery, also became the hallmark
of modern society, which in turn propelled the pace of 18th-century industrialisation and economic growth.
Individualism – the personal freedoms celebrated by Locke, Hume, Adam Smith, Voltaire and Kant –
became part of the web of modern society that trickled down into 19th-century notions of independence, self-
help and liberalism. Representative government on behalf of the people was enshrined in new constitutional
arrangements, characterised by the slow march towards universal suffrage in the 1900s. Evidence of the
Enlightenment thus remains with us today: in our notions of free speech, our secular yet religiously tolerant
societies, in science, the arts and literature: all legacies of a profound movement for change that transformed
the nature of society forever.

Glossary:
Encyclopédie: A general encyclopedia published in France between 1751 and 1772, with later
supplements, revised editions, and translations. It had many writers and was edited by Denis Diderot, and,
until 1759, co-edited by Jean le Rondd’Alembert. It is the most famous for representing the thought of the
Enlightenment.
Scientific method: A body of techniques for investigating phenomena, acquiring new knowledge, or
correcting and integrating previous knowledge based on empirical or measurable evidence subject to specific
principles of reasoning. The Oxford Dictionaries Online define it as “a method or procedure that has
characterized natural science since the 17th century, consisting in systematic observation, measurement, and
experiment, and the formulation, testing, and modification of hypotheses.”
Empiricism: A theory that states that knowledge comes only or primarily from sensory experience. One
of several views of epistemology, the study of human knowledge, along with rationalism and skepticism, it
emphasizes the role of experience and evidence (especially sensory experience), in the formation of ideas,
over the notion of innate ideas or traditions.
Cosmopolitanism: It is the ideology that all human beings belong to a single community, based on a shared
morality. A person who adheres to the idea of cosmopolitanism in any of its forms is called a Cosmopolitan
or Cosmopolite.
Rationalism: The practice or principle of basing opinions and actions on reason and knowledge rather than
on religious belief or emotional response.
Newtonianism: A doctrine that involves following the principles and using the methods of natural
philosopher Isaac Newton. Newton’s broad conception of the universe as being governed by rational and
understandable laws laid the foundation for many strands of Enlightenment thought.
8
 Utilitarianism: It is a theory in normative ethics, or the ethics that define the morality of actions, as
proposed by Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill.The greatest happiness principle states that a moral action
is one that maximizes utility, or happiness, for the greatest number of people.
Secularism: In political terms, secularism is the principle of the separation of government institutions and
persons mandated to represent the state from religious institution and religious dignitaries.
State of Nature: The state of nature is a concept used in moral and political philosophy, religion, social
contract theories and international law to denote the hypothetical conditions of what the lives of people might
have been like before societies came into existence.

1.7 Self Assessment Questions

a) What led to the Enlightenment in Europe?
b) How did the Enlightenment influence Europe?
c) What were the main ideas of the Enlightenment?
d) What was the impact of Enlightenment on Philosophy and Science?
e) Write a note on Rationalism.
f) Give a detailed account of the concepts of natural rights and natural law.

1.8 Suggested Readings

i. Barker, Ernest. (2012). The Political Thought of Plato and Aristotle. Mineola, New York: Dover
Publications.
ii. Edelstein, Dan. (2010). The Enlightenment: A Genealogy. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
iii. Goodman, Dena. (1994). The Republic of Letters: A Cultural History of the French
Enlightenment. Ithaca: Cornell University Press.
iv. Haddock, Bruce. (2006). A History of Political Thought: 1789 to the Present. Cambridge: Polity
Press.
v. Israel, Jonathan I. (2006). Enlightenment Contested: Philosophy, Modernity, and the Emancipation
of man 1670-1752. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
vi. Israel, Jonathan I. (2010). A Revolution of the Mind: Radical Enlightenment and the Intellectual
Origins of Modern Democracy. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
vii. Mukhopadhyay, Amal Kumar. (2014). Western Political Thought: From Plato to Marx. Kolkata:
K P Bagchi & Company.

9
 ˛ôy‡˛e´õ ≠ 1.1
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(v) Ó˚&ˆÏüyÓ˚ xyï%!òÑ˛ ¢¶˛ƒì˛y !òˆÏÎ˚ !â˛hs˘˛y¶˛yÓòy

2.2 ¶)˛!õÑ˛y
ˆÎ Ñ˛Ûãò îyü≈!òˆÏÑ˛Ó˚ !â˛hs˛yïyÓ˚y ö˛Ó˚y!¢ !Ó≤’ÓˆÏÑ˛ ≤ö˛y!Óì˛ Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚!äÈúñ ã§y ãyÑ˛ Ó˚&ˆÏüy S1712ÈÙÈ1778 !Ö ≠V !äȈÏúò
ì˛yˆÏîÓ˚ õˆÏïƒ xòƒì˛õ– ãß√¢)ˆÏe !ì˛!ò ¢%£zãyÓ˚úƒyˆÏu˛Ó˚ x!ïÓy¢# £ˆÏúÁ ì˛yÓ˚ ¢Ó!Ñ˛ä%È£z !äÈú ö˛Ó˚y!¢ˆÏîÓ˚ !áˆÏÓ˚– !ì˛!ò !òˆÏãÁ
õˆÏò≤ÃyˆÏí üì˛¶˛yÜ ö˛Ó˚y!¢ !äȈÏúò– ¢õ@˘Ã Ó˚y‹T…!â˛hs˛yÓ˚ £z!ì˛£yˆÏ¢ !ì˛!ò !äȈÏúò ~Ñ˛ãò !Óì˛!Ñ≈˛ì˛ Óƒ!_´c– ¢õ¢yõ!Î˚Ñ˛ ˆÑ˛yˆÏòy
!â˛hs˛y!ÓˆÏîÓ˚ ïyÓ˚íy£z Ó˚&ˆÏüyÓ˚ ãyî%ˆÏúÖ!òÓ˚ ¢õì%˛úƒ £ˆÏÎ˚ v˛z‡˛ˆÏì˛ ˛ôyˆÏÓ˚!ò– xˆÏòÑ˛ õˆÏò Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚òñ Ó˚&ˆÏüy !äȈÏúò Óƒ!_´fl˛∫yì˛s˛fƒÓyˆÏîÓ˚
10
xòƒì˛õ ≤ÃÓ_´y– x˛ôÓ˚!îˆÏÑ˛ñ xˆÏòˆÏÑ˛ ì§˛yˆÏÑ˛ ~Ñ˛ãò Ú¢õ!‹TÓyî#Û (Collectivist) ÓˆÏú Üíƒ Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ˆÏäÈò– Cassirer ¢£ xˆÏòÑ˛
îyü≈!òÑ˛ Ó˚&ˆÏüyˆÏÑ˛ ~Ñ˛ãò xì%˛úò#Î˚ ÚÜíì˛s˛fÓyî#Û (democrat) ÓˆÏú x!¶˛!£ì˛ Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ˆÏäÈò– ˆÑ˛yÓyò (Cobban)ñ ›˛ƒyúõò
(Talmon), ~ÓÇ ˆ›˛úÓ˚ (Taylor) ~Ó˚ õì˛ò !Ñ˛ä%È ¢ÇÖƒÑ˛ îyü≈!òÑ˛ Ó˚&ˆÏüyˆÏÑ˛ 'Modern Totalitarianism' ~Ó˚ x@˘Ãî)ì˛ ÓˆÏú
v˛zˆÏÕ‘Ö Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ˆÏäÈò– e´Ñ˛yÓ˚ (Crocker) ~ÓÇ !úu˛ˆÏ¢ (Lindsay) Ó˚&ˆÏüyˆÏÑ˛ ~Ñ˛ãò Üíì˛ˆÏs˛f !ÓŸªy¢# îyü≈!òÑ˛ !£¢yˆÏÓ Óí≈òy
Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ˆÏäÈò– xyÓyÓ˚ñ ˛ô˛ôyÓ˚ (Popper) Ó˚&ˆÏüyˆÏÑ˛ ~Ñ˛ãò ˆÓ˚yõƒy!r›˛Ñ˛ ¢õ!‹TÓyî# ÓˆÏú x!¶˛!£ì˛ Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ˆÏäÈò– Ó˚&ˆÏüy ¢õyˆÏã õyò!ÓÑ˛
¢yõƒˆÏÑ˛ ì˛#Ó ¶˛yˆÏÓ Ñ˛yõòy Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ˆÏäÈò– Ó˚yãò#!ì˛ üyˆÏfl˛fÓ˚ ~Ñ˛ãò ˜ò!ì˛Ñ˛ v˛z˛ôˆÏî‹Ty ~ÓÇ ~Ñ˛ãò ¢Ç!Óïyò ≤ÈÏíì˛y !£¢yˆÏÓ
Ó˚&ˆÏüy !Ñ˛ä%È 'Utopian Demand' ˆ˛ôü Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ˆÏäÈò– xy˛ôyì˛î,!‹TˆÏì˛ñ ¢õ¢yõ!Î˚Ñ˛ xyˆÏúyÑ˛yÎ˚ˆÏòÓ˚ Î%ˆÏÜ îyü≈!òÑ˛ÜˆÏíÓ˚ ¢ˆÏD Ó˚&ˆÏüyÓ˚
!â˛hs˛yïyÓ˚yÓ˚ !õú !äÈú òy– ¢õyˆÏã Óƒ!_´ ÎyˆÏì˛ fl˛∫yï#òì˛y Á ¢¶˛ƒì˛y ~ÓÇ ¢õyã Á ˜ò!ì˛Ñ˛ !Ó÷k˛ì˛yˆÏÑ˛ ÎÌyÎ̶˛yˆÏÓ ˆ¶˛yÜ
Ñ˛Ó˚ˆÏì˛ ˛ôyˆÏÓ˚ñ ì˛yÓ˚ v˛z˛ôÓ˚ Ó˚&ˆÏüy =Ó˚&c xyˆÏÓ˚y˛ô Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ˆÏäÈò– ì§˛yÓ˚ õˆÏì˛ñ ¢yïyÓ˚í £zFäÈyÓ˚ ïyÓ˚íy£z ˜Óï «˛õì˛y ~ÓÇ Ñ˛ì,≈˛ˆÏcÓ˚
≤ÃÑ,˛ì˛ !¶˛!_– !ì˛!ò Ó˚y‹T…#Î˚ Ñ˛ì,≈˛ˆÏcÓ˚ ¢ˆÏD ãò܈ÏíÓ˚ fl˛∫yï#òì˛yÓ˚ ¢õˆÏG˛yì˛yÓ˚ ¢)e Ö%§ˆÏã ˆÓÓ˚ Ñ˛Ó˚yÓ˚ ˆâ˛‹Ty Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ˆÏäÈò– xyÓ˚
~£z Ñ˛yã!›˛ Ñ˛Ó˚ˆÏì˛ !܈ÏÎ˚ !ì˛!ò General Will Óy Ú¢yïyÓ˚í £zFäÈyÛ òyõÑ˛ ~Ñ˛!›˛ ˆõÔ!úÑ˛ ïyÓ˚íy ¢ÇÜ!‡˛ì˛ Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ˆÏäÈò– ì§˛yÓ˚
ì˛ˆÏ_¥ ~Ñ˛!îˆÏÑ˛ ãò܈ÏíÓ˚ ¢yÓ≈ˆÏ¶˛Ôõc ˆÎõò Ó˚ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏäÈñ ˆì˛õ!ò Ó˚ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏäÈ ˜fl˛∫Ó˚ì˛s˛f ~ÓÇ ¢õ!‹TÓyî– ˆ¢£zãòƒ ö ˛yˆÏ™Ó˚ xòƒì˛õ
ˆ◊¤˛ õò#°Ï#Ó˚*ˆÏ˛ô fl˛∫#Ñ,˛!ì˛ ˆ˛ôˆÏúÁ ì˛§yÓ˚ Ó˚y‹T…˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ !â˛hs˛yïyÓ˚y ãò¢yïyÓ˚ˆÏíÓ˚ ◊k˛y Á á,íy ¢õyò¶˛yˆÏÓ úy¶˛ Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚!äÈú– ì§˛yÓ˚
Ñ˛#!ì≈˛¢õ)ˆÏ£Ó˚ õˆÏïƒ !ÓˆÏü°Ï¶˛yˆÏÓ v˛zˆÏÕ‘ÖˆÏÎy܃ £úÈÙÙÙÈ 'Discourse on the Arts and Science' S1750Vñ 'Discourse on
Origins of Inequality' S1755V Emile S1762Vñ The Social Contract S1762Vñ Project of a Constitution for
Corsica S1764V ~ÓÇ Considerations on the Government of Poland S1772V– ~ˆÏîÓ˚ õˆÏïƒ The Social Contract
@˘ÃˆÏs˛iÓ˚ õyÏõ ì˛yÓ˚ Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ !â˛hs˛yïyÓ˚y ˛ô)í≈ì˛y úy¶˛ Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚–

2.3 ¢Ç!«˛Æ ã#Óò#

1712 ¢yˆÏúÓ˚ 28ˆÏü ã%ò ˆãˆÏò¶˛y ü£ˆÏÓ˚ Ó˚&ˆÏüyÓ˚ ãß√ £Î˚– ¢ÇÜ#ì˛ñ Ó˚yãò#!ì˛¢£ òyòy ˆ«˛ˆÏe ì˛yÓ˚ ≤Ã!ì˛¶˛yÓ˚ xy!ï˛ôì˛ƒ
ÌyÑ˛ˆÏúÁ !ì˛!ò ì§˛˛yÓ˚ ˆúÖò#Ó˚ ˆãyˆÏÓ˚£z ˛ôÓ˚Óì≈˛#Ñ˛yˆÏú !ÓÖƒyì˛ £ˆÏÎ˚ ÁˆÏ‡˛ò– ì§˛yÓ˚ ÓyÓy ˆ˛ôüyÎ˚ !äȈÏúò ~Ñ˛ãò á!v˛¸ ˜ì˛!Ó˚Ó˚
Ñ˛y!Ó˚ÜÓ˚– Ó˚&ˆÏüyˆÏÑ˛ ≤âˆÏÓÓ˚ !Ñ˛ä%È!îò ˛ôˆÏÓ˚£z ì˛§yÓ˚ õy õyÓ˚y Îyò– ì§˛yÓ˚ ˛ô!Ó˚ÓyÓ˚ Ñ˛ƒyú¶˛#ò#Î˚ ≤Èϛ˛fi›˛ƒyr›˛ ¢¡±îyÎ˚¶%˛_´ £ˆÏúÁ
õyîyõ ÁÎ˚yÓ˚ˆÏòˆÏ¢Ó˚ ≤ö˛yˆÏÓ Ó˚&ˆÏüy Ñ˛ƒyÌ!úÑ˛ ïˆÏõ≈ î#!«˛ì˛ £ò– ˛ôÓ˚Óì≈˛#Ñ˛yˆÏú Ó˚&ˆÏüy ì§˛yÓ˚ ˆ≤ÈÏõ ˛ôˆÏv˛¸ò ~ÓÇ ì§˛yÓ˚y ~Ñ˛ˆÏe
≤ÃyÎ˚ òÎ˚ÈÙÈîü ÓäÈÓ˚ Ó¢Óy¢ Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ò– ~£z õ!£úyÓ˚ ¢ˆÏD ˛ô!Ó˚â˛ˆÏÎ˚Ó˚ ¢)e ïˆÏÓ˚£z ì§˛yÓ˚ ã#ÓˆÏò ˛ô!Ó˚Óì≈˛ˆÏò ˆë˛v˛z xyˆÏ¢– Ó˚&ˆÏüy
Á£z õ!£úyÓ˚ @˘Ãs˛iyÜyÓ˚ ˆÌˆÏÑ˛ ˆ≤’ˆÏ›˛yÓ˚ !Ó˚˛ôyÓ!úÑ˛ @˘Ãs˛i!›˛ ¢Ç@˘Ã£ Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ò Á ì˛y ˛ôy‡˛ Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ò– ˆ≤’ˆÏ›˛yÓ˚ ~£z @˘Ãs˛i!›˛ ì§˛yÓ˚ õˆÏò
î#á≈fl˛iyÎ˚# ≤ö˛yÓ ˆö˛ˆÏú– ÁÎ˚yÓ˚ˆÏòˆÏ¢Ó˚ ¢ˆÏD !ÓˆÏFäȈÏîÓ˚ ˛ôÓ˚Óì≈˛#Ñ˛yˆÏú ì§˛yÓ˚ ¶˛Óá%ˆÏÓ˚ ã#ÓˆÏòÓ˚ xyÓ˚Ω˛ £Î˚ ~ÓÇ Óúy ÎyÎ˚ñ
xˆÏòÑ˛ ˆî!Ó˚ˆÏì˛£z Ó˚&ˆÏüy ì˛§yÓ˚ !ü«˛yã#Óò ÷Ó˚& Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ò– 1749 ¢yú Ó˚&ˆÏüyÓ˚ ã#ÓˆÏò ~Ñ˛ ì˛yͲôÎ≈õÎ˚ ÓäÈÓ˚– Á£z ÓäÈÓ˚ 'Academy
of Dijon' òyõÑ˛ ≤ÃÓı˛ ≤Ã!ì˛ˆÏÎy!Üì˛yÎ˚ !ì˛!ò 300 ö ˛yB˛ Á fl˛∫í≈˛ôîÑ˛ úy¶˛ Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ò– ì§˛yÓ˚ xydã#Óò#ˆÏì˛ ~ ¢¡ôˆÏÑ≈˛ !ÓüˆÏî
ãyòy ÎyÎ˚– 30 ÓäÈÓ˚ ÓÎ˚ˆÏ¢ !ì˛!ò ˛ôƒy!Ó˚ˆÏ¢ xyˆÏ¢ò ~ÓÇ Diderot ~Ó˚ ¢ˆÏD ì§˛yÓ˚ ˛ô!Ó˚!â˛!ì˛ ÜˆÏv˛¸ ÁˆÏ‡˛– 1743 ˆÌˆÏÑ˛
1744 ¢yú ˛ôÎ≈hs˛ !ì˛!ò ˆ¶˛!òˆÏ¢ ö˛Ó˚y!¢ Ó˚y‹T…î)ˆÏì˛Ó˚ ˆ¢ˆÏe´›˛y!Ó˚ ˛ôˆÏî !òÎ%_´ !äȈÏúò– 1745 ¢yú òyÜyî Ó˚&ˆÏüyÓ˚ ¢ˆÏD
Therese le Vasseur ~Ó˚ á!ò¤˛ ¢¡ôÑ≈˛ ܈Ïv˛¸ ÁˆÏ‡˛– !ì˛!ò ˛ôÓ˚Óì≈˛#Ñ˛yˆÏú Ó˚&ˆÏüyÓ˚ ˛ô§yⲠ¢hs˛yˆÏòÓ˚ ãß√Á ˆîò– Ó˚&ˆÏüy ˛ôÓ˚Óì≈˛#Ñ˛yˆÏú
ThereseÈÙȈÏÑ˛ ã#Óò ¢!Dò# Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ò ~ÓÇ Óy!Ñ˛ ã#Óò ì§˛yÓ˚£z ¢ˆÏD£z Ñ˛y›˛yò– 1756ÈÙÈ1762 ¢yú ˛ôÎ≈hs˛ !ì˛!ò ˛ôv˛¸yˆÏüyòyÎ˚
õˆÏòy!òˆÏÓü Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ò ~ÓÇ Úîyü≈!òÑ˛ Ó˚&ˆÏüyÛ !£¢yˆÏÓ Öƒy!ì˛ xã≈ò Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ò– Ó˚&ˆÏüyÓ˚ ÖyõˆÏÖÎ˚y!úñ fl˛∫yÌ≈˛ôÓ˚ñ v˛zk˛ì˛ fl˛∫¶˛yˆÏÓÓ˚ ãòƒ
¶˛úˆÏ›˛Î˚yÓ˚ (Voltaire)ñ !îˆÏîˆÏÓ˚yñ !£v˛zõ ≤Ãõ%ˆÏÖÓ˚ ¢ˆÏD ì˛yÓ˚ !õeì˛yÓ˚ ¶˛yàò áˆÏ›˛– Ó˚&ˆÏüy ì˛yÓ˚ 'Discourse on Origins of

11
Inequality' S1755VÈÙÈ~Ó˚ Óí≈òy Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚òñ !Ñ˛¶˛yˆÏÓ ¢õ¢yõ!Î˚Ñ˛ ¢õˆÏÎ˚ !Ñ˛¶˛yˆÏÓ ¢õyã ÓƒÓfl˛iyÓ˚ xÓòõò áˆÏ›˛ˆÏäÈ– !ì˛!ò 'The
social contract' S1762V @˘ÃˆÏs˛i â%˛!_´Ók˛ õyòÓ ¢õyˆÏãÓ˚ ~Ñ˛ !â˛e xB˛ò Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ò– ì§˛yÓ˚ õˆÏì˛ñ ¢õyã Î!î Óƒy!ïˆÏì˛ xye´yhs˛
£Î˚ñ ì˛ˆÏÓ ì˛yÓ˚ ≤Ã!ì˛Ñ˛yˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ ≤ÈÏÎ˚yãò– !ì˛!ò ì§˛yÓ˚ ≤ÃÓˆÏı˛ v˛zˆÏÕ‘Ö Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ˆÏäÈòñ ÎÖò ¢õyˆÏã x¢yˆÏõƒÓ˚ v˛zqÓ áˆÏ›˛ ì˛Öò ì˛yÓ˚
ö˛úfl˛∫Ó˚*˛ô Óƒ!_´¢_yÓ˚Á xïɲôì˛ò áˆÏ›˛– Ó˚&ˆÏüy ì§˛yÓ˚ ~£z ≤ÃÓı˛!›˛ ˆãˆÏò¶˛yÓ˚ x!ïÓy¢#ˆÏîÓ˚ v˛zÍ¢Ü≈ Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚!äȈÏúò– õ)úì˛ ˆãˆÏò¶˛y
ü£Ó˚!›˛ Ó˚&ˆÏüy ~ÓÇ ì§˛yÓ˚ Ñ˛#!ì≈˛¢õ)ˆÏ£Ó˚ v˛z˛ôÓ˚ !ÓÓ˚y›˛ ≤ö˛yÓ !Óhfl˛yÓ˚ Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚!äÈú– Le Nouvelle Heloise òyõÑ˛ v˛z˛ôòƒyˆÏ¢ ˛ô)ˆÏÓ≈
Ó˚!â˛ì˛ xòƒyòƒ @˘ÃˆÏs˛iÓ˚ õˆÏì˛y£z ≤ÃÑ,˛!ì˛Ó˚ ≤Ã!ì˛ ì§˛yÓ˚ ì˛#Ó  ›˛yò ≤ÃÑ˛yü ˛ôyÎ˚– ì§˛yÓ˚ õ,ì%˛ƒÓ˚ ˛ôÓ˚Óì≈˛#Ñ˛yˆÏú ≤ÃÑ˛y!üì˛ xydã#Óò#
~ÓÇ 'Reveries d'um Promaner Solitaire'ÈÙÈˆì˛ x˛ôÓ˚*˛ô ≤ÃyÑ,˛!ì˛Ñ˛ ˆ¢Ô®ˆÏÎÓ≈ ˚ õò@˘Ãy£# !ÓÓÓ˚í ˛ôyÁÎ˚y ÎyÎ˚– ~!›˛ ¢%£ã z yÓ˚úƒyˆÏu˛Ó˚
£…îñ ˛ôy£yv˛¸¢£ òyòy ≤ÃyÑ,˛!ì˛Ñ˛ ¢,!‹TÓ˚ Ñ˛Ìy ì%˛ˆÏú ïˆÏÓ˚– Ó˚&ˆÏüy !Ñ˛ä%È Ü#!ì˛òy›˛ƒÁ Ó˚â˛òy Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ò– ì§˛yÓ˚ «%˛o Ü#!ì˛òy›˛ƒ=!úÓ˚
õˆÏì˛y xòƒì˛õ 'Le Devin du village' 1753 ¢yˆÏúÓ˚ 1úy õyâ≈˛ ÎÖò ≤ÃÌõÓyÓ˚ ˛ôƒy!Ó˚ˆÏ¢ ≤Ãî!ü≈ì˛ £Î˚ñ ì˛Öò ì˛y !Ófl˛øÎ˚Ñ˛Ó˚
¢yö˛úƒ úy¶˛ Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚– ~õò!Ñ˛ ì§˛yÓ˚ ¢ÇÜ#ì˛ ö ˛yˆÏ™Ó˚ Ó˚yãyˆÏÑ˛Á ¢õyò¶˛yˆÏÓ ≤ö˛y!Óì˛ Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚!äÈú ~ÓÇ ì§˛yˆÏÑ˛Á òy›˛ˆÏÑ˛ ÓƒÓ£*ì˛
¢ÇÜ#ì˛ =ò =ò Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ Üy£zˆÏì˛ ˆüyòy ˆÎì˛– Ó˚&ˆÏüyÓ˚ ¢ÇÜ#ì˛ !äÈú xyÜyõ# îüÑ˛=!úˆÏì˛ ˛ôƒy!Ó˚ˆÏ¢Ó˚ Ü#!ì˛òy›˛ƒ=!úÓ˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe
≤Ãïyò xÓú¡∫ò– ~äÈyv˛¸yÁ !ì˛!ò ¢ÇÜ#ˆÏì˛Ó˚ ~Ñ˛!›˛ x!¶˛ïyò Ó˚â˛òy Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ò– ˆü°Ï ã#ÓˆÏò Ó˚&ˆÏüy ïõ≈#Î˚ Ñ˛yÓ˚ˆÏí !ò˛ô#!v˛¸ì˛ £ò
~ÓÇ Ó®#îüyÓ˚ ¶˛ˆÏÎ˚ !Ó!¶˛ß¨ fl˛iyˆÏò ˛ôy!úˆÏÎ˚ ˆÓv˛¸yò– 'The Social contract' ~ÓÇ 'The Emile' ˛ôƒy!Ó˚¢ ~ÓÇ ˆãˆÏò¶˛yÓ˚
xy=ˆÏò ˆ˛ôyv˛¸yˆÏòy £Î˚– Ó˚&ˆÏüy 1778 ¢yˆÏú ˛ôÓ˚ˆÏúyÑ˛ Üõò Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ò–

2.4 xyˆÏúyÑ˛yÎ˚ò
Enlightenment Óy xyˆÏúyÑ˛yÎ˚ò ˛ôˆÏÓ≈Ó˚ õ)ú ˜Ó!ü‹Tƒ £ú Î%!_´Óy!îì˛y Óy !ÓK˛yòõòfl˛Òì˛y– Ó˚&ˆÏüy ~£z ˛ôˆÏÓ≈Ó˚ îyü≈!òÑ˛
£ˆÏÎ˚Á Î%!_´Óy!îì˛y Á !ÓK˛yòõòfl˛Òì˛y ˆÌˆÏÑ˛ !òˆÏãˆÏÑ˛ î)ˆÏÓ˚ ¢!Ó˚ˆÏÎ˚ ˆÓ˚ˆÏÖˆÏäÈò ˆÑ˛Óúõye ì˛yÓ˚ ˜Ó≤’!ÓÑ˛ !â˛hs˛yïyÓ˚yˆÏÑ˛ Óyhfl˛Ó
Ó˚*˛ô ˆîÁÎ˚yÓ˚ ãòƒ– Ñ˛yÓ˚í ◊!õÑ˛ñ Ñ,˛°ÏÑ˛ ~ÓÇ õïƒ!Ó_ ˆ◊í#Ó˚ ¢õyò x!ïÑ˛yÓ˚ ≤Ã!ì˛¤˛y£z !äÈú ì˛§yÓ˚ fl˛∫≤¿– Ñ˛úy Á !ÓK˛yˆÏòÓ˚
v˛zÍÑ˛ˆÏ°Ï≈ ≤Ã!ì˛!¤˛ì˛ Ñ,˛!eõ ¢¶˛ƒì˛yÓ˚ ≤Ã!ì˛ ì§˛yÓ˚ ˆÑ˛yˆÏòyÓ˚*˛ô xyfl˛iy !äÈú òy– !ì˛!ò õˆÏò Ñ˛Ó˚ˆÏì˛ò !ÓK˛yòñ K˛yòâ˛â≈˛yñ !ü“Ñ˛úy
õyòÓ v˛zߨ!ì˛Ó˚ ~£z ¢õhfl˛ !fl˛iÓ˚ ¢)â˛Ñ˛=!ú £ú õyò%ˆÏ°ÏÓ˚ ≤ÃÑ,˛ì˛ üe&– xy¢ˆÏú ì§˛yÓ˚ ~£z Ó˚*˛ô !ÓˆÏÓ˚y!ïì˛yÓ˚ õ)ú Ñ˛yÓ˚í £ú
¢yˆÏõƒÓ˚ xyîˆÏü≈Ó˚ v˛z˛ôÓ˚ ≤Ã!ì˛!¤˛ì˛ ≤Ãì˛ƒ«˛ Üíì˛s˛fˆÏÑ˛ Óyhfl˛Óy!Î˚ì˛ Ñ˛Ó˚yÓ˚ v˛z@˘Ã Óy¢òy– ≤Ãâ˛!úì˛ ¢yõy!ãÑ˛ Á Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ ÓƒÓfl˛iyÓ˚
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~ÓÇ Ó˚yãò#!ì˛Ó˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe ~õò ~Ñ˛ ˜Ó≤’!ÓÑ˛ ïyÓ˚yˆÏÑ˛ ˆÓyG˛yÎ˚ñ Îy £zv˛zˆÏÓ˚y˛ô#Î˚ !â˛hs˛yïyÓ˚y ~ÓÇ ¢Çfl˛,Ò!ì˛ˆÏÑ˛ ¢Æyîü üì˛y∑#Ó˚
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rationality) ò#!ì˛Ó˚ !¶˛!_ˆÏì˛ ~Ñ˛ òì%˛ò Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ Á ¢yõy!ãÑ˛ e´õˆÏÑ˛ (order) ≤Ã!ì˛¤˛y Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚– ~£z xyˆÏúyÑ˛yÎ˚ˆÏòÓ˚ ïyÓ˚íy
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ïyÓ˚íyÓ˚ õˆÏïƒ Ö%§ˆÏã ˛ôyÁÎ˚y ÎyÎ˚– î#á≈Ñ˛yú ïˆÏÓ˚ â˛yâ≈˛ Óy£zˆÏÓˆÏúÓ˚ xy◊Î˚ !òˆÏÎ˚ ˆÎ ïõ≈#Î˚ ˆÓv˛¸yãyˆÏú õyò%°ÏˆÏÑ˛ Ó®# Ñ˛ˆÏÓ!˚ äÈúñ
~!›˛ ì˛yˆÏÑ˛ !äÈߨ Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚– Peter Gay ~Ñ˛Ìy v˛z˛ôú!∏˛ Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚!äȈÏúò ˆÎñ xyˆÏúyÑ˛yÎ˚ò Ú˛ô!Óe Ó,_Û (sacred circle) ~Ó˚ ¶˛yàò
á!›˛ˆÏÎ˚!äÈú– ~ì˛!îò â˛yâ≈˛ Ó˚yãyÓ˚ Ú˜îÓ x!ïÑ˛yÓ˚ÛˆÏÑ˛ ≤Ãâ˛yÓ˚ Á xò%ˆÏõyîò îyò Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚!äÈú ~ÓÇ ì˛yÓ˚ ˛ô!Ó˚ÓˆÏì≈˛ Ó˚yãì˛s˛fÁ â˛yˆÏâ≈˛Ó˚
Ó˚«˛yÑ˛ÓⲠ!£¢yˆÏÓ ¶)˛!õÑ˛y ˛ôyúò Ñ˛Ó˚!äÈú– !Ñ˛ls˛ xyˆÏúyÑ˛yÎ˚ò ~£z ÓƒÓfl˛iyˆÏì˛ ˛ô!Ó˚Óì≈˛ò ᛲyÎ˚– ö ˛yˆÏ™ xyˆÏúyÑ˛yÎ˚ˆÏòÓ˚ ïyÓ˚íyÓ˚
¢ˆÏD ¶˛úˆÏ›˛Î˚yÓ˚ñ !îˆÏîˆÏÓ˚yñ õˆÏhs˛fl˛%Òƒ ≤Ãõ%Ö îyü≈!òˆÏÑ˛Ó˚ òyõ ã!v˛¸ì˛– ö˛Ó˚y!¢ xyˆÏúyÑ˛yÎ˚ò ~Ó˚ ¢ˆÏD ¢%£z¢ xyˆÏúyÑ˛yÎ˚ò ~Ó˚

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ˆÎyÜ¢yïò áˆÏ›˛ £yv˛¢òñ !£v˛zõñ !fl˛øÌ ˛≤Ãõ%ˆÏÖÓ˚ õyÏõ– ~äÈyv˛¸yÁ ãyõ≈yò xyˆÏúyÑ˛yÎ˚ò ~Ó˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe !e´!ÿ˛Î˚yò v˛zúö˛ñ ˆõyˆÏã¢
ˆõˆÏu˛ú¢òñ !ã. £z. ˆú!¢Çñ !úÓ!òãñ ˆÜyˆÏÎ˚›˛ñ £zõyò%ˆÏÎ˚ú Ñ˛yr›˛ ≤Ãõ%Ö îyü≈!òˆÏÑ˛Ó˚ =Ó˚&c˛ô)í≈ ¶)˛!õÑ˛y Ó˚ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏäÈ–
x‹Tyîü üì˛y∑#Ó˚ xyˆÏúyÑ˛yÎ˚ˆÏòÓ˚ ¢Ó≈yˆÏ˛ô«˛y ≤ö˛yÓüyú# îyü≈!òÑ˛ !òÉ¢ˆÏ®ˆÏ£ !äȈÏúò Ó˚&ˆÏüy– Ó˚&ˆÏüyÓ˚ õ£yò Ñ˛#!ì≈˛=!úÓ˚
õˆÏïƒ xòƒì˛õ 'Academy of Dijon' ~Ó˚ ≤ÃÓı˛ ≤Ã!ì˛ˆÏÎy!Üì˛yÓ˚ ãòƒ Ó˚!â˛ì˛ 'A Discourse on the Moral Effects of
the Arts and Sciences' S1775V òyõÑ˛ ≤ÃÓı˛!›˛ xyˆÏúyÑ˛yÎ˚ˆÏòÓ˚ Î%ˆÏÜ Ó˚&ˆÏüyÓ˚ ¶)˛!õÑ˛y v˛z˛ôú!∏˛ Ñ˛Ó˚ˆÏì˛ ¢y£y΃ Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚–
~£z @˘Ãs˛i!›˛ 'A Discourse on the Science and Arts' Óy First Discourse òyˆÏõ x!ïÑ˛ ˛ô!Ó˚!â˛ì˛– ~£z ≤ÃÓˆÏı˛ ì§˛yÓ˚
Ó_´Óƒ !äÈúñ Ñ˛úy Á !ÓK˛yò õyò%ˆÏ°ÏÓ˚ ˜ò!ì˛Ñ˛ì˛yÓ˚ â˛Ó˚õ «˛!ì˛ Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚– ì˛y£z Îì˛£z Ñ˛úy Á !ÓK˛yˆÏòÓ˚ v˛zߨ!ì˛ £ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏäÈ ì˛ì˛£z
õyò%°Ï ˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛¶˛yˆÏÓ xïɲô!ì˛ì˛ £ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏäÈ– ì˛y£z îÓ˚Ñ˛yÓ˚ ¢£ã ¢Ó˚ú ã#ÓˆÏòÓ˚ ÎyÓ˚ v˛z˛ôÓ˚ Ñ˛úy Á !ÓK˛yˆÏòÓ˚ ˆÑ˛yòÁ ≤ö˛yÓ
ÌyÑ˛ˆÏÓ òy– ~£z Ó_´ˆÏÓƒÓ˚ ¢ˆÏD ¢yõO¢ƒ Ó˚yÖˆÏì˛ Ó˚&ˆÏüy !òˆÏãÁ ¢£ã ¢Ó˚ú ã#ÓòÎy˛ôò ÷Ó˚& Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ò ~ÓÇ !ì˛!ò ì§˛yÓ˚
£yì˛á!v˛¸ !Ó!e´ Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ ˆîò ~£z Î%!_´Ó˚ !¶˛!_ˆÏì˛ ˆÎ ¢Ó˚ú xy!îõ õyò%ˆÏ°ÏÓ˚ õˆÏì˛y ì§˛yÓ˚Á ¢õÎ˚ ãyòyÓ˚ ˆÑ˛yòÁ ≤ÈÏÎ˚yãò ˆò£z–
~£z ≤ÃÓˆÏı˛Ó˚ õyÏõ Ó˚&ˆÏüy ì˛ÍÑ˛yú#ò ¢õyˆÏã Öƒy!ì˛ ÎˆÏ̤˛ Öƒy!ì˛ úy¶˛ Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ò– ~Ó˚˛ôÓ˚ 1753 ¢yˆÏú Úõyò%ˆÏ°ÏÓ˚ õˆÏïƒ
x¢yˆÏõƒÓ˚ v˛zͲô!_ !Ñ˛¶˛yˆÏÓ £úÛ ~£z !ӰψÏÎ˚ !îˆÏã§yÓ˚ xƒyÑ˛yˆÏv˛!õ xyÓ˚ ~Ñ˛!›˛ ≤Ã!ì˛ˆÏÎy!Üì˛yÓ˚ xyˆÏÎ˚yãò Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚– ~£z
≤Ã!ì˛ˆÏÎy!Üì˛yÎ˚ ˆÎyÜîyˆÏòÓ˚ v˛zˆÏjˆÏüƒ Ó˚&ˆÏüy ~Ñ˛!›˛ ≤ÃÓı˛ Ó˚â˛òy Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ ì˛y ÎÌyfl˛iyˆÏò ˆ≤ÃÓ˚í Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ò– !Ñ˛ls˛ ~ÓyÓ˚ ì˛y ˛ô%Ó˚fl˛ÒyÓ˚
úy¶˛ Ñ˛Ó˚ˆÏì˛ ÓƒÌ≈ £Î˚– ì˛ˆÏÓ 1775 ¢yˆÏú ì§˛yÓ˚ ~£z ≤ÃÓı˛ 'Discourse on the Origin and Basis of Inequality Among
Men' !üˆÏÓ˚yòyˆÏõ ≤ÃÑ˛y!üì˛ £Î˚ Îy ¢ÇˆÏ«˛ˆÏ˛ô 'Discourse on the Origin of Inequality' Óy 'Second Discourse' !£ˆÏ¢ˆÏÓ
˛ô!Ó˚!â˛ì˛– ì˛yÓ˚ ~£z ≤ÃÓˆÏı˛Ó˚ õ)ú Ó_´Óƒ !äÈúñ Úõyò%°Ï fl˛∫¶˛yÓì˛£z ¶˛yˆÏúyñ ˆÑ˛Óú ≤Ã!ì˛¤˛yò£z ì˛yˆÏÑ˛ ÖyÓ˚y˛ô Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚Û– 1762
¢yˆÏú Ó˚&ˆÏüyÓ˚ î%!›˛ @˘Ãs˛i ≤ÃÑ˛y!üì˛ £Î˚ÈÙÙÙÈ~Ñ˛!›˛ 'Emile' ~ÓÇ !mì˛#Î˚!›˛ £ú 'The Social contract'– 'Emile' @˘Ãs˛i!›˛ õ)úì˛
Ó˚*ˆÏüyÓ˚ !ü«˛y!â˛hs˛yÓ˚ î!úú– Ó˚&ˆÏüyÓ˚ õˆÏì˛ñ ≤ÃÑ,˛!ì˛£z ˆ◊¤˛ !ü«˛Ñ˛– xòƒ!îˆÏÑ˛ Ó˚&ˆÏüyÓ˚ Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ îü≈ˆÏòÓ˚ ¢Ó≈yˆÏ˛ô«˛y =Ó˚&c˛ô)í≈
@˘Ãs˛i £ú 'The Social Contract'– ~£z @˘Ãs˛i!›˛ ö ˛yˆÏ™ ì˛#Ó  !Óì˛ˆÏÑ≈˛Ó˚ ¢,!‹T Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ ~ÓÇ Ñ˛ì,≈˛˛ô«˛ ~£z @˘Ãs˛i!›˛ˆÏÑ˛ ˛ôƒy!Ó˚ˆÏ¢ !ò!°Ïk˛
ÓˆÏú ˆáy°Ïíy Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚–

2.5 Ó˚&ˆÏüyÓ˚ xÓfl˛iyò ≠ ~Ñ˛ãò xyˆÏúyÑ˛yÎ˚òÓyî# òy xyˆÏúyÑ˛yÎ˚ò !ÓˆÏÓ˚yï# !â˛hs˛y!Óî

Ó˚&ˆÏüyÓ˚ !â˛hs˛y¶˛yÓòyÓ˚ ˜Ó!ü‹Tƒ !òˆÏÎ˚ xyˆÏúyâ˛òyÓ˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe ˆÎ ¢õ¢ƒy!›˛ ˆîÖy ÎyÎ˚ ì˛y £ú Ó˚y‹T…!â˛hs˛yÓ˚ £z!ì˛£yˆÏ¢ ì§˛yˆÏÑ˛
~Ñ˛ãò xyˆÏúyÑ˛yÎ˚òÓyî# !â˛hs˛y!Óî !£ˆÏ¢ˆÏÓ Üíƒ Ñ˛Ó˚y £ˆÏÓ òy!Ñ˛ ~Ñ˛ãò xyˆÏúyÑ˛yÎ˚ò !ÓˆÏÓ˚yï# !â˛hs˛y!Óî !£¢yˆÏÓ !ì˛!ò ˛ô!Ó˚Ü!íì˛
£ˆÏÓò– 'Academy of Dijon'ÙÈ~Ó˚ ˛ô%Ó˚fl˛ÒyÓ˚≤ÃyÆ ≤ÃÓı˛!›˛ ~Ñ˛ãò xyˆÏúyÑ˛yÎ˚ò !ÓˆÏÓ˚yï# !â˛hs˛y!Óî !£¢yˆÏÓ Ó˚&ˆÏüyÓ˚ xÓfl˛iyòˆÏÑ˛
fl˛ô‹T Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚– 'Academy of Dijon' ~Ñ˛!›˛ ≤ß¿ ˆ˛ôü Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ñ ì˛y £ú ÚÑ˛úy Á !ÓK˛yˆÏòÓ˚ ≤ÃÜ!ì˛Ó˚ ö˛ˆÏú !Ñ˛ õyò%ˆÏ°ÏÓ˚ ˜ò!ì˛Ñ˛ì˛yÓ˚
v˛zߨ!ì˛ áˆÏ›˛ˆÏäÈ⁄Û ~£z ≤Èϟ¿Ó˚ v˛z_ˆÏÓ˚ Ó˚&ˆÏüy ÓˆÏú!äȈÏúò Ñ˛úy Á !ÓK˛yò õyò%ˆÏ°ÏÓ˚ ˜ò!ì˛Ñ˛ì˛yÓ˚ â˛Ó˚õ «˛!ì˛ Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚– ì˛y£z Îì˛£z
Ñ˛úy ~ÓÇ !ÓK˛yˆÏòÓ˚ v˛zߨ!ì˛ áˆÏ›˛ˆÏäÈ ì˛ì˛£z õyò%°Ï xïɲô!ì˛ì˛ £ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏäÈ– xòƒ!îˆÏÑ˛ñ ¢õ@˘Ã xyˆÏúyÑ˛yÎ˚ˆÏòÓ˚ ïyÓ˚y ~£z ïyÓ˚íyÓ˚
v˛z˛ôÓ˚ ≤Ã!ì˛!¤˛ì˛ ˆÎñ Ñ˛úy ~ÓÇ !ÓK˛yò ~Ó˚ ≤ÃÜ!ì˛ ¢yõy!ãÑ˛ Á Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ ˆ«˛ˆÏe Óƒ!_´Ó˚ ¶)˛!õÑ˛yˆÏÑ˛ v˛zß¨ì˛ Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ˆÏäÈ– !ÓK˛yˆÏòÓ˚
Ó˚yãˆÏcÓ˚ Î%ˆÏÜ ~!›˛ !äÈú xyï%!òÑ˛ îü≈ˆÏòÓ˚ ˛ô!Ó˚â˛Î˚– Ó˚&ˆÏüy ì˛yÓ˚ ¢õÑ˛yú#ò ˛ô!Ó˚ˆÏÓˆÏüÓ˚ |ˆÏïπ≈ !܈ÏÎ˚ xyˆÏúyâ˛òy Ñ˛Ó˚ˆÏì˛ ¢«˛õ
£ˆÏÎ˚!äȈÏúò– Ó˚&ˆÏüy ì§˛yÓ˚ First DiscourseÈÙÈ~ õhs˛Óƒ Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ò ÚÚxy!õ !ÓK˛yòˆÏÑ˛ x˛ôõyò Ñ˛Ó˚!äÈ òy....xy!õ ÷ï%õye =íˆÏÑ˛
=íÓyò Óƒ!_´Ó˚ ˛ô)ˆÏÓ≈ fl˛iyò !îˆÏÎ˚!äÈÛÛ– !ì˛!ò £z!ì˛£y¢ ˆÌˆÏÑ˛ !Ñ˛ä%È v˛zîy£Ó˚í ¢Ç@˘Ã£ Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ ˆîÖyò ˆÎñ ÎÖò£z ¢õyˆÏã Ñ˛úy
~ÓÇ !ÓK˛yˆÏòÓ˚ ≤âyÓ˚ áˆÏ›˛ˆÏäÈñ ì˛Öò£z ˜ò!ì˛Ñ˛ì˛y ~ÓÇ =íyÓú#Ó˚ â˛Ó˚õ xïɲôì˛ò áˆÏ›˛ˆÏäÈ– !ì˛!ò ~ÖyˆÏò v˛zˆÏÕ‘Ö Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ò
ˆÎñ ≤Ãyâ˛#ò !õüˆÏÓ˚ Ñ˛úy ~ÓÇ !ÓK˛yˆÏòÓ˚ v˛zߨ!ì˛Ó˚ ö˛ˆÏú ì˛yÓ˚ ˛ôì˛ò áˆÏ›˛ˆÏäÈ– ~Ñ˛£z¶˛yˆÏÓñ ~Ñ˛îy Ó#Ó˚ˆÏcÓ˚ v˛z˛ôÓ˚ !¶˛!_ Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚
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܈Ïv˛¸ Á‡˛y ≤Ãyâ˛#ò !@˘ÃˆÏ¢ Ñ˛úy ~ÓÇ !ÓK˛yˆÏòÓ˚ ≤âyˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ ö˛ˆÏú ì˛y ~Ñ˛!›˛ !Óúy!¢ì˛y˛ô)í≈ ¢õyˆÏãÓ˚ xyÑ˛yÓ˚ @˘Ã£í Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ˆÏäÈ– Ó˚&ˆÏüyÓ˚
õˆÏì˛ñ ~ÖyˆÏò ~Ñ˛õye Óƒ!ì˛e´õ £ú fl˛ôy›≈˛y– fl˛ôy›≈˛yÓ˚ !ÓK˛yò# ~ÓÇ !ü“#ˆÏîÓ˚ !ì˛!ò ≤ÃüÇ¢y Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ˆÏäÈò– x¶˛yÓò#Î˚¶˛yˆÏÓñ
Ó˚&ˆÏüy ~ÖyˆÏò ¢ˆÏe´!›˛¢ˆÏÑ˛ õ%!‹TˆÏõÎ˚ Ó%!k˛õyò ~ˆÏÌ™Óy¢#ˆÏîÓ˚ õˆÏïƒ xòƒì˛õ ÓˆÏú !ÓˆÏÓâ˛òy Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ˆÏäÈòñ !Î!ò v˛z˛ôú!∏˛ Ñ˛Ó˚ˆÏì˛
¢«˛õ £ˆÏÎ˚!äȈÏúò ˆÎ Ñ˛úy ~ÓÇ !ÓK˛yò î%ò≈#!ì˛ ÓˆÏÎ˚ xyˆÏò– Ó˚&ˆÏüy ~ÖyˆÏò ¢ˆÏe´!›˛ˆÏ¢Ó˚ !ÓÖƒyì˛ 'Apology' òyõÑ˛ Ó_,´ì˛y
ì%˛ˆÏú ïˆÏÓ˚ò– xyîyúˆÏì˛Ó˚ !Óâ˛yÓ˚Ñ˛yˆÏú ¢ˆÏe´!›˛¢ ÓˆÏú!äȈÏúòñ xyõyÓ˚ ¢õÎ˚Ñ˛yÓ˚ !ü“# ~ÓÇ îyü≈!òÑ˛Ó˚y îy!Ó Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ò ˆÎ ì§˛yÓ˚y
ïy!õ≈Ñ˛ñ K˛yò#ñ ¢Í=ò ~ÓÇ v˛zîyÓ˚ì˛y¢¡ôߨñ !Ñ˛ls˛ ≤ÃÑ,˛ì˛˛ôˆÏ«˛ ~=!ú ¢¡ôˆÏÑ≈˛ ˆÓyG˛yÓ˚ «˛õì˛y ì§˛yˆÏîÓ˚ ˆò£z– ÷ï%õye £zv˛zˆÏÓ˚y˛ô#Î˚
≤Ãyâ˛#ò ¢¶˛ƒì˛y=!ú£z òÎ˚ñ !â˛ˆÏòÓ˚ ¢¶˛ƒì˛yÁ ~Ñ˛£z ˆîyˆÏ°Ï î%‹T ÓˆÏú Ó˚&ˆÏüy õˆÏò Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ò–
First DiscourseÈÙÈ~Ó˚ !mì˛#Î˚ xLjÏü Ñ˛úy ~ÓÇ !ÓK˛yòˆÏÑ˛£z !Óâ˛yÓ˚ Ñ˛Ó˚y £Î˚ ~ÓÇ ÎyÓ˚ ˛ô!Ó˚ˆÏ≤Ã!«˛ˆÏì˛ Ó˚&ˆÏüy õˆÏò Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚òñ
Ñ˛úy ~ÓÇ !ÓK˛yò£z ÎyÓì˛#Î˚ x!ò‹TˆÏÑ˛ ÓˆÏÎ˚ xyˆÏò– ≤ÃÌõì˛ñ Ó˚&ˆÏüy îy!Ó Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ò ˆÎñ xyõyˆÏîÓ˚ !òã ˆîyˆÏ°ÏÓ˚ ˆÌˆÏÑ˛£z Ñ˛úy
~ÓÇ !ÓK˛yˆÏòÓ˚ ¢)e˛ôyì˛ áˆÏ›˛– ˆÎõòñ ˆãƒy!ì˛°Ï!ÓîƒyÓ˚ v˛zqÓ Ñ%˛¢Çfl˛ÒyÓ˚ ˆÌˆÏÑ˛ñ Óy!@¬ì˛y Óy ÓyÑ˛˛ô›%˛ì˛yÓ˚ ãß√ v˛zFâ˛yÑ˛yCyñ
á,íyñ !õ̃y ˆÌˆÏÑ˛ñ ˛ôîyÌ≈!ÓîƒyÓ˚ ãß√ ˆÑ˛Ôì)˛£ú ˆÌˆÏÑ˛ñ ~õò!Ñ˛ ˜ò!ì˛Ñ˛ îü≈ˆÏòÓ˚ ¢,!‹T õyò%ˆÏ°ÏÓ˚ x£ÇÑ˛yÓ˚ ˆÌˆÏÑ˛ £ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏäÈ–
Ó˚&ˆÏüy x!¶˛ˆÏÎyÜ Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ò ˆÎñ Ñ˛úy ~ÓÇ !ÓK˛yò õyò%ˆÏ°ÏÓ˚ ˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛¶˛yˆÏÓ £z!ì˛Óyâ˛Ñ˛ ˛ô!Ó˚Óì≈˛ò ᛲyˆÏì˛ ÓƒÌ≈– ÓÓ˚Ç ~!›˛ xòƒyòƒ
=Ó˚&c˛ô)í≈ Ñ˛yˆÏÎ≈Ó˚ ¢õÎ˚ˆÏÑ˛ ò‹T Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ñ ˆÎõòÈÙÙÙÈÑ˛úy ~ÓÇ !ÓK˛yò ˆîüˆÏ≤Ãõñ Óı%˛Óyı˛Óñ xyd#Î˚ ˛ô!Ó˚ãˆÏòÓ˚ ãòƒ ÓÓ˚yj ¢õÎ˚ˆÏÑ˛
ò‹T Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚– !Ñ˛ls˛ ~£z !Ó°ÏÎ˚=!úÓ˚ =Ó˚&c xyõyˆÏîÓ˚ ã#ÓˆÏò x˛ô!Ó˚¢#õ– Ñ˛úy ~ÓÇ !ÓK˛yò !Óúy!¢ì˛yÓ˚ ~Ñ˛ ºyhs˛ ïyÓ˚íy v˛zͲôߨ
Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ñ ÎyÓ˚ ú«˛ƒ õyò%ˆÏ°ÏÓ˚ ã#ÓòÎy˛ôòˆÏÑ˛ x!ïÑ˛ì˛Ó˚ ¢£ã ~ÓÇ xyÓ˚yõîyÎ˚Ñ˛ Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ ˆì˛yúy– !Ñ˛ls˛ ~!›˛ õyò%°ÏˆÏÑ˛ ˜ò!ì˛Ñ˛¶˛yˆÏÓ
ˆ◊¤˛ì˛Ó˚ !£¢yˆÏÓ ÜˆÏv˛¸ ì%˛úˆÏì˛ ˆÑ˛yˆÏòyÓ˚*˛ô xy@˘Ã£ ≤ÃÑ˛yü Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ òy–
Ó˚&ˆÏüy õˆÏò Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚òñ !ü“#Üí ¢Ó≈îy ≤ÃüÇ!¢ì˛ £ÁÎ˚yÓ˚ îy!Ó Ó˚yˆÏÖ ~ÓÇ ¢õyˆÏã ì§˛yÓ˚y ~›˛y£z Ñ˛yõòy Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚– ì§˛yÓ˚y !òˆÏãˆÏÑ˛
¢õyˆÏãÓ˚ xòƒyòƒ Óƒ!_´Ó˚ ˆÌˆÏÑ˛ ˆ◊¤˛ì˛Ó˚ ≤Ãõyí Ñ˛Ó˚yÓ˚ úˆÏ«˛ƒ Ñ˛#!ì≈˛Ó˚ xy◊Î˚ @˘Ã£í Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚– ¢õyˆÏã ˆîüˆÏ≤Ãõñ õ£cñ !õ̃yâ˛yÓ˚
~Ó˚ ì%˛úòyÎ˚ ~£z !ÓˆÏü°Ï =í=!úÓ˚ ≤Ã!ì˛ x!ïÑ˛ xyˆÏÓ˚y˛ô Ñ˛Ó˚y £Î˚– Îy ¢yõ!Ó˚Ñ˛ Óy!£ò#Ó˚ ü!_´ £…y¢¢£ òyòy !Ó˛ôîˆÏÑ˛
ˆv˛ˆÏÑ˛ xyˆÏò– Ñ˛yÓ˚í ¢õyˆÏã xye´õíÑ˛yÓ˚#ˆÏîÓ˚ ≤Ã!ì˛ˆÏÓ˚yï Ñ˛Ó˚yÓ˚ ãòƒ ¢yõ!Ó˚Ñ˛ Óy!£ò#Ó˚ ü!_´üyú# £ÁÎ˚y ~Ñ˛yhs˛ ãÓ˚&!Ó˚–
v˛z˛ôˆÏÓ˚y_´ xye´õí ¢ˆÏ_¥Á First DiscourseÈÙÈ~Ó˚ ˆüˆÏ°Ï !ì˛!ò ˆÓÑ˛òñ ˆîÑ˛yì˛ñ !òv˛z›˛òÈÙÈ~Ó˚ õì˛ò K˛yò# Óƒ!_´Ó˚ ≤ÃüÇ¢y
Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ˆÏäÈò– ÎyÓ˚y ì˛yˆÏîÓ˚ ≤Ã!ì˛¶˛yÓ˚ myÓ˚y ÎyÓì˛#Î˚ î%ò≈#!ì˛ˆÏÑ˛ ˛ô!Ó˚£yÓ˚ Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚!äȈÏúò– ì˛ˆÏÓ Ó˚&ˆÏüy ~òyˆÏîÓ˚ Óƒ!ì˛e´õ# ÓˆÏú !â˛!£´ì˛
Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚!äȈÏúò–

2.6 Ó˚&ˆÏüy ~ÓÇ ≤ÃÑ,˛!ì˛Ó˚ Ó˚yãƒ

xyï%!òÑ˛ îü≈ˆÏòÓ˚ ˛ô!Ó˚!ï ÷ï%õye !ÓK˛yò ~ÓÇ x!ï!ÓîƒyÓ˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe£z ¢#õyÓk˛ !äÈú òyñ ÓÓ˚Ç xyï%!òÑ˛ îyü≈!òÑ˛Ó˚y ~Ñ˛£z
Ó˚Ñ˛õ Î%!_´ Ó˚yãò#!ì˛üyfl˛f Á ò#!ì˛üyˆÏfl˛fÓ˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏeÁ ≤ÈÏÎ˚yˆÏÜ ≤ÃÓ,_ £ò– ~£z ¢õÎ˚Ñ˛yÓ˚ îyü≈!òÑ˛ˆÏîÓ˚ !â˛hs˛yÎ˚ Ú≤ÃÑ,˛!ì˛Ó˚ Ó˚yˆÏãƒÓ˚Û
ïyÓ˚íyÓ˚ ≤Ãyïyòƒ ú«˛ƒ Ñ˛Ó˚y ÎyÎ˚– îyü≈!òÑ˛Üí õyòÓ¢_yˆÏÑ˛ ≤ÃÑ,˛!ì˛Ó˚ Ó˚yˆÏãƒÓ˚ xÓfl˛iyÓ˚ ˛ô!Ó˚ˆÏ≤Ã!«˛ˆÏì˛ ÓƒyÖƒy Ñ˛Ó˚ˆÏì˛ x@˘Ã¢Ó˚
£ò– ì§˛yˆÏîÓ˚ õˆÏì˛ñ õyòÓãy!ì˛Ó˚ !Ñ˛ä%È !â˛Ó˚hs˛ò Á x˛ô!Ó˚Óì≈˛ò#Î˚ ˜Ó!ü‹Tƒ ú«˛ƒ Ñ˛Ó˚y ÎyÎ˚– Î!î îyü≈!òÑ˛Üí ~£z Ñ˛yˆÏÎ≈ ¢ö˛ú
£ˆÏì˛òñ ì˛y£ˆÏú ì§˛yÓ˚y !òã !òã !â˛hs˛yïyÓ˚y ~ÓÇ !Óâ˛yÓ˚Ó%!k˛ xò%¢yˆÏÓ˚ ¢!e´Î˚ Á ˜Óï üy¢òÓƒÓfl˛iyÓ˚ Ó˚*˛ô !òí≈Î˚ Ñ˛Ó˚ˆÏì˛ ¢ˆÏⲋT
£ˆÏì˛ò–
â%˛!_´Óyî# !â˛hs˛y!Óî ›˛õy¢ £Ó¢‰ Á ãò úˆÏÑ˛Ó˚ õì˛ò Ó˚&ˆÏüyÁ õˆÏò Ñ˛Ó˚ˆÏì˛ò ˆÎñ ≤Ãyщ˛ÈÙÈÓ˚y‹T…#Î˚ Î%ˆÏÜ õyò%°Ï ≤ÃÑ,˛!ì˛Ó˚ Ó˚yˆÏãƒ
Ó¢Óy¢ Ñ˛Ó˚ì˛– ì˛ˆÏÓñ ≤ÃÑ,˛!ì˛Ó˚ Ó˚yム¢Çe´yhs˛ Ó˚&ˆÏüyÓ˚ ïyÓ˚íy £Ó¢‰ Á úˆÏÑ˛Ó˚ ≤ÃÑ,˛!ì˛Ó˚ Ó˚yˆÏãƒÓ˚ ïyÓ˚íy ˆÌˆÏÑ˛ ¢¡ô)í≈ ˛ô,ÌÑ˛
!äÈú– £Ó¢‰ õˆÏò Ñ˛Ó˚ˆÏì˛òñ ≤ÃÑ,˛!ì˛Ó˚ Ó˚yˆÏム!â˛Ó˚hs˛ò xÓ˚yãÑ˛ì˛y !ÓÓ˚yã Ñ˛Ó˚ì˛ ~ÓÇ ì˛y£z ˆ¢ÖyˆÏò õyò%ˆÏ°ÏÓ˚ ã#Óò !äÈú î%!Ó≈°£Ï –
ˆ¢ÖyˆÏò ˆÑ˛yˆÏòy !ò!î≈‹T ¢yÓ≈ˆÏ¶˛ÔˆÏõÓ˚ x!hfl˛c !äÈú òy– xòƒ!îˆÏÑ˛ úÑ˛ ≤ÃÑ,˛!ì˛Ó˚ Ó˚yトÏÑ˛ xˆÏ˛ô«˛yÑ,˛ì˛ ¢%fl˛i Á ¢%¢Ç£ì˛ ÓˆÏú

14
!â˛!£´ì˛ Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚!äȈÏúò– Ó˚&ˆÏüy ì˛§yÓ˚ !ÓÖƒyì˛ @˘Ãs˛i 'The Social contract' ÷Ó˚& Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ˆÏäÈò ~£z ÓyÑ˛ƒ!›˛ !îˆÏÎ˚ñ ÚÚõyò%°Ï ãß√¢)ˆÏe
fl˛∫yï#òñ !Ñ˛ls˛ ¢Ó≈e£z ì˛yÓ˚y ü,Cy!úì˛ÛÛ (men are born free and equal, yet everywhere they are in chains)– ~£z
Ñ˛Ìy!›˛Ó˚ xÌ≈ £ú ≤ÃÑ,˛!ì˛Ó˚ Ó˚yˆÏムõyò%°Ï ˆÎ ¢yõƒ Á fl˛∫yï#òì˛y ˆ¶˛yÜ Ñ˛Ó˚ì˛ Ó˚y‹T…#Î˚ ã#ÓˆÏò ì˛yÓ˚ xÓ¢yò áˆÏ›˛ˆÏäÈ– Ñ˛yÓ˚í
fl˛∫yï#òì˛y õyò%ˆÏ°ÏÓ˚ ãß√Üì˛ x!ïÑ˛yÓ˚ £ˆÏúÁ xy¢ˆÏú õyò%°Ï fl˛∫yï#ò òÎ˚– ¢%ì˛Ó˚yÇ ãˆÏß√Ó˚ ¢õÎ˚ ˆÎ fl˛∫yï#òì˛yÓ˚ x!ïÑ˛yÓ˚ !òˆÏÎ˚
õyò%°Ï ãˆÏß√ˆÏäÈ ˆ¢£z fl˛∫yï#òì˛y ì˛yˆÏÑ˛ xã≈ò Ñ˛Ó˚ˆÏì˛ £ˆÏÓ– xì˛~Ó õyò%ˆÏ°ÏÓ˚ ~£z ãß√Üì˛ x!ïÑ˛yÓ˚ ÎyÓ˚y xfl˛∫#Ñ˛yÓ˚ Ñ˛Ó˚ˆÏÓñ
ì˛yˆÏîÓ˚ !ÓÓ˚&ˆÏk˛ !ÓˆÏoy£ Ñ˛Ó˚yÓ˚ x!ïÑ˛yÓ˚ Ó˚&ˆÏüyÓ˚ ~£z ÓyÑ˛ƒ!›˛Ó˚ õˆÏïƒ ú%!Ñ˛ˆÏÎ˚ Ó˚ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏäÈ– ì˛ˆÏÓñ úÑ˛ ≤ÃÑ,˛!ì˛Ó˚ Ó˚yˆÏãƒÓ˚ xy£zòÜì˛ñ
≤Ãüy¢òÜì˛ Á !Óâ˛yÓ˚Üì˛ ˆ«˛ˆÏe òyòy ¢õ¢ƒyÓ˚ Ñ˛Ìy v˛zˆÏÕ‘Ö Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ˆÏäÈò– Ó˚&ˆÏüy !Ñ˛ls˛ ≤ÃÑ,˛!ì˛Ó˚ Ó˚yム¢Çe´yhs˛ £Ó¢‰ Á úˆÏÑ˛Ó˚
!â˛hs˛yïyÓ˚yˆÏÑ˛ xyˆÏîÔ ˆõˆÏò !òˆÏì˛ ˛ôyˆÏÓ˚ò!ò– Ñ˛yÓ˚í ì§˛yÓ˚ õˆÏì˛ñ ≤ÃÑ,˛!ì˛Ó˚ Ó˚yム!äÈú Ú¶)˛ÈÙÈfl˛∫Ü≈Û (earthly heaven) fl˛∫Ó˚*˛ô– ì˛y£z
≤Ãyщ˛ÈÙÈÓ˚y‹T…#Î˚ ≤ÃÑ,˛!ì˛Ó˚ Ó˚yˆÏムõyò%°Ï ¢%fl˛i Á ¢%®Ó˚ ã#ÓòÎy˛ôò Ñ˛Ó˚ì˛– ˆ¢ÖyˆÏò õyò%ˆÏ°ÏÓ˚ ¢ˆÏD õyò%ˆÏ°ÏÓ˚ ¢¡ôÑ≈˛ !äÈú õï%Ó˚
Á xyhs˛!Ó˚Ñ˛– ˆ¢ÖyˆÏò ≤ÃyÑ,˛!ì˛Ñ˛ xy£zò õyò%°ÏãˆÏòÓ˚ õˆÏïƒ ÎÌyÌ≈ ¢yõƒ ÓãyÎ˚ ˆÓ˚ˆÏÖ!äÈú ~ÓÇ ì˛Öò õyò%ˆÏ°ÏÓ˚y ˆÓü !Ñ˛ä%È
≤ÃyÑ,˛!ì˛Ñ˛ x!ïÑ˛yÓ˚ ˆ¶˛yÜ Ñ˛Ó˚ì˛– ö˛ˆÏú ≤Ãyщ˛ÈÙÈÓ˚y‹T…#Î˚ ≤ÃÑ,˛!ì˛Ó˚ Ó˚yムõˆÏì≈˛Ó˚ fl˛∫Ü≈fl˛∫Ó˚*˛ô !äÈú– úˆÏÑ˛Ó˚ ≤ÃÑ,˛!ì˛Ó˚ Ó˚yム¢Çe´yhs˛
ïyÓ˚íyÎ˚ ˛≤ÃyÑ,˛!ì˛Ñ˛ x!ïÑ˛yˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ v˛zˆÏÕ‘Ö ˛ôyÁÎ˚y ÎyÎ˚ñ Îy õ)úì˛ Óƒ!_´¢õ)ˆÏ£Ó˚ ~ˆÏÑ˛ x˛ôˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ ≤Ã!ì˛ xyò%܈Ïì˛ƒÓ˚ õyÏõ ܈Ïv˛¸
ÁˆÏ‡˛– ~£z ≤ÃyÑ,˛!ì˛Ñ˛ x!ïÑ˛yÓ˚ ¢õ)ˆÏ£Ó˚ õˆÏïƒ ã#Óòñ ¢¡ô!_ñ fl˛∫yï#òì˛yÓ˚ x!ïÑ˛yÓ˚ v˛zˆÏÕ‘ÖˆÏÎy܃– Ó˚&ˆÏüy ~£z ≤ÃyÑ,˛!ì˛Ñ˛ x!ïÑ˛yˆÏÓ˚Ó˚
ïyÓ˚íyÓ˚ myÓ˚yÁ ܶ˛#Ó˚¶˛yˆÏÓ ≤ö˛y!Óì˛ £ò– !Ñ˛ls˛ Ó˚&ˆÏüy ãò úÑ˛ ~ÓÇ ~Ñ˛£z ¢ˆÏD ›˛õy¢ £ÓˆÏ¢Ó˚ ≤ÃÑ,˛!ì˛Ó˚ Ó˚yム¢Çe´yhs˛
ïyÓ˚íyÓ˚ ≤Ã!ì˛ ÎˆÏ̤˛ ¢ÇüÎ˚ ≤ÃÑ˛yü Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ò– ì˛y£z !ì˛!ò ≤ÃyÎ˚ü£z Hugo GrotiusÈÙÈ~Ó˚ ˆúÖy v˛zˆÏÕ‘Ö Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ !òˆÏãÓ˚ fl˛∫ì˛s˛f ≤ÃÑ,˛!ì˛Ó˚
Ó˚yˆÏãƒÓ˚ ïyÓ˚íy ܈Ïv˛¸ ˆì˛yˆÏúòñ ÎyÓ˚ Ó!£≈É≤ÃÑ˛yü ᛲyò 'Discourse on the Origin of Inequality'ÈÙÈ~Ó˚ õyÏõ–

2.7 xyï%!òÑ˛ ¢¶˛ƒì˛y Á Ó˚&ˆÏüy

Ó˚&ˆÏüy ì˛ì˛«˛í ˛ôÎ≈hs˛ Ó%!k˛õ_yñ !ÓK˛yò ~ÓÇ Î%!_´ü#úì˛yÓ˚ !ÓˆÏÓ˚y!ïì˛y Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚!äȈÏúòñ Îì˛«˛í ì˛y ¢õyˆÏã ≤Ã!ì˛!¤˛ì˛ !ÓŸªy¢
~ÓÇ ˜ò!ì˛Ñ˛ xò%ïyÓò=!úˆÏÑ˛ ïπÇ¢ Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ ˆÜˆÏäÈ– Ñ˛yÓ˚í ~£z õ)úƒˆÏÓyï=!úÓ˚ v˛z˛ôÓ˚ !¶˛!_ Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚£z ~Ñ˛!›˛ ¢õyãÓƒÓfl˛iy ܈Ïv˛¸
ÁˆÏ‡˛– !ì˛!ò Î%!_´Óyî#ˆÏîÓ˚ !ÓÓ˚&ˆÏk˛ ~Ñ˛≤ÃÑ˛yÓ˚ !ÓˆÏoy£ (revolt) ˆáy°Ïíy Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚!äȈÏúò– Ó˚&ˆÏüy ì§˛yÓ˚ 'Discourse on the Origin
of Inequality'ÈÙÈˆì˛ Óí≈òy Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ˆÏäÈò !Ñ˛¶˛yˆÏÓ xy!îõ ¢yõƒÓyî# ¢õyˆÏãÓ˚ õ£Í xy!îõ (noble Savage) õyò%°Ï ¢¶˛ƒì˛yÓ˚ x@˘ÃÜ!ì˛Ó˚
ˆäȧyÎ˚yÎ˚ Úxïɲô!ì˛ì˛ ¢yõy!ãÑ˛ õyò%ˆÏ°ÏÛ Ó˚*˛ôyhs˛!Ó˚ì˛ £ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏäÈ– ≤Ãyщ˛ÈÙÈ¢¶˛ƒ õyò%°Ï !äÈú ˛ô!Ó˚◊õ#ñ Ó!ú¤˛ñ ≤ÃÑ,˛!ì˛Üì˛¶˛yˆÏÓ ü!_´üyú#
~ÓÇ ˜ò!ì˛Ñ˛ !îÑ˛ ˆÌˆÏÑ˛ v˛zß¨ì˛– Ó˚&ˆÏüyÓ˚ â%˛!_´ì˛ˆÏ_¥Ó˚ ≤ÃyÌ!õÑ˛ xò%õyò Ó˚y‹T…˛ô)Ó≈ ≤ÃyÑ,˛!ì˛Ñ˛ ¢õyã– Ó˚&ˆÏüy ì§˛yÓ˚ 'Discourse
on the Origins of inequality' @˘ÃˆÏs˛i ˆî!ÖˆÏÎ˚ˆÏäÈòñ ≤ÃyÑ,˛!ì˛Ñ˛ ¢õyã ~Ñ˛ xyîü≈ Ó˚y‹T… !äÈúñ xyï%!òÑ˛ ¢%¢¶˛ƒ ¢õyˆÏãÓ˚ ˆâ˛ˆÏÎ˚
Ó˝=í ˆÓ!ü ˙ŸªÎ≈ƒÓyò !äÈú ˆ¢£z ˛ô!Ó˚ˆÏÓü– Ñ˛yÓ˚í ˆ¢£z xy!îõ ¢õyˆÏã õyò%°Ï fl˛∫y¶˛y!ÓÑ˛ ≤ÃÓ,!_Ó˚ myÓ˚y ˛ô!Ó˚â˛y!úì˛ £ˆÏúÁñ
ˆ¢£z ≤ÃÓ,!_ !äÈú ¢%fl˛i Á ¢£ˆÏÎy!Üì˛y˛ô)í≈– õyò%°Ï !äÈú ≤ÃÑ,˛!ì˛Ó˚ õˆÏì˛y£z fl˛∫yï#ò– ö˛ˆÏú ≤ÃyÑ,˛!ì˛Ñ˛ ¢õyˆÏã ˆÑ˛yˆÏòyÓ˚*˛ô !£Ç¢yÈÙÈ!ÓˆÏm°Ïñ
Ñ˛ú£ÈÙÈ!ÓÓyî !äÈú òy– m®μñ !ò¤%˛Ó˚ì˛y Óy ã!›˛úì˛y õyò%ˆÏ°ÏÓ˚ õˆÏïƒ !äÈú òy– ˛ôyÓ˚fl˛ô!Ó˚Ñ˛ ¢£ˆÏÎy!Üì˛y Á ˆ¢Ôºyì,˛cõ)úÑ˛
õˆÏòy¶˛yˆÏÓÓ˚ õyÏõ õyò%°Ï ¢%Ö# Á fl˛∫yï#ò ã#ÓòÎy˛ôò Ñ˛Ó˚ì˛– ã#Óò !äÈú ¢£ãñ ¢Ó˚úñ xòyv˛¸¡∫Ó˚ xÌⲠfl˛∫yFäÈ®ƒ Á Î%!_´ˆÏÓyˆÏï
!Ó˛ô%ú ˙ŸªÎ≈ƒÓyò– ≤Ãyщ˛ ¢¶˛ƒ õyò%°Ï !äÈú ˛ô!Ó˚◊õ#ñ Ñ˛‹T ¢!£°%åñ Ó#Ó˚ñ ˆîüˆÏ≤Ãõ# ~ÓÇ î,벸 õyò!¢Ñ˛ì˛y ¢¡ôߨ– ¢yõy!ãÑ˛
¢¶˛ƒ õyò%°Ï £ú ÚÜ,£˛ôy!úì˛ ãls˛ÛÓ˚ õˆÏì˛yñ ÎyÓ˚y ì˛yˆÏîÓ˚ Óòƒñ xÌ≈yÍ ≤ÃyÑ,˛!ì˛Ñ˛ Á fl˛∫y¶˛y!ÓÑ˛ ¢_¥y £y!Ó˚ˆÏÎ˚ ~Ñ˛!›˛ Ñ,˛!eõ Á
¶˛#Ó˚& ≤Ããy!ì˛ˆÏì˛ ˛ô!Ó˚íì˛ £ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏäÈ– ˛ô)ˆÏÓ≈ õyò%°Ï !äÈú ¢Í ¢y£¢ ¢¡ôߨó Óì≈˛õyˆÏò äÈpˆÏÓü#ñ xyd≤ÃÓM˛ÈÑ˛ õyò%°Ï £ú Ñ˛y˛ô%Ó˚&°Ïñ
¶˛#Ó˚&ñ ˆîüˆÏ≤ÃõˆÏÓ˚y!£ì˛– Ó˚&ˆÏüy ˆÎ ≤Ãyщ˛ÈÙÈ¢yõy!ãÑ˛ Î%ˆÏÜÓ˚ ¢%ÖÑ˛Ó˚ !â˛e Ó˚â˛òy Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚!äȈÏúòñ ì˛y ¢¶˛ƒì˛yÓ˚ x@˘ÃÜ!ì˛Ó˚ ö˛ˆÏú £y!Ó˚ˆÏÎ˚
ÎyÎ˚– ~£z ¢õyˆÏã õyò%°Ï Óì≈˛õyˆÏòÓ˚ ì%˛úòyÎ˚ x!ïÑ˛ ¢Óúñ fl˛∫yfl˛iƒÓyòñ ˜ò!ì˛Ñ˛¶˛yˆÏÓ v˛zFâ˛õyˆÏòÓ˚ !äÈú– ì˛ˆÏÓñ ì˛yÓ˚y ≤ÃyÑ,˛!ì˛Ñ˛
!Ó!ï!òˆÏ°ÏˆÏïÓ˚ myÓ˚y ˛ô!Ó˚â˛y!úì˛ £ì˛–

15
 Ó˚&ˆÏüyÓ˚ õˆÏì˛ñ ¢yõy!ãÑ˛ !îÑ˛ ˆÌˆÏÑ˛ õyò%°Ï Ö%Ó ~Ñ˛›˛y õ® Óy Ö%Ó ¶˛yˆÏúy ≤ÃÑ,˛!ì˛Ó˚ !äÈú òy– ≤Ãyщ˛ÈÙÈ¢yõy!ãÑ˛ Î%ˆÏÜ ˆÑ˛yˆÏòy
Óƒ!_´Üì˛ õy!úÑ˛yòyÓ˚ x!hfl˛c !äÈú òyñ ~õò!Ñ˛ õ!£úyˆÏîÓ˚ v˛z˛ôÓ˚ ˛ô%Ó˚&°ÏˆÏîÓ˚ õy!úÑ˛yòy !äÈú òy– Î!î ˆÑ˛v˛z «%˛ïy xò%¶˛Ó
Ñ˛Ó˚ì˛ñ ì˛y£ˆÏú ˆ¢ òî#Ó˚ ˆÌˆÏÑ˛ õyäÈ ïˆÏÓ˚ Óy ÜyˆÏäÈÓ˚ ˆÌˆÏÑ˛ ö˛ú xy£Ó˚í Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ ì˛yÓ˚ «%˛ïy !òÓyÓ˚í Ñ˛Ó˚ì˛– !Ñ˛ls˛ Ú~›˛y xyõyÓ˚
ÜyäÈÛ ¢Çe´yhs˛ ÓúyÓ˚ !Ó°ÏÎ˚!›˛£z !äÈú xˆÏÎÔ!_´Ñ˛– ≤ÃÑ,˛!ì˛Ó˚ Ó˚yˆÏムˆÑ˛yòÁ ¢¡ô!_ !äÈú òy– ~ÖyˆÏò ≤ÃyÑ,˛!ì˛Ñ˛ x¢yõƒ !äÈú
˜î!£Ñ˛– ~Ñ˛ãò ˜î!£Ñ˛¶˛yˆÏÓ ¢Óú õyò%°Ï ~Ñ˛ãò î%Ó≈ú õyò%ˆÏ°ÏÓ˚ ì%˛úòyÎ˚ o&ì˛ ö˛ú Óy õyäÈ !üÑ˛yÓ˚ Ñ˛Ó˚ˆÏì˛ ˛ôyÓ˚ì˛–
Ó˚&ˆÏüyÓ˚ õˆÏò Ñ˛Ó˚ˆÏì˛òñ Óì≈˛õyòÑ˛yˆÏú !â˛hs˛y Ñ˛Ó˚y £Î˚ ˆÎ xyõyˆÏîÓ˚ xyï%!òÑ˛ ã#ÓˆÏò ¢õyˆÏãÓ˚ ≤ÈÏÎ˚yãò Ó˚ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏäÈ–
≤ÃyÑ˛ÈÙÈ¢yõy!ãÑ˛ Î%ˆÏÜ ¢¶˛ƒì˛y£z xyõyˆÏîÓ˚ ÖyÓyÓ˚ ˆãyÜyò !îì˛– ˜î!£Ñ˛¶˛yˆÏÓ î%Ó≈ú !ü÷Ó˚y ü#á £z õ,ì%˛ƒÓÓ˚í Ñ˛Ó˚ì˛ !Ñ˛ls˛ ˆÎ
¢Ó !ü÷Ó˚y ˆÓ§ˆÏⲠˆÎì˛ ì˛yÓ˚y â˛õÍÑ˛yÓ˚¶˛yˆÏÓ ã#ÓòÎy˛ôò Ñ˛Ó˚ì˛– Ó˚&ˆÏüy v˛zîy£Ó˚í !îˆÏÎ˚ ˆî!ÖˆÏÎ˚ˆÏäÈò ˆÎñ xyˆÏõ!Ó˚Ñ˛yòÈÙȶ˛yÓ˚ì˛#Î˚Ó˚y
£zv˛zˆÏÓ˚y˛ô#Î˚ˆÏîÓ˚ ì%˛úòyÎ˚ ˜î!£Ñ˛¶˛yˆÏÓ x!ïÑ˛ ü!_´üyú#– Ó˚&ˆÏüy ÓˆÏúˆÏäÈò ÚÚÎ!î ˆì˛yõyÓ˚ ~£z !ӰψÏÎ˚ ˆÑ˛yˆÏòy ¢ÇüÎ˚ ÌyˆÏÑ˛ñ
ì˛y£ˆÏú ~Ñ˛ãò £zv˛zˆÏÓ˚y˛ô#Î˚ ~ÓÇ ~Ñ˛ãò ¶˛yÓ˚ì˛#Î˚ˆÏÑ˛ î%õyˆÏ¢Ó˚ ãòƒ ãDˆÏú ˆäȈÏv˛¸ !îˆÏÎ˚ ú«˛ƒ Ñ˛Ó˚ ˆÎñ î%õy¢ ˛ôˆÏÓ˚ ˆÑ˛
x!ïÑ˛ ¢%fl˛i ~ÓÇ ¢ˆÏÓ≈y˛ô!Ó˚ ã#!Óì˛ ÌyˆÏÑ˛ÛÛ–
Ó˚&ˆÏüyÓ˚ õˆÏì˛ñ Óì≈˛õyò ¢õyã ~Ñ˛!›˛ Ñ˛ì,≈˛c˛ô)í≈ ¢õyãñ Îy õyòÓãy!ì˛ˆÏÑ˛ ˛ô)ˆÏÓ≈Ñ˛yÓ˚ ˜ò!ì˛Ñ˛ õ)úƒˆÏÓyï=!ú ˆÌˆÏÑ˛ î)ˆÏÓ˚
ÌyÑ˛ˆÏì˛ Óyïƒ Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚– ¢¶˛ƒ ¢õyã ¢Ó≈îy ˆãì˛y Óy £yÓ˚yÓ˚ úˆÏ«˛ƒ á%Ó˚˛ôyÑ˛ ÖyÎ˚– ≤ÃyÑ˛‰ÈÙÈ¢yõy!ãÑ˛ Î%ˆÏÜ õyò%°Ï ˜ò!ì˛Ñ˛ !îÑ˛ ˆÌˆÏÑ˛
ΈÏ̤˛ v˛zÍÑ˛°Ï≈ì˛Ó˚ ÓˆÏú Üíƒ £ì˛ !Ñ˛ls˛ ì˛yÓ˚˛ôÓ˚ õyòÓãy!ì˛Ó˚ £z!ì˛£yˆÏ¢ ~Ñ˛ òy›˛Ñ˛#Î˚ ˆõyv˛¸ v˛z˛ô!fl˛iì˛ £Î˚ñ ˆÎÖyˆÏò õyò%°Ï ¢Ω˛yÓƒ
ÖÓ˚yñ ÓòƒyÓ˚ ¢õyïyò Ñ˛Ó˚ˆÏì˛ ~Ñ˛ fl˛iyÎ˚# ¢õyã ≤Ã!ì˛¤˛y Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚– ¢õyã ≤Ã!ì˛¤˛y úyˆÏ¶˛Ó˚ ˛ôÓ˚ Ñ˛ì,≈˛c ö˛úyˆÏì˛ xyÓ˚Ω˛ Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ ~ÓÇ
~£z ¢õy㠈̈ÏÑ˛ ˆÓ!Ó˚ˆÏÎ˚ xy¢yÓ˚ ˆÑ˛yˆÏòy ˛ôÌ ~Ó˚ ¢î¢ƒˆÏîÓ˚ Ñ˛yˆÏäÈ v˛zß√%_´ !äÈú òy– ¢¶˛ƒ ¢õyˆÏã ˜ò!ì˛Ñ˛¶˛yˆÏÓ ˆ◊¤˛ì˛Ó˚
£ÁÎ˚yÓ˚ ì%˛úòyÎ˚ ãÎ˚ Óy ˛ôÓ˚yãÎ˚ x!ïÑ˛ =Ó˚&c˛ô)í≈–
!Ñ˛ls˛ ~ÖyˆÏò ≤ß¿ ÁˆÏ‡˛ ˆÎñ òì%˛ò ¢õyã ÓƒÓfl˛iyÓ˚ !Ñ˛ ~õò ˛ô!Ó˚Óì≈˛ò áˆÏ›˛ñ Îy ˛ô)ˆÏÓ≈Ó˚ ¢õyˆÏã !äÈú òy– ~£z ≤Èϟ¿Ó˚
v˛z_ˆÏÓ˚ ˆîÖy ÎyÎ˚ñ ~!›˛ ~Ñ˛ xfl˛∫y¶˛y!ÓÑ˛ ¢¡ôˆÏÑ≈˛Ó˚ xÓì˛yÓ˚íy Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚– ~!›˛ ¢¡ô!_Ó˚ ãß√ ˆîÎ˚ñ Ú~›˛y xyõyÓ˚– ì%˛!õ ≤ÃÑ,˛!ì˛Ó˚
~£z xÇü ˆÌˆÏÑ˛ !Ñ˛ä%È !òˆÏì˛ ˛ôyˆÏÓ˚y òyÛ (This is mine. You can not take from this part of nature)ÈÙÈ~£z ïyÓ˚íy
˛ô)Ó≈ì˛ò ¢õyˆÏã !äÈú òy– ~!›˛ ◊õ !Ó¶˛yãò ~ÓÇ ˛ôyÓ˚fl˛ô!Ó˚Ñ˛ !ò¶≈˛Ó˚ü#úì˛yÓ˚ ¢,!‹T Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚– ÎyÓ˚ ö˛úfl˛∫Ó˚*˛ô ¢yõy!ãÑ˛ x¢yˆÏõƒÓ˚
v˛zqÓ áˆÏ›˛– ˛ô)ˆÏÓ≈ ˆÎ ü!_´üyú# !äÈúñ Óì≈˛õyˆÏò ˆ¢ ï)ì≈˛ ~ÓÇ ïò# Óƒ!_´ˆÏì˛ ˛ô!Ó˚íì˛ £Î˚– ~!›˛ xÓyï «˛õì˛yÓ˚ ãß√ ˆîÎ˚
ÎyÓ˚ ö˛úfl˛∫Ó˚*˛ô ¢õyˆÏã x!Óâ˛yÓ˚ ú«˛ƒ Ñ˛Ó˚y ÎyÎ˚– ~£z !Ó°ÏÎ˚=!úˆÏÑ˛ xyõÓ˚y fl˛∫y¶˛y!ÓÑ˛ ÓˆÏú Üíƒ Ñ˛!Ó˚ !Ñ˛ls˛ ì˛y ˛ô%ˆÏÓ˚y˛ô%!Ó˚¶˛yˆÏÓ
¢Çfl˛,Ò!ì˛ myÓ˚y ¢,‹T–
~£z Ñ,˛!eõ ¢õyˆÏã !òÎ˚s˛fíÑ˛yÓ˚# Óƒ!_´ ~ÓÇ !òÎ˚s˛fyï#ò Óƒ!_´ v˛z¶˛Î˚£z ¢õyˆÏãÓ˚ x≤ÃyÑ,˛!ì˛Ñ˛ â˛y!£îy ~ÓÇ ¢yõy!ãÑ˛
x!òÿ˛Î˚ì˛yÓ˚ !üÑ˛yÓ˚– Ñ˛yÓ˚í ˛ô)ˆÏÓ≈ ì˛yÓ˚y v˛z¶˛Î˚£z ≤ÃÑ,˛!ì˛Üì˛¶˛yˆÏÓ ¢õyò !äÈú ~ÓÇ ¢%ˆÏÖ Ó¢Óy¢ Ñ˛Ó˚ì˛– Ó˚&ˆÏüy ÓˆÏúˆÏäÈò ~£z
xfl˛∫y¶˛y!ÓÑ˛ â˛y!£îy õyò%ˆÏ°ÏÓ˚ ¢õˆÏÓîòy ~ÓÇ !ÓˆÏÓˆÏÑ˛Ó˚ Ñ˛Z˛ˆÏÓ˚yï Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚– ~!›˛ ¢õyˆÏã xyõyˆÏîÓ˚ ~ˆÏÑ˛ x˛ôˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ ˆÌˆÏÑ˛ ˛ô,ÌÑ˛
Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ Ó˚yˆÏÖ ~ÓÇ xyõyˆÏîÓ˚ õyò!¢Ñ˛ì˛yˆÏÑ˛ fl˛∫yÌ≈˛ôÓ˚ñ xyd!òõ@¿ Á xı˛Ñ˛yÓ˚yFäÈߨ Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ ˆì˛yˆÏú– ~£z¶˛yˆÏÓ£z xyõÓ˚y Óì≈˛õyò
¢õyˆÏã v˛z˛ôò#ì˛ £ˆÏÎ˚!äÈ– ~£z Ñ˛ÌyÓ˚£z ≤Ã!ì˛ïπ!ò !¶˛ß¨¶˛yˆÏÓ |ò!ÓÇü üì˛ˆÏÑ˛ Ñ˛yú≈ õyÑ≈˛ˆÏ¢Ó˚ õ%ˆÏÖÁ ˆüyòy ÎyÎ˚ ˆÎ õyò%°Ï
~Ñ˛!›˛ ≤Ããy!ì˛ !£ˆÏ¢ˆÏÓ ì˛yÓ˚ xy¢ú ≤ÃÑ,˛!ì˛ ˆÌˆÏÑ˛ !Ó!FäÈߨ– Ó˚&ˆÏüyÓ˚ õˆÏì˛ñ xyï%!òÑ˛ ¢¶˛ƒì˛y xyõyˆÏîÓ˚ {ŸªÓ˚ÈÙÈ≤ÃyÆ ≤ÃÑ,˛!ì˛
ˆÌˆÏÑ˛ xyõyˆÏîÓ˚ ˛ô,ÈÌÑ˛ Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ Ó˚yˆÏÖ–

16
2.8 v˛z˛ô¢Ç£yÓ˚
Ó˚&ˆÏüyÓ˚ õˆÏì˛ñ Ñ˛úyñ !ÓòÎ˚ñ !ü‹Tì˛y ÷ï%õye ¢yõ!Ó˚Ñ˛ õ)úƒˆÏÓyï=!úˆÏÑ˛£z ïπÇ¢ Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ òyñ ì˛y Óƒ!_´ˆÏÑ˛ îyˆÏ¢ ˛ô!Ó˚íì˛
Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚– xyï%!òÑ˛ ¢õyˆÏã Óƒ!_´Ó˚ ¢%Ö !òˆÏãÓ˚ £*îˆÏÎ˚Ó˚ xò%¶)˛!ì˛Ó˚ ˛ô!Ó˚ÓˆÏì≈˛ xòƒ Óƒ!_´Ó˚ õì˛yõˆÏì˛Ó˚ ˆ≤Ã!«˛ˆÏì˛ Ó˚!â˛ì˛ £Î˚–
ì˛y£z Ó˚&ˆÏüy xyï%!òÑ˛ ¢¶˛ƒì˛yˆÏÑ˛ ì˛yÓ˚ Ñ,˛!eõ ~ÓÇ !õ̃y ≤ÃÑ,˛!ì˛Ó˚ ãòƒ Óã≈ò Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ˆÏäÈò– Ñ˛yÓ˚í ì˛y ≤ÃÑ,˛ì˛ fl˛∫y¶˛y!ÓÑ˛ ¢Çfl˛,Ò!ì˛ˆÏÑ˛
ïπÇ¢ Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚– Ó˚&ˆÏüyÓ˚ !â˛hs˛yˆÏì˛£z fl˛∫yï#òì˛y Á ¢yõƒ ¢¡ôˆÏÑ≈˛ ˆÎ Ó_´Óƒ ˆõˆÏúñ ˛ôÓ˚Óì≈˛#Ñ˛yˆÏú ì˛y £zv˛zˆÏÓ˚yˆÏ˛ôÓ˚ Ó˚y‹T…!â˛hs˛yÓ˚ ã܈Ïì˛
!ÓˆÏü°Ï ≤ö˛yÓ !Óhfl˛yÓ˚ Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚– ì˛§yÓ˚ ¢yõƒ Á fl˛∫yï#òì˛yÓ˚ ïyÓ˚íy!›˛ Óƒ!_´ Á ¢õ!‹TÓ˚ !ÓˆÏÓ˚yïˆÏÑ˛ ì%˛ˆÏú òy ïˆÏÓ˚ ¢yõy!ãÑ˛ ˙ˆÏÑ˛ƒÓ˚
¢ı˛yˆÏò ¢yïyÓ˚í £zFäÈyÓ˚ ≤Ã!ì˛ Ó˚y‹T…#Î˚ xyò%Üì˛ƒˆÏÑ˛£z ì%˛ˆÏú ïˆÏÓ˚– ¢¡ô!_Ó˚ x¢yõƒˆÏÑ˛Á !ì˛!ò ¢yïyÓ˚í £zFäÈyÓ˚ £zFäÈyÎ˚ !òÎ˚!s˛fì˛
Ñ˛Ó˚ˆÏì˛ ˆâ˛ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏäÈò– Ó˚&ˆÏüy 'Discourse on the Origin of Inequality' ~ÓÇ 'Social contract' ≤ÃÑ˛yˆÏüÓ˚ xyv˛¸y£z üì˛Ñ˛
x!ì˛e´yhs˛ £ÓyÓ˚ ˛ôˆÏÓ˚Á ~ÓÇ xyãˆÏÑ˛Ó˚ ˛ô,!ÌÓ#ˆÏì˛ ¢õyãì˛ˆÏs˛fÓ˚ !Ó˛ôÎ≈Î˚ ˛ôÓ˚Óì≈˛# ~Ñ˛ˆÏõÓ˚& !ÓŸª ≤ÃÓíì˛yÓ˚ Î%ˆÏÜñ !ÓŸªyÎ˚ò
Á !ÓÓ˚y‹T…#Î˚Ñ˛Ó˚ˆÏíÓ˚ Î%ˆÏÜ Ó˚&ˆÏüy !Ófl˛ø,ì˛≤ÃyÎ˚ £ˆÏÎ˚Á ˆÑ˛ò ≤Ãy¢!DÑ˛ ˆ¢›˛y£z xyã ˆÑ˛Ôì)˛£ˆÏúÓ˚ !Ó°ÏÎ˚ £ˆÏÎ˚ î§y!v˛¸ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏäÈ–
v˛z˛ôˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ xÇü!›˛ ˆÌˆÏÑ˛ xyõÓ˚y ãyòúyõ ≠
1. !â˛hs˛y!Óî !£¢yˆÏÓ xyˆÏúyÑ˛yÎ˚ò ¢¡ôˆÏÑ≈˛ Ó˚&ˆÏüyÓ˚ xÓfl˛iyò
2. ≤ÃÑ,˛!ì˛Ó˚ Ó˚yム¢¡ô!Ñ≈˛ì˛ Ó˚&ˆÏüyÓ˚ ïyÓ˚íy
3. £zv˛zˆÏÓ˚yˆÏ˛ô xyˆÏúyÑ˛yÎ˚ˆÏòÓ˚ ≤ö˛yÓ
4. xyï%!òÑ˛ ¢õyã ¢¡ôˆÏÑ≈˛ Ó˚&ˆÏüyÓ˚ !ӈϟ’°Ïí

2.9 õ)úƒyÎ˚ò !ò!õ_ ≤ß¿yÓú#

Ñ˛V Ó˚&ˆÏüyÓ˚ !â˛hs˛yÎ˚ ≤ÃÑ,˛!ì˛Ó˚ Ó˚yˆÏãƒÓ˚ ˆÎ !â˛e x!B˛ì˛ £ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏäÈñ ì˛y ÓƒyÖƒy Ñ˛Ó˚&ò–
ÖV Ó˚&ˆÏüyÓ˚ îü≈ˆÏò ≤Ãyщ˛ÈÙÈ¢yõy!ãÑ˛ Á ¢yõy!ãÑ˛ ã#ÓˆÏòÓ˚ !Ñ˛Ó˚*˛ô Óí≈òy ˛ôyÁÎ˚y ÎyÎ˚⁄
ÜV xyï%!òÑ˛ ¢õyã ¢¡ôˆÏÑ≈˛ Ó˚&ˆÏüyÓ˚ ïyÓ˚íy !ӈϟ’°Ïí Ñ˛Ó˚&ò–
áV xyˆÏúyÑ˛yÎ˚ò !ӰψÏÎ˚ Ó˚&ˆÏüyÓ˚ xÓfl˛iyò õ)úƒyÎ˚ò Ñ˛Ó˚&ò–

2.10 ¢y£yÎƒÑ˛yÓ˚# @˘Ãs˛i˛ôO#

i. Rousseau, Jean Jacques. (1968). The Social Contract. (M. Cranston, Trans.) London: Penguin
Books.
ii. Garrard, Graeme. (2004). Counter-Enlightenments : From the Eighteen Century to the
Present. London: Routledge.
iii. McClelland, J. S. (2005). A History of Western Political Thought. London: Routledge.
iv. Ramaswamy, Sushila., & Mukherjee, Subrata. (2011), A History of Political Thought: From
Plato to Marx. New Delhi: PHI Learning.
v. Wokler, Robert. (2001). Rousseau : A Very Short Introduction. New York: Oxford University
Press.

17
 ˛ôy‡˛e´õ ≠ 1.1
Unit-3

Ñ˛yˆÏr›˛Ó˚ î,!‹TˆÏÑ˛yí ˆÌˆÏÑ £zFäÈyü!_´Ó˚ fl˛∫yì˛ˆÏs˛fƒÓ˚ ïyÓ˚íy

Kant: Notion of Moral Autonomy
!Ó°ÏÎ˚¢)!Ⲡ:
3.1 ˛ôy‡˛ÈÙÈv˛zˆÏjüƒ
3.2 ¶)˛!õÑ˛y
3.3 ¢ˆÏÓ≈yFⲠ˜ò!ì˛Ñ˛ !òÎ˚õ Á ˆ¢!›˛Ó˚ xò%¢ı˛yˆÏòÓ˚ ˛ôk˛!ì˛
3.4 ˜ò!ì˛Ñ˛ˆÏÓyï ˆÑ˛yÌy ˆÌˆÏÑ˛ v˛zq$ì˛ £Î˚
3.5 Ñ˛yˆÏr›˛Ó˚ õˆÏì˛ £zFäÈyü!_´
3.6 ÓƒÓ£y!Ó˚Ñ˛ ≤ÃK˛yÓ˚ î%£z !òÎ˚õ Á ≤ÃÑ,˛!ì˛Ó˚ !Óïyò
3.7 üì≈˛!òÓ˚ˆÏ˛ô«˛ xò%K˛yÓ˚ !Ó!¶˛ß¨ ¢)eyÎ˚í
3.8 £zFäÈyü!_´Ó˚ fl˛∫yì˛ˆÏs˛fƒÓ˚ !òÎ˚õ
3.9 v˛z˛ô¢Ç£yÓ˚
3.10 õ)úƒyÎ˚ò !ò!õ_ ≤ß¿yÓú#˛
3.11 ¢y£yÎƒÑ˛yÓ˚# @˘Ãs˛i˛ôO#

3.1 ˛ôy‡˛ÈÙÈv˛zˆÏjüƒ
~£z ~Ñ˛Ñ˛!›˛Ó˚ õyÏõ !ò¡¨!ú!Öì˛ !Ó°ÏÎ˚=!ú ¢¡ôˆÏÑ≈˛ xÓÜì˛ £ÁÎ˚y ÎyˆÏÓ ≠
Ñ˛V Ñ˛yˆÏr›˛Ó˚ î,!‹TˆÏÑ˛yí ˆÌˆÏÑ˛ ˜ò!ì˛Ñ˛ ˆÓyï
ÖV Ñ˛yˆÏr›˛Ó˚ õˆÏì˛ £zFäÈyü!_´
ÜV £zFäÈyü!_´Ó˚ fl˛∫yì˛ˆÏs˛fÓ˚ !òÎ˚õ

3.2 ¶)˛!õÑ˛y
!ӈϟªÓ˚ =Ó˚&c˛ô)í≈ îyü≈!òÑ˛ˆÏîÓ˚ õˆÏïƒ £zõƒyò%ˆÏÎ˚ú Ñ˛yr›˛ S1724ÈÙÈ1804V xòƒì˛õñ ΧyÓ˚ !â˛hs˛y¶˛yÓòy î%Ûü ÓäȈÏÓ˚Ó˚ ˆÓ!ü
¢õÎ˚ x!ì˛e´õ Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ xyãÁ ΈÏÌ‹T ¢õyî,ì˛– Ú≤ÈÏÓy!ïì˛ Î%ˆÏÜÓ˚ ò#!ì˛Óyî#Û Ñ˛yr›˛ £zFäÈyü!_´Ó˚ fl˛∫yì˛ˆÏs˛fƒÓ˚ ïyÓ˚íyÓ˚ xÓì˛yÓ˚íy
õïƒ !îˆÏÎ˚ !òÉ¢ˆÏ®ˆÏ£ ò#!ì˛îü≈ˆÏòÓ˚ £z!ì˛£yˆÏ¢ ~Ñ˛ xì˛ƒyÓüƒÑ˛ xïƒyˆÏÎ˚Ó˚ ¢)â˛òy Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ˆÏäÈò– îyü≈!òÑ˛ Ñ˛yˆÏr›˛Ó˚ ≤ÃÓ%k˛ !â˛hs˛yÓ˚
xyˆÏúyˆÏÑ˛ ˆÑ˛Óú õye K˛yòì˛ˆÏ_¥Ó˚ ã܈Ïì˛ !Ó≤’Ó áˆÏ›˛!äÈúñ ~õò òÎ˚ ÓÓ˚Ç xÑ˛˛ôˆÏ›˛ îy!Ó Ñ˛Ó˚y ÎyÎ˚ ì˛yÓ˚ ˜ò!ì˛Ñ˛ì˛y ¢Çe´yhs˛
¶˛yÓòy ~ÓÇ ˆ¢=!úÓ˚ xò%°ÏD# ¢õyã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ Á Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ õì˛yîü≈ !â˛hs˛y ¶˛yÓòyÓ˚ ã܈Ïì˛ ~Ñ˛ xyõ)ú ˜Ó≤’!ÓÑ˛ Ó˚*˛ôyhs˛ˆÏÓ˚Ó˚
¢)â˛òy Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚!äÈú– Ñ˛yr›˛ ˆ¢yFâ˛yˆÏÓ˚ îy!Ó Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ˆÏäÈò Óƒ!_´õyò%ˆÏ°ÏÓ˚ ˜ò!ì˛Ñ˛ˆÏÓyï Óy£ƒ ãÜÍ ˆÌˆÏÑ˛ xyõîy!ò Ñ˛Ó˚y ˆÑ˛yòÁ Ólfl˛
18
£ˆÏì˛ ˛ôyˆÏÓ˚ òy ˜ò!ì˛Ñ˛ì˛yÓ˚ v˛zÍ¢ õyò%ˆÏ°ÏÓ˚ xhs˛ˆÏÓ˚£z ÌyˆÏÑ˛– ¢yõy!ãÑ˛ õyò%°ÏÓ˚*ˆÏ˛ôÁ ì˛yÓ˚ ˜ò!ì˛Ñ˛ fl˛∫ì˛s˛fƒ xÓüƒ£z ÌyÑ˛ˆÏÓ–
õyò%°Ï ˆÎ ˜ò!ì˛Ñ˛ !Óïyò Óy xyˆÏîü myÓ˚y ˛ô!Ó˚â˛y!úì˛ £ˆÏÎ˚ !¢k˛yhs˛ @˘Ã£í Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ ÌyˆÏÑ˛ñ ˆ¢£z=!ú ˆÑ˛yòÁ Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ õì˛yîü≈
myÓ˚yñ Óy ïõ≈#Î˚ xò%üy¢ò myÓ˚y Óy ¢yõy!ãÑ˛ Ó˚#!ì˛ ò#!ì˛Ó˚ myÓ˚y !òï≈y!Ó˚ì˛ £ˆÏÓ ~£z õì˛ ì˛yÓ˚ ¢¡ô)í≈ xò!¶˛ˆÏ≤Ãì˛ !äÈú–
õyò%ˆÏ°ÏÓ˚ £zFäÈyü!_´ !òï≈yÓ˚í Ñ˛Ó˚ˆÏÓ ˆÑ˛yò !òÎ˚õò#!ì˛ ì˛yÓ˚ xyâ˛Ó˚ˆÏíÓ˚ !îÜîü≈Ñ˛ £ˆÏÓÈÙÙÙÈ~õò£z¶˛yˆÏÓ fl˛∫ÈÙÈxyâ˛!Ó˚ì˛ Ñ˛ˆÏõ≈ Ñ˛ì,≈˛ˆÏcÓ˚
îy!Ó ˆáy°ÏíyÓ˚ õˆÏïƒ !îˆÏÎ˚ Ñ˛yr›˛ ˜ò!ì˛Ñ˛ì˛yÓ˚ ì˛ˆÏ_¥ xydÈÙÈ!òÎ˚s˛fˆÏíÓ˚ ïyÓ˚íyÓ˚Á ¢)e˛ôyì˛ Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ˆÏäÈò– fl˛∫Î˚Ç xyâ˛!Ó˚ì˛ Ñ˛ˆÏõ≈ Ñ˛õ≈Ñ˛_≈yÓ˚
Ñ˛ì,≈˛c ÌyÑ˛y ïyÓ˚íy £zFäÈyü!_´Ó˚ fl˛∫yì˛ˆÏs˛fƒÓ˚ ïyÓ˚íyÓ˚ ¢yˆÏÌ Áì˛ˆÏ≤Ãyì˛¶˛yˆÏÓ ã!v˛¸ì˛–

3.3 ¢ˆÏÓ≈yFⲠ˜ò!ì˛Ñ˛ !òÎ˚õ Á ˆ¢!›˛Ó˚ xò%¢ı˛yˆÏòÓ˚ ˛ôk˛!ì˛

Ñ˛yˆÏr›˛Ó˚ !ÓŸªy¢ !äÈú ˆÎ ¢yïyÓ˚í õyò%°Ï ˜ò!ì˛Ñ˛ì˛y ÓúˆÏì˛ Ñ˛# ˆÓyG˛yÎ˚ñ ~£z ≤Èϟ¿Ó˚ îyü≈!òÑ˛ õ#õyÇ¢yÓ˚ õˆÏïƒ !îˆÏÎ˚ ¢yïyÓ˚í
õyò%ˆÏ°ÏÓ˚ !â˛hs˛yˆÏì˛Á ˆÎ fl˛∫yì˛ˆÏs˛fƒÓ˚ !òÎ˚õÓ˚*ˆÏ˛ô£z ˜ò!ì˛Ñ˛ì˛y !Ó°ÏÎ˚Ñ˛ õ)úïyÓ˚íy xyˆÏäÈñ ˆ¢£z !ӰψÏÎ˚ !òÉ¢ˆÏ®£ £ÁÎ˚y ÎyˆÏÓ–
Ñ˛yˆÏr›˛Ó˚ @˘Ãyv˛zu˛ ÁÎ˚yÑ≈˛ xÓ ˆõ›˛y!ö˛!¢Ñ˛¢‰ xÓ õÓ˚ƒyú¢‰– (Groundwork of Metaphysics of Morals) @˘ÃˆÏs˛i ˜ò!ì˛Ñ˛ !òÎ˚õ
xò%¢ı˛yˆÏòÓ˚ ˛ôk˛!ì˛Ó˚*ˆÏ˛ô !ӈϟ’°ÏíydÑ˛ ˛ôk˛!ì˛ Á ¢ÇˆÏŸ’°ÏíydÑ˛ ˛ôk˛!ì˛Ó˚ xyˆÏúyâ˛òy ˛ôyÁÎ˚y ÎyÎ˚– !ӈϟ’°ÏíydÑ˛ ˛ôk˛!ì˛Ó˚
!ÓˆÏü°Ïc £ú ¢yïyÓ˚í õyò%ˆÏ°ÏÓ˚ !â˛hs˛yÈÙȶ˛yÓòy Á x!¶˛K˛ì˛yÓ˚ !ӈϟ’°ÏˆÏíÓ˚ õˆÏïƒ !îˆÏÎ˚ ˆÑ˛yò ˜ò!ì˛Ñ˛ì˛yÓ˚ !òÎ˚õ ≤Ã!ì˛˛ôy!îì˛
£ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏäÈ xy!Ó‹ÒyÓ˚ Ñ˛Ó˚y Á ˆ¢£z !òÎ˚õ!›˛ˆÏÑ˛ !òÖ%§ì˛¶˛yˆÏÓ !òí≈Î˚ Ñ˛Ó˚y– ¢yïyÓ˚í õyò%°Ï ˜ò!ì˛Ñ˛ì˛y ÓúˆÏì˛ Ñ˛# ˆÓyG˛yÎ˚ñ ~£z
≤Èϟ¿Ó˚ xò%¢ı˛yˆÏòÓ˚ õˆÏïƒ !îˆÏÎ˚£z Ñ˛yˆÏr›˛Ó˚ Ñ˛yˆÏäÈ fl˛ô‹T £ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏäÈ ˆÎ ¢yïyÓ˚í ˜ò!ì˛Ñ˛ì˛yÓ˚ ïyÓ˚íyÓ˚ õˆÏz !òÜ)벸 £ˆÏÎ˚ xyˆÏäÈ
üì≈˛!òÓ˚ˆÏ˛ô«˛ xò%K˛yÓ˚ ¢ˆÏÓ≈yFⲠ˜ò!ì˛Ñ˛ ¢)ˆÏe ܶ˛#Ó˚ xyfl˛iy– ¢yïyÓ˚í¶˛yˆÏÓ xò%K˛yÓ˚ !ÓˆÏü°Ïc £ú xyâ˛Ó˚í !ӰψÏÎ˚ !òˆÏî≈ü ¢)!â˛ì˛
Ñ˛Ó˚y ~ÓÇ xò%K˛yÓ˚ õˆÏïƒ !îˆÏÎ˚ !òˆÏî≈ü î%£z¶˛yˆÏÓ ¢)!â˛ì˛ £ˆÏì˛ ˛ôyˆÏÓ˚ó
1V üì≈˛¢yˆÏ˛ô«˛ !òˆÏî≈üÓ˚*ˆÏ˛ô
2V üì≈˛!òÓ˚ˆÏ˛ô«˛ !òˆÏî≈üÓ˚*ˆÏ˛ô
≤ÃÌõ!›˛Ó˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe Ñ˛yÎ≈¢yïˆÏòÓ˚ v˛z˛ôyÎ˚Ó˚*ˆÏ˛ô ˆÑ˛yò xyâ˛Ó˚ˆÏíÓ˚ xyÓüƒÑ˛ì˛y Óƒ_´ Ñ˛Ó˚y £Î˚ó !mì˛#Î˚!›˛Ó˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe xÌ≈yÍ
üì≈˛!òÓ˚ˆÏ˛ô«˛ xò%K˛yÓ˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe xòƒ ˆÑ˛yò v˛zˆÏjüƒ äÈyv˛¸y£z ˆÑ˛yò xyâ˛Ó˚ˆÏíÓ˚ !òãfl˛∫ xyÓüƒÑ˛ì˛y !ӰψÏÎ˚ñ !òˆÏî≈ü Óƒ_´ Ñ˛Ó˚y
£Î˚– ¢yïyÓ˚í Ó%!k˛Ó˚ hfl˛ˆÏÓ˚ ˜ò!ì˛Ñ˛ !òÎ˚ˆÏõÓ˚ ˆÎ¶˛yˆÏÓ ≤ÃÑ˛yü áˆÏ›˛ˆÏäÈñ ì˛y£z Ñ˛yˆÏr›˛Ó˚ ˛ô!Ó˚¶˛y°ÏyÎ˚ üì≈˛!òÓ˚ˆÏ˛ô«˛ xò%K˛y Óy
xyˆÏîüÓ˚*ˆÏ˛ô ≤Ã!ì˛¶˛yì˛ £ÁÎ˚y ÓˆÏú v˛zˆÏÕ‘!Öì˛ £ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏäÈ– Ñ˛yr›˛ ~£z ïÓ˚ˆÏòÓ˚ xò%K˛yñ Îy ˆÑ˛yò üì≈˛myÓ˚y Óy!ïì˛ òÎ˚ ~ÓÇ ˆÑ˛Óúõye
Îy ~Ñ˛!›˛ !ò¡¨!ú!Öì˛Ó˚*ˆÏ˛ô !ÓÓ,ì˛ Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ˆÏäÈò ≠ ÚÑ˛õ≈yâ˛Ó˚í Ñ˛Ó˚ ˆÑ˛Óúõye ~õò !òãfl˛∫ xy!dÑ˛ !òÎ˚õ xò%¢yˆÏÓ˚ñ ˆÎ !òÎ˚õ
~Ñ˛£zÑ˛yˆÏú ¢y!Ó≈Ñ˛ !ÓïyòÓ˚*ˆÏ˛ô Üíƒ £ˆÏÓ ~õò ¢B˛“ Ñ˛Ó˚ˆÏì˛ ˛ôyˆÏÓ˚y–Û
Ñ˛yr›˛ !ӈϟ’°ÏíydÑ˛ ˛ôk˛!ì˛ xÓú¡∫ò Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ ~£z¶˛yˆÏÓ ¢yïyÓ˚í õyò%ˆÏ°ÏÓ˚ !â˛hs˛yÈÙȶ˛yÓòy Á x!¶˛K˛ì˛yÓ˚ !ӈϟ’°ÏˆÏíÓ˚ õˆÏïƒ !îˆÏÎ˚
˜ò!ì˛Ñ˛ !òÎ˚ˆÏõÓ˚ ~Ñ˛›˛y !Óõ)ì≈˛ õyòîu˛ xy!Ófl˛ÒyÓ˚ Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ˆÏäÈò Á !òÖ%§ì˛¶˛yˆÏÓ !òÎ˚õ!›˛ˆÏÑ˛ !òí≈Î˚ Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ˆÏäÈò– !mì˛#Î˚ì˛ñ ¢ÇˆÏŸ’°ÏydÑ˛
˛ôk˛!ì˛Ó˚ ¢£yÎ˚ì˛yÎ˚ ˜ò!ì˛Ñ˛ì˛yÓ˚ ˛ôÓ˚õ !òÎ˚õÈÙÙÙÈüì≈˛£#ò xò%K˛yÓ˚ v˛zÍ¢Ó˚*˛ô ÓƒÓ£y!Ó˚Ñ˛ ≤ÃK˛y ˆÌˆÏÑ˛ ¢yïyÓ˚í Ó%!k˛Ó˚ ˛ôÎ≈yˆÏÎ˚
≤Ãì≈˛yÓì˛≈ò Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ ˆÎÖyˆÏò ~£z !òÎ˚ˆÏõÓ˚ ÓƒÓ£yÓ˚ ú«˛í#Î˚ ˆ¢!îˆÏÑ˛Á î,!‹T xyÑ˛°Ïí Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ˆÏäÈò–

3.4 ˜ò!ì˛Ñ˛ˆÏÓyï ˆÑ˛yÌy ˆÌˆÏÑ˛ v˛zq$ì˛ £Î˚⁄

Ñ˛yr›˛ fl˛∫#Ñ˛yÓ˚ Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ˆÏäÈò ˆÎ ˜ò!ì˛Ñ˛ îyÎ˚Ók˛ì˛yÓ˚ v˛zÍ¢ õyò%ˆÏ°ÏÓ˚ xhs˛Éfl˛i ˆÓÔ!k˛Ñ˛≤ÃK˛y x!¶˛K˛ì˛y ˆÌˆÏÑ˛ ˜ò!ì˛Ñ˛ ˆÓyˆÏïÓ˚
v˛zͲô!_ !ì˛!ò xfl˛∫#Ñ˛yÓ˚ Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ˆÏäÈò– Ñ˛yˆÏr›˛Ó˚ îy!ÓÓ˚ ¢)e˛ôyì˛ ~£z¶˛yˆÏÓ ˆÎ ˜ò!ì˛Ñ˛ ¢îyâ˛yÓ˚#Ó˚ â˛!Ó˚ˆÏeÓ˚ â˛y£zˆÏì˛ xyÓ˚ ˆ◊¤˛ !Ñ˛ä%È
19
ˆò£zñ !Î!ò ˜ò!ì˛Ñ˛ ¢îyâ˛yÓ˚# !ì˛!ò fl˛∫¶˛yÓì˛£z ˜ò!ì˛Ñ˛ ¢îyâ˛yÓ˚# £ò– Ñ˛yˆÏr›˛Ó˚ ò#!ì˛ ì˛_¥ xò%¢yˆÏÓ˚ ÷¶˛ £zFäÈyü!_´ £ú ¢ˆÏÓ≈yFâ˛
÷¶˛– ~£z ≤âˆÏD xyˆÏúyâ˛òy Ñ˛Ó˚y ≤ÈÏÎ˚yãò Ñ˛yˆÏr›˛Ó˚ ò#!ì˛ì˛ˆÏ_¥Ó˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe Ó%!k˛Ó,!_Ó˚ ¶)˛!õÑ˛y– ˜ò!ì˛Ñ˛ì˛yÓ˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe Ó%!k˛Ó,!_Ó˚
≤ÃyˆÏÎ˚y!ÜÑ˛ £ÁÎ˚y £ú !ÓˆÏü°Ïc– Ó%!k˛Ó,!_ õyò%°Ï# £zFäÈyü!_´Ó˚ ˛≤ÈÏÎyãÑ˛ Óúy ÎyÎ˚– Ó%!k˛Ó,!_ !Ñ˛ ¢%ˆÏÖÓ˚ !îˆÏÑ˛Á £zFäÈyü!_´ˆÏÑ˛
˛≤ÈÏÎ˚y!ãì˛ Ñ˛Ó˚ˆÏì˛ ˛ôyˆÏÓ˚⁄ Ñ˛# ãyì˛#Î˚ ˆ≤ÃÓ˚íy ˆÑ˛yòÁ ~Ñ˛ãò Óƒ!_´ˆÏÑ˛ ˜ò!ì˛Ñ˛ ¢îyâ˛yÓ˚# Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ ˆì˛yˆÏú⁄ ~£z ≤âˆÏD Ñ˛yr›˛
î%£z ïÓ˚ˆÏòÓ˚ ˆ≤ÃÓ˚íyÓ˚ õˆÏïƒ ˛ôyÌ≈Ñ˛ƒ Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ˆÏäÈò ≠ S1V ¢%ˆÏÖÓ˚ Ñ˛yõòy ~ÓÇ S2V Ñ˛ì≈˛ˆÏÓƒ ãòƒ Ñ˛ì≈˛Óƒ Ñ˛Ó˚yÓ˚ £zFäÈy–
x!¶˛K˛ì˛y ˆÌˆÏÑ˛ ãyòy ÎyÎ˚ ˆÎ ¢%Ö ¢yïˆÏòÓ˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe Ó%!k˛Ó˚ ¶)˛!õÑ˛y ÌyˆÏÑ˛– ~£z ≤âˆÏD ¢%Ö Ñ˛# ˆÓyG˛y â˛y£z– Ñ˛yˆÏr›˛Ó˚
î,!‹TˆÏì˛ ¢%Ö ÷¶˛ Óy Ñ%˛üú £ˆÏúÁ ¢%Ö !Ñ˛ls˛ !òÉüì≈˛ ÷¶˛ Óy Ñ%˛üú òÎ˚– ¢%Ö xyˆÏ˛ô!«˛Ñ˛ Ñ˛yÓ˚í ¢%Ö !ò¶≈˛Ó˚ Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ xyõyˆÏîÓ˚
£zFäÈy ~ÓÇ ˛≤ÈÏÎ˚yãˆÏòÓ˚ Á˛ôÓ˚– !Ñ˛ls˛ ÷¶˛ Óy Ñ%˛üúñ Îy üì≈˛!òÓ˚ˆÏ˛ô«˛¶˛yˆÏÓ ÷¶˛ Óy Ñ%˛üú ~Ñ˛õye ÷¶˛ £zFäÈyü!_´ £ˆÏì˛
˛ôyˆÏÓ˚– Ñ˛yˆÏr›˛Ó˚ õˆÏì˛ £zFäÈyü!_´ ÎÖò Ñ˛ì≈˛ˆÏÓƒÓ˚ ãòƒ Ñ˛ì≈˛Óƒ ¢¡ôyîˆÏò ≤ÃÓ,_ Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ ì˛y£z £ú ÷¶˛ £zFäÈyü!_´–
õyò%°Ï Ñ˛ÖòÁ ¢y«˛yÍ ˆÑ˛yòÁ xy¢!_´Óüì˛ !òäÈÑ˛ fl˛∫yÌ≈!¢!k˛Ó˚ v˛zˆÏjˆÏüƒ Ñ˛ˆÏõ≈ ≤ÃÓ,_ £ˆÏì˛ ˛ôyˆÏÓ˚ó !Ñ˛ÇÓy ˆÑ˛yòÁ fl˛∫yÌ≈!¢!k˛Ó˚
ãòƒ Ñ˛ˆÏõ≈ ≤ÃÓ,_ òy £ˆÏÎ˚ õyò%°Ï ˆÑ˛Óú Ñ˛ì≈˛ˆÏÓƒÓ˚ Öy!ì˛ˆÏÓ˚ Ñ˛ì≈˛Óƒ Ñ˛õ≈ ¢¡ôyîˆÏò ≤ÃÓ,_ £ˆÏì˛ ˛ôyˆÏÓ˚– Ñ˛yˆÏr›˛Ó˚ õˆÏì˛ ˆÎ ¢õhfl˛
Ñ˛õ≈ ÷¶˛ xyˆÏÓÜÓüì˛ Ñ˛Ó˚y £ˆÏÎ˚ ÌyˆÏÑ˛ñ ˆÎõò Ñ˛yˆÏÓ˚yÓ˚ ≤Ã!ì˛ ¢õˆÏÓîòyÓüì˛ Óy ¶˛yˆÏúyÓy¢yÓüì˛ ˆ¢£z¢Ó Ñ˛õ≈ ≤ÃüÇ¢ò#Î˚ñ
¶˛yˆÏúyÓy¢yÓ˚ ˆÎy܃ñ ¢¡øyˆÏòÓ˚ ˆÎy܃– !Ñ˛ls˛ ˆ¢£z ãyì˛#Î˚ Ñ˛õ≈=!ú Ñ˛yˆÏr›˛Ó˚ õˆÏì˛ ˜ò!ì˛Ñ˛ ÓˆÏú Üíƒ £ÓyÓ˚ ˛ôˆÏ«˛ v˛z˛ôÎ%_´
òÎ˚– Î!îÁ ~£z ïÓ˚ˆÏòÓ˚ Ñ˛õ≈ ¢¡ôyîˆÏòÓ˚ õˆÏïƒ !îˆÏÎ˚ ˆÑ˛yòÁ ïõ≈¢¡øì˛ ˛ôˆÏÌÓ˚Á ¢ı˛yò ˛ôyÁÎ˚y ˆÎˆÏì˛ ˛ôyˆÏÓ˚– !Ñ˛ls˛ !ì˛!ò
õˆÏò Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ˆÏäÈò îÎ˚yú% £ÁÎ˚y Óy ¢£*îÎ˚ £ÁÎ˚y ˆ≤ÃÓ˚íyÓ˚*ˆÏ˛ô ˛ôÎ≈yÆ òÎ˚ ~ÓÇ ˆÑ˛yò ˆÑ˛yò fl˛iˆÏú ~£z ïÓ˚ˆÏòÓ˚ ˆ≤ÃÓ˚íy !Óºy!hs˛Ó˚
ãòÑ˛ £ˆÏì˛ ˛ôyˆÏÓ˚– Á£z ïÓ˚ˆÏòÓ˚ õyò%ˆÏ°ÏÓ˚ ˜ò!ì˛Ñ˛ v˛zÍÑ˛°Ï≈ xyˆÏäÈ ~õò fl˛∫#Ñ˛yÓ˚ Ñ˛Ó˚y ÎyÎ˚ òy– õyò%ˆÏ°ÏÓ˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe ÷¶˛ £zFäÈyü!_´
£ú ì˛y£z Îy Ñ˛ì≈˛ˆÏÓƒÓ˚ ãòƒñ Ñ˛ì≈˛Óƒ Ñ˛ˆÏõ≈ ≤ÈÏÎy!ãì˛ Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ó ˆÎ ãyì˛#Î˚ Ñ˛ˆÏõ≈Ó˚ õˆÏïƒ !îˆÏÎ˚ ~£z ãyì˛#Î˚ ÷¶˛ £zFäÈyü!_´ ≤ÃÑ˛y!üì˛
£Î˚ñ ˆ¢£z ãyì˛#Î˚ Ñ˛ˆÏõ≈Ó˚£z ˜ò!ì˛Ñ˛ v˛zÍÑ˛°Ï≈ fl˛∫#Ñ,˛ì˛ £Î˚–
ˆÑ˛yòÁ Óƒ!_´ õyò%ˆÏ°ÏÓ˚ Ñ˛ì≈˛ˆÏÓƒÓ˚ ãòƒ Ñ˛ì≈˛Óƒyâ˛Ó˚í Ñ˛Ó˚y£z v˛zˆÏjüƒ ~£zÓ˚Ñ˛õ ÓúyÓ˚ ì˛yͲôÎ≈ Ñ˛# £ˆÏì˛ ˛ôyˆÏÓ˚⁄ v˛z_Ó˚ £ˆÏÓñ
˜ò!ì˛Ñ˛ !Óïyò ˆ¢£z Ó!_´ˆÏÑ˛ ˆÎõò xyâ˛Ó˚í Ñ˛Ó˚ˆÏì˛ îyÎ˚Ók˛ Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ˆÏäÈñ ˆ¢£z Óƒ!_´ !ÓïyˆÏòÓ˚ ≤Ã!ì˛ ì˛yÓ˚ ¢æõ ˆÌˆÏÑ˛ ˆ¢£z
!ÓïyˆÏòÓ˚ xò%Ó˚*˛ô xyâ˛Ó˚í Ñ˛Ó˚yÓ˚ ¢B˛“ Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ˆÏäÈ– ≤ß¿ v˛z‡˛ˆÏì˛£z ˛ôyˆÏÓ˚ñ ~£z ˜ò!ì˛Ñ˛ !ÓïyˆÏòÓ˚ ~õò Ñ˛# !ÓˆÏü°Ïc xyˆÏäÈ Îy
~£z ïÓ˚ˆÏòÓ˚ ¢æõ v˛z!o_´ Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ x˛ôÓ˚y˛ôÓ˚ ¢Ñ˛ú ïÓ˚ˆÏòÓ˚ ≤ÈÏíyîòy äÈy!˛ôˆÏÎ˚ v˛zˆÏ‡˛ x!ïÑ˛ì˛Ó˚ =Ó˚&c˛ô)í≈ £ˆÏÎ˚ v˛z‡˛ˆÏäÈ⁄ ~ÖyˆÏò
v˛z_Ó˚ £ˆÏÓñ ˆÎˆÏ£ì%˛ ~£z ˜ò!ì˛Ñ˛ !Óïyò £z!wÎ˚ã ˆÑ˛yòÁ ¢%ˆÏÖÓ˚ ì,˛!ÆÓ˚ ãòƒ ˛ô!Ó˚Ñ˛!“ì˛ £Î˚!òñ ì˛y£z ~!›˛ xÓüƒ£z ˆÓÔ!k˛Ñ˛
≤ÃK˛yÓ˚ xÓüƒ˛ô)Ó˚í#Î˚ üì≈˛y!î ˛ô)Ó˚í Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ ~õò ~Ñ˛ !òÎ˚õ £ˆÏÓ– ˆÎˆÏ£ì%˛ ~£z ò#!ì˛Ó˚ ú«˛ƒ ˆÑ˛yòÁ ¢%Ö≤Ãy!Æ Ñ˛yÎ≈Ñ˛Ó˚ Ñ˛Ó˚y
òÎ˚ñ ~£z Ó˚Ñ˛õ îy!Ó Ñ˛Ó˚y ÎyÎ˚ ~›˛y xÓüƒ£z fl˛∫ì˛É˜ÏÓ!ü‹TƒÎ%_´ ~õò ~Ñ˛ ò#!ì˛ Îy ˆÎ ˆÑ˛yòÁ õyò%ˆÏ°ÏÓ˚ myÓ˚y£zÈÙÙÙȈΠõyò%°Ï
ˆÓÔ!k˛Ñ˛ ≤ÃK˛yÓ˚ myÓ˚y â˛y!úì˛ £Î˚ñ £z!wÎ˚ã ¢%ˆÏÖÓ˚ myÓ˚y òÎ˚ñÈÙÙÙÈÜ,£#ì˛ £ˆÏì˛ ˛ôyˆÏÓ˚–
xˆÏòˆÏÑ˛ õˆÏò Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ò ˆÎ Ñ˛yˆÏr›˛Ó˚ õì˛ˆÏÑ˛ @˘Ã£í Ñ˛Ó˚ˆÏú ¢îyâ˛yÓ˚# õyò%°Ï ¢Ó ¢õˆÏÎ˚£z x¢%Ö# £ˆÏÓòÈÙÙÙÈ~õò£z fl˛∫#Ñ˛yÓ˚ Ñ˛Ó˚ˆÏì˛
£ˆÏÓñ !Ñ˛ls˛ ~õò õˆÏò Ñ˛Ó˚y ˆÎ ÎÌyÌ≈ £ˆÏÓ ì˛y Óúy ÎyÎ˚ òy– Ñ˛yr›˛ ÓˆÏúˆÏäÈò ˆÎ ˜ò!ì˛Ñ˛ ã#ÓòÎy˛ôˆÏòÓ˚ õˆÏïƒ !îˆÏÎ˚ ~Ñ˛
ïÓ˚ˆÏòÓ˚ !ÓˆÏü°Ï ¢ˆÏhs˛y°Ï Óy ì,˛!Æ ãyˆÏÜ– !ì˛!ò Ñ˛ÖòÁ ÓˆÏúˆÏäÈò ~›˛y ~Ñ˛ ïÓ˚ˆÏòÓ˚ xyhs˛!Ó˚Ñ˛ üy!hs˛ñ ì˛ˆÏÓ ¢%ˆÏÖÓ˚ õˆÏì˛y £ˆÏúÁ
£Î˚ì˛ ˛ô%ˆÏÓ˚y˛ô%!Ó˚ ¢%Ö Óúy ÎyÎ˚ òy– xyÓyÓ˚ !ì˛!ò ÓˆÏúˆÏäÈò ˆÎ ~£z ˜ò!ì˛Ñ˛ Îy˛ôò ¢ls˛!‹T ≤ÃîyÎ˚Ñ˛ÈÙÙÙȈ¢!›˛ ~Ñ˛ ïÓ˚ˆÏòÓ˚ ¢%ÖÁ
ӈϛ˛– Ñ˛yˆÏr›˛Ó˚ õˆÏì˛ ~›˛y ¢%fl˛ô‹T ˆÎ ˆÑ˛yòÁ Ñ˛ˆÏõ≈Ó˚ ˜ò!ì˛Ñ˛õ)úƒ ì˛yÓ˚ ö˛úyö˛ˆÏúÓ˚ v˛z˛ôÓ˚ !ò¶≈˛Ó˚ Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ òy– ˛ô!Ó˚ˆÏüˆÏ°Ï ~£z ≤âˆÏD
Óúy ÎyÎ˚ ˆÎ Ñ˛yr›˛ !òÿ˛Î˚£z ~õò !ÓˆÏÓâ˛òy£#ò !äȈÏúò òy ˆÎ õˆÏò Ñ˛Ó˚ˆÏÓò ˆÎ Ñ˛ì≈˛ˆÏÓƒÓ˚ ãòƒ ˆÎ Ñ˛ì≈˛ÓƒÑ˛õ≈ñ ì˛y ¢¡ôߨ
£ˆÏú ì˛yÓ˚ ˆÑ˛yòÁ ˛ô!Ó˚íyõ Óy ö˛úyö˛ú ÌyÑ˛ˆÏÓ òy– ~£z ≤âˆÏD Ñ˛yr›˛Ó˚ Ó_´ˆÏÓƒ ˆÑ˛yòÁ mƒÌ≈Ñ˛ì˛y ˆò£z ≠ ì˛yÓ˚ Ó_´Óƒ Ñ˛ˆÏõ≈Ó˚

20
xyâ˛Ó˚ˆÏíÓ˚ ˆ˛ôäȈÏò Î!î Ñ˛y!Cì˛ ˆÑ˛yòÁ ö˛úyö˛úÁ ˆÌˆÏÑ˛ ÌyˆÏÑ˛ñ !Ñ˛ÇÓy ˆÎ ö˛úyö˛ú Óy ˛ô!Ó˚íyõ Ñ˛ˆÏõ≈Ó˚ xyâ˛Ó˚ˆÏíÓ˚ ö˛ˆÏú
v˛zq(ì˛ £Î˚ñ ˆ¢£z=!úÓ˚ ˆÑ˛yò!›˛Ó˚ myÓ˚y v˛z_´ Ñ˛õ≈yâ˛Ó˚ˆÏíÓ˚ ˜ò!ì˛Ñ˛ õ)úƒ !Óâ˛yÎ≈ òÎ˚– Ñ˛yˆÏr›˛Ó˚ Ó_´ˆÏÓƒÓ˚ õˆÏïƒ !îˆÏÎ˚ fl˛ô‹Tì˛
v˛z˛ôˆÏÎy!Üì˛yÓyî !òÓ˚yÑ,˛ì˛ £ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏäÈ–
õ)ú Ñ˛Ìy ¢ÇˆÏ«˛ˆÏ˛ô Óúy ÎyÎ˚ ≠ ÷¶˛ £zFäÈyü!_´ñ Îy Ñ˛ì≈˛ˆÏÓƒÓ˚ ãòƒ Ñ˛ì≈˛Óƒ Ñ˛õ≈ xyâ˛Ó˚ˆÏí ≤ÈÏíy!îì˛ Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ñ ì˛y ÷¶˛ £ˆÏÓñ
~ÓÇ ˆÎ ˆÑ˛yòÁ ˛ô!Ó˚ˆÏ≤Ã!«˛ì˛ ˆÌˆÏÑ˛£z– ~õò òÎ˚ ˆÎ ÷¶˛ £zFäÈyü!_´ ˆÑ˛yòÁ ~Ñ˛!›˛ ˛ô!Ó˚ˆÏ≤Ã!«˛ì˛ ˆÌˆÏÑ˛ ÷¶˛ £úñ !Ñ˛ls˛
x˛ôÓ˚ ˆÑ˛yòÁ ˛ô!Ó˚ˆÏ≤Ã!«˛ì˛ ˆÌˆÏÑ˛ xyÓ˚ ÷¶˛ £ú òy– ÷¶˛ £zFäÈyü!_´ ~õòÁ £Î˚ òy ˆÎ ˆÑ˛yòÁ ~Ñ˛!›˛ !ÓˆÏü°Ï v˛zˆÏjüƒ
¢yïˆÏòÓ˚ v˛z˛ôyÎ˚Ó˚*ˆÏ˛ô ÷¶˛ £úñ !Ñ˛ls˛ !¶˛ß¨ ˆÑ˛yòÁ v˛zˆÏjˆÏüƒ ¢yïˆÏòÓ˚ v˛z˛ôyÎ˚Ó˚*ˆÏ˛ô ÷¶˛ £ú òy– ÷¶˛ £zFäÈyü!_´ !ӰψÏÎ˚ ì˛y£z
îy!Ó Ñ˛Ó˚y £Î˚ ˆÎ ì˛y ˆÑ˛yòÁ üì˛≈¢yˆÏ˛ô«˛ ÷¶˛ òÎ˚ñ ÷¶˛ £zFäÈyü!_´ fl˛∫ì˛É÷¶˛–

3.5 Ñ˛yˆÏr›˛Ó˚ õˆÏì˛ £zFäÈyü!_´

Ñ˛yr›˛ fl˛ô‹T ¶˛y°ÏyÎ˚ ÓˆÏúˆÏäÈò ˆÎ ≤ÃÑ,˛!ì˛ˆÏì˛ ¢Ó !Ñ˛ä%È !Óïyò xò%¢yˆÏÓ˚ áˆÏ›˛– Ñ˛yr›˛ xyÓ˚Á ÓˆÏúˆÏäÈò ˆÎ ˆÑ˛Óúõye Ó%!k˛Ó,!_
¢¡ôߨ ≤Ãyí#Ó˚ S≤ÃyÑ,˛!ì˛Ñ˛V !ÓïyˆÏòÓ˚ xò%Ó˚*˛ô !e´Î˚yü#ú £ÁÎ˚yÓ˚ ˆÎy܃ì˛y xyˆÏäÈ ˆÎ!›˛Ó˚ x˛ôÓ˚ òyõ Ñ˛yˆÏr›˛Ó˚ ˛ô!Ó˚¶˛y°ÏyÎ˚ ÓƒÓ£y!Ó˚Ñ˛
≤ÃK˛y– £zFäÈyü!_´Ó˚ fl˛∫Ó˚*˛ô ãyòˆÏì˛ £ˆÏú Ñ˛yr›˛ !Ñ˛¶˛yˆÏÓ õòˆÏÑ˛ Ó%ˆÏG˛ˆÏäÈò ~£z !ӰψÏÎ˚ !Ñ˛ä%È xyˆÏúyâ˛òy Ñ˛Ó˚y îÓ˚Ñ˛yÓ˚– Ñ˛yr›˛ õˆÏòÓ˚
!ì˛ò!›˛ õ)ú ü!_´Ó˚ Ñ˛Ìy fl˛∫#Ñ˛yÓ˚ Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ˆÏäÈòñ ÎÌy K˛yòü!_´ñ xò%¶˛Óü!_´ ~ÓÇ £zFäÈyü!_´– fl˛∫¶˛yÓì˛ ~£z ü!_´=!ú ~ˆÏÑ˛ x˛ôˆÏÓ˚Ó˚
¢yˆÏÌ ¢!¡ø!úì˛ £ˆÏÎ˚ !e´Î˚yü#ú £ˆÏÎ˚ ÌyˆÏÑ˛– ~£z !ì˛ò õyò!¢Ñ˛ ü!_´Ó˚ õˆÏïƒ ˆÑ˛Óúõye £zFäÈyü!_´Ó˚ ˜Ó!ü‹Tƒ £ú K˛yòü!_´
Á xyˆÏÓÜ Óy xò%¶˛Óü!_´ÈÙÙÙÈ~£z v˛z¶˛ˆÏÎ˚Ó˚ ¢yˆÏÌ£z ¢!¡ø!úì˛ £ˆÏÎ˚ !e´Î˚yü#ú £ÁÎ˚y–
Ñ˛yr›˛ £zFäÈyü!_´Ó˚ ú«˛í ~£z¶˛yˆÏÓ ≤Ãîyò Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ˆÏäÈò≠ ~!›˛ ~õò ~Ñ˛ ˆÎy܃ì˛y ÎyÓ˚ myÓ˚y ˆÑ˛yòÁ Ólfl˛Ó˚ Óy Ólfl˛!fl˛i!ì˛Ó˚
≤Ã!ì˛Ó˚*˛ô Óy v˛z˛ôfl˛iy˛ôòy SõˆÏòÓ˚ ¢yõˆÏòV ≤Ãî!ü≈ì˛ £ˆÏì˛ ˛ôyˆÏÓ˚– ˆÑ˛yòÁ Ólfl˛ ¢Çe´yhs˛ £zFäÈy ˆ¢£z Ólfl˛!Ó°ÏÎ˚Ñ˛ ¢%Öyò%¶)˛!ì˛ ã!v˛¸ì˛
~Ñ˛ v˛z˛ôfl˛iy˛ôòy ˆ˛ôü Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚– !Ó˛ôÓ˚#ì˛ e´ˆÏõ Óúy ÎyÎ˚ñ ˆÑ˛yòÁ Ólfl˛ ¢Çe´yhs˛ x!òFäÈy Óy ˆm°Ï ˆ¢£z Ólfl˛!Ó°ÏÎ˚Ñ˛ x¢ˆÏhs˛y°Ïyò%¶)˛!ì˛
ã!v˛¸ì˛ ~Ñ˛ v˛z˛ôfl˛iy˛ôòy ì%˛ˆÏú ïˆÏÓ˚– £zFäÈyü!_´Ó˚ ˆÎ Ólfl˛Ó˚ Óy Ólfl˛!fl˛i!ì˛Ó˚ v˛z˛ôfl˛iy˛ôò ˆÎy܃ì˛y ì˛y Ñ˛ÖòÁ ¢ˆÏâ˛ì˛ò £ˆÏÎ˚ !Ñ˛ÇÓy
Ñ˛ÖòÁ xˆÏâ˛ì˛ò £ˆÏÎ˚Á !e´Î˚yü#ú £Î˚– £zFäÈyü!_´ ÎÖò ¢ˆÏâ˛ì˛ò òy £ˆÏÎ˚ Ólfl˛Ó˚ Óy Ólfl˛!fl˛i!ì˛Ó˚ ≤Ã!ì˛Ó˚*˛ô v˛z˛ôfl˛iy˛ôò ˆÎy܃
£Î˚ ì˛Öò ˆ¢£z £zFäÈyü!_´ˆÏÑ˛ Óúy ÎyÎ˚ Ñ˛yõòy– ãyÜ!ì˛Ñ˛ !Ó°ÏÎ˚ ¢Çe´yhs˛ £zFäÈyñ ˆ¢£z !Ó°ÏÎ˚!›˛Ó˚ v˛z˛ôfl˛iy˛ôòyÓ˚ õˆÏïƒ !îˆÏÎ˚ !Ó°ÏÎ˚!›˛
¢¡ôˆÏÑ≈˛ ¢%Öyò%¶)˛!ì˛Ó˚ v˛zˆÏoÑ˛ Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚– Ñ˛yr›˛ ÓúˆÏÓò ~£z v˛z!o_´ xò%¶)˛!ì˛ £ú impulse Óy xyˆÏÓü– £z!wÎ˚ã ¢%Ö x¶˛ƒyˆÏ¢
˛ô!Ó˚íì˛ £ˆÏú ì˛yˆÏÑ˛£z Óúy £Î˚ ≤ÃÓíì˛yñ Óy inclination–
£zFäÈyü!_´ !ӰψÏÎ˚ ¢yïyÓ˚í ˆÎ õhs˛Óƒ Ñ˛Ó˚y £ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏäÈ Ñ˛yˆÏr›˛Ó˚ õˆÏì˛ ì˛y ¢õyò¶˛yˆÏÓ£z Ó%!k˛Ó,!_ ¢¡ôߨ ≤Ãyí# ~ÓÇ !Óâ˛yÓ˚Ó%!k˛£#ò
˛ô÷Ó˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe ≤ÈÏÎyム£ˆÏì˛ ˛ôyÓ˚ˆÏÓ– !Óâ˛yÓ˚ Ó%!k˛£#ò ≤Ãyí# Îy!s˛fÑ˛¶˛yˆÏÓ xyˆÏÓÜâ˛y!úì˛ £ˆÏÎ˚ ~õò xyâ˛yÓ˚ Á xyâ˛Ó˚í Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚
ˆÎ=!ú fl˛∫¶˛yÓÜì˛ ≤ÃÓ,!_ Óy instinctÙÈ~Ó˚ myÓ˚y ˛ô)Ó≈ !òï≈y!Ó˚ì˛ £Î˚– !Óâ˛yÓ˚Ó%!k˛£#ò ≤Ãyí#Ó˚y xfl˛∫y¶˛y!ÓÑ˛¶˛yˆÏÓ xyˆÏÓÜ@˘Ãhfl˛ Á
¶˛Î˚yòÑ˛¶˛yˆÏÓ xyˆÏÓÜì˛y!v˛¸ì˛– ˛ô÷Ó˚y xyˆÏÓÜ ≤Ã!ì˛£ì˛ Ñ˛Ó˚ˆÏì˛˛ ôyˆÏÓ˚ òyó xÌÓy ˆÑ˛yòÁ £zFäÈyˆÏÑ˛ ì,˛Æ Ñ˛Ó˚ˆÏÓ !Ñ˛òyñ !Ñ˛ÇÓy
!Ñ˛¶˛yˆÏÓ ì,˛Æ Ñ˛Ó˚ˆÏì˛ ˛ôyÓ˚ˆÏÓñ ~£z !ӰψÏÎ˚ !¢k˛yhs˛ @˘Ã£í Ñ˛Ó˚ˆÏì˛ ˛ôyˆÏÓ˚ òy– ˛ô÷Ó˚y ˆÑ˛yòÁ xyîü≈ydÑ˛ õyò xò%¢yˆÏÓ˚ !Ñ˛ÇÓy
fl˛∫Î˚Ç ì˛yˆÏîÓ˚ xyâ˛yÓ˚ xyâ˛Ó˚í ˛ô!Ó˚â˛yúòy Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ òy– ˛ô÷ˆÏîÓ˚ ˆ¢£z xˆÏÌ≈ ì˛yˆÏîÓ˚ myÓ˚y xyâ˛!Ó˚ì˛ Ñ˛ˆÏõ≈ ˆÑ˛yòÁ Ñ˛ì,≈˛c ÌyˆÏÑ˛
òy ~ÓÇ ì˛yˆÏîÓ˚ !òˆÏãˆÏîÓ˚ !ӰψÏÎ˚ Ñ˛ì,≈˛ˆÏcÓ˚ ˆÑ˛yòÁ ïyÓ˚íy £Î˚ òy– Ñ˛yˆÏr›˛Ó˚ ~£z î,!‹TˆÏÑ˛yí ˆÌˆÏÑ˛£z ˆÓyG˛y ÎyÎ˚ ˆÎ !Óâ˛yÓ˚Ó%!k˛£#ò
≤Ãyí#Ó˚ Á Ó%!k˛ xyˆÏäÈ ~õò ≤Ãyí#Ó˚ Ñ˛õ≈yâ˛Ó˚í ≤âˆÏD ¢yî,üƒ !Ñ˛ÇÓy ˜Ó¢yî,ˆÏüƒÓ˚ ì%˛úòy Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ !Ñ˛¶˛yˆÏÓ õyò%ˆÏ°ÏÓ˚ ˜ò!ì˛Ñ˛ Ñ˛ì,≈˛ˆÏcÓ˚
fl˛∫Ó˚*˛ô ÓƒyÖƒy¢y

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 Ñ˛yˆÏr›˛Ó˚ õˆÏì˛ !òˆÏãÓ˚ v˛zˆÏjüƒ Ñ˛# £ˆÏÓ ˆ¢›˛y !fl˛iÓ˚ Ñ˛Ó˚ˆÏì˛ ˛ôyÓ˚y õyò !òˆÏî≈üydÑ˛ xyâ˛Ó˚ˆÏíÓ˚ !ÓˆÏü°Ïc– ˆÑ˛yòÁ v˛zˆÏjüƒ
!fl˛iÓ˚ Ñ˛Ó˚ˆÏì˛ ˛ôyÓ˚y Óy ≤Ãlfl˛ì˛ Ñ˛Ó˚ˆÏì˛ ˛ôyÓ˚yÓ˚ xÌ≈ £ú Ñ˛õ≈ ¢¡ôyîˆÏòÓ˚ !ò!õ_ xyd¢ÇÎì˛¶˛yˆÏÓ ˆÎ xyâ˛Ó˚í=!ú v˛z˛ôyÎ˚Ó˚*ˆÏ˛ô
@˘Ãy£ƒ !ÓˆÏÓ!â˛ì˛ £ˆÏì˛ ˛ôyˆÏÓ˚ ˆ¢£z=!úÓ˚ ˛ôyúò ¢yïò– ˛ô÷Ó˚ xyâ˛Ó˚ˆÏí Ñ˛ÖòÁ ¢ˆÏâ˛ì˛ò¶˛yˆÏÓ fl˛∫ÈÙÈ!òÓ˚*!˛ôì˛ v˛zˆÏjüƒõ%!Öì˛y ú«˛ƒ
Ñ˛Ó˚y ÎyÎ˚ òy– ˛ô÷Ó˚ xyâ˛Ó˚ˆÏí Îy úˆÏ«˛ƒ Ñ˛Ó˚y ÎyÎ˚ñ ì˛y £ú Îy!s˛fÑ˛ì˛yÓ˚ ˛ô!Ó˚íyõó ˆÎ ïÓ˚ˆÏòÓ˚ xyâ˛Ó˚í=!ú ˛ôyü!ÓÑ˛ ≤Ãyí#Ó˚
xyâ˛Ó˚íÜì˛ ¢£ã ≤ÃÓ,!_ Á ì˛yÓ˚ xyÎ˚_y£#ò ˆÑ˛Ôüú ˆÌˆÏÑ˛ v˛zqÓ £ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏäÈ– Ñ˛yr›˛ õˆÏò Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ˆÏäÈòñ ˆÎ £zFäÈyü!_´ Îy!s˛fÑ˛¶˛yˆÏÓ
xyˆÏÓˆÏÜÓ˚ ≤Ã!ì˛ ¢yv˛¸y !îˆÏÎ˚ ˛ô!Ó˚â˛y!úì˛ £Î˚ñ ˆ¢£z £zFäÈyü!_´ˆÏÑ˛ Óúy ÎyÎ˚ ÚõˆÏòyòÎ˚ˆÏòÓ˚ ˛ôyü!ÓÑ˛ ü!_´Û Óy 'brute power
of choice'– Ñ˛yr›˛ õˆÏòyòÎ˚ˆÏòÓ˚ õyò!ÓÑ˛ ü!_´ ~ÓÇ õˆÏòyòÎ˚ˆÏòÓ˚ ˛ôyü!ÓÑ˛ ü!_´Ó˚ õˆÏïƒ =Ó˚&c˛ô)í≈ ˛ôyÌ≈Ñ˛ƒ fl˛∫#Ñ˛yÓ˚ Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ˆÏäÈò–
õˆÏòyòÎ˚ˆÏòÓ˚ õyò!ÓÑ˛ ü!_´ õˆÏòyòÎ˚ˆÏòÓ˚ ˛ôyü!ÓÑ˛ ü!_´Ó˚ õì˛£z Ñ˛Öò £z!wÎ˚ãyì˛ xyˆÏÓˆÏÜÓ˚ myÓ˚y ì˛y!v˛¸ì˛ £ˆÏúÁ õˆÏòyòÎ˚ˆÏòÓ˚
õyò!ÓÑ˛ ü!_´Ó˚ fl˛∫yï#òì˛y ÌyˆÏÑ˛– fl˛∫yï#ò õˆÏòyòÎ˚ˆÏòÓ˚ ü!_´ Ñ˛yˆÏr›˛Ó˚ fl˛∫#Ñ,˛ì˛ £zFäÈyü!_´ Óy ≤ÃÓ,!_– Ó%!k˛ Ó,!_ ¢¡ôߨ ≤Ãyí#Ó˚
xyˆÏÓÜ ≤Ã!ì˛£ì˛ Ñ˛Ó˚yÓ˚ ¢yõÌ≈ƒ Óy ˆÎy܃ì˛y xyˆÏäÈ– ˆÓÔ!k˛Ñ˛ £zFäÈyü!_´ Ñ˛ÖòÁ £z!wÎ˚ã xyˆÏÓÜ myÓ˚y ˛ô!Ó˚â˛y!úì˛ ˆÎ £ˆÏì˛
˛ôyˆÏÓ˚ òyñ ~õò òÎ˚ñ !Ñ˛ls˛ ˆÓÔ!k˛Ñ˛ £zFäÈyü!_´ Ñ˛Öò£z ¢Ó≈îy £z!wÎ˚ã xyˆÏÓÜ myÓ˚y Îy!s˛fÑ˛¶˛yˆÏÓ !òÎ˚!s˛fì˛ £Î˚ òy– ˆÓÔ!k˛Ñ˛
£zFäÈyü!_´ £z!wÎ˚ã xyˆÏÓÜ myÓ˚y Ñ˛Öò£z ≤ö˛y!Óì˛ £ˆÏúÁ Ñ˛ÖòÁ ì˛y ˛ôyü!ÓÑ˛ õˆÏòyòÎ˚ò ü!_´Ó˚ õì˛ò Îy!s˛fÑ˛¶˛yˆÏÓ ˆÑ˛Óú
£z!wÎ˚ã xyˆÏÓÜ myÓ˚y !òï≈y!Ó˚ì˛ £Î˚ òy– ~ÖyˆÏò Óúy ÎyÎ˚ £z!wÎ˚ã xyˆÏÓÜ ≤Ãì˛ƒ«˛ Ó˚*ˆÏ˛ô Îy!s˛fÑ˛¶˛yˆÏÓ ˆÓÔ!k˛Ñ˛ £zFäÈyü!_´Ó˚
!e´Î˚yÑ˛úyˆÏ˛ôÓ˚ Ñ˛yÓ˚íÓ˚*ˆÏ˛ô ¢!e´Î˚ ÌyˆÏÑ˛ òy– Ó%!k˛ ü!_´Ó˚ !e´Î˚yÑ˛úyˆÏ˛ôÓ˚ ≤âˆÏD Ö%Ó ˆÓ!ü £ˆÏú Óúy ÎyÎ˚ñ £z!wÎ˚ã xyˆÏÓÜ
~Ñ˛ ïÓ˚ˆÏòÓ˚ v˛zj#˛ôòy Ó˚*ˆÏ˛ô ì˛ì˛›˛y£z ˆÑ˛Óúõye !òï≈yÓ˚í Ñ˛Ó˚ˆÏì˛ ˛ôyˆÏÓ˚ñ Îì˛›˛y ˆÑ˛yòÁ Óƒ!_´Ó˚ xyâ˛Ó˚í@˘Ãy£ƒ xydÜì˛ !òÎ˚ˆÏõÓ˚
¢yˆÏÌ £z!wÎ˚ã xyˆÏÓÜ õy!òˆÏÎ˚ !òˆÏì˛ ˛ôyÓ˚ˆÏÓ–

3.6 ÓƒÓ£y!Ó˚Ñ˛ ≤ÃK˛yÓ˚ î%£z !òÎ˚õ Á ≤ÃÑ,˛!ì˛Ó˚ !Óïyò

üì≈˛£#ò xò%K˛yÓ˚ ò#!ì˛¢)e Îy ¢yïyÓ˚í ˆúyˆÏÑ˛Ó˚ ˜ò!ì˛Ñ˛ì˛yÓ˚ ïyÓ˚íyÓ˚ õˆÏïƒ !ÓÓ˚yã Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ñ ˆ¢£z ¢ˆÏÓ≈yFⲠ˜ò!ì˛Ñ˛ì˛yÓ˚ ò#!ì˛Ó˚
xy!Ó‹ÒyÓ˚ Ñ˛yˆÏr›˛Ó˚ xòƒì˛õ xÓîyò– Ñ˛yr›˛ xò%¢yˆÏÓ˚ xyõÓ˚y Ó%G˛ˆÏì˛ ˛ôy!Ó˚ ˆÎ £zFäÈyü!_´Ó˚ fl˛∫yì˛ˆÏs˛fƒÓ˚ x«%˛]ì˛y Ó˚«˛y ˆ˛ôˆÏì˛
˛ôyˆÏÓ˚ ~£z Ñ˛yÓ˚ˆÏí£z ˆÎ ÓƒÓ£y!Ó˚Ñ˛ ≤ÃK˛y ˜ò!ì˛Ñ˛ì˛yÓ˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe xyõyˆÏîÓ˚ Ñ˛õ≈yâ˛Ó˚ˆÏí ˛≤ÈÏíy!îì˛ Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚– ÓƒÓ£y!Ó˚Ñ˛ ≤ÃK˛y ˆÌˆÏÑ˛
!¶˛ß¨ ~õò ˆÑ˛yòÁ !Ñ˛ä%È ˜ò!ì˛Ñ˛ Ñ˛õ≈yâ˛Ó˚ˆÏí ≤ÈÏíy!îì˛ Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ ~£zÓ˚Ñ˛õ fl˛∫#Ñ˛yÓ˚ Ñ˛Ó˚y £ˆÏú £zFäÈyü!_´Ó˚ fl˛∫yì˛s˛fƒ «%˛] £ˆÏÓ– ˆ¢ˆÏ«˛ˆÏe
£zFäÈyü!_´Ó˚ fl˛∫yì˛ˆÏs˛fƒÓ˚ ì˛_¥ ˛ô!Ó˚£yÓ˚ Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ £zFäÈyü!_´Ó˚ ˛ôyÓ˚ì˛ˆÏs˛fƒ xyfl˛iy Ó˚yÖˆÏì˛ £Î˚– îyü≈!òÑ˛ !£v˛zˆÏõÓ˚ õˆÏì˛y fl˛∫#Ñ˛yÓ˚ Ñ˛Ó˚ˆÏú
xyõyˆÏîÓ˚ ÓƒÓ£y!Ó˚Ñ˛ ≤ÃK˛y ˆÎ £z!wÎ˚ã £zFäÈyñ xyˆÏÓÜ £zì˛ƒy!îÓ˚ ˆÑ˛Óú îy¢õye ~£zÓ˚Ñ˛õ£z õyòˆÏì˛ £ˆÏÓ– ~£zÓ˚Ñ˛õ ˆõˆÏò
!òˆÏì˛ £ˆÏú Ñ˛yˆÏr›˛Ó˚ ≤Ãî!ü≈ì˛ ˛ôˆÏÌ ¢ˆÏÓ≈yFⲠ˜ò!ì˛Ñ˛ !òÎ˚õ ˆÎ üì≈˛ !òÓ˚ˆÏ˛ô«˛ xò%K˛y ~£z õì˛ ïˆÏÓ˚ Ó˚yÖy x¢Ω˛Ó £ˆÏÎ˚ ÎyˆÏÓ–
˜ò!ì˛Ñ˛ !òÎ˚õ ˆ¢ˆÏ«˛ˆÏe üì≈˛ !òÓ˚ˆÏ˛ô«˛ xò%K˛y ˆÌˆÏÑ˛ üì≈˛¢yˆÏ˛ô«˛ xò%K˛yÎ˚. ˛ôÎ≈Ó!¢ì˛ £ˆÏÓ– ¢ˆÏÓ≈yFⲠ˜ò!ì˛Ñ˛ !òÎ˚õ üì≈˛¢yˆÏ˛ô«˛
xò%K˛y ~£z ãyì˛#Î˚ õì˛yõì˛ ¢¡ô)í≈¶˛yˆÏÓ Ñ˛yˆÏr›˛Ó˚ õˆÏì˛Ó˚ !ÓˆÏÓ˚yï# õì˛ £ˆÏÓñ Ñ˛yÓ˚í Ñ˛yr›˛ üì≈˛!òÓ˚ˆÏ˛ô«˛ xyˆÏîü Ó˚*ˆÏ˛ô£z ˜ò!ì˛Ñ˛ì˛yÓ˚
ì˛yͲôÎ≈ xy!Ó‹ÒyÓ˚ Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ˆÏäÈò– üì≈˛¢yˆÏ˛ô«˛ xò%K˛y ˜ò!ì˛Ñ˛ì˛yÓ˚ ì˛_¥ÈÙÈ~õò îy!Ó ˆ¢£z Ñ˛yÓ˚ˆÏí ¢yïyÓ˚í Ó%!k˛Ó˚Á !ÓˆÏÓ˚y!ïì˛y Ñ˛Ó˚ˆÏÓ
Ñ˛yÓ˚í xyõyˆÏîÓ˚ xyˆÏúyâ˛òyÓ˚ ˛ô)ˆÏÓ≈£z ˆîˆÏÖ!äÈñ Ñ˛yr›˛ !Ñ˛¶˛yˆÏÓ !ӈϟ’°Ïí# ˛ôk˛!ì˛Ó˚ xyˆÏúyˆÏÑ˛ ¢yïyÓ˚í Ó%!k˛ˆÏì˛ ˜ò!ì˛Ñ˛ì˛yÓ˚ ïyÓ˚íy
ˆÎ ¶˛yˆÏÓ !ÓÓ˚yã Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ ì˛yÓ˚ fl˛∫Ó˚*˛ô v˛zîáy›˛ò Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ˆÏäÈò– ¢yïyÓ˚í Ó%!k˛ˆÏì˛ !Ñ˛¶˛yˆÏÓ ˜ò!ì˛Ñ˛ì˛y ˆÓyG˛y £ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏäÈ ì˛yÓ˚ ˆÌˆÏÑ˛£z
¢ˆÏÓ≈yFⲠ˜ò!ì˛Ñ˛ì˛yÓ˚ !òÎ˚õ Ó˚*ˆÏ˛ô üì≈˛ !òÓ˚ˆÏ˛ô«˛ xò%K˛yÓ˚ ïyÓ˚íy !òÈÉ¢,ì˛ £ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏäÈ– ~£z õˆÏì˛Ó˚ !ÓˆÏÓ˚y!ïì˛y ˆÌˆÏÑ˛ ˜ò!ì˛Ñ˛ì˛yÓ˚
!Ñ˛ä%È£z xÓ!ü‹T ÌyÑ˛ˆÏì˛ ˛ôyˆÏÓ˚ òy– Ñ˛yˆÏr›˛Ó˚ õˆÏì˛ ˜ò!ì˛Ñ˛ì˛yÓ˚ ≤Ãïyò !ÓˆÏü°Ïc £zFäÈyü!_´Ó˚ fl˛∫yì˛s˛fƒ– Ñ˛yˆÏr›˛Ó˚ õˆÏì˛ ÓƒÓ£y!Ó˚Ñ˛
≤ÃK˛yÓ˚ Ñ˛õ≈yâ˛Ó˚ˆÏí ≤ÈÏíyîòy ˜ò!ì˛Ñ˛ fl˛∫yì˛ˆÏs˛fƒÓ˚ !ÓˆÏü°Ïc– Ñ˛yˆÏr›˛Ó˚ õˆÏì˛ ˆÎ ¢Ó îyü≈!òˆÏÑ˛Ó˚y ˜ò!ì˛Ñ˛ì˛yÓ˚ fl˛∫Ó˚*˛ô ˛ôÓ˚ì˛s˛fì˛yÓ˚
¢y£yˆÏ΃ ÓƒyÖƒy Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ˆÏäÈò ì˛yÓ˚y ≤ÃÑ,˛ì˛˛ôˆÏ«˛ ˜ò!ì˛Ñ˛ì˛yÓ˚ òyˆÏõ ¢yõy!ãÑ˛ õòfl˛Òì˛yÓ˚ ˛ôÎ≈yˆÏúyâ˛òy Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ˆÏäÈòñ x!¶˛K˛ì˛y !ò¶≈˛Ó˚
ò,ì˛_¥ ˛ô!Ó˚ˆÏÓüò Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ˆÏäÈò–

22
 @˘Ãyv˛zu˛ ÁÎ˚yˆÏÑ≈˛ Ñ˛yr›˛ fl˛ô‹Tì˛ ÓˆÏúˆÏäÈò ˆÎ ≤ÃÑ,˛!ì˛ !Óïyò myÓ˚y ˛ô!Ó˚â˛y!úì˛– ≤ÃyÑ,˛!ì˛Ñ˛ ã܈Ïì˛ Îy !Ñ˛ä%È ˛ô!Ó˚Óì≈˛ò áˆÏ›˛ñ
Ñ˛yÎ≈Ñ˛yÓ˚í !òÎ˚õ xò%¢yˆÏÓ˚ áˆÏ›˛ñ ¢%ì˛Ó˚yÇ Îy !Ñ˛ä%È£z áˆÏ›˛ˆÏäÈ ì˛y£z ˆÑ˛yòÁ Ñ˛yÓ˚ˆÏíÓ˚ v˛z˛ôÎ%_´ Ñ˛yÎ≈ Ó˚*ˆÏ˛ô£z Üíò#Î˚– õyò%°ÏÓ˚*˛ô
Ó%!k˛ Ó,!_ ¢¡ôߨ ≤Ãyí# fl˛∫yï#òÈÙÙÙÈ~õò îy!Ó Ñ˛Ó˚yÓ˚ xÌ≈ ~õò òÎ˚ ˆÎ õyò%°Ï !òÎ˚õ£#ò ¶˛yˆÏÓ Ñ˛õ≈yâ˛Ó˚í Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚– ÓÓ˚Ç Óúy
ÎyÎ˚ ˆÎ õyò%ˆÏ°ÏÓ˚ fl˛∫yï#òì˛yÓ˚ ã܈Ïì˛ ˜ò!ì˛Ñ˛ì˛yÓ˚ !òãfl˛∫ !Óïyò xyˆÏäÈñ ÎÌy ˆÓÔ!k˛Ñ˛ xyd!òÎ˚s˛fˆÏíÓ˚ !Óïyò ~ÓÇ fl˛∫yì˛ˆÏs˛fƒÓ˚
!òÎ˚õ– Ñ˛yr›˛ xò%¢yˆÏÓ˚ Óúy ÎyÎ˚ ˆÎ xyõ)ú £zFäÈyü!_´ ~õò ˆÑ˛yˆÏòy xy!dÑ˛ Óƒ!_´Üì˛ !òÎ˚õ myÓ˚y !òï≈yÓ˚ì˛ £ˆÏÎ˚ ÌyÑ˛ˆÏì˛
˛ôyˆÏÓ˚ Îy ~Ñ˛£z Ñ˛yˆÏú ¢y!Ó≈Ñ˛ fl˛∫yï#ò £zFäÈyü!_´Ó˚ !òÎ˚õ £ˆÏì˛ ˛ôyˆÏÓ˚– ~Öyò ˆÌˆÏÑ˛ ˜ò!ì˛Ñ˛ì˛yÓ˚ ÷Ó˚&– Ñ˛yr›˛ ÓˆÏúˆÏäÈò≠ Úfl˛∫yï#ò
£zFäÈyü!_´ ~ÓÇñ ˜ò!ì˛Ñ˛ !òÎ˚õ !òÓ˚*!˛ôì˛ £zFäÈyü!_´ ~Ñ˛£z–
Ñ˛yˆÏr›˛Ó˚ õˆÏì˛ ~£z üì≈˛ !òÓ˚ˆÏ˛ô«˛ xò%K˛y ~Ñ˛›˛y£z– üì≈˛!òÓ˚ˆÏ˛ô«˛ xò%K˛yÓ˚ !Ó!¶˛ß¨ ≤ÃÑ˛yÓ˚ ¢)eyÎ˚í ˛ô!Ó˚ˆÏÓüò Ñ˛Ó˚yÓ˚ xyˆÏÜ
Ñ˛ˆÏÎ˚Ñ˛!›˛ ˛ôy!Ó˚¶˛y!°ÏÑ˛ ˛ôî !ÓˆÏü°Ïñ Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ 'maxim' Óy subjective principle, objective principle, law £zì˛ƒy!î Ñ˛yr›˛ !Ñ˛¶˛yˆÏÓ
Ó%ˆÏG˛ˆÏäÈò ˆ¢£z !ӰψÏÎ˚ xyˆÏúyÑ˛˛ôyì˛ Ñ˛Ó˚y ≤ÈÏÎ˚yãò– Ñ˛yˆÏr›˛Ó˚ ì˛_¥ xò%¢yˆÏÓ˚ xyâ˛!Ó˚ì˛ Ñ˛ˆÏõ≈Ó˚ ˜ò!ì˛Ñ˛ õ)úƒ Ñ˛ˆÏõ≈Ó˚ ö˛úyö˛ˆÏúÓ˚
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xyÓ˚Á ÓúˆÏäÈòñ Ñ˛ˆÏõ≈Ó˚ ˜ò!ì˛Ñ˛ v˛zÍÑ˛°Ï≈ xyˆÏ¢ xyâ˛!Ó˚ì˛ Ñ˛ˆÏõ≈ xò%¢,ì˛ ˆò˛ôˆÏ̃ ÌyÑ˛y !òÎ˚õ Óy õƒy!:õ ˆÌˆÏÑ˛– fl˛∫¶˛yÓì˛ ≤ß¿
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ˆÎ=!ú xydÜì˛ !òÎ˚õñ ˆÎ !òÎ˚õ xÓú¡∫ò Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ Ñ˛ì≈˛y ˆfl˛∫FäÈyÎ˚ Ñ˛õ≈yâ˛Ó˚í Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚– ~£z !òÎ˚õ=!ú Óƒ!_´Üì˛ !òÎ˚õñ ˆ¢£z Ñ˛yÓ˚ˆÏí
Óƒ!_´ˆÏ¶˛ˆÏî !¶˛ß¨ £ˆÏì˛ ˛ôyˆÏÓ˚ ~ÓÇ Ó˝ˆÏ«˛ˆÏe !¶˛ß¨ £Î˚£z– ~£z xydÜì˛ Óy !Ó°ÏÎ˚Üì˛ !òÎ˚õ ˆÌˆÏÑ˛ !¶˛ß¨ xyˆÏÓ˚Ñ˛ ≤ÃÑ˛yÓ˚ !òÎ˚ˆÏõÓ˚
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≤Ãyí# ì˛yÓ˚y£z ÎyˆÏîÓ˚ Ñ˛õ≈yâ˛Ó˚í ˆÑ˛yòÓ˚Ñ˛õ xyˆÏÓÜ xò%¶)˛!ì˛ £zì˛ƒy!îÓ˚ myÓ˚y ˆÑ˛yò¶˛yˆÏÓ£z Óƒy£ì˛ òy £ˆÏÎ˚Á ˛ô%ˆÏÓ˚y˛ô%!Ó˚ Ó%!k˛Ó,!_
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maxim Ó˚*ˆÏ˛ô xÓüƒ£z Ólfl˛Üì˛ !òÎ˚õ ˆÌˆÏÑ˛ !¶˛ß¨ Ñ˛yÓ˚í Ñ˛ì≈˛yÓ˚ ˆÑ˛yò Ñ˛õ≈ xyâ˛Ó˚ˆÏíÓ˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe ˆ¢£z Ñ˛ì≈˛yÓƒ!_´Ó˚ ãòƒ ˜Óï
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â˛y£zˆÏì˛ Ñ˛yr›˛ ÎÖò ÓúˆÏäÈò ˆÎ ˆÑ˛yò Ñ˛õ≈ xyâ˛Ó˚ˆÏíÓ˚ ˆ˛ôäȈÏò Ñ˛ì≈˛yÓ˚ Óƒ!_´Üì˛ xy!dÑ˛ ˆÑ˛yò !Î˚õ xyˆÏäÈñ ì˛Öò ˆ¢£z xÓú!¡∫ì˛
v˛zˆÏjüƒ ¢Ó≈ãò@˘Ã£ƒ ~£zÓ˚*ˆÏ˛ô Ñ˛ì≈˛y @˘Ã£í Ñ˛Ó˚ˆÏì˛ ˛ôyˆÏÓ˚ò– Ñ˛õ≈yâ˛Ó˚ˆÏí ≤ÃÓ,!_Ó˚ Ñ˛yÓ˚í Ó˚*ˆÏ˛ô v˛z˛ô!fl˛iì˛ v˛zˆÏjˆÏüƒÓ˚ ¢yõyòƒ#Ñ˛Ó˚í
~Ñ˛õye Ó%!k˛Ó,!_ ¢¡ôߨ ≤Ãyí#Ó˚ ˛ôˆÏ«˛£z ¢Ω˛Ó– ¢%ì˛Ó˚yÇ Óúy ÎyÎ˚ ~£z ãyì˛#Î˚ !òÎ˚õ Ó%!k˛Ó,!_ ¢¡ôߨ ≤Ãyí#Ó˚ Ñ˛õ≈yâ˛Ó˚ˆÏíÓ˚
ˆ˛ôäȈÏò ÌyˆÏÑ˛– ˆÑ˛yòÁ Óƒ!_´ xyd£ì˛ƒy Ñ˛Ó˚ˆÏì˛ ≤Ãlfl˛ì˛ £ˆÏFäÈòñ Ñ˛yÓ˚í õˆÏò Ñ˛Ó˚ˆÏäÈò ì˛yÓ˚ ã#ÓˆÏò ¢%ˆÏÖÓ˚ â˛y£zˆÏì˛ î%ɈÏÖÓ˚
ˆÓyG˛y xˆÏòÑ˛ ¶˛y!Ó˚ñ ~ÓÇ ì˛ÖòÁ !ì˛!ò Óƒ!_´Üì˛ xy!dÑ˛ !òÎ˚õ xò%¢Ó˚í Ñ˛Ó˚ˆÏäÈò– ì˛yÓ˚ xÓú¡∫ˆÏòÓ˚ ãòƒ !òÎ˚õ!›˛Ó˚ Ñ˛Ìy
~£zÓ˚Ñ˛õ ¶˛yÓy ˆÎˆÏì˛ ˛ôyˆÏÓ˚≠ ÚÎ!î ã#Óò xyõyÓ˚ ãòƒ x!ïÑ˛ î%ÉÖãòÑ˛ £Î˚ñ ì˛y£ˆÏú xy!õ xyd£ì˛ƒy Ñ˛Ó˚ˆÏì˛ ˛ôy!Ó˚Ûñ xÌ≈yÍ
Ó%!k˛Ó,!_ ¢¡ôߨ ≤Ãyí# ì˛yÍ«˛!íÑ˛ ˆÑ˛yòÁ v˛zˆÏ_ãÑ˛ Óy xyˆÏÓÜ Óüì˛ Ñ˛ˆÏõ≈ ≤ÃÓ,_ òy £ˆÏÎ˚ ÓÓ˚Ç Óúy ÎyÎ˚ ˆÎ ˆÑ˛yòÁ !ÓˆÏü°Ï
Ñ˛õ≈yâ˛Ó˚ˆÏíÓ˚ ˆ˛ôäȈÏò ˆÎ v˛zˆÏmyïÑ˛ ˆ£ì%˛ Óy Ñ˛yÓ˚í ̈ÏÑ˛ ˆÎ!›˛ˆÏÑ˛ ~Ñ˛¶˛yˆÏÓ ¢yïyÓ˚í# Ñ˛Ó˚í Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ @˘Ã£í Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚– ì˛ˆÏÓ xÓüƒ£z
Ñ˛yr›˛ îy!Ó Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ò òy ˆÎ ~£z ãyì˛#Î˚ Óƒ!_´Üì˛ xy!dÑ˛ !òÎ˚õ Óy maxim !Ó°ÏÎ˚Üì˛ !òÎ˚ˆÏõÓ˚ ¢yˆÏÌ ¢yõyòƒ#Ñ˛Ó˚í Óy
¢yïyÓ˚í#Ñ˛Ó˚ˆÏíÓ˚ õyeyÓ˚ !îÑ˛ ˆÌˆÏÑ˛ ì%˛úò#Î˚ £ˆÏì˛ ˛ôyˆÏÓ˚– Ñ˛yr›˛ ˆÑ˛yò £z!wÎ˚ã v˛zˆÏ_ãòy Óy xyˆÏÓÜÓüì˛ ¢Ó˚y¢!Ó˚ fl˛ô‹T
Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ Ñ˛õ≈yâ˛Ó˚ˆÏí ≤ÃÓ,_ £ÁÎ˚y ~ÓÇ ˆÑ˛yò v˛zˆÏ_ãòyñ xyˆÏÓÜ Óy xòƒ ˆÑ˛yò Ñ˛õ≈yâ˛Ó˚ˆÏíÓ˚ !ò!õ_ˆÏÑ˛ ¢yïyÓ˚í#Ñ˛Ó˚í Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ Ñ˛õ≈yâ˛Ó˚ˆÏí
≤ÃÓ,_ £ÁÎ˚yÓ˚ õˆÏïƒ ˛ôyÌ≈Ñ˛ƒ Ñ˛Ó˚ˆÏì˛ ˆâ˛ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏäÈò– Ñ˛yˆÏr›˛Ó˚ õˆÏì˛ Ó%!k˛Ó,!_ ¢¡ôߨ ≤Ãyí#Ó˚ !ÓˆÏü°Ïc ¢yïyÓ˚íì˛ xı˛ xyˆÏÓÜ v˛zˆÏ_ãòy
myÓ˚y ˛ô!Ó˚â˛y!úì˛ òy £ÁÎ˚y– xı˛ xyˆÏÓÜ v˛zˆÏ_ãòy myÓ˚y ˛˛ô!Ó˚â˛y!úì˛ £ÁÎ˚y ˛ô÷Ó˚ ˜Ó!ü‹Tƒñ õyò%°Ï ˆÑ˛yò ˆÑ˛yò Óƒ!ì˛e´õ#

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fl˛iˆÏú ˆ¢£z¶˛yˆÏÓ Ñ˛õ≈yâ˛Ó˚ˆÏí ≤ÃÓ,_ £ˆÏú ˛ô÷ì%˛úƒ !ÓˆÏÓâ˛ƒ £Î˚– ˛ô÷Ó,!_ ¢¡ôߨ ≤Ãyí#Ó˚ !ÓˆÏü°Ïc £ú ˜ã!ÓÑ˛ ≤ÈÏÎ˚yãòÓüì˛ñ
«%˛ïy !˛ô˛ôy¢yÓüì˛ Ñ˛ˆÏõ≈ ≤ÃÓ,_ £ÁÎ˚yó !Ñ˛ls˛ Ó%!k˛Ó,!_ ¢¡ôߨ ≤Ãyí#Ó˚ ˆÓyïü!_´ xyˆÏäÈ ~ÓÇ ˆÓyïü!_´ myÓ˚y ì˛yÓ˚ Ñ˛ˆÏõ≈Ó˚
xyâ˛Ó˚ˆÏíÓ˚ ˆÎ v˛zˆÏjüƒ ˆ¢!›˛ˆÏÑ˛ ¢Ó≈ãò ≤ÈÏÎyãƒ Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ Ñ˛ˆÏõ≈ ≤ÃÓ,_ £ÁÎ˚y v˛z_´ ≤Ãyí#Ó˚ !ÓˆÏü°Ïc– õyò%°Ï Ó%!k˛Ó,!_ ¢¡ôߨ ≤Ãyí#
ì˛y£z õyò%ˆÏ°ÏÓ˚ Ñ˛ˆÏõ≈ ≤ÃÓ,!_Ó˚ ˆ˛ôäȈÏò ~£z ïÓ˚ˆÏòÓ˚ !Ó°ÏÎ˚#Üì˛ !ò!î≈‹T !òÎ˚õ Óy maxim Ñ˛yã Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚–
~Öò v˛zˆÏÕ‘ÖˆÏÎy܃ Ó%!k˛Ó,!_ ¢¡ôߨ £ÁÎ˚yÓ˚ ö˛ˆÏú ˆÓyïü!_´Ó˚ ¢£yÎ˚ì˛yÎ˚ Ñ˛õ≈yâ˛Ó˚ˆÏíÓ˚ ˆ˛ôäȈÏò ˆÎ ˆ£ì%˛ ÌyˆÏÑ˛ñ ì˛yÓ˚
fl˛∫Ó˚*˛ô Îy£z ˆ£yÑ˛ òy ˆÑ˛òñ ˆ¢£z ˆ£ì%˛!›˛ˆÏÑ˛ ¢y!Ó≈Ñ˛#Ñ˛Ó˚í ≤Ã!e´Î˚y myÓ˚y Ñ˛õ≈yâ˛Ó˚ˆÏí ˆÑ˛ò ≤ÃÓ,!_ £ú ì˛y ÓƒyÖƒy Ñ˛Ó˚y ÎyÎ˚–
ˆÑ˛yòÁ Ñ˛õ≈yâ˛Ó˚ˆÏíÓ˚ ˆ˛ôäȈÏò ˆÎ ¢y!Ó≈Ñ˛ò#!ì˛ Ñ˛yã Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ ˆ¢£z=!ú òyòy ïÓ˚ˆÏòÓ˚ £z!wÎ˚ã xyˆÏÓÜ ≤ÃÓíì˛y £zì˛ƒy!î ≤â)ì˛
£ˆÏì˛ ˛ôyˆÏÓ˚ ˆÎõò xyd£ì˛ƒy Ó˚*˛ô Ñ˛ˆÏõ≈ ≤ÃÓ,!_ £ÁÎ˚yÓ˚ ˆ˛ôäȈÏò ˆÎ ¢y!Ó≈Ñ˛ò#!ì˛ Ñ˛yã Ñ˛Ó˚ˆÏì˛ ˛ôyˆÏÓ˚ xyõÓ˚y ˆîˆÏÖ!äÈ ˆ¢!›˛
¢Ω˛Óì˛ ~õò £ˆÏì˛ ˛ôyˆÏÓ˚ñ ÎÌy ÚÎ!î ã#Óò ¢%ˆÏÖÓ˚ â˛y£zˆÏì˛ ˆÓ!ü î%ÉÖ≤Ãî £Î˚ñ ì˛y£ˆÏú xy!õ xyd£ì˛ƒy Ñ˛Ó˚ˆÏì˛ ˛ôy!Ó˚Ûñ Óy
~£z ãyì˛#Î˚ ˆÑ˛yòÁ ¢yïyÓ˚í !òÎ˚õ– !Ñ˛ls˛ ~£z ïÓ˚ˆÏòÓ˚ Óƒ!_´Üì˛ xy!dÑ˛ !òÎ˚õ ¢Ó≈ãò#ò !òÎ˚õÓ˚*ˆÏ˛ô ≤ÃÑ,˛ì˛ xˆÏÌ≈ Ñ˛Öò£z
Ü,£#ì˛ £ÓyÓ˚ ˆÎy܃ òÎ˚ Ñ˛yÓ˚í ~£z xy!dÑ˛ !òÎ˚õ !Ó°ÏÎ˚Üì˛ !òÎ˚ˆÏõÓ˚ õˆÏì˛y ¢Ñ˛ú Ó%!k˛Ó,!_ ¢¡ôߨ õyò%ˆÏ°ÏÓ˚ Ñ˛yˆÏäÈ Ñ˛õ≈yâ˛Ó˚ˆÏíÓ˚
Ñ˛yÓ˚í Ó˚*ˆÏ˛ô ˜Óï ÓˆÏú Ü,£#ì˛ £ˆÏì˛ ˛ôyˆÏÓ˚ òy–
õyò%ˆÏ°ÏÓ˚ xyâ˛Ó˚ˆÏíÓ˚ !¶˛!_ˆÏì˛ ˆÎ ˆÎ xy!dÑ˛ !òÎ˚õ xÓú¡∫ò Ñ˛Ó˚y £Î˚ñ ˆ¢=!ú Î!î xyd£ì˛ƒyÓ˚*˛ô Ñ˛õ≈yâ˛Ó˚ˆÏíÓ˚ !¶˛!_Ó˚*ˆÏ˛ô
≤Ãî_ xy!dÑ˛ !òÎ˚ˆÏõÓ˚ õˆÏì˛y ˆÑ˛Óú £Î˚ñ ì˛y£ˆÏú ˆ¢£zÓ˚Ñ˛õ ˆÑ˛yòÁ xy!dÑ˛ !òÎ˚õ Ó%!k˛Ó,!_ ¢¡ôߨ ≤Ãyí#Ó˚ Ñ˛õ≈yâ˛Ó˚ˆÏíÓ˚ !¶˛!_
Ó˚*ˆÏ˛ô @˘Ã£í#Î˚ £ˆÏì˛ ˛ôyˆÏÓ˚ òy– ¢%ì˛Ó˚yÇ ˆÓyG˛y ÎyÎ˚ Ñ˛õ≈yâ˛Ó˚ˆÏíÓ˚ !¶˛!_Ó˚*ˆÏ˛ô ˆÎ !òÎ˚õ=!ú ¢yïyÓ˚íì˛ xyõÓ˚y xÓú¡∫ò Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚
Ìy!Ñ˛ñ ˆ¢£z !òÎ˚õ=!ú ˆõy›˛yõ%!›˛ î%£z ≤ÃÑ˛yˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ £ˆÏì˛ ˛ôyˆÏÓ˚ ≠
S1V Óƒ!_´Üì˛ xy!dÑ˛ !òÎ˚õ ˆÎ=!ú £z!wÎ˚ã ≤ÃÓíì˛y ≤â)ì˛
S2V Óƒ!_´Üì˛ xy!dÑ˛ !òÎ˚õ ˆÎ=!ú ˆÑ˛yòÁ £z!wÎ˚ã ≤ÃÓíì˛y ≤â)ì˛ òÎ˚–
¢%ì˛Ó˚yÇ Óƒ!_´Üì˛ xy!dÑ˛ !òÎ˚õ=!úñ ˆÎ=!ú £z!wÎ˚ã ≤ÃÓíì˛y ≤â)ì˛ñ ˆ¢=!ú x!¶˛K˛ì˛y!¶˛!_Ñ˛ ~ÓÇ ˛ôÓ˚ì˛¢yïƒ !òÎ˚õ–
Ñ˛yˆÏr›˛Ó˚ ˛ô!Ó˚¶˛y°ÏyÎ˚ ~£z=!úˆÏÑ˛ Óúy ÎyÎ˚ v˛z˛ôyîyò!¶˛!_Ñ˛ Óƒ!_´Üì˛ xy!dÑ˛ !òÎ˚õ– ~£z ïÓ˚ˆÏòÓ˚ Óƒ!_´Üì˛ xy!dÑ˛ !òÎ˚ˆÏõÓ˚
ˆÌˆÏÑ˛ fl˛ô‹Tì˛ !¶˛ß¨ £Î˚ ˆ¢£z ¢Ó !òÎ˚õ=!ú ˆÎ=!ú ˆÑ˛yòÁ £z!wÎ˚ã ≤ÃÓíì˛y ≤â)ì˛ òÎ˚ñ ˆÎ=!ú ˛ô)Ó≈ì˛!¢k˛ !òÎ˚õ Óy Ñ˛yˆÏr›˛Ó˚
˛ô!Ó˚¶˛y°ÏyÎ˚ ˆ¢=ˆÏúy £ú xyÑ˛yÓ˚!¶˛!_Ñ˛ Óƒ!_´Üì˛ xy!dÑ˛ !òÎ˚õ–
xy!dÑ˛ Óƒ!_´Üì˛ !òÎ˚õ õye£z !Ó°ÏÎ˚!ò¤˛ !òÎ˚õ òy £ˆÏì˛ ˛ôyÓ˚ˆÏúÁ Ñ˛yˆÏr›˛Ó˚ ò#!ì˛ì˛_¥yò%¢yˆÏÓ˚ ˆÑ˛yò ˆÑ˛yò xy!dÑ˛ Óƒ!_´Üì˛
!òÎ˚ˆÏõÓ˚£z ˆÎy܃ì˛y xyˆÏäÈ !Ó°ÏÎ˚!ò¤˛ !òÎ˚ˆÏõÓ˚ ˛ôÎ≈yˆÏÎ˚ v˛zߨ#ì˛ £ÁÎ˚yÓ˚– Ñ˛yˆÏr›˛Ó˚ ò#!ì˛ ì˛ˆÏ_¥Ó˚ õ)ú xÌ≈ ˆÓyïÜõƒ £ÓyÓ˚ ~!›˛
~Ñ˛ =Ó˚&c˛ô)í≈ ˆ¢y˛ôyò– xyÑ˛yÓ˚ !¶˛!_Ñ˛ !òÎ˚õ£z £ú !Ó°ÏÎ˚!ò¤˛ !òÎ˚ˆÏõÓ˚£z òyõyhs˛Ó˚ñ ˆÎ=!ú xò%¢yˆÏÓ˚ ˆÎ ˆÑ˛yò Ó%!k˛õyò
Óƒ!_´ Ñ˛õyâ˛Ó˚í Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚– ˆÑ˛yò Ñ˛õ≈yâ˛yÓ˚í ÎÖò Ñ˛ì≈˛ˆÏÓƒÓ˚ ãòƒñ Ñ˛ì≈˛ÓƒÓ˚*ˆÏ˛ô Ñ,˛ì˛ £Î˚ñ ì˛Öò ˆ¢£z Ñ˛ˆÏõ≈Ó˚ ˜ò!ì˛Ñ˛ =íy=íñ ˆ¢£z
Ñ˛õ≈yâ˛Ó˚í ãòƒ v˛zq$ì˛ ˆÑ˛yòÁ ˛ô!Ó˚íyõ Óy x!¶˛ˆÏ≤Ãì˛ ˛ô!Ó˚íyõ v˛zͲôߨ Ñ˛Ó˚yÓ˚ ãòƒ ˆÑ˛yòÁ ≤ÈÏⲋTyñ ì˛yÓ˚y myÓ˚y !òï≈y!Ó˚ì˛ £Î˚
òy– ¢îyâ˛yÓ˚# Óƒ!_´ !Î!ò Ñ˛ì≈˛ˆÏÓƒÓ˚ ãòƒ Ñ˛ì≈˛Óƒ ¢¡ôߨ Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚òñ ÎyÓ˚ xyâ˛Ó˚ˆÏíÓ˚ õˆÏïƒ !îˆÏÎ˚ ÷¶˛ £zFäÈyü!_´Ó˚ ≤ÃÑ˛yü áˆÏ›˛ñ
!ì˛!ò ~õò ˆÑ˛yòÁ !òÎ˚õÓüì˛ Îy ˆÑ˛yòÁ ˛ô!Ó˚íyõ v˛zqÓ Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ Óy ì˛yÓ˚ x!¶˛ˆÏ≤Ãì˛ ˛ô!Ó˚íyõ v˛zqÓ Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ ì˛yÓ˚ ãòƒ Ñ˛õ≈yâ˛Ó˚í
Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ò òyñ ì˛ˆÏÓ á›˛òye´ˆÏõ ˆ¢£z Ñ˛õ≈yâ˛Ó˚ˆÏíÓ˚ ãòƒ v˛zq(ì˛ ˛ô!Ó˚íyõ ì˛yÓ˚ x!¶˛ˆÏ≤Ãì˛ ˛ô!Ó˚íyõ £ˆÏì˛ ˛ôyˆÏÓ˚–
¢%ì˛Ó˚yÇ ~ÖyˆÏò ú«˛í#Î˚ Ñ˛yˆÏr›˛Ó˚ ˜ò!ì˛Ñ˛ ì˛_¥ ˆÑ˛yòÁ Ñ˛ˆÏ‡˛yÓ˚ !òÎ˚õyò%Ó!ì≈˛ì˛yÓ˚ ˜ò!ì˛Ñ˛ì˛Ï_¥ ÓˆÏú õˆÏò Ñ˛Ó˚y Ñ˛ì˛î)Ó˚
ºy!hs˛ãòÑ˛– Ñ˛yr›˛ˆÏÑ˛ xˆÏòˆÏÑ˛ ÓˆÏúˆÏäÈò ÚxyˆÏÓÜ!ÓÓ˚!£ì˛ ò#!ì˛ì˛y!_¥Ñ˛Û– Ñ˛yˆÏr›˛Ó˚ Ó_´Óƒ xì˛ƒhs˛ ˛ô!Ó˚‹ÒyÓ˚ñ ˆ¢ÖyˆÏò ˆÑ˛yòÁ
mƒÌ≈Ñ˛ì˛y ˆò£z– v˛z˛ôyîyò !¶˛!_Ñ˛ Óƒ!_´Üì˛ xy!dÑ˛ !òÎ˚õ myÓ˚y xyâ˛!Ó˚ì˛ Ñ˛ˆÏõ≈Ó˚ ˆÑ˛yòÁ ˜ò!ì˛Ñ˛ õ)úƒ !òk≈˛y!Ó˚ì˛ £Î˚ òy–
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Ñ˛yˆÏr›˛Ó˚ Ó_´Óƒ £úñ Ñ˛ì≈˛ˆÏÓƒÓ˚ ãòƒ Ñ˛ì≈˛Óƒ xyâ˛!Ó˚ì˛ £ˆÏú ˆ¢£z Ñ˛ˆÏõ≈Ó˚ ˜ò!ì˛Ñ˛ õyò ˛ô!Ó˚íyõ !òÓ˚ˆÏ˛ô«˛¶˛yˆÏÓ xyÑ˛yÓ˚!¶˛!_Ñ˛
!òÎ˚õ myÓ˚y !òÓ˚*!˛ôì˛ £Î˚–
Ñ˛yˆÏr›˛Ó˚ õˆÏì˛ !ÓïyˆÏòÓ˚ ˜Ó!ü‹Tƒ £ú ˆ¢!›˛ ¢y!Ó≈Ñ˛– ≤ÃÑ,˛!ì˛Ó˚ !Óïyò ¢y!Ó≈Ñ˛ ¢%ì˛Ó˚yÇ !ÓïyòÓ˚*ˆÏ˛ô ˜ò!ì˛Ñ˛ !ÓïyòÁ ¢y!Ó≈Ñ˛–
fl˛∫yï#òì˛yÓ˚ !Óïyò £ú ˜ò!ì˛Ñ˛ !òÎ˚õ– ¢%ì˛Ó˚yÇ fl˛∫yï#òì˛yÓ˚ !Óïyò Óy ˜ò!ì˛Ñ˛ !òÎ˚õ Óƒ!_´ˆÏ¶˛ˆÏî !Ó!¶˛ß¨ Ó˚Ñ˛õ £ˆÏì˛ ˛ôyˆÏÓ˚
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òy– Ñ˛yr›˛ ˆÓyG˛yˆÏì˛ â˛y£zˆÏäÈò ˆÑ˛yòÁ !Óïyò Óy !òÎ˚õõye£z xyK˛y fl˛∫Ó˚*˛ô òÎ˚– õyò!ÓÑ˛ ˆ≤Ã!«˛ì˛ ˆÌˆÏÑ˛ ˜ò!ì˛Ñ˛!òÎ˚õ xyK˛yfl˛∫Ó*˚ ˛ô
ÓˆÏú ≤Ãì˛#Î˚õyò £Î˚– õyò%°ÏÓ˚*ˆÏ˛ô õyò%ˆÏ°ÏÓ˚ õyò!¢Ñ˛ì˛y òyòy!Óï £z!wÎ˚ã xyˆÏÓÜñ xò%¶˛Óñ v˛zj#˛ôòyñ ≤ÃÓíì˛y £zì˛ƒy!î myÓ˚y
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î,!‹T¶˛!D ˆÌˆÏÑ˛ ~£z !¢k˛yˆÏhs˛ ˆ˛ô§ÔäÈyˆÏòy ÎyÎ˚ ˆÎ ¢îyâ˛yÓ˚# Óƒ!_´ Ñ˛Öò£z Ñ˛õ≈yâ˛Ó˚ˆÏíÓ˚ ãòƒ ˆÑ˛yòÁ ˛ô!Ó˚íyõ v˛zͲôߨ £ˆÏÓ ˆãˆÏò
ì˛yÓ˚ ˆÑ˛yòÁ Ñ˛õ≈yâ˛Ó˚í Ñ˛ì≈˛Óƒ ~õò !fl˛iÓ˚ Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ Ñ˛ˆÏõ≈ ≤ÃÓ,_ £ò òy– ~£z Óƒy˛ôyˆÏÓ˚ Óúy ÎyÎ˚ ˆÎ ¢îyâ˛yÓ˚# Óƒ!_´ ˆÑ˛yò Ñ˛õ≈
xyâ˛Ó˚ˆÏíÓ˚ ãòƒ ˆÑ˛yòÁ Óy !Ñ˛ ˛ô!Ó˚íyõ Óy ö˛ú v˛zͲôߨ £ˆÏì˛ ˛ôyÓ˚ˆÏÓ ~£z ¢õhfl˛ !ӰψÏÎ˚ ¢¡ô)í≈ v˛zîy¢#ò ÌyˆÏÑ˛ò– Ñ˛yr›˛ î,벸ì˛yÓ˚
¢yˆÏÌ ≤Ã!ì˛˛ôyîò Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ˆÏäÈò ˆÎ ˆÑ˛yò Ñ˛õ≈yâ˛Ó˚ˆÏíÓ˚ ãòƒ ≤Ãì˛ƒy!üì˛ ö˛úyö˛ˆÏúÓ˚ Óy ˛ô!Ó˚íyˆÏõÓ˚ v˛zqÓ ˆ¢£z Ñ˛õ≈yâ˛Ó˚ˆÏíÓ˚ ˜ò!ì˛Ñ˛
õ)úƒ !òï≈yÓ˚ˆÏí !Ñ˛ä%Èõye ¶)˛!õÑ˛y xyˆÏäÈ ~õò fl˛∫#Ñ˛yÓ˚ Ñ˛Ó˚y ÎyÎ˚ òy–
Ñ˛õ≈yâ˛Ó˚íÑ˛yˆÏú Óƒ!_´ ˆÎ !òãfl˛∫ xy!dÑ˛ !òÎ˚õ xò%¢yˆÏÓ˚ Ñ˛ˆÏõ≈ ≤ÃÓ,_ £ˆÏÎ˚ ÌyˆÏÑ˛ñ ˆ¢£z !òÎ˚õ!›˛ˆÏÑ˛Á Óƒ!_´Ñ˛ì˛yÓ˚ hfl˛Ó˚
ˆÌˆÏÑ˛ ¢yõyòƒ#Ñ˛Ó˚í ≤Ã!e´Î˚yÓ˚ õyÏõ ¢Ó≈ãò@˘Ãy£ƒ Ólfl˛Üì˛ !òÎ˚ˆÏõÓ˚ ˛ôÎ≈yˆÏÎ˚ v˛zß¨ì˛ Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ ˆÎ Ñ˛õ≈yâ˛Ó˚í £ˆÏì˛ ˛ôyˆÏÓ˚ñ ì˛y£z £ú
˜ò!ì˛Ñ˛ Ñ˛õ≈yâ˛Ó˚íÈÙÙÙÈ~£z £z!Dì˛ fl˛ô‹T¶˛yˆÏÓ xyõÓ˚y Ñ˛yˆÏr›˛Ó˚ Ñ˛yäÈ ˆÌˆÏÑ˛ ˛ôy£z– Ñ˛yr›˛ ˜ò!ì˛Ñ˛ì˛y Á ¢Ó≈ãò#Ñ˛Ó˚íì˛yÈÙÙÙÈ~£z î%£zˆÏÎ˚Ó˚
õˆÏïƒ Áì˛ˆÏ≤Ãyì˛ ¢¡ôÑ≈˛ ~£z¶˛yˆÏÓ Óƒ_´ Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ˆÏäÈò– ≤âDì˛ Ñ˛yˆÏr›˛Ó˚ v˛z!_´ fl˛øÓ˚íˆÏÎy܃ Úxy!õ Î!î òy Ñ˛õ≈yâ˛Ó˚íÑ˛yˆÏú ˆÎ !òãfl˛∫
xydÜì˛ !òÎ˚õ @˘Ã£í Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚!äÈñ ˆ¢!›˛ xyÓyÓ˚ ¢Ó≈ãò#ò !òÎ˚õÁ £ˆÏÓ ~õò ¢B˛“ Ñ˛Ó˚ˆÏì˛ ˛ôy!Ó˚ñ ì˛y£ˆÏú Ñ˛Öò£z v˛z!â˛ì˛ òÎ˚
Sˆ¢£z !òãfl˛∫ xydÜì˛ !òÎ˚õ xÓú¡∫ˆÏòV xyõyÓ˚ Ñ˛õ≈yâ˛Ó˚íÛ– Ñ˛yˆÏr›˛Ó˚ ~£z v˛z!_´Ó˚ õˆÏïƒ !îˆÏÎ˚ ~ÓÇ xyõÓ˚y ¢yïyÓ˚í õyò%ˆÏ°ÏÓ˚
ˆâ˛ì˛òyÓ˚ õˆÏïƒ !îˆÏÎ˚ Ñ˛yˆÏr›˛Ó˚ xy!Ó‹,Òì˛ ˜ò!ì˛Ñ˛ì˛yÓ˚ ¢ˆÏÓ≈yFⲠò#!ì˛Ó˚ ˛ô!Ó˚â˛Î˚ ˛ôy£z– ~£z Ó_´ˆÏÓƒÓ˚ õˆÏïƒ !îˆÏÎ˚ Ñ˛yr›˛ ¢õ!Ì≈ì˛
üì≈˛!òÓ˚ˆÏ˛ô«˛ xò%K˛yÓ˚ñ Îy !Ñ˛òy ¢ˆÏÓ≈yFⲠò#!ì˛ì˛ˆÏ_¥Ó˚ òyõyhs˛Ó˚ñ ì˛yÓ˚£z ≤ÃyÌ!õÑ˛ ÓÎ˚yò ˛ôy£z–
ÓƒÓ£y!Ó˚Ñ˛ ≤ÃK˛yÓ˚ ~£z ˆÎ î%£z !òÎ˚õÈÙÙÙÈxydÜì˛ !òÎ˚õ ~ÓÇ Ólfl˛Üì˛ !òÎ˚õ xyˆÏúyâ˛òy Ñ˛Ó˚y £úñ ì˛yÓ˚ ˆÌˆÏÑ˛ ~õò ˆÑ˛yòÁ
!¢k˛yhs˛ ˆ˛ô§ÔäÈyˆÏòyÓ˚ ˆÑ˛yòÁ Ñ˛yÓ˚í ˆò£z ˆÎ õyò%°Ï ¢Ó≈îy Ñ˛õ≈yâ˛Ó˚ˆÏíÓ˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe Ólfl˛Üì˛ ¢Ó≈ãò@˘Ãy£ƒ !òÎ˚õ ˆõˆÏò â˛ˆÏú– Ó%!k˛Ó,!_
¢¡ôߨ Ñ˛ì≈˛yÓ˚ Îy xÓüƒ Ñ˛Ó˚í#Î˚ ÌyˆÏÑ˛ õyò%°Ï ˆÎ ¢Ó≈îy ˆ¢£z ˛ôˆÏÌ â˛ˆÏú ~õò òÎ˚– õyò%°Ï Ó%!k˛Ó,!_ ¢¡ôߨ ≤Ãyí# £ˆÏúÁ
õyò%ˆÏ°ÏÓ˚ xyˆÏÓÜñ xò%¶)˛!ì˛ xyˆÏäÈ ~ÓÇ õyò%°Ï ì˛y£z Ó%!k˛Ó,!_ ¢¡ôߨ ≤Ãyí#Ó˚ Ñ˛ì≈˛Óƒ ˆÌˆÏÑ˛ ≤ÃyÎ˚ü !Óâ%˛ƒì˛Á £ˆÏÎ˚ ˛ôˆÏv˛¸– ~£z
¢Ó Ñ˛yÓ˚ˆÏí£z ˜ò!ì˛Ñ˛ì˛yÓ˚ üì≈˛!òÓ˚ˆÏ˛ô«˛ xò%K˛yÓ˚ ≤ÈÏÎ˚yãò– ˜ò!ì˛Ñ˛ì˛y ~Ñ˛ ïÓ˚ˆÏòÓ˚ îyÎ˚Ók˛ì˛y Ó˚*ˆÏ˛ô xyõÓ˚y ì˛y£z Ó%ˆÏG˛ Ìy!Ñ˛–

3.7 üì≈˛!òÓ˚ˆÏ˛ô«˛ xò%K˛yÓ˚ !Ó!¶˛ß¨ ¢)eyÎ˚í

üì≈˛!òÓ˚ˆÏ˛ô«˛ xò%K˛yÓ˚ ≤Ãhfl˛yÓÑ˛ Ñ˛yr›˛ fl˛∫Î˚Ç fl˛ô‹T¶˛yˆÏÓ£z îy!Ó Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ˆÏäÈò üì˛≈!òÓ˚ˆÏ˛ô«˛ xò%K˛y ˆÎ ~Ñ˛Ñ˛ xò%K˛yñ ¢¡ô)í≈
ˆÑ˛yòÁ !mì˛#Î˚ Ó˚!£ì˛– Ñ˛yr›˛ fl˛ô‹Tì˛ !ì˛òÓ˚Ñ˛õ¶˛yˆÏÓ ~ÓÇ ~£z=!úÓ˚ xyò%°Ï!DÑ˛ xyÓ˚Á î%£zÓ˚Ñ˛õ¶˛yˆÏÓ ~£z ~Ñ˛Ñ˛ xò%K˛yÓ˚
¢)eyÎ˚í ¢ÇˆÏÎyãò Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ˆÏäÈò– fl˛∫y¶˛y!ÓÑ˛¶˛yˆÏÓ£z ~£z !ӰψÏÎ˚ ¶˛y°ÏƒÑ˛yÓ˚ˆÏîÓ˚ õˆÏïƒ ÎˆÏÌ‹T õì˛˜ÏÓ˛ôÓ˚#ì˛ƒ ú«˛ƒ Ñ˛Ó˚y ÎyÎ˚ñ Ñ˛yÓ˚í

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ˆÑ˛yòÁ ¶˛y°ÏƒÑ˛yÓ˚ xÑ˛˛ôˆÏ›˛ Ñ˛yˆÏr›˛Ó˚ ˛ô§yâ˛Ó˚Ñ˛õ¶˛yˆÏÓ ¢)eyÎ˚í fl˛∫#Ñ˛yˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ ¢˛ôˆÏ«˛ ¢ÁÎ˚yú Ñ˛ˆÓ˚ˆÏäÈòñ xyÓyÓ˚ ˆÑ˛yòÁ ¶˛y°ÏƒÑ˛yÓ˚
¢ì˛Ñ≈˛¶˛yˆÏÓ üì≈˛!òÓ˚ˆÏ˛ô«˛ xò%K˛yÓ˚ !ì˛òÓ˚Ñ˛õ¶˛yˆÏÓ ¢)eyÎ˚ˆÏíÓ˚ ≤Ãhfl˛yÓ ¢õÌ≈ò Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ˆÏäÈò– Ñ˛yˆÏr›˛Ó˚ Groundwork of the
Metaphysics of Morals xò%¢yˆÏÓ˚ üì≈˛!òÓ˚ˆÏ˛ô«˛ xò%K˛yÓ˚ !Ó!¶˛ß¨ ¢)eyÎ˚í=!ú ~ˆÏÑ˛ ~ˆÏÑ˛ ˛ôÎ≈yˆÏúyâ˛òy Ñ˛Ó˚y ÎyÑ˛–
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¢)e S1Ñ˛V ≠ ÚÑ˛õ≈yâ˛Ó˚í Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚y ˆ¢£zÓ˚Ñ˛õ¶˛yˆÏÓ ÎyˆÏì˛ ˆì˛yõyÓ˚ xyâ˛!Ó˚ì˛ Ñ˛ˆÏõ≈ SxÓú!¡∫ì˛V !òãfl˛∫ !òÎ˚õ ˆì˛yõyÓ˚ ¢B˛ˆÏ“Ó˚
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¢)e S2V õyòÓì˛yÓ˚ ¢)e ≠ ÚÑ˛õ≈yâ˛Ó˚í Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚y ~õò¶˛yˆÏÓ ÎyˆÏì˛ ¢ÓÑ˛yˆÏú ~ÓÇ ¢õÑ˛yˆÏúÈÙÙÙÈv˛z¶˛Î˚ˆÏ«˛ˆÏe£zñ ˆì˛yõyÓ˚ !òãfl˛∫
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SÑ˛yÎ≈ ¢yïˆÏòÓ˚V v˛z˛ôyÎ˚Ó˚*ˆÏ˛ô SÜíƒV òy £Î˚–
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£ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏäÈ– ≤ß¿ ãy܈Ïì˛ ˛ôyˆÏÓ˚ ˆÑ˛ò Ñ˛yr›˛ ¢)e S3VÈÙÈ~ ˆ˛ô§ÔäÈyˆÏì˛ ¢)e S2V!›˛ˆÏÑ˛ =Ó˚&c !îˆÏÎ˚ˆÏäÈò⁄ ¢)e S2VÈÙÈ~ Ñ˛yr›˛ ˜ò!ì˛Ñ˛
!òÎ˚ˆÏõÓ˚ ≤Ã!ì˛ Ü¶˛#Ó˚ ◊k˛yÓ˚ ≤âD ~ˆÏò ˆÓyG˛yˆÏì˛ ˆâ˛ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏäÈò ˆÎ ˆÓÔ!k˛Ñ˛ ≤ÃK˛y ˆÌˆÏÑ˛£z ˜ò!ì˛Ñ˛ì˛yÓ˚ v˛zͲô!_ £ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏäÈ– ~£z
≤âˆÏD H. J. Paton ~Ñ˛!›˛ Î%!_´ !îˆÏÎ˚ˆÏäÈò≠ fl˛∫yì˛ˆÏs˛fƒÓ˚ õ)ú ˜Ó!ü‹Tƒ £ú !òˆÏãÓ˚ v˛zˆÏjˆÏüƒ Óy ú«˛ƒ !òˆÏã£z !fl˛iÓ˚ Ñ˛Ó˚y–
ˆÑ˛v˛z Ñ˛yˆÏÓ˚yÓ˚ myÓ˚y Óú˛ô)Ó≈Ñ˛ Óy ¶˛Î˚ ≤Ãîü≈ò ˛ô)Ó≈Ñ˛ Ñ˛ˆÏõ≈ !òÎ%_´ £ˆÏì˛ ˛ôyˆÏÓ˚ñ ˆÎ Ñ˛õ≈ Ñ˛yÎ≈¢yïˆÏòÓ˚ v˛z˛ôyÎ˚Ó˚*ˆÏ˛ô ˆÑ˛yòÁ ~Ñ˛!›˛
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v˛zˆÏjüƒ ¢yïò Ñ˛Ó˚ˆÏì˛ ˛ôyˆÏÓ˚– !Ñ˛ls˛ Óú˛ô)Ó≈Ñ˛ ˆÑ˛v˛z Ñ˛yv˛zˆÏÑ˛ ˆÑ˛yòÁ ú«˛ƒ !òÓ≈yâ˛ò Ñ˛Ó˚yˆÏì˛ ˛ôyˆÏÓ˚òy– Î!î ˆÑ˛yòÁ !Ñ˛ä%ȈÏÑ˛ v˛zˆÏjüƒ
Óy ú«˛ƒ Ó˚*ˆÏ˛ô @˘Ã£í Ñ˛Ó˚y £ˆÏÎ˚ ÌyˆÏÑ˛ñ ì˛y£ˆÏú xÓüƒ£z ì˛y Ñ˛ì≈˛yÓ˚ fl˛∫yï#ò £zFäÈyü!_´Ó˚ myÓ˚y ˛ô!Ó˚â˛y!úì˛ £ˆÏÎ˚£z !òï≈yÓ˚í Ñ˛Ó˚y
£ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏäÈ– Ñ˛ì≈˛Óƒ Óy !òÎ˚õ ˆÌˆÏÑ˛ Î!î ˆÑ˛yòÁ ú«˛ƒ !fl˛iÓ˚ Ñ˛Ó˚yÓ˚ !òˆÏî≈ü K˛y˛ôò Ñ˛Ó˚y £ˆÏÎ˚ ÌyˆÏÑ˛ Îy ˆ¢£z=!ú ¢yïyÓ˚íì˛ Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚
ÌyˆÏÑ˛ñ ~ÓÇ ¢Ó Ó%!k˛õyò õyò%°ÏˆÏÑ˛£z ˆ¢£z¶˛yˆÏÓ£z v˛zˆÏjüƒ Ó˚*ˆÏ˛ô !ÓˆÏÓâ˛òyÓ˚ !òˆÏî≈ü K˛y˛ôò Ñ˛Ó˚y £Î˚ñ ì˛y£ˆÏú Ñ˛ì≈˛ˆÏÓƒÓ˚ ¢yˆÏÌ
ã!v˛¸ì˛ £ˆÏÎ˚ ÌyˆÏÑ˛ ÓyïƒÓyïÑ˛ì˛y Óy x˛ô!Ó˚£yÎ≈ì˛y xÓüƒ£z fl˛∫yï#ò ˆÓÔ!k˛Ñ˛ ≤ÃK˛y ˆÌˆÏÑ˛ ¢Oyì˛ £Î˚–
¢%ì˛Ó˚yÇ ¢%e S2VÈÙÈ~Ó˚ v˛zˆÏjüƒyò%¢y!Ó˚ì˛yÓ˚ !òˆÏî≈ˆÏüÓ˚ õˆÏïƒ !îˆÏÎ˚ ˆÎ !òÎ˚õ=!ú Ñ˛ì≈˛yfl˛∫Î˚Ç @˘Ãy£ƒ Ñ˛Ó˚ˆÏì˛ ˛Óyïƒñ ˆ¢=!úÓ˚
fl˛∫Î˚Ç Ñ˛ì≈˛y£z ≤ÃíÎ˚òÑ˛ì≈˛y £ÁÎ˚yÓ˚ ~£z fl˛∫#Ñ,˛!ì˛Ó˚ õˆÏïƒ !îˆÏÎ˚ £zFäÈyü!_´Ó˚ fl˛∫yì˛ˆÏs˛fƒÓ˚ ≤âD ¢)!â˛ì˛ £ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏäÈ– ¢%ì˛Ó˚yÇ ~õò Óúy
ÎyÎ˚ ˆÎ ¢)e S1V ~ÓÇ ¢)e S2V ¢!¡ø!úì˛¶˛yˆÏÓ ¢)e S3V Óy fl˛∫yì˛ˆÏs˛fƒÓ˚ !òÎ˚ˆÏõÓ˚ v˛zÍ¢– ~£z !ӰψÏÎ˚ !Óhfl+˛ì˛ xyˆÏúyâ˛òyÓ˚
xÓÑ˛yü xyˆÏäÈ– ¢ÇˆÏ«˛ˆÏ˛ô Óúy ÎyÎ˚ñ üì≈˛!òÓ˚ˆÏ˛ô«˛ xò%K˛yÓ˚ !Ó!¶˛ß¨ ïÓ˚ˆÏòÓ˚ Ó˚*˛ôyÎ˚í ˆ¢£z ~Ñ˛Ñ˛ üì≈˛!òÓ˚ˆÏ˛ô«˛ xò%K˛yÓ˚ !Ó!¶˛ß¨
≤ÃÑ˛yÓ˚ˆÏ¶˛ˆÏîÓ˚ ¢)â˛òy Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ òyñ ÓÓ˚Ç ~Ñ˛£z xò%K˛y xyˆÏ˛ô!«˛Ñ˛ xÓfl˛iyò xò%¢yˆÏÓ˚ Ó˝õyey!Ó!ü‹T ì˛yÓ˚ ¢)â˛òy Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚–

3.8 £zFäÈyü!_´Ó˚ fl˛∫yì˛ˆÏs˛fƒÓ˚ !òÎ˚õ

Ñ˛yˆÏr›˛Ó˚ £zFäÈyü!_´Ó˚ fl˛∫yì˛ˆÏs˛fƒÓ˚ ¢)e ˆÎ!›˛ üì≈˛!òÓ˚ˆÏ˛ô«˛ xò%K˛yÓ˚ ì,˛ì˛#Î˚ì˛õ ÓÎ˚yò Ó˚*ˆÏ˛ô ≤Ã!ì˛ö˛!úì˛ £ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏäÈñ ~!›˛ xyõyˆÏîÓ˚
xyˆÏúyâ˛òyÎ˚ £z!ì˛˛ô)ˆÏÓ≈£z fl˛iyò ˆ˛ôˆÏÎ˚ˆÏäÈ– ˜ò!ì˛Ñ˛ fl˛∫yì˛ˆÏs˛fƒÓ˚ ïyÓ˚íyÓ˚ Groundwork @˘ÃˆÏs˛i ¢)e˛ôyì˛Ñ˛yˆÏú Ñ˛yr›˛ ¢ˆÏâ˛ì˛ò Ñ˛Ó˚ˆÏäÈò
ˆÎ üì≈˛!òÓ˚ˆÏ˛ô«˛ xò%K˛yÓ˚ î%!›˛ ¢)eñ ÎÌye´ˆÏõ ¢Ó≈ãò#ò !òÎ˚ˆÏõÓ˚ ¢)e ~ÓÇ õyòÓì˛yÓ˚ ¢)ˆÏeÓ˚ ˛ôˆÏÓ˚£z £zFäÈyü!_´Ó˚ fl˛∫yì˛ˆÏs˛fƒÓ˚
ì,˛ì˛#Î˚ ¢)e!›˛Ó˚ xÓfl˛iyòñ ÎyÓ˚ myÓ˚y Óƒ_´ £ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏäÈ £zFäÈyü!_´Ó˚ ÓƒÓ£y!Ó˚Ñ˛ !òÎ˚õ ≠ Ú≤Ã!ì˛!›˛ Ó%!k˛Ó,!_ ¢¡ôߨ ≤Ãyí#Ó˚ £zFäÈyü!_´ñ
£zFäÈyü!_´ Ó˚*ˆÏ˛ô ¢Ó≈ãò#ò !ÓïyˆÏòÓ˚ ≤ÈÏíì˛yÛ– ~£z ¢)e!›˛ ~ÓÇ ~Ó˚£z !¶˛ß¨ !¶˛ß¨ Ó˚*˛ôyhs˛Ó˚ £zFäÈyü!_´Ó˚ fl˛∫yì˛ˆÏs˛fƒÓ˚ !òÎ˚õ ÓˆÏúÁ
x!¶˛!£ì˛ £ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏäÈ– !ì˛!ò fl˛∫yì˛ˆÏs˛fƒÓ˚ !òÎ˚õ !ò¡¨!ú!Öì˛¶˛yˆÏÓÁ ≤ÃÑ˛yü Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ˆÏäÈò ≠
Úfl˛∫yì˛ˆÏs˛fƒÓ˚ !òÎ˚õñ ¢%ì˛Ó˚yÇ £ú ~£zÓ˚Ñ˛õ ≠ £zFäÈyü!_´ ˆÌˆÏÑ˛ Ñ˛õ≈yâ˛Ó˚í fl˛iˆÏú ˆÑ˛Óúõye ~õò¶˛yˆÏÓ S!òÎ˚õV !òÓ≈yâ˛ò Ñ˛Ó˚
ÎyˆÏì˛ !òÓ≈y!â˛ì˛ !òãfl˛∫ xy!dÑ˛ !òÎ˚õ ˆ¢£z ~Ñ˛£z Ñ˛õ≈yâ˛Ó˚í fl˛iˆÏúñ ¢Ó≈ãò#ò !òÎ˚õÓ˚*ˆÏ˛ô xhs˛¶%≈˛_´ £ˆÏÎ˚ ˛ôˆÏv˛¸Û–
Ñ˛yˆÏr›˛Ó˚ ≤ÃÌõ ¢)ˆÏe ¢Ó≈ãò#òì˛yÓ˚ !òÎ˚õ ˆÌˆÏÑ˛ ˆãˆÏò!äÈ ˆÎ Ñ˛õ≈yâ˛Ó˚ˆÏíÓ˚ !òãfl˛∫ xy!dÑ˛ !òÎ˚õ ˆÎõò ˆ£yÑ˛ òy ˆÑ˛òñ
˜ò!ì˛Ñ˛ ÓˆÏú !ÓˆÏÓâ˛ƒ £ˆÏì˛ £ˆÏú xÓüƒ£z ˆ¢!›˛ ¢Ó≈ãò#ò@˘Ãy£ƒ Ólfl˛Üì˛ !òÎ˚ˆÏõÓ˚ ˛ôÎ≈yˆÏÎ˚ v˛zߨ#ì˛ £ˆÏì˛ £ˆÏÓ ì˛ˆÏÓ£z ˆ¢!›˛ ˛ôyúò#Î˚
£ˆÏì˛ ˛ôyÓ˚ˆÏÓ– Ó%!k˛õyò Óƒ!_´Ó˚ Ñ˛õ≈yâ˛Ó˚ˆÏíÓ˚ ˜ò!ì˛Ñ˛ !òÎ˚õ ¢õhfl˛ Óƒ!_´Ó˚ ãòƒ ¢õyò £ˆÏÓñ ~ÓÇ ˆÑ˛yòÁ Óƒ!_´ fl˛∫yˆÏÌ≈ Óy
Ñ˛yˆÏÓ˚yÓ˚ !òˆÏãÓ˚ ˛ô!Ó˚ÓyˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ fl˛∫yˆÏÌ≈ ˆ¢£z !òÎ˚ˆÏõÓ˚ ˆÑ˛yòÁ Óƒ!ì˛e´õ xò%ˆÏõyîˆÏòÓ˚ ˆÎy܃ £ˆÏì˛ ˛ôyÓ˚ˆÏÓ òy–
£zFäÈyü!_´Ó˚ fl˛∫yì˛ˆÏs˛fƒÓ˚ !òÎ˚õ !ӰψÏÎ˚ v˛zk,˛!ì˛=ˆÏúy ~ÓÇ ì˛yÓ˚ ¢yˆÏÌ Ñ˛yˆÏr›˛Ó˚ ≤ÃÌõ ¢)e ¢Ó≈ãò#òì˛yÓ˚ !òÎ˚õ ~Ñ˛£z ¢yˆÏÌ
˛ôÎ≈yˆÏúyâ˛òy Ñ˛Ó˚ˆÏú ˆÓyG˛y ÎyÎ˚ ≤ÃÌõ ¢)e ~ÓÇ ì,˛ì˛#Î˚ ¢)ˆÏeÓ˚ õˆÏïƒ Ü¶˛#Ó˚ ¢yõO¢ƒ ú«˛ƒí#Î˚ ~ÓÇ î%!›˛ ¢)ˆÏeÓ˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe£z
¢Ó≈ãò#Ñ˛Ó˚íì˛y ~ÓÇ ˜ò!ì˛Ñ˛ì˛yÓ˚ xˆÏFäÈîƒì˛y ≤ö)˛ì˛ =Ó˚&c ˆ˛ôˆÏÎ˚!äÈ– ¢Ó≈ãò#ò !òÎ˚ˆÏõÓ˚ ¢)e S¢)e ≠1V ˆÎ £zFäÈyü!_´Ó˚ fl˛∫yì˛ˆÏs˛fƒÓ˚
!òÎ˚ˆÏõÓ˚ S¢)e ≠3V ≤Ã!ì˛˛ôyîÑ˛ ~õò £z!Dì˛ Ñ˛yˆÏr›˛Ó˚ Ó˚â˛òyˆÏì˛Á ˛ôyÁÎ˚y ÎyÎ˚–
˛˛ô)ˆÏÓ≈£z ú«˛ƒ Ñ˛Ó˚y ˆÜˆÏäÈ Ñ˛yˆÏr›˛Ó˚ ¢Ó≈ãò#ò !òÎ˚ˆÏõÓ˚ ¢)e S¢)e ≠1V ~ÓÇ õyòÓì˛yÓ˚ ¢)e S¢)e ≠2V ~£z î%ˆÏÎ˚Ó˚ õˆÏïƒÁ
≤Ã!ì˛˛ôyîÑ˛ ≤Ã!ì˛˛ôyîƒì˛yÓ˚ ¢¡ôˆÏÑ≈˛Ó˚ £z!Dì˛ xyˆÏäÈ– õyòÓì˛yÓ˚ ¢)e S¢)e ≠2V ~ÓÇ £zFäÈyü!_´Ó˚ fl˛∫yì˛ˆÏs˛fƒÓ˚ ¢)ˆÏeÓ˚ S¢)e≠3V
õˆÏïƒÁ ≤Ã!ì˛˛ôyîÑ˛ÈÙÈ˛≤Ã!ì˛˛ôyîƒì˛yÓ˚ ¢¡ôˆÏÑ≈˛Ó˚ £z!Dì˛ xyˆÏäÈ– xyÓyÓ˚ Ñ˛ÖòÁ Ñ˛yˆÏr›˛Ó˚ Ó˚â˛òyÎ˚ ˆÑ˛Óú õyòÓì˛yÓ˚ ¢)e ˆÌˆÏÑ˛
£zFäÈyü!_´Ó˚ fl˛∫yì˛ˆÏs˛fƒÓ˚ ¢)ˆÏeÓ˚ v˛zͲô!_Ó˚ £z!Dì˛ xyˆÏäÈ– õyòÓì˛yÓ˚ ¢)e Óy ¢)e S2V xyõÓ˚y ˛ô)ˆÏÓ≈£z xyˆÏúyâ˛òy Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚!äÈ– ¢£ã
¶˛y°ÏyÎ˚ Ñ˛yr›˛ fl˛∫#Ñ,˛ì˛ ¢)e S2V Óy õyòÓì˛yÓ˚ ¢)ˆÏeÓ˚ Ó_´Óƒ ˆÑ˛ ˛ô%òÓ˚yÎ˚ fl˛øÓ˚í Ñ˛Ó˚y ÎyÎ˚– ~£z ¢)e!›˛Ó˚ õˆÏïƒ !îˆÏÎ˚ ≤Ã!ì˛!›˛

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Ó%!k˛Ó,!_ ¢¡ôߨ õyò%°ÏˆÏÑ˛ õyò%°Ï Ó˚*ˆÏ˛ô ¢æõ K˛y˛ôˆÏòÓ˚ Ñ˛Ìy Óúy £ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏäÈ– ~£z !mì˛#Î˚ ¢)ˆÏe ˆÓÔ!k˛Ñ˛ £zFäÈyü!_´Ó˚ ≤Ã!ì˛ ¢æõ
K˛y˛ôˆÏòÓ˚ õˆÏïƒ Ñ˛yr›˛ ˆÓÔ!k˛Ñ˛ £zFäÈyü!_´ ≤â)ì˛ ˆÎ ˜ò!ì˛Ñ˛ !Óïyò ~£z £z!Dì˛ fl˛ô‹T Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ˆÏäÈò– Ñ˛yˆÏr›˛Ó˚ õ)ú Ñ˛Ìyñ õyò%°Ï
ˆÑ˛yòÁ Ólfl˛ òÎ˚ñ ˆÎ õyò%°ÏˆÏÑ˛ ¢Ó ¢õˆÏÎ˚ ˆÑ˛yòÁ Ñ˛yÎ≈!¢!k˛Ó˚ v˛z˛ôyÎ˚ Ó˚*ˆÏ˛ô !ÓˆÏÓâ˛òy Ñ˛Ó˚y £ˆÏÓ– xyd£ì˛ƒy !Ñ˛ÇÓy ≤Ã!ì˛◊&!ì˛
¶˛D £zì˛ƒy!î Ñ˛ˆÏõ≈Ó˚ xyâ˛Ó˚ˆÏíÓ˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe õyò%°ÏˆÏÑ˛ ˆÑ˛Óú Ñ˛yÎ≈!¢!k˛Ó˚ v˛z˛ôyÎ˚Ó˚*ˆÏ˛ô @˘Ã£í Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ ~£z ãyì˛#Î˚ Ñ˛õ≈ ¢¡ôߨ £ˆÏÎ˚ ÌyˆÏÑ˛–
õyòÓì˛yÓ˚ ¢)ˆÏeÓ˚ fl˛∫Î˚Ç ˛ô!Ó˚íyõ Óy ú«˛ƒÓ˚*ˆÏ˛ô !Óîƒõyòì˛y ¢Ω˛Ó £ˆÏÓ òy Î!î òy ≤ÈÏì˛ƒˆÏÑ˛ñ xhs˛ì˛ Îì˛î)Ó˚ ¢Ω˛Óñ ˆâ˛‹Ty Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚
≤ÈÏì˛ƒˆÏÑ˛Ó˚ ú«˛ƒ Ó,!k˛ Ñ˛Ó˚yÓ˚– ~£z !mì˛#Î˚ ¢)e ˆÌˆÏÑ˛ Ñ˛yˆÏr›˛Ó˚ !ÓŸªy¢ ì,˛ì˛#Î˚ ¢)e!›˛ !òÉ¢,ì˛ £ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏäÈ ≠ Ú≤Ã!ì˛!›˛ Ó%!k˛Ó,!_ ¢¡ôߨ
≤Ãyí#Ó˚ £zFäÈyü!_´ñ £zFäÈyü!_´ Ó˚*ˆÏ˛ô ¢Ó≈ãò#ò !ÓïyˆÏòÓ˚ ≤ÈÏíì˛y–
ì˛ˆÏÓ ~Ó˚˛ôˆÏÓ˚Á Ñ˛yˆÏr›˛Ó˚ ˜ò!ì˛Ñ˛ì˛yÓ˚ ¢ˆÏÓ≈yFⲠò#!ì˛ ¢¡ôˆÏÑ≈˛ xyÓ˚Á !Ñ˛ä%È xy!Ó‹ÒyÓ˚ Ñ˛Ó˚y Óy!Ñ˛ xyˆÏäÈ– Ñ˛yˆÏr›˛Ó˚ £zFäÈyü!_´Ó˚
fl˛∫yì˛ˆÏs˛fƒÓ˚ !òÎ˚õ !ӰψÏÎ˚ !Ñ˛ä%È =Ó˚&c˛ô)í≈ ¢ÇˆÏÎyãò xÓüƒ£z ú«˛ƒí#Î˚ó Ñ˛yˆÏr›˛Ó˚ õˆÏì˛ ˆÓÔ!k˛Ñ˛ £zFäÈyü!_´ fl˛∫Î˚Ç !òÎ˚ˆÏõÓ˚ !ÓïyÎ˚Ñ˛
Ó˚*ˆÏ˛ô !òÎ˚õ ≤ÃíÎ˚ò Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ ~ÓÇ ˆ¢£z fl˛∫≤Ãí#ì˛ !òÎ˚õ myÓ˚y £zFäÈyü!_´ !òÎ˚!s˛fì˛ £Î˚– ˆÎ £zFäÈyü!_´ !òÎ˚ˆÏõÓ˚ xï#òñ ˆ¢£z £zFäÈyü!_´£z
fl˛∫Î˚Ç !òÎ˚ˆÏõÓ˚ !ÓïyÎ˚Ñ˛ñ xÌ≈yÍ !òÎ˚ˆÏõÓ˚ xï#ò ˆÎ !òˆÏã£z ˆ¢£z !òÎ˚ˆÏõÓ˚ !ÓïyÎ˚Ñ˛ Óy ≤ÈÏíì˛y– ~£z ≤âˆÏD Ñ˛yˆÏr›˛Ó˚ Ó_´Óƒ
xì˛ƒhs˛ ≤Ã!òïyò ˆÎy܃ î%!›˛ Ñ˛yÓ˚ˆÏí≠ ≤ÃÌõ £zFäÈyü!_´Ó˚ fl˛∫yì˛ˆÏs˛fƒÓ˚ !òÎ˚ˆÏõÓ˚ ¢yˆÏÌ ¢Ó≈ãò#òì˛yÓ˚ !òÎ˚ˆÏõÓ˚ ¢¡ôˆÏÑ≈˛Ó˚ fl˛ô‹T
xy¶˛y¢ ˛ôyÁÎ˚y ÎyˆÏÓñ Î!îÁ Á£z î%£z ¢)ˆÏeÓ˚ @˘Ã!s˛i Óy ¢ÇÎ%!_´Ó˚ fl˛∫Ó˚*˛ô !ӰψÏÎ˚ !Ó!¶˛ß¨ ¶˛y°ÏƒÑ˛yˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ ÓƒyÖƒyÓ˚ xy˛ôyì˛ì˛ ˛ôÎ≈yˆÏúyâ˛òy
fl˛i!Üì˛ Ó˚yÖy £ˆÏÓ– !mì˛#Î˚ì˛ñ ~£z xLjÏü £zFäÈyü!_´Ó˚ fl˛∫yì˛ˆÏs˛fƒÓ˚ ˆÎ xòƒì˛õ õ)ú â˛y!ÓÑ˛y!‡˛ Ñ˛yr›˛ xy!Ó‹ÒyÓ˚ Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ˆÏäÈòñ ˆ¢!›˛Ó˚Á
˛ô!Ó˚â˛Î˚ ˛ôyÁÎ˚y ÎyˆÏÓ– ~£z xLjÏü Ñ˛yr›˛ ÓˆÏúˆÏäÈòñ £zFäÈyü!_´Ó˚ myÓ˚y fl˛∫ÈÙÈ≤Ãí#ì˛ ¢Ó≈ãò#ò !ÓïyˆÏòÓ˚ ¢yˆÏÌ Óƒ!_´Ó˚ !òãfl˛∫
ˆÎ ¢õhfl˛ xy!dÑ˛ !òÎ˚õ=!ú ÌyˆÏÑ˛ñ ˆÎ=!ú x¢ÇÜì˛ £ˆÏú ˆ¢£z=!ú ¢Ó£z x@˘Ãy£ƒ £ˆÏÎ˚ ÎyÎ˚– ¢%ì˛Ó˚yÇ £zFäÈyü!_´ˆÏÑ˛ ~£z¶˛yˆÏÓ
xÓüƒ£z ≤Ãîü≈ò Ñ˛Ó˚y ÎyÎ˚ ˆÎ ˆ¢!›˛ ˆÑ˛Óúõye !ÓïyˆÏòÓ˚ myÓ˚y !òï≈y!Ó˚ì˛ ~õò òÎ˚ñ ÓÓ˚Ç £zFäÈyü!_´ !òˆÏãˆÏÑ˛ !Óïyò ≤Ãïyò
Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ SxÌ≈yÍ fl˛∫ÈÙÈ!ÓïyÎ˚Ñ˛V ~ÓÇ ˆ¢£z !ÓïyˆÏòÓ˚ ≤ÈÏíì˛y Ó˚*ˆÏ˛ô !ÓˆÏÓâ˛ƒ £ÁÎ˚yÓ˚ Ñ˛yÓ˚ˆÏí fl˛∫Î˚Ç ˆ¢£z !Óïyò myÓ˚y !òÎ˚!s˛fì˛ ≤ÃÌõãò–
xyõÓ˚y ~£z xyˆÏúyâ˛òy ˆÌˆÏÑ˛ ˆîÖˆÏì˛ ˛ôy!FäÈ ˆÎ £zFäÈyü!_´Ó˚ fl˛∫yì˛ˆÏs˛fƒÓ˚ !òÎ˚ˆÏõÓ˚ î%!›˛ x!ÓˆÏFäÈîƒ xD xyˆÏäÈ–
≤ÃÌõì˛ñ £zFäÈyü!_´ fl˛∫Î˚Ç ˜ò!ì˛Ñ˛ !ÓïyˆÏòÓ˚ !ÓïyÎ˚Ñ˛ Óy ≤ÈÏíì˛yó
!mì˛#Î˚ì˛ñ ˆ¢£z ˜ò!ì˛Ñ˛ !Óïyò £zFäÈyü!_´Ó˚ !òÎ˚s˛fÑ˛–
¢ÇˆÏ«˛ˆÏ˛ô Óúy ÎyÎ˚ñ £zFäÈyü!_´Ó˚ fl˛∫yì˛ˆÏs˛fƒÓ˚ õ)ú Ñ˛Ìy £úñ £zFäÈyü!_´ !òˆÏãÓ˚ x!ì˛!Ó˚_´ Óy£ƒ ˆÑ˛yòÁ Ñ˛ì,≈˛ˆÏcÓ˚ myÓ˚y
Óyïƒ òy £ˆÏÎ˚ fl˛∫ÈÙÈ≤ÃÓ,_ £ˆÏÎ˚ !òÎ˚õ ≤ÃíÎ˚ˆÏòÓ˚ «˛õì˛y Ó˚yˆÏÖ– x!¶˛K˛ì˛y ≤â)ì˛ ˆÑ˛yòÁ v˛zj#˛ôòy Óy Ó!£Éfl˛i ˆÑ˛yòÁ Ñ˛ì≈,˛ˆÏcÓ˚
xˆÏ˛ô«˛y ˆò£z– Óy£ƒ ˆÑ˛yòÁ !òˆÏî≈ˆÏüÓ˚ â˛y!£îy ~£z fl˛iˆÏú ¢¡ô)í≈ v˛zˆÏ˛ô«˛yÓ˚ !Ó°ÏÎ˚ñ ì˛y òy £ˆÏú fl˛∫yì˛ˆÏs˛fƒÓ˚ ú«˛ˆÏíÓ˚ ˆÎ xòƒì˛õ
õ)ú !ÓˆÏü°Ïcñ xÌ≈yÍ Óy£ƒ !òÎ˚s˛fí !òÓ˚ˆÏ˛ô«˛ì˛yñ ì˛y úAáò Ñ˛Ó˚y £ˆÏÓ– fl˛∫ì˛s˛f £zFäÈyü!_´ !òˆÏãÓ˚ ≤ÃÓ_≈òyÓ˚ õˆÏïƒ !îˆÏÎ˚ fl˛∫ÈÙÈ!ÓïyÎ˚Ñ˛
£ˆÏì˛ ˛ôyˆÏÓ˚ xÌ≈yÍ !òˆÏã£z !òÎ˚õ ≤ÃíÎ˚ò Ñ˛Ó˚ˆÏì˛ ˛ôyˆÏÓ˚– ≤ß¿ £ˆÏì˛ ˛ôyˆÏÓ˚ fl˛∫yì˛s˛fƒ ~ÓÇ fl˛∫yï#òì˛yÓ˚ ¢¡ôÑ≈˛ !Ñ˛¶˛yˆÏÓ Ó%G˛ˆÏì˛
£ˆÏÓ⁄ Ñ˛yr›˛ !òˆÏã£z ì˛yÓ˚ Groundwork @˘ÃˆÏs˛iÓ˚ Section III ~Ó˚ ≤ÃÌõ xLjÏüÓ˚ 'The Concept of the Autonomy of
Will' ~£z !üˆÏÓ˚yòyõ ïyÎ≈ Ñ˛Ó˚yÓ˚ õˆÏïƒ !îˆÏÎ˚ v˛z_Ó˚ !îˆÏÎ˚ˆÏäÈò– Ñ˛yr›˛ ˆÑ˛yòÁ Ó˚Ñ˛õ !mõˆÏì˛Ó˚ xÓÑ˛yü Ó˚yˆÏÖò!ò ˆÎ !ì˛!ò !Ñ˛¶˛yˆÏÓ
fl˛∫yï#òì˛y ~ÓÇ £zFäÈyü!_´Ó˚ fl˛∫yì˛ˆÏs˛fƒÓ˚ ïyÓ˚íyÓ˚ ¢¡ôÑ≈˛ ì%˛ˆÏú ïÓ˚ˆÏì˛ ˆâ˛ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏäÈò– !ì˛!ò fl˛ô‹T¶˛yˆÏÓ ~£zÓ˚Ñ˛õ£z !ÓÓ,!ì˛ !îˆÏÎ˚ˆÏäÈòñ
fl˛∫yï#ò £zFäÈyü!_´ ~ÓÇ ˜ò!ì˛Ñ˛ !Óïyò myÓ˚y Óyïƒ £zFäÈyü!_´ £ú ~Ñ˛£z ~ÓÇ ~Ñ˛ ¢õyò– Ñ˛yr›˛ fl˛∫yï#òì˛yÓ˚ ˜Ó!ü‹Tƒ fl˛ô‹T
Ñ˛Ó˚ˆÏì˛ ~Ñ˛!›˛ òyhfl˛ƒÌ≈Ñ˛ !ÓÓ,!ì˛ !îˆÏÎ˚ˆÏäÈò ~£z¶˛yˆÏÓñ ≤ÃyíÓhs˛ ~õò ≤Ãyí#Ó˚ ÎyÓÍ ì˛yÓ˚y Ó%!k˛Ó%!_¢¡ôߨ ì˛ì˛ ˛ôÎ≈hs˛£z £zFäÈyü!_´
£ú ~Ñ˛ ïÓ˚ˆÏòÓ˚ Ñ˛yÓ˚íì˛y SÓy ≤ÃÓ≈ì˛òyV ~ÓÇ fl˛∫yï#òì˛y £ú Á£z ïÓ˚ˆÏòÓ˚ Ñ˛yÓ˚íì˛yÓ˚ SÓy ≤ÃÓì≈˛òyÓ˚V ˆ¢£z ïõ≈ Îy !òãfl˛∫
òÎ˚ ~õò Ñ˛yÓ˚íyÓú#Ó˚ !òÎ˚s˛fí ˆÌˆÏÑ˛ fl˛∫yï#ò¶˛yˆÏÓ Ñ˛yÎ≈Ñ˛Ó˚ ÌyˆÏÑ˛ ˛ôyˆÏÓ˚– Ñ˛yr›˛ !òˆÏã£z ≤Èϟ¿Ó˚ äȈÏú v˛z_Ó˚ !îˆÏFäÈò≠ £zFäÈyü!_´Ó˚
fl˛∫yï#òì˛y ì˛y£ˆÏú fl˛∫yì˛s˛fƒ ˆÌˆÏÑ˛ !¶˛ß¨ xyÓ˚ !Ñ˛ £ˆÏì˛ ˛ôyˆÏÓ˚ñ Îy £ú £zFäÈyü!_´Ó˚ fl˛∫ÈÙÈ!ÓïyÎ˚Ñ˛c ïõ≈⁄ Ñ˛yˆÏr›˛Ó˚ Ñ˛yäÈ ˆÌˆÏÑ˛ ˆÎ
28
˜ò!ì˛Ñ˛ Ñ˛ì≈˛yÓ˚ ïyÓ˚íy ˆ˛ôˆÏÎ˚!äÈ ˆ¢!›˛ Ó˝úyLjÏü xòÓîƒ Óúy ÎyÎ˚– Ñ˛yˆÏr›˛Ó˚ î,!‹TˆÏì˛ ˜ò!ì˛Ñ˛Ñ˛ì≈˛y ~õò ~Ñ˛ãò õye òò !Î!ò
˜ò!ì˛Ñ˛ì˛yÓ˚ xÓüƒ ≤ÈÏÎ˚yãò#Î˚ üì≈˛yÓú# ˆÑ˛Óú ˛ô)Ó˚í Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ò– ÓÓ˚Ç Ñ˛yr›˛#Î˚ ˜ò!ì˛Ñ˛ Ñ˛ì≈˛y !ÓˆÏü°Ï xˆÏÌ≈ xyÓyÓ˚ ˜ò!ì˛Ñ˛ !Ó!ïÓ˚
≤ÈÏíì˛yÁ ӈϛ˛–

3.9 v˛z˛ô¢Ç£yÓ˚
¢¡±!ì˛Ñ˛yˆÏúÁ Ñ˛yˆÏr›˛Ó˚ ò#!ì˛ì˛_¥ ˆÑ˛w Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ !Ó!¶˛ß¨ Óyî# Á ≤Ã!ì˛Óyî#Ó˚ òyòy ÓƒyÖƒyò Á ≤Ã!ì˛ÓƒyÖƒyˆÏòÓ˚ !ÓÓ˚yõ£#ò
≤ÃÓy£ ≤Ãõyí Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ Ñ˛yˆÏr›˛Ó˚ ˜ò!ì˛Ñ˛ õì˛yîˆÏü≈Ó˚ ≤ÈÏÎ˚yãò#Î˚ì˛y Á ≤Ãy¢!DÑ˛ì˛y xõ!úò xyˆÏäÈ– Ñ˛yˆÏr›˛Ó˚ £zFäÈyü!_´Ó˚ fl˛∫yì˛ˆÏs˛fƒÓ˚
ïyÓ˚íyÓ˚ !ӰψÏÎ˚ ˆÎ˛ ≤Ãïyò xy˛ô!_ v˛zˆÏ‡˛ˆÏäÈ ˆÎ Ñ˛yr›˛ !Ñ˛¶˛yˆÏÓ ~Ñ˛yïyˆÏÓ˚ £zFäÈyü!_´Ó˚ fl˛∫yì˛s˛fƒ Á v˛z_´ fl˛∫yì˛ˆÏs˛fƒÓ˚ ≤Ã!ì˛ Ñ˛ì≈˛yÓ˚
îyÎ˚Ók˛ì˛y Ó˚«˛y Ñ˛Ó˚ˆÏì˛ ˆ˛ôˆÏÓ˚ˆÏäÈòñ ì˛yÓ˚ fl˛ô‹T v˛z_Ó˚ Ñ˛yˆÏr›˛Ó˚ Ó˚â˛òyˆÏì˛£z xyõÓ˚y ˛ôy£z– Ñ˛yˆÏr›˛Ó˚ ˜ò!ì˛Ñ˛ ì˛_¥ xyˆÏúyâ˛òyÑ˛yˆÏú
ú«˛ƒ Ñ˛Ó˚y ÎyÎ˚ !ì˛!ò Ñ˛#¶˛yˆÏÓ î,벸ì˛yÓ˚ ¢yˆÏÌ Ólfl˛Üì˛ ˜ò!ì˛Ñ˛ì˛yÓ˚ñ ÎyÓ˚ xyˆÏäÈ üì≈˛!òÓ˚ˆÏ˛ô«˛ Ñ˛ì≈,˛cÓy!îì˛yñ ì˛yÓ˚ ≤ÈÏÎ˚yãò
fl˛∫#Ñ˛yÓ˚ Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ˆÏäÈò– !mì˛#Î˚ì˛ Ñ˛yr›˛ ¢Ó≈îy ˜ò!ì˛Ñ˛ Ñ˛ì≈˛yÓ˚ fl˛∫yì˛s˛fƒ fl˛∫#Ñ˛yÓ˚ Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ˆÏäÈò ~ÓÇ Î%!_´¢£ ≤Ã!ì˛˛ôyîò Ñ˛Ó˚ˆÏì˛ ¢«˛õ £ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏäÈò–
Ñ˛yr›˛ üì≈˛!òÓ˚ˆÏ˛ô«˛ xò%K˛yÓ˚*˛ô ˜ò!ì˛Ñ˛ì˛yÓ˚ Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ ˛ô›˛¶)˛!õ Ó˚*ˆÏ˛ô ≤Ããyì˛y!s˛fÑ˛ ¢Ç!Óïyò v˛z˛ôÎ%_´ ÓˆÏú !ÓˆÏÓâ˛òy Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ˆÏäÈò
Ñ˛yÓ˚í !ì˛!ò õˆÏò Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ˆÏäÈò ˆ¢ÖyˆÏò fl˛∫yì˛ˆÏs˛fƒÓ˚ õÎ≈yîy Ó˚«˛y ˆ˛ôˆÏì˛ ˛ôyÓ˚ˆÏÓ ~ÓÇ ïõ≈#Î˚ fl˛∫yï#òì˛y Á Óyщ˛ fl˛∫yï#òì˛y v˛z¶˛Î˚£z
¢%Ó˚!«˛ì˛ ÌyÑ˛ˆÏì˛ ˛ôyÓ˚ˆÏÓ–
Ñ˛yˆÏr›˛Ó˚ !â˛hs˛y¶˛yÓòy ì˛yÓ˚ õ,ì%˛ƒÓ˚ ˛ôÓ˚ î%Ûü ÓäÈÓ˚ x!ì˛e´yhs˛ £ˆÏÎ˚Á !òì˛ƒòì%˛ò ˆ≤Ã!«˛ì˛ ˆÌˆÏÑ˛ xyˆÏúy!â˛ì˛ £ˆÏFäÈñ ¢õyˆÏúy!â˛ì˛
£ˆÏFäÈ Á òÓòÓ ¶˛y°Ïƒ Á !ÓÓ,!ì˛Ó˚ ãß√ !îˆÏFäÈ ~Ó˚ â˛y£zˆÏì˛ Î%Üyhs˛Ñ˛yÓ˚# ᛲòy xyÓ˚ Ñ˛#ÈÙÈ£z Óy £ˆÏì˛ ˛ôyˆÏÓ˚⁄ Ñ˛yˆÏr›˛Ó˚ ãß√ £ˆÏÎ˚!äÈú
ˆÎ˚ ≤Ã%!üÎ˚y Ó˚yˆÏム¢¡Ày›˛ !mì˛#Î˚ ˆö ˛v˛!Ó˚ˆÏÑ˛Ó˚ Ñ˛ˆÏ‡˛yÓ˚ Ó˚yãì˛y!s˛fÑ˛ üy¢òÑ˛yˆÏú ˆ¢ÖyˆÏò ¢¡Ày›˛ ãò¢yïyÓ˚ˆÏíÓ˚ ¢yõˆÏò î§y!v˛¸ˆÏÎ˚
ˆáy°Ïíy Ñ˛Ó˚ˆÏì˛òñ Ú¢¡Ày›˛ ãò܈ÏíÓ˚ ¶,˛ì˛ƒÛ ~ÓÇ ˆ¢£z ãòÜíˆÏÑ˛ v˛zˆÏjüƒ Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚£z xyv˛¸yˆÏú xÓK˛y˛ô)í≈¶˛yˆÏÓ ÓúˆÏì˛ò Ú£zì˛Ó˚
õyò%°ÏãòÛ– ¢¡Ày›˛ ˆö ˛v˛!Ó˚Ñ˛ õˆÏò ≤ÃyˆÏí !äȈÏúò õƒy!Ñ˛Î˚yˆÏ¶˛!úÓ˚ ¶˛yÓ!ü°Ïƒñ ¢%ì˛Ó˚yÇ ì˛yÓ˚ ˆ¢yFâ˛yÓ˚ ˆáy°Ïíy Ñ˛Ó˚ˆÏì˛ ˆÑ˛yòÁ
Óyïy !äÈú òy ˆÎ òƒyÎ˚!ò¤˛ £ˆÏú Î!î ˆÑ˛yòÁ úy¶˛ £Î˚ñ ì˛y£ˆÏú òƒyÎ˚!ò¤˛ £ÁÎ˚y ÎyÑ˛ó Î!î Ñ˛yˆÏÓ˚yÓ˚ ¢yˆÏÌ ÓM˛Èòy Ñ˛Ó˚ˆÏú
úy¶˛ £Î˚ñ ì˛y£ˆÏú ÓM˛Èòy Ñ˛Ó˚y ÎyÑ˛– õƒy!Ñ˛Î˚yˆÏ¶˛!úÓ˚ !ü«˛y £ú ~£zÓ˚Ñ˛õ£z ˆÎ üy¢òÑ˛ì≈˛y Ó˚y‹T…üy¢ˆÏòÓ˚ ≤ÈÏÎ˚yãˆÏò !õ̃y
ÓúˆÏì˛ ˛ôyˆÏÓ˚ñ ≤Ã!ì˛◊&!ì˛¶˛D Ñ˛Ó˚ˆÏì˛ ˛ôyˆÏÓ˚ ~ÓÇ ¢¡Ày›˛ xÓüƒ£z ˆ¢£zÓ˚Ñ˛õ£z Ñ˛Ó˚ˆÏÓ– ¢¡Ày›˛ ˆö ˛v˛!Ó˚Ñ˛ õƒy!Ñ˛Î˚yˆÏ¶˛!úÓ˚ ò#!ì˛!ü«˛y
xy_#Ñ˛Ó˚í Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚!äȈÏúò ÓˆÏú£z fl˛∫FäȈϮ ãò¢yïyÓ˚ˆÏíÓ˚ ˜ò!ì˛Ñ˛ì˛y ~ÓÇ Óƒ!_´Üì˛ ˜ò!ì˛Ñ˛ì˛yÓ˚ ˆ¶˛î ˆõˆÏò â˛úˆÏì˛ò ~ÓÇ
Ó˚yãü!_´Ó˚ xy÷ ≤ÈÏÎ˚yãˆÏò x˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ xyâ˛Ó˚í ¢¡ô)í≈£z ¢õÌ≈ò Ñ˛Ó˚ˆÏì˛ò– ˆ¢£z ¢¡Ày›˛£z ≤ÃÑ˛yüƒ ãò¢¶˛yÎ˚ ˛ôÓ˚!£˜Ïì˛°Ïíy Á
¢!£°%åì˛yÓ˚ ≤Ã!ì˛õ)!ì≈˛ Ó˚*ˆÏ˛ô xÓì˛#í≈ £ˆÏì˛ò– xyˆÏúy!Ñ˛ì˛ Î%ˆÏÜÓ˚ xòƒì˛õ !â˛hs˘˛y!Óî Ñ˛yr›˛ˆÏÑ˛ ~£z ˛ô!Ó˚ˆÏÓü ˆÑ˛yòÁ¶˛yˆÏÓ£z hfl˛∏˛
Ñ˛Ó˚ˆÏì˛ ˛ôyˆÏÓ˚!ò– Ñ˛yˆÏr›˛Ó˚ ˜ò!ì˛Ñ˛ ì˛ˆÏ_¥Ó˚ ≤Ãyâ˛#ò ¶˛y°ÏƒÑ˛yˆÏÓ˚Ó˚y £zFäÈyü!_´Ó˚ fl˛∫yì˛ˆÏs˛fƒÓ˚ ïyÓ˚íyÓ˚ ¢yˆÏÌ ˜ò!ì˛Ñ˛ !òÎ˚ˆÏõÓ˚
¢Ó≈ãò@˘Ãy£ƒì˛y !ӰψÏÎ˚ ΈÏÌ‹T =Ó˚&c !îˆÏÎ˚ˆÏäÈò ~ÓÇ Ñ˛yˆÏr›˛Ó˚ ˜ò!ì˛Ñ˛ ì˛ˆÏ_¥Ó˚ ˛ô!Ó˚!ïˆÏì˛ ˆÑ˛Óú Óƒ!_´ õyò%°ÏˆÏÑ˛ fl˛iy˛ôò Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚
õ)úì˛ xyˆÏúyâ˛òy Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ˆÏäÈò– xyï%!òÑ˛ ¶˛y°ÏƒÑ˛yˆÏÓ˚Ó˚y ˆ¢£z¢Ó ¶˛yˆÏ°ÏƒÓ˚ õˆÏïƒ !îˆÏÎ˚ Ñ˛yˆÏr›˛Ó˚ ˜ò!ì˛Ñ˛ ì˛ˆÏ_¥Ó˚ ≤ÃÑ,˛ì˛ !Óhfl+˛!ì˛ Á
ˆÎy܃ì˛yÓ˚ v˛z˛ôú!∏˛Ó˚ x¶˛yÓ ú«˛ƒ Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ˆÏäÈò– ¢¡±!ì˛Ñ˛yˆÏú ~ƒyˆÏúò v˛zv˛ñ ÁˆÏòyÓ˚y Á ò#ú ≤Ãõ%Ö ¶˛y°ÏƒÑ˛yˆÏÓ˚Ó˚y Ñ˛yˆÏr›˛Ó˚ ò#!ì˛ì˛_¥
¢õyˆÏãÓ˚ Á £z!ì˛£yˆÏ¢Ó˚ ¶)˛!õ ˆÌˆÏÑ˛ !Ó!FäÈߨ Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ ˛≤Ã!ì˛¤˛yÓ˚ ≤ÃÎ˚y¢ ¢¡ô)í≈ e&!›˛˛ô)í≈ õˆÏò Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ˆÏäÈò– ì˛yÓ˚y Ñ˛yˆÏr›˛Ó˚ ú«˛ƒ ¢õ)ˆÏ£Ó˚
¢y¡ÀyˆÏãƒÓ˚ ì˛_¥ Îy !ÓÓ,ì˛ £ˆÏÎ˚ xyˆÏäÈ Ñ˛yˆÏr›˛Ó˚ õyòÓì˛yÓ˚ ¢)ˆÏeñ ì˛yÓ˚ ¢yˆÏÌ £zFäÈyü!_´Ó˚ fl˛∫yì˛ˆÏs˛fƒÓ˚ ¢)ˆÏeÓ˚ xˆÏFäÈîƒì˛y !Ó°ÏÎ˚Ñ˛
xyˆÏúyâ˛òyÎ˚ xyÓ˚Á õˆÏòyˆÏÎyÜ# £ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏäÈò– ~ƒyu»˛$¢ Ó˚#Ì Ñ˛yˆÏr›˛Ó˚ fl˛∫yì˛ˆÏs˛fƒÓ˚ ì˛ˆÏ_¥Ó˚ õˆÏïƒ xhs˛Ó≈ì≈˛# £ˆÏÎ˚ xyˆÏäÈ ¢yÓ≈ˆÏ¶˛Ô!õÑ˛ì˛yÓ˚
ì˛_¥ ~õò îy!Ó Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ˆÏäÈò– Ó˚ãyÓ˚ ¢y!ú¶˛ˆÏòÓ˚ õˆÏì˛ fl˛∫yì˛ˆÏs˛fƒÓ˚ !òÎ˚õ ≤ÃíÎ˚ˆÏòÓ˚ õˆÏïƒ !îˆÏÎ˚ Ñ˛yr›˛ ÖyõˆÏÖÎ˚y!ú xì˛ƒyâ˛y!Ó˚ Ó˚yãyÓ˚
ˆÑ˛Óúõye £zFäÈy˛ô)Ó˚ˆÏíÓ˚ Îs˛fÓ˚*ˆÏ˛ô ≤ÃãyˆÏîÓ˚ ÓƒÓ£yˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ !ÓÓ˚&ˆÏk˛ !ÓˆÏÓ˚yï# î,!‹T¶˛!DÓ˚ ˛ôÌ Ö%ˆÏú !îˆÏÎ˚ˆÏäÈò– Ñ˛yˆÏr›˛Ó˚ Ó˚â˛òy ˆÌˆÏÑ˛£z

29
~õò Ó˚yãò#!ì˛Ñ˛ !¢k˛yhs˛ Ö%§ˆÏã ˛ôyÁÎ˚y ˆÜˆÏäÈ Îy ¢yÓ≈ˆÏ¶˛Ôõ òƒy΃ì˛yÓ˚ ò#!ì˛Ó˚ ≤Ãhfl˛yÓÑ˛ ÓˆÏú !ÓˆÏÓ!â˛ì˛ £Î˚– ÚÓ˚yãì˛s˛f !ò˛ôyì˛
ÎyÑ˛Ûñ Úõƒy!Ñ˛Î˚yˆÏ¶˛!ú !ò˛ôyì˛ ÎyÑ˛Û ~õò ˆÑ˛yòÁ !ÓK˛!Æ ¢§y›˛y ˆáy°Ïíy ˛ôe £yˆÏì˛ ïˆÏÓ˚ ˛ôÌ ˛ô!Ó˚e´õyÓ˚ ¢ÇÓyî Ñ˛yr›˛ ˆÓ˚ˆÏÖ
ˆÎˆÏì˛ òy ˛ôyÓ˚ˆÏúÁ Úx!¢Ó˚ ˆâ˛ˆÏÎ˚ õ!¢Ó˚ ˆãyÓ˚ ˆÓ!üÛ ~£z ≤Ãõyí Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ xyãÁ ˛ô%ˆÏÓ˚y˛ô%!Ó˚ ≤Ãy¢!DÑ˛ Ó˚ˆÏÎ˚ ˆÜˆÏäÈò–

3.10 õ)úƒyÎ˚ò !ò!õ_ ≤ß¿yÓú#˛

Ñ˛V˜ò!ì˛Ñ˛ !òÎ˚õ xò%¢ı˛yˆÏòÓ˚ ãòƒ Ñ˛yr›˛ Ñ˛# Ñ˛# ˛ôk˛!ì˛ xÓú¡∫ò Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚!äȈÏúò⁄
ÖV ˜ò!ì˛Ñ˛ˆÏÓyˆÏïÓ˚ v˛zͲô!_ !ӰψÏÎ˚ ≤Ãïyò î%!›˛ õì˛ Ñ˛# Ñ˛#⁄
ÜV Ñ˛yr›˛ ˜ò!ì˛Ñ˛ˆÏÓyˆÏïÓ˚ v˛zͲô!_Ó˚ Ñ˛# ÓƒyÖƒy !îˆÏÎ˚ˆÏäÈò⁄
áV £zFäÈyü!_´ ˆÑ˛yò xˆÏÌ≈ ≤ÃÑ,˛!ì˛Ó˚ ¢yˆÏÌ ì%˛úò#Î˚⁄
àV ÚõˆÏòyòÎ˚ˆÏòÓ˚ ˛ôyü!ÓÑ˛ ü!_´Û ÓúˆÏì˛ Ñ˛yr›˛ Ñ˛# Ó%!G˛ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏäÈò⁄
â˛V˛ô÷ˆÏîÓ˚ Ñ˛# ì˛yˆÏîÓ˚ myÓ˚y xyâ˛!Ó˚ì˛ Ñ˛ˆÏõ≈Ó˚ Ñ˛ì≈˛y Óúy ÎyˆÏÓ⁄
äÈVÚõˆÏòyòÎ˚ˆÏòÓ˚ õyò!ÓÑ˛ ü!_´ÛÓ˚ !ÓˆÏü°Ïc Ñ˛# Ñ˛#⁄
ãV ÓƒÓ£y!Ó˚Ñ˛ ≤ÃK˛y ÓúˆÏì˛ Ñ˛yr›˛ Ñ˛# Ó%!G˛ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏäÈò⁄
G˛VÚ£zFäÈyü!_´Ó˚ fl˛∫yì˛s˛fƒÛÈÙÙÙÈ~£z ì˛_¥ x«%˛] Ó˚yÖˆÏì˛ £ˆÏú Ñ˛# Ñ˛# fl˛∫#Ñ˛yÓ˚ Ñ˛Ó˚ˆÏì˛ £ˆÏÓ⁄
~åV Ñ˛yˆÏr›˛Ó˚ £zFäÈyü!_´Ó˚ ˛ôÓ˚ì˛s˛fì˛y fl˛∫#Ñ˛yˆÏÓ˚ Ñ˛# Ñ˛# x¢%!Óïy £ˆÏÓ⁄
›˛VÑ˛yr›˛ˆÏÑ˛ ˆÑ˛ò Óúy £ˆÏFäÈ ˆÎ ˜ò!ì˛Ñ˛¶˛yˆÏÓ ãy܈Ïì˛ !ì˛!ò ˆÑ˛y˛ôyÓ˚!òÑ˛y¢ ¢%ú¶˛ !Ó≤’Ó ~ˆÏòˆÏäÈò⁄
‡˛VÑ˛yr›˛ 'maxim' ÓúˆÏì˛ Ñ˛# Ó%!G˛ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏäÈò⁄ Ñ˛yr›˛ xò%¢yˆÏÓ˚ maxim ~ÓÇ v˛zˆÏjˆÏüƒÓ˚ ¢¡ôÑ≈˛ Ñ˛#¶˛yˆÏÓ ˆÓyG˛y £ˆÏÓ⁄
v˛VÓƒ!_´Üì˛ xy!dÑ˛ !òÎ˚ˆÏõÓ˚ õˆÏïƒ Ñ˛# ˆ◊!í!Ó¶˛yÜ Ñ˛Ó˚y ÎyÎ˚⁄ xyˆÏúyâ˛òy Ñ˛Ó˚&ò–
ë˛Vv˛z˛ôyîyò!¶˛!_Ñ˛ Óƒ!_´Üì˛ xy!dÑ˛ !òõÎ˚ Á xyÑ˛yÓ˚!¶˛!_Ñ˛ Óƒ!_´Üì˛ xy!dÑ˛ !òÎ˚ˆÏõÓ˚ Ñ˛# Ñ˛# ˛ôyÌ≈Ñ˛ƒ⁄
íV Ñ˛yr›˛ Ñ˛ˆÏõ≈Ó˚ xyâ˛Ó˚í ãòƒ ˛ô!Ó˚íyˆÏõÓ˚ v˛zqÓ Ñ˛# fl˛∫#Ñ˛yÓ˚ Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ˆÏäÈò⁄ xyˆÏúyâ˛òy Ñ˛Ó˚&ò–
ì˛V Ñ˛yr›˛ Ñ˛#¶˛yˆÏÓ ˜ò!ì˛Ñ˛ì˛y Á ¢Ó≈ãò#Ñ˛Ó˚íì˛yÓ˚ Áì˛ˆÏ≤Ãyì˛ ¢¡ôÑ≈˛ ÓƒyÖƒy Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ˆÏäÈò⁄
ÌV ˜ò!ì˛Ñ˛ì˛yÓ˚ ¢yˆÏÌ üì≈˛!òÓ˚ˆÏ˛ô«˛ xò%K˛yÓ˚ ¢¡ôÑ≈˛ ˆÑ˛õò⁄
îV !ò¡¨!ú!Öì˛ ¢)e=!ú ÓƒyÖƒy Ñ˛Ó˚&ò ≠
¢)e S1V
¢)e S1Ñ˛V
¢)e S2V
¢)e S3V
¢)e S3Ñ˛V
ïV Ñ˛yr›˛ˆÏÑ˛ xò%¢Ó˚ˆÏí £zFäÈyü!_´Ó˚ fl˛∫yì˛ˆÏs˛fƒÓ˚ !òÎ˚ˆÏõÓ˚ Ñ˛ˆÏÎ˚Ñ˛!›˛ ¢)eyÎ˚ˆÏíÓ˚ ¢yˆÏÌ ¢Ó≈ãò#òì˛yÓ˚ !òÎ˚ˆÏõÓ˚ Ñ˛# ˆÑ˛yòÁ
¢¡ôÑ≈˛ xyˆÏäÈ⁄ xyˆÏúyâ˛òy Ñ˛Ó˚&ò–
òV Ñ˛yr›˛ fl˛∫#Ñ,˛ì˛ üì≈˛!òÓ˚ˆÏ˛ô«˛ xò%K˛yÓ˚ ¢)e S2V ~ÓÇ ¢)e S3VÈÙÈ~Ó˚ õˆÏïƒ ˆÑ˛yòÁ ¢¡ôÑ≈˛ xyˆÏäÈ Ñ˛#⁄
30
 ˛ôV £zFäÈyü!_´Ó˚ fl˛∫yì˛ˆÏs˛fƒÓ˚ ¢)e ¢Ó≈ãò#òì˛yÓ˚ ¢)e Á õyòÓì˛yÓ˚ ¢)ˆÏeÓ˚ x!ì˛!Ó˚_´ ¢)eÓˆÏú fl˛∫#Ñ˛yÓ˚ Ñ˛Ó˚y ÎyÎ˚⁄ xyˆÏúyâ˛òy
Ñ˛Ó˚&ò–
ö˛V Ñ˛yr›˛ xò%¢yˆÏÓ˚ ˜ò!ì˛Ñ˛ Ñ˛ì≈˛yÓ˚ ïyÓ˚íy xyˆÏúyâ˛òy Ñ˛Ó˚&ò–
ÓV Ñ˛yˆÏr›˛Ó˚ £zFäÈyü!_´Ó˚ fl˛∫yì˛ˆÏs˛fƒÓ˚ ïyÓ˚íyÓ˚ !ӰψÏÎ˚ xyˆÏúyâ˛òy ˆÌˆÏÑ˛ îyü≈!òÑ˛ Ñ˛yr›˛ !ӰψÏÎ˚ Ñ˛# ïyÓ˚íy £ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏäÈ ¢ÇˆÏ«˛ˆÏ˛ô
Óú%ò–

3.11 ¢y£yÎƒÑ˛yÓ˚# @˘Ãs˛i˛ôO#

i. Kant, Immanuel. (1999). Critique of Pure Reason. (A. M. Paul Guyer, Ed.) Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press.
ii. Paton, H. (1947). The Categorical Imperative. London: Hutchinson and Company, Ltd.
iii. Reath, Andrews. (2006). Agency and Autonomy in Kant’s Moral Theory: Selected Essays.
Clarendon Press.
iv. Sullivan, Rogers. (1994). An Introduction to Kant’s Ethics. Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press.
v. Wood, Allen W. (1999). Kant’s Ethical Thought. New York: Cambridge University Press.

31
 ˛ôy‡˛e´õ ≠ 1.1
Unit-4

ˆ£ˆÏÜú ≠ fl˛∫yï#òì˛y ~ÓÇ Ó˚y‹T…

Hegel : Views on Freedom and State
!Ó°ÏÎ˚¢)!Ⲡ:
4.1 ˛ôy‡˛ÈÙÈv˛zˆj
Ï üƒ
4.2 ¶)˛!õÑ˛y
4.3 ˆ£ˆÏ܈ÏúÓ˚ m®¥Óyî
4.4 ˆ£ˆÏÜú Á fl˛∫yï#òì˛y
4.5 ˆ£ˆÏÜψÏúÓ˚ Ó˚y‹T…ì˛_¥
4.6 ˛ô%Ó˚¢õyˆÏãÓ˚ ïyÓ˚íy ¢¡ôˆÏÑ≈˛ ˆ£ˆÏÜú
4.7 õ)úƒyÎ˚ò
4.8 õ)úƒyÎ˚ò !ò!õ_ ≤ß¿yÓú#
4.9 ¢y£yÎƒÑ˛yÓ˚# @˘Ãs˛i˛ôO#

4.1 ˛ôy‡˛ÈÙÈv˛zˆÏjüƒ
~£z ~Ñ˛Ñ˛!›˛ ˛ôyˆÏ‡˛Ó˚ õïƒ !îˆÏÎ˚ xyõÓ˚y ˆ£ˆÏ܈ÏúÓ˚ Ó˚y‹T…îü≈ò !òˆÏÎ˚ xyˆÏúyâ˛òy Ñ˛Ó˚Ó– ˆ¢£z xyˆÏúyâ˛òyÓ˚ õyÏõ î%!›˛ x!ì˛
=Ó˚&c˛ô)í≈ ïyÓ˚òyÓ˚ v˛z˛ôÓ˚ xyõÓ˚y xyˆÏúyÑ˛˛ôyì˛ Ñ˛Ó˚ÓÈÙÙÙȈ£ˆÏ܈ÏúÓ˚ m®¥Óyî xÌÓy my!®¥Ñ˛ ˛ôk˛!ì˛ ~ÓÇ ˆ£ˆÏ܈ÏúÓ˚ Ó˚y‹T…ì˛_¥–
˛ô!Ó˚ˆÏüˆÏ°Ï xyõÓ˚y ˆ£ˆÏÜ!úÎ˚ ì˛ˆÏ_¥Ó˚ ΧyÓ˚y ¢õyˆÏúyâ˛òy Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ˆÏäÈò ì§˛yˆÏîÓ˚ Ó_´Óƒ ì%˛ˆÏú ïÓ˚yÓ˚ ˆâ˛‹Ty Ñ˛Ó˚Ó–

4.2 ¶)˛!õÑ˛y
xyï%!òÑ˛ Ó˚y‹T…!â˛hs˛yÓ˚ ã܈Ïì˛ ~Ñ˛ xòòƒ ¢yïyÓ˚í Óƒ!_´c £ˆÏúy ãã≈ v˛z£zúˆÏ£õ ˆö ˛v˛!Ó˚Ñ˛ ˆ£ˆÏÜú S1770ÈÙÈ1831V–
!ì˛!ò £z!ì˛£yˆÏ¢Ó˚ ≤ÃÑ,˛!ì˛ fl˛iyˆÏòÓ˚ fl˛∫Ó˚*˛ôñ {ŸªˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ ¢Ó≈¢õÎ˚ì˛yñ !ÓŸª ≤ÃÑ,˛!ì˛ñ Ó˚yˆÏ‹T…Ó˚ õ!£õy!ß∫ì˛ ¶)˛!õÑ˛y £zì˛ƒy!î ¢¡ôˆÏÑ≈˛ K˛yòܶ≈˛
xyˆÏúyâ˛òy Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ˆÏäÈò– ì§˛yÓ˚ ¢õ@˘Ã xyˆÏúyâ˛òy£z ¢¡ôy!îì˛ £ˆÏÎ˚!äÈú xyîü≈Óyî Á x!ï!ÓîƒyÜì˛ îü≈ˆÏòÓ˚ (Metaphysics)
ˆ≤ë˛y˛ôˆÏ›˛– !â˛hs˛y!Óî Ñ˛ƒy!¢Ó˚yÓ˚ (Cassirer) ì˛y£z !úˆÏÖ!äȈÏúò ≠ "No other philosophical system has exerted such
a strong and enduring influence upon political life as the metaphysics of Hegel." [Cassirer, Myth of the
state, p.248] xò%Ó˚*˛ô¶˛yˆÏÓ xïƒy˛ôÑ˛ ¢ƒyÓy£zò Á (Sabine) !úˆÏÖˆÏäÈò ≠ "The philosophy of Hegel aimed at nothing
less than a complete and systematic reconstruction of modern thought" [George H. Sabine, A history of
Political theory, Chapter 31]

32
 x‹Tyîü üì˛ˆÏÑ˛Ó˚ ˆüˆÏ°Ï ˛ôˆÏÓ≈ ãyõ≈yò# ì˛Ìy £zv˛zˆÏÓ˚yˆÏ˛ôÓ˚ !ü“#ñ ¢y!£!ì˛ƒÑ˛ Á îyü≈!òÑ˛ˆÏîÓ˚ Ñ˛yˆÏäÈ õ)ú ≤ß¿ !äÈú Óƒ!_´
õyò%ˆÏ°ÏÓ˚ ¢_yÓ˚ ≤ÃÑ,˛!ì˛ !òí≈Î˚ (Nature of human subjectivity)– ãyõ≈yò ˆÓÔ!k˛Ñ˛ ã܈Ïì˛ ~£z ≤Èϟ¿Ó˚ ¢õyïyò !£¢yˆÏÓ
î%!›˛ ˛ôÓ˚fl˛ôÓ˚ !ÓˆÏÓ˚yï# î,!‹T¶˛!DÓ˚ ≤ÃÑ˛yü áˆÏ›˛!äÈú– ~Ñ˛!›˛ !äÈú £yv≈˛yÓ˚#Î˚ Ñ,˛!ì˛cñ x˛ôÓ˚!›˛ Ñ˛yr›˛#Î˚ x!ï!Óîƒy– ˆ£ˆÏ܈ÏúÓ˚ îü≈ˆÏò
~£z î%ÛïÓ˚ˆÏòÓ˚ ¢õyïyò Á î,!‹T¶˛!D ˆõúyˆÏòyÓ˚ ˆâ˛‹Ty £ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏäÈ ÓˆÏú xˆÏòˆÏÑ˛ õˆÏò Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ò– !Ó!ü‹T ˆúÖÑ˛ â˛yú≈¢ ˆ›˛úÓ˚ ÓˆÏúòñ
Óƒ!_´¢_yÓ˚ ≤ÃÑ,˛!ì˛ !òˆÏÎ˚ v˛z˛ôfl˛iy!˛ôì˛ ¢õyïyò=ˆÏúy xy¢ˆÏú ¢Æîü Á x‹Tyîü üì˛ˆÏÑ˛Ó˚ £zÇúƒyu˛ Á ö ˛yˆÏ™Ó˚ fl˛iyòî#Æ ïyÓ˚yÓ˚
(Enlightenment) !ÓÓ˚&ˆÏk˛ ≤Ã!ì˛!e´Î˚y õye–
ÓyˆÏÑ≈˛Ó˚ õˆÏì˛ñ ˆ£ˆÏÜú ≤ÃÌõ ã#ÓˆÏò xyõ)ú ¢Çfl˛ÒyÓ˚Óyî# (radical) !â˛hs˛y!Óî !äȈÏúò– ≤Ãyâ˛#ò !@˘ÃÑ˛ !â˛hs˛y ïyÓ˚yÓ˚ myÓ˚y
≤ö˛y!Óì˛ £ˆÏÎ˚ !ì˛!ò !Ö fi›˛ïˆÏõ≈Ó˚ £z!ì˛Óyâ˛Ñ˛ Ó˚*˛ôˆÏÑ˛ ì˛#Ó ¶˛yˆÏÓ ¢õyˆÏúyâ˛òy Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ˆÏäÈò– ˆ£ˆÏ܈ÏúÓ˚ !â˛hs˛yïyÓ˚y ö˛Ó˚y!¢ !Ó≤’ˆÏÓÓ˚
myÓ˚y ܶ˛#Ó˚¶˛yˆÏÓ ≤ö˛y!Óì˛ £ˆÏÎ˚!äÈú– ö˛Ó˚y!¢ !Ó≤’ÓˆÏÑ˛ !ì˛!ò ÚˆÜÔÓ˚ÓõÎ˚ õyò!¢Ñ˛ v˛zˆÏß√°ÏÛ ÓˆÏú !â˛!£´ì˛ Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚!äȈÏúò– ì§˛yÓ˚
õˆÏì˛ñ ö˛Ó˚y!¢ !Ó≤’ˆÏÓÓ˚ îyü≈!òÑ˛ !¶˛!_ !äÈú Î%!_´ Á x!ïÑ˛yÓ˚ ì§˛yÓ˚ ˆö˛ˆÏòyˆÏõˆÏòyú!ã xÓ !fl˛ô!Ó˚›˛ (Phenomenology of
Spirit) òyõÑ˛ @˘ÃˆÏs˛i !ì˛!ò â˛Ó˚õ fl˛∫yï#òì˛yˆÏÑ˛ ˛ô!Ó˚£yÓ˚ Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ˆÏäÈò– Ó˚y‹T…˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ îyü≈!òÑ˛ !£ˆÏ¢ˆÏÓ ˆ£ˆÏ܈ÏúÓ˚ ≤Ãïyò v˛zˆÏjüƒ !äÈú
xyï%!òÑ˛ Ó˚yˆÏ‹T…Ó˚ ˆ¢£z¢Ó ˆõÔ!úÑ˛ò#!ì˛ v˛z˛ôfl˛iy˛ôò Ñ˛Ó˚y ˆÎ=!úÓ˚ õyÏõ ö˛Ó˚y!¢ !Ó≤’ˆÏÓÓ˚ ö˛úyö˛ú v˛z˛ôú!∏˛ Ñ˛Ó˚y ÎyÎ˚– !ì˛!ò
õˆÏò Ñ˛Ó˚ˆÏì˛ò ˆÎñ ˆòˆÏ˛ôy!úÎ˚ò !ü“¢¡ôyîò cÓ˚y!ß∫ì˛ Ñ˛Ó˚ˆÏì˛ ~ÓÇ xy£zˆÏòÓ˚ üy¢òˆÏÑ˛ ¢%î,벸 !¶˛!_Ó˚ Á˛ôÓ˚ ≤Ã!ì˛¤˛y Ñ˛Ó˚ˆÏì˛
¢õÌ≈ £ˆÏÎ˚!äȈÏúò– ì˛y£z ˆ£ˆÏÜú#Î˚ îü≈ˆÏò ≤ÃÓú Ó˚y‹T…ü!_´ˆÏÑ˛ ì˛y!_¥Ñ˛ ¢õÌ≈ò îyò Ñ˛Ó˚y £ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏäÈ– £zv˛zˆÏÓ˚yˆÏ˛ôÓ˚ (Englightenment)
Óy fl˛iyòî#Æ ïyÓ˚y !äÈú õ)úì˛ ~Ñ˛ fl˛iyòì˛y!_¥Ñ˛ (Epistemological) ~ÓÇ ˜ÓK˛y!òÑ˛ ˛ôk˛!ì˛Üì˛ (Scientific methodological)
!Ó≤’Ó– ˜ÓK˛y!òÑ˛ !â˛hs˛y Á ˛ôk˛!ì˛Ó˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe ˆÎõò ܃y!ú!úÁñ !òv˛z›˛ò ≤Ãõ%Ö ¢%î)Ó˚ ≤âyÓ˚# ˛ô!Ó˚Óì≈˛ò ~ˆÏò!äȈÏúò– ˆì˛õ!ò
îyü≈!òÑ˛ !â˛hs˛y Á ˛ôk˛!ì˛Ó˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe fl˛iyòî#Æ ïyÓ˚yÓ˚ ¢)e˛ôyì˛ á!›˛ˆÏÎ˚!äȈÏúò ˆÓÑ˛òñ £Ó¢‰ñ ˆv˛Ñ˛yì≈˛ úÑ˛ ≤Ãõ%Ö îyü≈!òÑ˛–
x‹Tyîü üì˛y∑#Ó˚ ˆüˆÏ°Ï ˛ôÓ≈ !äÈú ãyõ≈yò !ü“ñ ¢y!£ì˛ƒ Á ¢Çfl˛,Ò!ì˛Ó˚ !ÓÑ˛yˆÏüÓ˚ ¢%Óí≈ Î%Ü– £zv˛zˆÏÓ˚y˛ô#Î˚ xyˆÏúyÑ˛≤Ãy!hs˛ÛÓ˚
ïyÓ˚y Á ö˛Ó˚y!¢ !Ó≤’ˆÏÓÓ˚ ïyÓ˚yÓ˚ !ÓÓ˚&ˆÏk˛ ~Ñ˛ ˆÓ˚yõy!r›˛Ñ˛ Ó˚«˛íü#ú ≤Ã!ì˛!e´Î˚y ˆîÖy !îˆÏÎ˚!äÈúñ ì˛yÓ˚ õˆÏïƒ £yv≈˛yÓ˚ (Herder)ÈÙÈ~Ó˚
xÓîyò !ÓˆÏü°Ï v˛zˆÏÕ‘ÖˆÏÎy܃– ~£z ïyÓ˚yÎ˚ !Ó°ÏÎ˚Üì˛ Á !Ó°ÏÎ˚#܈Ïì˛Ó˚ õˆÏïƒ ˛ôyÌ≈Ñ˛ƒ !òÓ˚*˛ôí ~ÓÇ ¢_y (Being)Ó˚ ¢ˆÏD xÌ≈˛ô)í≈ì˛y
(Meaning)Ó˚ !ÓˆÏÓ˚yï !òˆÏî≈ü Ñ˛Ó˚y £ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏäÈ– £yv≈˛yÓ˚#Î˚ ì˛ˆÏ_¥ ~£z !ÓˆÏÓ˚yïˆÏÑ˛ xfl˛∫#Ñ˛yÓ˚ Ñ˛Ó˚y £ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏäÈ– ˆ£ˆÏ܈ÏúÓ˚ ÚxyˆÏúyÑ˛≤Ãy!hs˛Ó˚Û
ïyÓ˚yÓ˚ !ÓÓ˚&ˆÏk˛ ~£z !m!Óï ≤Ã!ì˛!e´Î˚yÓ˚ õˆÏïƒ ¢yõO¢ƒ !ÓïyˆÏòÓ˚ ˆâ˛‹Ty Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ˆÏäÈò– ì§˛yÓ˚ îü≈ˆÏò !Ó°ÏÎ˚Üì˛ Á !Ó°ÏÎ˚#܈Ïì˛Ó˚ õˆÏïƒ
¢õß∫Î˚ ¢yïˆÏòÓ˚ ˆâ˛‹Ty Ñ˛Ó˚y £ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏäÈ– ~£z v˛zˆÏjüƒ ˆ£ˆÏÜú ì§˛yÓ˚ my!®μÑ˛ ¶˛yÓÓyî# îü≈ˆÏòÓ˚ Ñ˛y‡˛yˆÏõy v˛z˛ôfl˛iy˛ôò Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ˆÏäÈò– ì§˛yÓ˚
Ó˚y‹T…îü≈ˆÏòÓ˚ õˆÏïƒ ˆîÖy ÎyÎ˚ ˆÎñ Óƒ!_´ fl˛∫yï#òì˛yÓ˚ !Ó°ÏÎ˚#Üì˛ !îÑ˛!›˛Ó˚ ¢ˆÏD ¢yõy!ãÑ˛ñ Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ Á xy£zòÜì˛ Ñ˛y‡˛yˆÏõyÓ˚
!Ó°ÏÎ˚Üì˛ !îÑ˛!›˛Ó˚ my!®μÑ˛ ¢¡ôÑ≈˛ !òí≈ˆÏÎ˚Ó˚ ˆâ˛‹Ty Ñ˛Ó˚y £ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏäÈ–

4.3 ˆ£ˆÏ܈ÏúÓ˚ m®¥Óyî (Hegelian Dialectics)

ˆ£ˆÏÜú ì§˛yÓ˚ 'Philosophy of Right' Óy Úx!ïÑ˛yˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ îü≈òÛ òyõÑ˛ @˘ÃˆÏs˛i ˆÎ Ó˚y‹T…ì˛_¥/Ó˚yãò#!ì˛ îü≈ò £y!ãÓ˚ Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ˆÏäÈò
ì˛yÓ˚ ¢õƒÑ˛ xò%ïyÓò ≤ÃÎ˚yˆÏ¢ xyõÓ˚y ≤Ã̈Ïõ ˆ£ˆÏÜú#Î˚ m®μÓyˆÏîÓ˚ v˛zˆÏÕ‘Ö Ñ˛Ó˚ˆÏì˛ ˛ôy!Ó˚– ì§˛yÓ˚ ˛ô)Ó≈¢)Ó˚# Ñ˛yr›˛ (kant) Óy ì§˛yÓ˚
¢õ¢yõ!Î˚Ñ˛ !ö˛Ñ˛ˆÏ›‰˛ (Fichte) Á ˆü!úÇ (Schelling) ~Ó˚ ˆúÖyÎ˚ m®μÓyˆÏîÓ˚ ≤ÈÏÎ˚yÜ ÌyÑ˛ˆÏúÁ ˆ£ˆÏÜú ì§˛yÓ˚ £z!ì˛£y¢ îü≈òñ
Ó˚y‹T…îü≈ò Á xòƒyòƒ Ó˚â˛òyÎ˚ ˆÎ ≤Ãì˛ƒÎ˚ Á îy!Ó !òˆÏÎ˚ my!®μÑ˛ Î%!_´Ó˚ ≤ÈÏÎ˚yÜ ˆî!ÖˆÏÎ˚ˆÏäÈò ì˛yÓ˚ xòƒyòƒ !Ó!ü‹Tì˛y !òˆÏÎ˚
!Óì˛Ñ≈˛ ÌyˆÏÑ˛ òy–

33
 ˆ£ˆÏÜú ~Ñ˛ òì%˛ò ïÓ˚ˆÏòÓ˚ Î%!_´Ñ˛y‡˛ˆÏõyÓ˚ õyÏõ õò Á Ólfl˛Ó˚ õˆÏïƒ ˙Ñ˛ƒ ≤Ã!ì˛¤˛y Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ˆÏäÈò– ˆ£ˆÏÜú õˆÏò Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ˆÏäÈò
ˆÎñ Ólfl˛Ó˚ ¢,!‹TÓ˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe ì˛Ìy Ólfl˛ ã܈Ïì˛Ó˚ ˛ô!Ó˚Óì˛≈ˆÏòÓ˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe õˆÏòÓ˚ ¶˛yÓ£z =Ó˚&c˛ô)í≈ ¶)˛!õÑ˛y ˛ôyúò Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚– !Ñ˛ls˛ ~£z ¶˛yˆÏÓÓ˚
ˆÑ˛yˆÏòy !â˛Ó˚hs˛ò fl˛iy!Î˚c Á !Ó÷k˛ x!hfl˛c ˆò£z– ì§˛yÓ˚ õˆÏì˛ õˆÏòyã܈Ïì˛Ó˚ ˛ô!Ó˚Óì≈˛ò£z Ólfl˛ ã܈Ïì˛Ó˚ ˛ô!Ó˚Óì≈˛òˆÏÑ˛ ¢)!â˛ì˛ Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚–
õyò%ˆÏ°ÏÓ˚ õò ≤Ã̈Ïõ ˆÎ¶˛yˆÏÓ ÜˆÏv˛¸ ÁˆÏ‡˛ñ ì˛yˆÏÑ˛ ˆ£ˆÏÜú Óyî Óy Thesis Óy õ)ú ≤Ã!ì˛˛ôyîƒ ÓˆÏú !â˛!£´ì˛ Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ˆÏäÈò–
~£z Óyî Ó˚*˛ô#¶˛yˆÏÓÓ˚ !ÓˆÏÓ˚yï# ˆÎ ¶˛yÓ xÌ≈yÍ ˆÎ!›˛ £ú ˆò!ì˛Óyâ˛Ñ˛ ¶˛yÓñ ì˛yˆÏÑ˛ !ì˛!ò ≤Ã!ì˛Óyî Óy Anti-thesis ÓˆÏú !â˛!£´ì˛
Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ˆÏäÈò– ~£z Óyî Á ≤Ã!ì˛ÓyˆÏîÓ˚ õˆÏïƒÑ˛yÓ˚ ¢ÇáˆÏ°Ï≈Ó˚ ¢õyïyò Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ ˆÎ ì,˛ì˛#Î˚ ¶˛yÓñ ì˛yˆÏÑ˛ !ì˛!ò ¢¡∫yî˛ Óy Synthesis
ÓˆÏú !â˛!£´ì˛ Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ˆÏäÈò– ˆ£ˆÏÜú õˆÏò Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ˆÏäÈò ˆÎñ ¢¡∫yˆÏîÓ˚ õˆÏïƒ !îˆÏÎ˚£z Óyî Á ≤Ã!ì˛ÓyˆÏîÓ˚ õˆÏïƒÑ˛yÓ˚ ¢ÇáˆÏ°Ï≈Ó˚ ˛ô!Ó˚¢õy!Æ
áˆÏ›˛– ~!îÑ˛ ˆÌˆÏÑ˛ !ì˛!ò õyò%ˆÏ°ÏÓ˚ õòã܈Ïì˛Ó˚ ÎyÓì˛#Î˚ ˛ô!Ó˚Óì≈˛òˆÏÑ˛ Óyîñ ≤Ã!ì˛Óyî Á ¢¡∫yˆÏîÓ˚ my!®μÑ˛ ≤Ã!e´Î˚yÓ˚ õˆÏïƒ !îˆÏÎ˚£z
!ӈϟ’°Ïí Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ˆÏäÈò–
ˆ£ˆÏ܈ÏúÓ˚ õˆÏì˛ my!®μÑ˛ ˛ôk˛!ì˛ˆÏì˛£z õyò%°Ï ¢ì˛ƒ ≤Ã!ì˛¤˛yÓ˚ ˛ôÌ Ö%§ˆÏã ˛ôyÎ˚– ˆ£ˆÏÜú ˆ≤’ˆÏ›˛yÓ˚ ¢Çúy˛ô (Dialogues)ÈÙÈ~Ó˚
õˆÏïƒ my!®μÑ˛ì˛yÓ˚ ïyÓ˚íy ú«˛ƒ Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚!äȈÏúò– Úv˛yÎ˚yˆÏúщ˛!›˛Ñ˛Û (Dialectic) ü∑!›˛ !@˘ÃÑ˛ Úv˛yÎ˚yˆÏúˆÏÜyÛ (Dialego) ü∑ ˆÌˆÏÑ˛
~ˆÏ¢ˆÏäÈ– ~Ó˚ xÌ≈ £ú xyˆÏúyâ˛òy Óy ì˛Ñ≈˛ Ñ˛Ó˚y– ~£z ïÓ˚ˆÏòÓ˚ xyˆÏúyâ˛òyÎ˚ ≤Ã̈Ïõ ˆÎˆÏÑ˛yˆÏòy ~Ñ˛ãò ~Ñ˛!›˛ õì˛ Óy Ó_´Óƒ
v˛z˛ôfl˛iy˛ôò Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ ~ÓÇ x˛ôÓ˚ãò ì˛yÓ˚ !Ó˛ôÓ˚#ì˛ ˆÑ˛yˆÏòy !â˛hs˛y Óy ì˛yÓ˚ ¢õyˆÏúyâ˛òyõ)úÑ˛ ≤ß¿ ˆì˛yˆÏú– ~Ó˚˛ôÓ˚ v˛z¶˛ˆÏÎ˚Ó˚ Óyîyò%Óyî
~ÓÇ xyˆÏúyâ˛òyÈÙÈ¢õyˆÏúyâ˛òyÎ˚ õïƒ !îˆÏÎ˚ òì%˛ò ~Ñ˛!›˛ Ó_´Óƒ Óy !â˛hs˛y ܈Ïv˛¸ v˛z‡˛ˆÏì˛ ˛ôyˆÏÓ˚– ˆ£ˆÏ܈ÏúÓ˚ õˆÏì˛ Óyîñ ≤Ã!ì˛Óyî
Á ¢¡∫yˆÏîÓ˚ my!®μÑ˛ ≤Ã!e´Î˚y Ñ˛yã Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ â˛ˆÏúˆÏäÈ !fl˛i!ì˛ñ ˆò!ì˛ Á ˛ô!Ó˚í!ì˛Ó˚ õïƒ !îˆÏÎ˚– ~£z ¢õ@˘Ãì˛y£z £ú ˆ£ˆÏÜú#Î˚ ïyÓ˚íyÎ˚
˛ô)í≈ Á ˛ôÓ˚õ ¢ì˛ƒ (Absolute Idea) Óy ¶˛yÓ¢_y (Spirit)–

4.4 ˆ£ˆÏÜú Á fl˛∫yï#òì˛y

Ó˚y‹T…!â˛hs˘˛yÓ˚ £z!ì˛£yˆÏ¢ fl˛∫yï#òì˛y ~Ñ˛!›˛ =Ó˚&c˛ô)í≈ ïyÓ˚íy !£¢yˆÏÓ ÜˆÏv˛¸ v˛zˆÏ‡˛ˆÏäÈ– !Ó!¶˛ß¨ Ó˚y‹T…!â˛hs˘˛y!Óî !¶˛ß¨ !¶˛ß¨ î,!‹TˆÏÑ˛yí
ˆÌˆÏÑ˛ fl˛∫yï#òì˛yÓ˚ ì˛_¥!›˛ˆÏÑ˛ ÓƒyÖƒy Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ˆÏäÈò– ˆ£ˆÏ܈ÏúÓ˚ îü≈ˆÏòÓ˚Á ~Ñ˛!›˛ =Ó˚&c˛ô)í≈ !îÑ˛ £ú ì§˛yÓ˚ fl˛∫yï#òì˛yÓ˚ ì˛_¥– !ì˛!ò
fl˛∫yï#òì˛yˆÏÑ˛ õyò%ˆÏ°ÏÓ˚ ˆõÔú ì˛_¥ !£ˆÏ¢ˆÏÓ ˆîˆÏÖˆÏäÈò– ˆ£ˆÏÜú ì§˛yÓ˚ Philosophy of Right òyõÑ˛ @˘ÃˆÏs˛i fl˛∫yï#òì˛yÓ˚ ì˛_¥ ÓƒyÖƒy
Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ˆÏäÈò– ì˛ˆÏÓ ˆ£ˆÏÜú#Î˚ îü≈ˆÏò Ó˚yˆÏ‹T…Ó˚ ˆ≤ë˛y˛ôˆÏ›˛ fl˛∫yï#òì˛yÓ˚ ïyÓ˚íy!›˛ =Ó˚&c ˆ˛ôˆÏÎ˚ˆÏäÈ– !ì˛!ò Ó˚&ˆÏüy Óy õ§ˆÏhs˘˛fl%ÒÓ˚ õˆÏì˛y
Üíì˛y!s˛fÑ˛ î,!‹T !òˆÏÎ˚ !Ñ˛ÇÓy ˆÓs˛iyõ Á !õˆÏúÓ˚ õˆÏì˛y v˛zîyÓ˚˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ î,!‹T¶˛!DˆÏì˛ fl˛∫yï#òì˛yÓ˚ ïyÓ˚íy!›˛ xyˆÏúyâ˛òy Ñ˛ˆÏÓò˚ !ò–
ˆ£ˆÏ܈ÏúÓ˚ fl˛∫yï#òì˛y ¢Çe´yhs˘˛ ïyÓ˚íy ≤Ãyâ˛#ò !@˘ÃÑ˛ ïyÓ˚íyÓ˚ Á˛ôÓ˚ ≤Ã!ì˛!¤˛ì˛ £ˆÏÎ˚!äÈú ~£z xˆÏÌ≈ ˆÎñ @˘Ã#Ñ˛ !â˛hs˘˛y!ÓîˆÏîÓ˚ õˆÏì˛y
!ì˛!òÁ ÓˆÏúˆÏäÈò ˆÎñ Óƒ!_´ õyò%ˆÏ°ÏÓ˚ fl˛∫yï#òì˛y Á Óƒ!_´ˆÏcÓ˚ !ÓÑ˛yü ˆÑ˛Óú Ó˚yˆÏ‹T…Ó˚ õˆÏz ¢Ω˛Ó–
ˆ£ˆÏÜú#Î˚ îü≈ˆÏò fl˛∫yï#òì˛yÓ˚ xÌ≈ £ú ¢¡ô)í≈ fl˛∫!òÎ˚s˛fí– ˆÑ˛yˆÏòy Ó!£ÉˆÏÑ˛w fl˛∫yï#òì˛yÓ˚ v˛zÍ¢ £ˆÏì˛ ˛ôyˆÏÓ˚ òy– !ì˛!ò
õˆÏò Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ò ˆÎ fl˛∫yï#òì˛yˆÏÑ˛ Ú!òÎ˚s˛fˆÏíÓ˚ xò%˛ô!fl˛i!ì˛Û (Absence of Constraint) ÓˆÏú Üíƒ Ñ˛Ó˚y !‡˛Ñ˛ òÎ˚– Ñ˛yÓ˚í ~£z ïÓ˚ˆÏòÓ˚
ïyÓ˚íyÓ˚ ~Ñ˛!›˛ ò~åÌ≈Ñ˛ ïyÓ˚íy (Negative Concept)– Ólfl˛ì˛ ˛ôˆÏ«˛ fl˛∫yï#òì˛y £ú ~Ñ˛ ¢îÌ≈Ñ˛ !Ó°ÏÎ˚ (Positive Concept)
Îy õ)úì˛ xyd!òÎ˚s˛fˆÏíÓ˚ ¢!îFäÈy– fl˛∫yï#òì˛yÓ˚ ïyÓ˚íyˆÏÑ˛ Ú£zFäÈyÛ (will) Ó˚ ≤ÃÑ˛yü !£ˆÏ¢ˆÏÓ ˆ£ˆÏÜú#Î˚ ì˛ˆÏ_¥ v˛z˛ôfl˛iy˛ôò Ñ˛Ó˚y
£ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏäÈ– Ú£zFäÈyÛ ÓúˆÏì˛ Î%!_´ Óy ¢ÇÜ!ì˛Ó˚ ≤ÃÑ˛yüˆÏÑ˛£z ˆÓyG˛yˆÏòy £ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏäÈ– !ì˛!ò ì§˛yÓ˚ ¢yˆÏÎ˚™ xÓ‰ ú!ãÑ˛ (Science of Logic)
òyõÑ˛ @˘ÃˆÏs˛i õhs˛Óƒ Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ˆÏäÈò ˆÎñ Úõyò%°Ï ì˛Öò£z ¢Ó≈y!ïÑ˛ fl˛∫yï#ò £ˆÏì˛ ˛ôyˆÏÓ˚ ÎÖò ˆ¢ v˛z˛ôú!∏˛ Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ ˆÎñ ˆ¢ ¢¡ô)í≈¶˛yˆÏÓ
˛ôÓ˚õydyÓ˚ myÓ˚y !òÎ˚!s˛fì˛ £ˆÏÓ–Û ˆ£ˆÏ܈ÏúÓ˚ õˆÏì˛ Ó˚y‹T…£z Óƒ!_´Ó˚ fl˛∫yï#òì˛yÓ˚ Á x!ïÑ˛yÓ˚ ≤ÃîyòÑ˛ì≈˛y ~ÓÇ Ó˚yˆÏ‹T…Ó˚ õˆÏz Óƒ!_´Ó˚
fl˛∫yï#òì˛y ¢%Ó˚!«˛ì˛ £ˆÏÎ˚ ÌyˆÏÑ˛– (Hobhouse ì˛yÓ˚ Metaphysical Theory of State, pp 32-33) !úˆÏÖˆÏäÈò "Beyond

34
the state there is no higher association and States have no duties to one another or humanity, but then
rise and full is the ultimate court of judgement before whose bar they come" (Hobhouse, The Metaphysical
Theory of the State, pp 32-33)
ˆ£ˆÏ܈ÏúÓ˚ !ӈϟ’°Ïí xò%ÎyÎ˚#ñ Î%!_´õÎ˚ ¢y!Ó≈Ñ˛ £zFäÈyÓ˚ ö˛¢ú £ú fl˛∫yï#òì˛y– Ó˚yˆÏ‹T…Ó˚ ≤Ã!ì˛ xyò%Üì˛ƒ ≤Ãîü≈ò ~ÓÇ ì˛yÓ˚
≤Ã!ì˛ ÎÌyÎÌ Ñ˛ì≈˛Óƒ ˛ôyúò Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚£z Óƒ!_´ ≤ÃÑ,˛ì˛ xˆÏÌ≈ fl˛∫yï#ò £ˆÏì˛ ˛ôyˆÏÓ˚– Ó˚yˆÏ‹T… õˆÏz õyò%°Ï ì˛yÓ˚ Î%!_´õÎ˚ xÖu˛ ¶˛yÓ¢_yˆÏÑ˛
Óyhfl˛Ó xÓÎ˚ˆÏÓ xò%ïyÓò Ñ˛Ó˚ˆÏì˛ ¢õÌ≈ £Î˚– ˆ£ˆÏÜú ÓˆÏúˆÏäÈò ˆÎñ Ó˚y‹T…ˆÏÑ˛ v˛zˆÏ˛ô«˛y Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ Óy Ó˚yˆÏ‹T…Ó˚ !ÓˆÏÓ˚y!ïì˛y Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ Óƒ!_´
ˆÎõò ˆÑ˛yˆÏòy fl˛∫yï#òì˛y ˆ˛ôˆÏì˛ ˛ôyˆÏÓ˚ òyñ ˆì˛õ!ò Ó˚yˆÏ‹T…Ó˚ !ÓÓ˚&ˆÏk˛Á Óƒ!_´Ó˚ ˆÑ˛yˆÏòy fl˛∫yï#òì˛y ÌyÑ˛ˆÏì˛ ˛ôyˆÏÓ˚ òy–
ˆ£ˆÏ܈ÏúÓ˚ ì˛_¥ !ӈϟ’°Ïí Ñ˛Ó˚ˆÏú fl˛∫yï#òì˛yÓ˚ Ñ˛ˆÏÎ˚Ñ˛!›˛ ˜Ó!ü‹Tƒ ¢£ˆÏã !â˛!£´ì˛ Ñ˛Ó˚y ÎyÎ˚– ≤ÃÌõì˛ñ ˆ£ˆÏÜú fl˛∫yï#òì˛yˆÏÑ˛
Ñ˛Öò£z â)˛v˛¸yhs˛ ÓˆÏú õˆÏò Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ò!ò– ˆ£ˆÏ܈ÏúÓ˚ Ñ˛yˆÏäÈ fl˛∫yï#òì˛y !äÈú £z!ì˛Óyâ˛Ñ˛– !òÎ˚s˛fí!Ó£#ò fl˛∫yï#òì˛y ˆÎ Ñ˛Öò£z xÌ≈Ó£
£ˆÏì˛ ˛ôyˆÏÓ˚ òy– ~ÓÇ ì˛y ˆÎ fl˛∫yï#òì˛yÓ˚ ˛ô!Ó˚˛ôs˛i# £ˆÏÎ˚ î§yv˛¸yÎ˚– ì˛yÓ˚ ¢%fl˛ô‹T £z!Dì˛ ˛ôyÁÎ˚y ÎyÎ˚ ˆ£ˆÏ܈ÏúÓ˚ ì˛ˆÏ_¥– ì§˛yÓ˚
õˆÏì˛ñ fl˛∫yï#ò £zFäÈy £ú !òˆÏãˆÏÑ˛ !òÎ˚s˛fí Ñ˛Ó˚yÓ˚£z £zFäÈy !ÓˆÏü°Ï– ˆÎÔ!_´Ñ˛ !òÎ˚s˛fí £ú fl˛∫yï#òì˛yÓ˚ !¶˛!_– !mì˛#Î˚ì˛ñ ˆ£ˆÏÜú
fl˛∫yï#òì˛yÓ˚ ≤ß¿!›˛ˆÏÑ˛ !ÓˆÏÓâ˛òy Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ˆÏäÈò ≤ÈÏÎ˚yãò#Î˚ì˛yÓ˚ ˆ≤Ã!«˛ˆÏì˛– ˆ£ˆÏÜú fl˛∫yï#ò ì˛yˆÏÑ˛ ~Ñ˛ !Óõ)ì≈˛ xyˆÏîü !£ˆÏ¢ˆÏÓ Ñ˛“òy
Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ò!ò– ì§˛yÓ˚ õˆÏì˛ñ Ó˚y‹T…£z £ú ≤ÃÑ,˛ì˛˛ôˆÏ«˛ fl˛∫yï#òì˛yÓ˚ Óyhfl˛Ó Á !Ó°ÏÎ˚Üì˛ xyïyÓ˚– ì,˛ì˛#Î˚ì˛ñ ˆ£ˆÏ܈ÏúÓ˚ î,!‹T¶˛!DˆÏì˛ñ fl˛∫yï#òì˛y
£ú ¢yõy!ãÑ˛ Óƒy˛ôyÓ˚– Ñ˛yr›˛ fl˛∫yï#òì˛yˆÏÑ˛ Óƒ!_´ˆÏÑ˛!wÑ˛ Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ ì%˛ˆÏú!äȈÏúò– !Ñ˛ls˛ ˆ£ˆÏ܈ÏúÓ˚ î,!‹TˆÏì˛ fl˛∫yï#òì˛y Óƒ!_´Ó˚ ¢ˆÏD
¢¡ô!Ñ≈˛ì˛ £ˆÏúÁ ì˛yÓ˚ ~Ñ˛!›˛ Ó,£_Ó˚ ¢yõy!ãÑ˛ ˆ≤Ã!«˛ì˛ xyˆÏäÈ– ¢yõy!ãÑ˛ ˜ò!ì˛Ñ˛ì˛yÓ˚ ≤Ã!ì˛ xyò%܈Ïì˛ƒÓ˚ õyÏõ fl˛∫yï#òì˛y
!ÓÑ˛!üì˛ £Î˚– Ó˚y‹T…£z £ú ¢yõy!ãÑ˛ ˜ò!ì˛Ñ˛ì˛yÓ˚ õ)ì≈˛ ≤Ãì˛#Ñ˛–
ˆ£ˆÏÜú õyò%ˆÏ°ÏÓ˚ fl˛∫yï#òì˛yÎ˚ !ÓŸªy¢# !äȈÏúò– ì˛§yÓ˚ õˆÏì˛ñ fl˛∫yï#òì˛y £ú ¢,!‹Tü#ú ~ÓÇ !Ó!¶˛ß¨ hfl˛ˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ õïƒ !îˆÏÎ˚ ≤Ã!ì˛ö˛!úì˛
£ˆÏÎ˚ ˛ô)í≈ fl˛∫yï#ò ¢_y!›˛ !ÓÑ˛!üì˛ £Î˚– fl˛∫yï#òì˛yÓ˚ e´õ!ÓÑ˛yˆÏüÓ˚ ≤ÃÌõ hfl˛ˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ ïyÓ˚íy!›˛ £ú xy£zˆÏòÓ˚ ïyÓ˚íy– Óƒ!_´¢_yÓ˚
!ÓÑ˛yüñ ¢¡ô!_Ó˚ x!ïÑ˛yÓ˚ Á â%˛!_´Ó˚ x!ïÑ˛yÓ˚ÈÙÙÙÈ~£z !e!Óï x!ïÑ˛yˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ x!hfl˛ˆÏcÓ˚ ≤ÈÏÎ˚yãˆÏò£z xy£zò ÓƒÓfl˛iyÓ˚ hfl˛Ó˚!›˛ ≤ÃÑ˛yüõyò–
ˆ£ˆÏÜú ÓˆÏúˆÏäÈò ˆÎñ !ì˛ò!›˛ ≤Ãy!ì˛¤˛y!òÑ˛ ÓƒÓfl˛iyÓ˚ õïƒ !îˆÏÎ˚ ¢yõyãÑ˛ òƒyÎ˚ˆÏÓyï ≤Ã!ì˛!¤˛ì˛ £ˆÏÎ˚ ÌyˆÏÑ˛– ~=!ú £úÈÙÙÙÈ i)
˛ô!Ó˚ÓyÓ˚ ii) ˛ô%Ó˚¢õyã ii) Ó˚y‹T…– ì§˛yÓ˚ õˆÏì˛ñ ¢yõy!ãÑ˛ òƒyÎ˚ˆÏÓyˆÏïÓ˚ â˛Ó˚õ Á ¢ˆÏÓ≈y_õ x!¶˛Óƒ!_´ áˆÏ›˛ Ó˚yˆÏ‹T… õˆÏ ¢%ì˛Ó˚yÇ
Ó˚yˆÏ‹T…Ó˚ õˆÏz fl˛∫yï#òì˛yÓ˚ ¢ˆÏÓ≈yFⲠÁ ò)òƒì˛õ !ÓÑ˛yü áˆÏ›˛–

4.5 ˆ£ˆÏ܈ÏúÓ˚ Ó˚y‹T…ì˛_¥ (Hegel and State)

ˆ£ˆÏ܈ÏúÓ˚ Ó˚y‹T… îü≈ˆÏòÓ˚ ˆÑ˛w!Ó®% £ú Ó˚y‹T…– ì§˛yÓ˚ !â˛hs˛y¶˛yÓòyÎ˚ m®μÓyî Á Ó˚y‹T…ì˛_¥ x!¶˛ß¨ !äÈú– Ñ˛yÓ˚í !ì˛!ò m®μÓyˆÏîÓ˚
¢y£yˆÏ΃ Ó˚yˆÏ‹T…Ó˚ õ£cˆÏÑ˛ ≤Ã!ì˛¤˛y Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ˆÏäÈò– ˆ£ˆÏ܈ÏúÓ˚ Ó˚y‹T…ì˛_¥ ì§˛yÓ˚ îyü≈!òÑ˛ ¢)e ˆÌˆÏÑ˛ !Ó!FäÈߨ ˆÑ˛yˆÏòy ì˛_¥ òÎ˚–
ˆ£ˆÏÜú ì§˛yÓ˚ Philosophy of Right S1821V òyõÑ˛ @˘ÃˆÏs˛i Ó˚y‹T… îü≈ˆÏòÓ˚ =Ó˚&c ¢¡ôˆÏÑ≈˛ !ÓˆÏü°Ï ˆ¢yFâ˛yÓ˚ !äȈÏúò– ~£z
@˘ÃˆÏs˛iÓ˚ õ)ú v˛z˛ôã#Óƒ !Ó°ÏÎ˚£z £ú Ó˚y‹T…– ˜ò!ì˛Ñ˛ì˛y Á îü≈ˆÏòÓ˚ Á˛ôÓ˚ ì§˛yÓ˚ ≤ÃyÌ!õÑ˛ xyˆÏúyâ˛òy ≤ÃÑ˛y!üì˛ £ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏäÈ ˆö˛ˆÏòyˆÏõˆÏòyú!ã
xö˛ !fl˛ô!Ó˚›˛ (Phenomenology of Spirit) S1807V òyõÑ˛ @˘ÃˆÏs˛i– ì§˛yÓ˚ Ó˚y‹T…!â˛hs˛yÓ˚ ≤ÃyÌ!õÑ˛ Ó˚*˛ôˆÏÓ˚Öy ˛ôyÁÎ˚y ÎyÎ˚ ¢yˆÏÎ˚™
xö˛ ú!ãÑ˛ (Science of Logic) S1812ÈÙÈ1816V òyõÑ˛ @˘ÃˆÏs˛iÓ˚ õˆÏïƒÁ– ì§˛yÓ˚ Ó˚!â˛ì˛ !ö˛úã!ö˛ xö˛ ú (Philosophy
of Law) S1820V ~Ó˚ !ö˛úã!ö˛ xö˛ !£!fl˛T… (Philosophy of History) S1837V òyõÑ˛ @˘Ãs˛i î%!›˛ Ó˚y‹T…!â˛hs˛yÓ˚ £z!ì˛£yˆÏ¢
!ÓˆÏüˆÏ°Ï î!úú ÓˆÏú !â˛!£´ì˛ £ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏäÈ–

35
 ˆ£ˆÏÜú#Î˚ ïyÓ˚íyÎ˚ x!ïÑ˛yÓ˚ Á xy£zò ˜ò!ì˛Ñ˛ì˛yÓ˚ ¢ˆÏD Áì˛ˆÏ≤Ãyì˛¶˛yˆÏÓÎ%_´ Ó˚ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏäÈ– Ó˚yˆÏ‹T…Ó˚ õˆÏz xy£zòñ fl˛∫yï#òì˛y
Á ˜ò!ì˛Ñ˛ì˛yÓ˚ ¢yÌ≈Ñ˛ ≤ÃÑ˛yü áˆÏ›˛– Philosophy of Right @˘ÃˆÏs˛i ˆ£ˆÏÜú ~£z ¢Ó ¢¡ôÑ≈˛ˆÏÑ˛ my!®μÑ˛ Î%!_´Ó˚ !ÓòƒyˆÏ¢ ¢ÇÜ!‡˛ì˛
Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ Ó˚yˆÏ‹T…Ó˚ ≤ÃÑ,˛!ì˛ Á Ó˚y‹T…#Î˚ ≤Ã!e´Î˚y ¢¡ôˆÏÑ≈˛ =Ó˚&c˛ô)í≈ ì˛_¥ v˛z˛ôfl˛iy˛ôò Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ˆÏäÈò–
ˆ£ˆÏÜú Ó˚y‹T…ˆÏÑ˛ õˆÏì≈˛Ó˚ Ó%ˆÏÑ˛ xy!Ó¶)≈˛ì˛ fl˛∫Ü≈#Î˚ õ£y¶˛yÓ ÓˆÏú õˆÏò Ñ˛Ó˚ˆÏì˛ò– Ó˚y‹T… £ú xyïƒydü!_´Ó˚ ˛ô)í≈yD !ÓÑ˛yü–
ì§˛yÓ˚ õˆÏì˛ñ ˙Ÿª!Ó˚Ñ˛ £zFäÈyÓ˚ Óyhfl˛Ó Ó˚*˛ô Ó˚yˆÏ‹T…Ó˚ õˆÏïƒ ≤ÃÑ˛yü ˆ˛ôˆÏÎ˚ˆÏäÈ– !ì˛!ò Ñ˛yr›˛ñ !ö˛Ñ‰˛ˆÏ›˛ ≤Ãõ%Ö܈ÏíÓ˚ ¶˛yÓÓyî# !â˛hs˛yïyÓ˚yÓ˚
˛ôÌ xò%¢Ó˚í Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ Ó˚y‹T…ˆÏÑ˛ ~Ñ˛ xyîü≈ ≤Ã!ì˛¤˛yò !£¢yˆÏÓ ÓƒyÖƒy Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ˆÏäÈò– ì˛y£z ì§˛yÓ˚ õˆÏì˛ Ó˚y‹T… ~Ñ˛!›˛ ¢Ó≈ˆÏ◊¤˛ ≤Ã!ì˛¤˛yò–
ˆ£ˆÏÜú õˆÏò Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚òñ "The state is an end in itself"–
ˆ£ˆÏ܈ÏúÓ˚ õˆÏì˛ Ó˚y‹T… £ú ¢yõy!ãÑ˛ Á Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ ≤ÃÓ,!_Ó˚ !ÓÑ˛yˆÏüÓ˚ Á !ÓÓì≈˛ˆÏòÓ˚ ¢ˆÏâ˛ì˛ò ö˛ú◊&!ì˛– ì˛y£z Ó˚y‹T… ~Ñ˛!›˛
≤ÃyÑ,˛!ì˛Ñ˛ ¢Ç܇˛ò– ˆ£ˆÏÜú Ó˚y‹T…ˆÏÑ˛ £zFäÈyü!_´ ¢¡ôߨ ˜ã!ÓÑ˛ ¢Ç܇˛ò ÓˆÏú£z õˆÏò Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ò– ì§˛yÓ˚ õˆÏì˛ñ Ó˚yˆÏ‹T…Ó˚ £zFäÈy £ú
!Óú%∏˛ Î%!_´Ó%!k˛Ó˚ Ó!£É≤ÃÑ˛yü– ~!îÑ˛ ˆÌˆÏÑ˛ Ó˚y‹T… fl˛∫yï#òì˛yÓ˚ ¢ÇÓ˚«˛Ñ˛– !ì˛!ò õˆÏò Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ˆÏäÈò ˆÎ Ó˚y‹T… ì˛yÓ˚ Universal will
Óy ¢y!Ó≈Ñ˛ £zFäÈyÓ˚ myÓ˚y Óƒ!_´Ó˚ Particular will Óy !ÓˆÏü°Ï £zFäÈyÓ˚ v˛z˛ôÓ˚ xy!ï˛ôì˛ƒ fl˛iy˛ôò Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚– ˆ£ˆÏ܈ÏúÓ˚ õˆÏì˛ñ Ó˚y‹T…
£ú ¢%î#á≈ e´õ!ÓÓì˛≈ˆÏòÓ˚ ö˛ú◊&!ì˛– !ÓÓì≈˛ˆÏòÓ˚ õïƒ !îˆÏÎ˚ ¶˛yÓ¢_y !òˆÏãˆÏÑ˛ Óƒ_´ Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ â˛ˆÏúˆÏäÈ– Ó˚yˆÏ‹T…Ó˚ õˆÏz ì˛yÓ˚ â)˛v˛¸yhs˛
˛ô!Ó˚˛ô)í≈ì˛y ~ˆÏ¢ˆÏäÈ– ˆ£ˆÏÜú ÓˆÏúˆÏäÈò ˆÎñ Ó˚yˆÏ‹T…Ó˚ ~£z ≤ÃÑ,˛ì˛ ¶˛yÓfl˛∫Ó˚*˛ô ~Ñ˛ my!®μÑ˛ ≤Ã!e´Î˚yÎ˚ !ÓÑ˛!üì˛ £Î˚– ~£z ≤Ã!e´Î˚yÓ˚
õyÏõ ≤Ã̈Ïõ ˛ô!Ó˚ÓyÓ˚ñ ì˛yÓ˚˛ôÓ˚ ˛ô%Ó˚¢õyã (civil society) ~ÓÇ x!hs˛õ hfl˛ˆÏÓ˚ Ó˚yˆÏ‹T…Ó˚ ¢,!‹T £Î˚– ˆ£ˆÏ܈ÏúÓ˚ õˆÏì˛ ˛ô!Ó˚ÓyÓ˚
£ú ~õò ~Ñ˛!›˛ ≤Ãyâ˛#òì˛õ ≤Ã!ì˛¤˛yò– ˆ£ˆÏ܈ÏúÓ˚ õˆÏì˛ñ ˙Ñ˛ƒõÎ˚ ~£z ˛ô!Ó˚ÓyÓ˚ˆÏÑ˛ ÚÓyîÛ ~Ó˚ hfl˛Ó˚ !£ˆÏ¢ˆÏÓ !â˛!£´ì˛ Ñ˛Ó˚y ÎyÎ˚–
Ó˝ Á !Ó!â˛e õyò!ÓÑ˛ ≤ÈÏÎ˚yãˆÏò ˛ô)Ó˚ˆÏíÓ˚ ˛ôˆÏ«˛ ˛ô!Ó˚ÓyÓ˚ Ö%Ó£z «%˛o ÓˆÏú !ÓˆÏÓ!â˛ì˛ £ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏäÈ– ì˛Öò£z ˛ô%Ó˚¢õyˆÏãÓ˚ xy!Ó¶≈˛yÓ˚
áˆÏ›˛– ˆ£ˆÏ܈ÏúÓ˚ õˆÏì˛ñ ~£z x˜ÏòˆÏÑ˛ƒÓ˚ !Óâ˛yˆÏÓ˚£z ˛ô%Ó˚¢õyã £ú ÚÓyîÛ Ó˚*˛ô# ˛ô!Ó˚ÓyˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ !ÓˆÏÓ˚yï# !£ˆÏ¢ˆÏÓ Ú≤Ã!ì˛ÓyîÛ– my!®μÑ˛
≤Ã!e´Î˚yÎ˚ ~£z î%£zˆÏÎ˚Ó˚ õˆÏïƒ ¢õß∫Î˚ á!›˛ˆÏÎ˚ v˛zqÓ áˆÏ›˛ Ú¢¡∫yîÛ Ó˚*˛ô# Ó˚yˆÏ‹T…Ó˚– Ó˚y‹T… £ú ˙Ÿª!Ó˚Ñ˛ ≤Ã!ì˛¤˛yò–
ˆ£ˆÏ܈ÏúÓ˚ Ó˚y‹T…ì˛ˆÏ_¥Ó˚ ˜Ó!ü‹Tƒ ≠
i) ˆ£ˆÏÜú Ó˚y‹T…ˆÏÑ˛ ~Ñ˛!›˛ ˙Ÿª!Ó˚Ñ˛ Óy fl˛∫Ü≈#Î˚ ≤Ã!ì˛¤˛yò ÓˆÏú£z õˆÏò Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ò–
ii) ˆ£ˆÏÜú Ó˚y‹T…ˆÏÑ˛ xyïƒy!dÑ˛ Óy xy!dÑ˛ (Spiritual evolution) ¢ˆÏÓ≈y_õ Ó!£É≤ÃÑ˛yü ÓˆÏú£z õˆÏò Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ò–
iii) ˆ£ˆÏ܈ÏúÓ˚ õˆÏì˛ñ Ó˚y‹T… £ú ~Ñ˛!›˛ ˛ô)í≈yD ¢Ç܇˛ò–
iv) ˆ£ˆÏÜú ≤ÈÏì˛ƒÑ˛ Ó˚y‹T…ˆÏÑ˛£z fl˛∫yï#ò ¢yÓ≈ˆÏ¶˛Ôõ Á fl˛∫Î˚Ç ¢¡ô)í≈ ãò¢Ç܇˛ò ÓˆÏú õˆÏò Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ò–
Ó˚y‹T…#Î˚ Ñ˛ì,≈˛cˆÏÑ˛ xò%¢Ó˚í Á õyòƒ Ñ˛Ó˚yÓ˚ õïƒ !îˆÏÎ˚£z Óƒ!_´ fl˛∫yï#òì˛y ÓãyÎ˚ ÌyÑ˛yÓ˚ ˆÎ ì˛_¥ !ì˛!ò ≤Ãâ˛yÓ˚ Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ˆÏäÈò–
ì˛yˆÏì˛ Ó˚y‹T…#Î˚ ¢Ç£!ì˛Ó˚ ˛ôÌ£z ≤Ãühfl˛Ï £Î˚– ì˛î%˛ô!Ó˚ Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ !â˛hs˘˛y¶˛yÓòyÓ˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏeÁ ˆ£ˆÏ܈ÏúÓ˚ Ó˚y‹T… ¢¡ô!Ñ≈˛ì˛ ïƒyò ïyÓ˚íy
!ÓˆÏü°Ï Ñ,˛!ì˛ˆÏcÓ˚ îy!Ó Ó˚yˆÏÖ–

4.6 ˛ô%Ó˚¢õyˆÏãÓ˚ ïyÓ˚íy ¢¡ôˆÏÑ≈˛ ˆ£ˆÏÜú

ˆ£ˆÏ܈ÏúÓ˚ õˆÏì˛ñ Î!îÁ Ó˚yˆÏ‹T…Ó˚ Ñ˛ì≈,˛c £ú â˛Ó˚õ ~ÓÇ Ó˚yˆÏ‹T…Ó˚ ¢ˆÏD ˛ô%Ó˚¢õyˆÏãÓ˚ ¢¡ôÑ≈˛ v˛zïπ≈ì˛ˆÏòÓ˚ ¢ˆÏD xïhfl˛ˆÏòÓ˚
¢¡ôˆÏÑ≈˛Ó˚ õˆÏì˛yñ ì˛Ìy!˛ô ~£z ¢¡ôÑ≈˛ £ú ˛ôyÓ˚fl˛ô!Ó˚Ñ˛– ˆ£ˆÏ܈ÏúÓ˚ õì˛ xò%ÎyÎ˚#ñ ˛ô!Ó˚ÓyÓ˚ Á Ó˚yˆÏ‹T…Ó˚ õˆÏïƒ ˛ô%Ó˚¢õyã ¢ÇÜ!‡˛ì˛
£ˆÏÎ˚ ÌyˆÏÑ˛– !ì˛!ò ˛ô%Ó˚¢õyãˆÏÑ˛ xyï%%!òÑ˛ Î%ˆÏÜÓ˚ v˛zqyÓò ÓˆÏú !â˛!£´ì˛ Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ˆÏäÈò– ˛ô%Ó˚¢õyˆÏãÓ˚ xyï%!òÑ˛ ïyÓ˚íy ≤Ãyâ˛#ò ïyÓ˚íy
ˆÌˆÏÑ˛ ˛ô,ÌÑ˛– ˆ£ˆÏ܈ÏúÓ˚ õˆÏì˛ñ ˛ô!Ó˚ÓyÓ˚ Á ˛ô%Ó˚¢õyˆÏãÓ˚ õˆÏïƒ ¢õß∫Î˚ á!›˛ˆÏÎ˚ Ó˚yˆÏ‹T… v˛zqÓ áˆÏ›˛ˆÏäÈ–

36
 ˆ£ˆÏ܈ÏúÓ˚ õˆÏì˛ñ ˛ô%Ó˚¢õyˆÏãÓ˚ õˆÏïƒ !ì˛ò!›˛ ˛ô,ÌÑ˛ xÌⲠ˛ôÓ˚fl˛ôˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ ¢ˆÏD ¢¡ôÑ≈˛Î%_´ ÓƒÓfl˛iy ܈Ïv˛¸ ÁˆÏ‡˛– ~=!ú £úÈÙÙÙÈ
1V â˛y!£îyÓ˚ ÓƒÓfl˛iyñ 2V òƒyÎ˚ !Óâ˛yˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ ÓƒÓfl˛iy Á 3V ≤Ãüy¢!òÑ˛ ÓƒÓfl˛iy S˛ô%!ú!ü Á !òÜõV– ì§˛yÓ˚ õˆÏì˛ Ó˚yˆÏ‹T…Ó˚ â˛Ó˚õ
úˆÏ«˛ƒ v˛z˛ôò#ì˛ £ÁÎ˚yÓ˚ Óƒy˛ôyˆÏÓ˚ ˛ô%Ó˚¢õyã ˛˛ôÎ≈yÆ ˛ô!Ó˚õyˆÏí ¢y£y΃ ~ÓÇ xòƒ xˆÏòÑ˛ !ӰψÏÎ˚ £z!ì˛Óyâ˛Ñ˛ ¶)˛!õÑ˛y ˛ôyúò
Ñ˛Ó˚ˆÏúÁ ~Ó˚ xÓfl˛iyò Ó˚yˆÏ‹T…Ó˚ ò#ˆÏⲖ ˛ô%Ó˚¢õyˆÏãÓ˚ ïyÓ˚íy!›˛Ó˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe ˆ£ˆÏÜú v˛zîyÓ˚˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ xÌ≈üyfl˛f!Óî xƒyv˛yõ !fl˛øÌ Á ˆv˛!¶˛v˛
!ÓÑ˛yˆÏv≈˛y ≤Ãõ%ˆÏÖÓ˚ myÓ˚y ܶ˛#Ó˚¶˛yˆÏÓ ≤ö˛y!Óì˛ £ˆÏÎ˚!äȈÏúò–
xïƒy˛ôÑ˛ C.E.M. Joad ~Ó˚ ÓƒyÖƒy xò%ÎyÎ˚# Ó˚yˆÏ‹T…Ó˚ õˆÏïƒ ¢Ó Óƒ!_´Ó˚ Óƒ!_´¢_y ¢yõÌ≈ ˆÎõò Ó˚yˆÏ‹T…Ó˚ Óƒ!_´ˆÏc !Óú#ò
£ˆÏÎ˚ ÎyÎ˚– ˆì˛õ!ò òyÜ!Ó˚Ñ˛ˆÏîÓ˚ ˛ôyÓ˚fl˛ô!Ó˚Ñ˛ ˜ò!ì˛Ñ˛ ¢¡ôÑ≈˛ Á !Óú#ò £ˆÏÎ˚ ÎyÎ˚– ¢yõy!ãÑ˛ ˜ò!ì˛Ñ˛ì˛yˆÏì˛– ˆ£ˆÏÜú õˆÏò
Ñ˛Ó˚ˆÏì˛ò ˆÎñ Ó˚y‹T… ˆÎˆÏ£ì%˛ ¢yõy!ãÑ˛ òƒyÎ˚ ˆÓyˆÏïÓ˚ Óyhfl˛Ó ≤Ã!ì˛ö˛úòñ ˆ¢ˆÏ£ì%˛ Óƒ!_´Ó˚ ~Ñ˛õye Ñ˛ì≈˛Óƒ £ú Ó˚yˆÏ‹T…Ó˚ ≤Ã!ì˛ xÑ%˛t˛
xyò%Üì˛ƒ ≤Ãîü≈ò Ñ˛Ó˚y– ~£z Ñ˛ì≈˛Óƒ ˛ôyúˆÏòÓ˚ õïƒ !îˆÏÎ˚£z Óƒ!_´ ì˛yÓ˚ ˜ò!ì˛Ñ˛ì˛yñ fl˛∫yï#òì˛y Á ¶˛yÓ¢_yÓ˚ ˛ô)í≈ !ÓÑ˛yü ¢yïò
Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚–
ãyì˛#Î˚ Ó˚yˆÏ‹T…Ó˚ ≤Ã!ì˛ ˆ£ˆÏ܈ÏúÓ˚ ܶ˛#Ó˚ ◊k˛y !äÈú– ì§˛yÓ˚ õˆÏì˛ñ Ó˚y‹T… £ú õò (Mind) Îy Î%!_´ Á Óyhfl˛Óì˛yÓ˚ ≤ÃÑ˛yü–
~£z ˜Ó!ü‹Tƒ£z Ó˚y‹T…ˆÏÑ˛ â˛Ó˚õ ü!_´ !£¢yˆÏÓ ≤Ã!ì˛¤˛y Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ˆÏäÈ– Ó˚y‹T… £ú ¢yÓ≈ˆÏ¶˛Ôõñ fl˛∫ì˛s˛f Á fl˛∫yï#ò– ãyì˛#Î˚ Ó˚yˆÏ‹T…Ó˚ ïyÓ˚íyÓ˚
õïƒ !îˆÏÎ˚ ˆ£ˆÏÜú ì˛ÍÑ˛yú#ò ãyì˛#Î˚ !â˛hs˛y Á ˙!ì˛£ƒˆÏÑ˛ ≤Ã!ì˛ö˛!úì˛ Ñ˛Ó˚ˆÏì˛ ˆâ˛ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏäÈò–

4.7 õ)úƒyÎ˚ò
ˆ£ˆÏÜú#Î˚ Ó˚y‹T…ì˛ˆÏ_¥Ó˚ Ñ˛ˆÏÎ˚Ñ˛!›˛ v˛zˆÏÕ‘ÖˆÏÎy܃ e&!›˛ Á î%Ó≈úì˛yÓ˚ Ñ˛Ìy ¢õyˆÏúyâ˛Ñ˛Üí !òˆÏî≈ü Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ˆÏäÈò–
≤ÃÌõì˛ ≠ fl˛∫yï#òì˛yÓ˚ ïyÓ˚íy ~ÓÇ fl˛∫yï#ò £zFäÈyÓ˚ Ó˚*˛ôyhs˛ˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ õïƒ !îˆÏÎ˚ !ì˛!ò Ó˚yˆÏ‹T…Ó˚ xy!Ó¶≈˛yˆÏÓÓ˚ ïyÓ˚y ~ÓÇ Ó˚yˆÏ‹T…Ó˚
x!hfl˛ˆÏcÓ˚ Î%!_´!›˛ ˆÎ¶˛yˆÏÓ v˛z˛ôfl˛iy!˛ôì˛ Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ˆÏäÈò ì˛yˆÏì˛ fl˛∫yï#òì˛y ~ÓÇ xyò%Üì˛ƒ ~Ñ˛yÑ˛yÓ˚ £ˆÏÎ˚ !܈ÏÎ˚ˆÏäÈ–
!mì˛#Î˚ì˛ ≠ Ó˚y‹T…ˆÏÑ˛ ˙Ÿª!Ó˚Ñ˛ =íyÓú#ˆÏì˛ ¶)˛!°Ïì˛ Ñ˛Ó˚y ì§˛yÓ˚ ì˛ˆÏ_¥Ó˚ x˛ôÓ˚ ~Ñ˛ î%Ó≈ú @˘Ãs˛i#– ì˛y£z C.E.M. Joad õhs˛Óƒ
Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ˆÏäÈò "The idealist theory is inimical to individual freedom" xÌ≈yÍ ¶˛yÓÓyî# Ó˚y‹T…ì˛_¥ Óƒ!_´ fl˛∫yï#òì˛yÓ˚ ˛úˆÏ«˛ƒ
!Ó˛ôIòÑ˛–
ì,˛ì˛#Î˚ì˛ ≠ Ó˚y‹T… £ú fl˛∫yï#ò £zFäÈyÓ˚ â)˛v˛¸yhs˛ ˛ô!Ó˚í!ì˛– !ì˛!ò Óƒ!_´Ó˚ ¶)˛!õÑ˛y ~ÓÇ x!ïÑ˛yÓ˚ˆÏÑ˛ ÖÓ≈ Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ Óƒ!_´ˆÏÑ˛ Ó˚yˆÏ‹T…Ó˚
v˛zˆÏk≈˛ Ó˚yÖˆÏì˛ â˛yò!ò– ˆ£ˆÏÜú ~Ñ˛ ¢Ó≈ydÑ˛ (Totalitariasm) Ó˚yˆÏ‹T…Ó˚ ì˛_¥ £y!ãÓ˚ Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ˆÏäÈò–
¶˛yÓÓyî# Ó˚y‹T…ì˛ˆÏ_¥Ó˚ îyü≈!òÑ˛ ˆÎÔ!_´Ñ˛ì˛y xyv˛¸yˆÏú ˆ£ˆÏÜú xy¢ˆÏú ãyõ≈yò ãyì˛#Î˚ì˛yÓyˆÏîÓ˚ Î%!_´›˛y£z ≤ây!Ó˚ì˛ Ñ˛Ó˚ˆÏì˛
ˆâ˛ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏäÈò– ì˛y£z ˆ£ˆÏ܈ÏúÓ˚ Ó˚y‹T…!â˛hs˘˛yˆÏÑ˛ ãyõ≈yò õïƒ!Ó_ ˆ◊í#Ó˚ ãyì˛#Î˚ì˛yÓyî# xyüyÈÙÈxyÑ˛yCyÓ˚ ≤ÃÑ˛yü ÓˆÏú Üíƒ Ñ˛Ó˚y ˆÎˆÏì˛
˛ôyˆÏÓ˚–
!Ó!ü‹T ˆúÖÑ˛ S. Avtreri õˆÏò Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ò “It is the idea of the state with which Hegel is dealing and any
existing state cannot be anything but a mere approximation to the idea.” ¢ƒyÓy£zˆÏòÓ˚ õˆÏì˛ñ ˆ£ˆÏÜú xyï%!òÑ˛
!â˛hs˘˛yïyÓ˚yˆÏÑ˛ =Ó˚&c˛ô)í≈ xÓîyò ì%˛ˆÏú ïˆÏÓ˚ˆÏäÈò– ~=!ú £úÈÙÙÙÈi) !ì˛!ò£z Ó˚yãò#!ì˛ Á ò#!ì˛ˆÏÑ˛ ~Ñ˛ !Ó®%ˆÏì˛ xyòyÓ˚ ˆâ˛‹Ty
Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ˆÏäÈò– ii) ì§˛yÓ˚ ˆâ˛‹TyˆÏì˛£z Óƒ!_´ˆÏÑ˛ Ó˚yˆÏ‹T…Ó˚ ˆ≤Ã!«˛ˆÏì˛ !Óâ˛yÓ˚ Ñ˛Ó˚y £ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏäÈ– iii) !ì˛!ò£z ˙!ì˛£y!¢Ñ˛ ˛ôk˛!ì˛Ó˚ xyˆÏúyˆÏÑ˛
Ó˚yãò#!ì˛ˆÏÑ˛ ãyòÓyÓ˚ ¢%ˆÏÎyÜ Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ !îˆÏÎ˚ˆÏäÈò ~ÓÇ iv) ≤ÃÜ!ì˛Ó˚ v˛zÍ¢ Î%!_´Ó˚ õˆÏïƒÈÙÙÙÈ~£z ïyÓ˚íy!›˛ˆÏÑ˛ ˆ£ˆÏ܈ÏúÓ˚ Ó˚y‹T…!â˛hs˘˛yÎ˚
≤ÃÌõ !ӈϟ’°Ïí Ñ˛Ó˚y £Î˚–

37
 ˆ£ˆÏ܈ÏúÓ˚ ≤ö˛yÓ ˆÑ˛Óú ˛ôÓ˚Óì≈˛#Ñ˛yˆÏúÓ˚ ¶˛yÓÓyî# îü≈ˆòÏ Ó˚ õˆÏz ¢#õyÓk˛ !äÈú òyñ õyÑ≈˛¢Óyî Á x!hfl˛ÏcÓyî (Existentialism)
~Ó˚ õˆÏïƒÁ ˆ£ˆÏÜú#Î˚ !â˛hs˘˛yÓ˚ xò%≤ÈÏÓü áˆÏ›˛ˆÏäÈ– ˛ô!Ó˚ˆÏüˆÏ°Ï Óúy ˆÎˆÏì˛ ˛ôyˆÏÓ˚ ˆÎñ x!ï!ÓîƒyÓ˚ xy◊Î˚ ˆòÁÎ˚y ¢ˆÏ_¥Á ˆ£ˆÏÜú
!äȈÏúò Óyhfl˛ÏÓ ¢ˆÏâ˛ì˛ò !â˛hs˘˛y!Óî– ì§˛yÓ˚ !äÈú xò%¢!ı˛Í¢% õò Á ¢õyˆÏúyâ˛òyõ)úÑ˛ Î%!_´!¢k˛ì˛y (Entical ratiorality)– Ó˚«˛íü#ú
¶˛yÓ!›˛£z ì§˛yÓ˚ îyü≈!òÑ˛ ≤ÃK˛yÓ˚ ~Ñ˛õye ˛ô!Ó˚â˛Î˚ òÎ˚– ì§˛yÓ˚ îü≈ˆÏòÓ˚ Ü!ì˛õÎ˚ !îÑ˛!›˛Á !äÈú !ÓˆÏü°Ï =Ó˚&c˛ô)í≈–

4.8 õ)úƒyÎ˚ò !ò!õ_ ≤ß¿yÓú#

a) Discuss Hegel’s Political Philosophy in the History of Western Political Thought.
b) Discuss Hegel’s views on the State.
c) Discuss the concept of Civil Society of Hegel.
d) Discuss the notion of Freedom of G. W. F. Hegel.
e) Critically Evaluate the Contribution of Hegel in the History of Western Political Thought.

4.9 ¢y£yÎƒÑ˛yÓ˚# @˘Ãs˛i˛ô!O

i. Sabine, George H., & Thorson, Thomas L. (1973). A History of Political Theory. New Delhi: Oxford
and IBH Publishing.
ii. Mukherjee, Subrata., & Ramaswamy, Sushila. (2011). A History of Political Thought: Plato to
Marx. New Delhi: PHI Learning.
iii. Mukhopadhyay, Amal Kumar. (2014). Western Political Thought: From Plato to Marx. Kolkata: K.P.
Bagchi & Company.

38
 ˛ôy‡˛e´õ ≠ 1.1
Unit-5

£z!ì˛£y¢ Á xyï%!òÑ˛ì˛y ¢¡ôˆÏÑ≈˛ Ñ˛yú≈ õyÑ≈˛ˆÏ¢Ó˚ î,!‹T¶˛D#

Marx: Views on History and Modernity
!Ó°ÏÎ˚¢)!Ⲡ:
5.1 ˛ôy‡˛ÈÙÈv˛zˆjÏ üƒ
5.2 ¶)˛!õÑ˛y
5.3 £z!ì˛£y¢ ¢¡ôˆÏÑ≈˛ õyÑ≈˛ˆÏ¢Ó˚ ïyÓ˚íy
£z!ì˛£yˆÏ¢Ó˚ ˛ô›˛¶)˛!õ
5.3.1 xy!îõ ¢yõƒÓyî# ¢õyã
5.3.2 îy¢ ¢õyã ÓƒÓfl˛iy
5.3.3 ¢yõhs˘˛ì˛y!s˛fÑ˛ ¢õyã ÓƒÓfl˛iy
5.3.4 ïòì˛y!s˛fÑ˛/˛ô%§!ãÓyî# ¢õyã ÓƒÓfl˛iy
5.3.5 ¢õyãì˛y!s˛fÑ˛ ÓƒÓfl˛iy
5.3.6 ¢yõƒÓyî# ¢õyã ÓƒÓfl˛iy
5.4 xyï%!òÑ˛ì˛y ¢¡ôˆÏÑ≈˛ õyÑ≈˛ˆÏ¢Ó˚ ïyÓ˚íy
5.4.1 xyï%!òÑ˛ì˛y ¢¡ôˆÏÑ≈˛ õyÑ≈˛ˆÏ¢Ó˚ !â˛hs˘˛yÓ˚ ì˛y!_¥Ñ˛ !¶˛!_
5.4.2 ˙!ì˛£y!¢Ñ˛ !ÓÓì≈˛ˆÏòÓ˚ õˆÏïƒ xyï%!òÑ˛ì˛yÓ˚ xÓfl˛iyò
5.4.3 xyï%!òÑ˛ì˛y ¢yõy!ãÑ˛ m®¥¢õ)£ ~ÓÇ !Ó¶˛yãˆÏòÓ˚ ˆÌˆÏÑ˛ v˛zq(ì˛
5.4.4 xyï%!òÑ˛ì˛yÓ˚ !ÓŸªÓúˆÏÎ˚ ≤ÃÑ˛yü
5.4.5 xyï%!òÑ˛ì˛yÓ˚ ˛ôˆÏÌ Óyïy/xÓƒÓfl˛iy ˆÌˆÏÑ˛ ˆÓ!Ó˚ˆÏÎ˚ xy¢yÓ˚ ˛ôÌ
5.5 õ)úƒyÎ˚ò !ò!õ_ ≤ß¿yÓú#
5.6 ¢y£yÎƒÑ˛yÓ˚# @˘Ãs˛i˛ôO#

5.1 ˛ôy‡˛ÈÙÈv˛zˆÏjüƒ ˛
~£z ~Ñ˛Ñ˛!›˛ˆÏì˛ xyõÓ˚y Ñ˛yú≈ õyÑ≈˛ˆÏ¢Ó˚ £z!ì˛£y¢ Á xyï%!òÑ˛ì˛y ¢Çe´yhs˘˛ ì˛_¥ !òˆÏÎ˚ xyˆÏúyâ˛òy Ñ˛Ó˚Ó– ˆ¢ÖyˆÏò ˙!ì˛£y!¢Ñ˛
Óhfl%˛ÓyîˆÏÑ˛ ˆÑ˛w Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ ¢õyã Ñ˛#¶˛yˆÏÓ e´õ!ÓÓì≈˛ˆÏòÓ˚ õïƒ !îˆÏÎ˚ ~Ñ˛ hfl˛ÏÓ˚ ˆÌˆÏÑ˛ xyÓ˚ ~Ñ˛ hfl˛ÏˆÏÓ˚ ˆ˛ôÔ§ˆÏäȈÏäÈ ì˛y !òˆÏÎ˚Á xyõÓ˚y
xyˆÏúyâ˛òy Ñ˛Ó˚Ó– ~£z ~Ñ˛ˆÏÑ˛Ó˚ !mì˛#Î˚ ˛ôˆÏÓ≈ xyõÓ˚y xyï%!òÑ˛ì˛y ¢¡ôˆÏÑ≈˛ õyÑ≈˛ˆÏ¢Ó˚ ì˛_¥ !òˆÏÎ˚ xyˆÏúyâ˛òy Ñ˛Ó˚Ó–

39
5.2 ¶)˛!õÑ˛y ˛
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Jahrbucher (German French Annals)ÈÙÈ~Ó˚ ¢£¢¡ôyîÑ˛ £ò ~ÓÇ ãyõ≈yò ¢õyãì˛s˛f# xyò≈”˛ Ó˚&ã (Arnold Ruge)ÈÙÈ~Ó˚
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xˆÏQyÓÓ˚ ˛ôƒy!Ó˚ˆÏ¢Ó˚ v˛zˆÏjˆÏüƒ Ó˚Áòy £ò– ~£z ˛˛ô!eÑ˛yÎ˚ õyÑ≈˛¢ î%!›˛ ˛≤ÃÓı˛ ˆúˆÏÖò 'Critique of Hegel's philosophy &
right' ~ÓÇ 'On the Jewish Question'– 1844 ~Ó˚ 28ˆÏü xyÜfi›˛ õyÑ≈˛¢ ˛ôƒy!Ó˚ˆÏ¢ ãyõ≈yò ¢õyãì˛s˛f# ˆö˛v˛!Ó˚Ö ~ˆÏDú¢
(Friedrick Engels)ÈÙÈ~Ó˚ ¢ˆÏD ~Ñ˛!›˛ Ñ˛yˆÏö˛ˆÏì˛ !õ!úì˛ £ò ~ÓÇ ì§˛yˆÏîÓ˚ õˆÏïƒ xyã#Óò Óı%˛c ܈Ïv˛¸ ÁˆÏ‡˛– ~ˆÏDú¢ õyÑ≈˛¢ˆÏÑ˛
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!òˆÏÎ˚Á ˛ôv˛¸yˆÏüyòy Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ò– Ólfl˛ì˛ Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ xÌ≈ò#!ì˛ (Political Economy)ÈÙÈÓ˚ Óyïy Óyïò £ú õyÑ≈˛ˆÏ¢Ó˚ xÓ!ü‹T ã#ÓˆÏòÓ˚

40
xòƒì˛õ !Ó°ÏÎ˚ Îy ì˛yÓ˚ !ÓÓ˚y›˛ xÌ≈ˆÏò!ì˛Ñ˛ Ó˚â˛òyÎ˚ ≤ÃÑ˛yü !ì˛ò ¶˛ú%ƒˆÏõÓ˚ 'Capital' @˘ÃˆÏs˛iÓ˚ õyÏõ ≤ÃÑ˛yü ˛ôyÎ˚– õyÑ≈˛¢Óyî
Ólfl˛ì˛≠ !ì˛ò!›˛ xyîˆÏü≈Ó˚ myÓ˚y Ó˝úyLjÏü ≤ö˛y!Óì˛ £Î˚ÈÙÙÙÈ(i) ˆ£ˆÏ܈ÏúÓ˚ my!®μÑ˛ì˛yÓyîñ (ii) ö˛Ó˚y¢# £zv˛zˆÏÓ˚y˛ô#Î˚ ¢õyãì˛s˛fÓyî
(Utopian Socialism) ~ÓÇ (iii) £zÇ!úü xÌ≈ò#!ì˛ (English Economy)–
1844 ~Ó˚ ~!≤Ãú ˆÌˆÏÑ˛ xy܈Ïfi›˛Ó˚ õˆÏïƒ õyÑ≈˛¢ 'The Economic and Philosophic Manuscripts’ ˆúˆÏÖòñ !Ñ˛ls˛
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41
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õˆÏz ˆÑ˛Óúõye ¶)˛!õÑ˛y ˛ôyúò Ñ˛Ó˚ˆÏì˛ ˛ôyˆÏÓ˚ò ~ÓÇ ˆ¢ˆÏ«˛ˆÏe ì§˛yˆÏîÓ˚ ˛ô)Ó≈¢)Ó˚#ˆÏîÓ˚ myÓ˚y ì§˛yÓ˚y ≤ö˛y!Óì˛ £ò– Ólfl˛ì˛ñ õyÑ≈˛¢
ì§˛yÓ˚ 18th Brumaire of Louis Bonaparte Ó˚â˛òyÎ˚ v˛zˆÏÕ‘Ö Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ˆÏäÈò ˆÎ õyò%°Ï ì˛yˆÏîÓ˚ £z!ì˛£y¢ !òˆÏãÓ˚y£z ¢,!‹T Ñ˛Ó˚ˆÏúÁ
ì˛yÓ˚y ì˛yˆÏîÓ˚ Üí ¢Ó≈îy ì˛y Ñ˛Ó˚ˆÏì˛ ˛ôyˆÏÓ˚ òyñ xì˛#ˆÏì˛Ó˚ ᛲòyÓú# Á ˛ô!Ó˚ˆÏÓü ì˛yˆÏîÓ˚ Ñ˛yÎ≈Ñ˛úy˛ôˆÏÑ˛ ≤ö˛y!Óì˛ Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ ÌyˆÏÑ˛–
xˆÏòÑ˛ ¢õÎ˚ õ,ì˛ ÓÇüïÓ˚ˆÏîÓ˚ ˙!ì˛£ƒ Á ᛲòy ÎyÓ˚y ã#Óhs˛ ì˛yˆÏîÓ˚ õ!hfl˛ˆÏ‹ÒÓ˚ v˛z˛ôÓ˚ î%Éfl˛∫ˆÏ≤¿Ó˚ õˆÏì˛y â˛y˛ô ¢,!‹T Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚– xòƒ¶˛yˆÏÓ
Óúy ÎyÎ˚ Óì≈˛õyˆÏò ˆÎ ¢Ñ˛ú Óƒ!_´ Ö%Ó£z î,벸ñ Ó%!k˛õyò ~ÓÇ ˆòì,˛c¢¡ôߨ ì§˛yÓ˚yÁ ¢¡ô)í≈¶˛yˆÏÓ fl˛∫yï#ò òòñ ˛ô«˛yhs˛ˆÏÓ˚ ì§˛yÓ˚yÁ
¢õ¢yõ!Î˚Ñ˛ Ólfl˛Üì˛ ˛ô!Ó˚ˆÏÓüñ ¢yõy!ãÑ˛ ¢¡ôîy!î ~ÓÇ xÌ≈˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ xy£zò ¢õ)ˆÏ£Ó˚ myÓ˚y ≤ö˛y!Óì˛– ~ˆÏDúˆÏ¢Ó˚ ïyÓ˚íyÎ˚
¢yïyÓ˚í xy£zò ¢õ)ˆÏ£Ó˚ myÓ˚y Îy ˛ô!Ó˚â˛y!úì˛ £Î˚ ì˛yˆÏÑ˛ ≤ÈÏÎ˚yãò#Î˚ Óúy £Î˚– ˛ô«˛yhs˛ˆÏÓ˚ ÎyˆÏÑ˛ ãyòy ÎyÎ˚ òy ì˛yˆÏÑ˛ xyÑ˛!fl˛øÑ˛
(Accidental) Óúy £Î˚– £z!ì˛£yˆÏ¢Ó˚ ˛ô‡˛ò˛ôy‡˛ˆÏò ˆÑ˛yò !ÓˆÏü°Ï Úõ£yòÛ Óƒ!_´Ó˚ v˛zayòˆÏÑ˛ ÚxyÑ˛!fl˛øÑ˛Û (accidental) Óúy ÎyÎ˚ó

42
xyÓ˚ î)Ó˚î,!‹T ¢¡ôߨ Óƒ!_´ˆÏÑ˛ ¢yïyÓ˚í¶˛yˆÏÓ Ú≤ÈÏÎ˚yãò#Î˚Û (necessary) ÓˆÏú Üíƒ Ñ˛Ó˚y ÎyÎ˚– xyÓyÓ˚ ˆÑ˛yò !ò!î≈‹T ˙!ì˛£y!¢Ñ˛
Î%ˆÏÜÓ˚ ~ÓÇ xÓfl˛iyÓ˚ xyˆÏúyâ˛òyÎ˚ ¢õyˆÏãÓ˚ â˛y!£îy ~ÓÇ ≤ÈÏÎ˚yãòy!î ˆ¢£z ¢õhfl˛ Óƒ!_´ˆÏîÓ˚ xy£¥yò Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ ΧyÓ˚y !ÓˆÏü°Ï =í
¢¡ôߨ ~ÓÇ ˜Ó!üˆÏ‹TƒÓ˚ x!ïÑ˛yÓ˚#– õyÑ≈˛¢ÓyˆÏîÓ˚ ˆ◊í# ¢Ç@˘Ãyõ ÎÖò ì˛#Ó ì˛õ £Î˚ñ ì˛Öò ~õò ~Ñ˛ãò ˆòì˛yˆÏÑ˛ ≤ÈÏÎ˚yãò
£Î˚ ˆÎ î,벸ˆÏâ˛ì˛y ¢¡ôߨ ~ÓÇ ˆÑ˛yˆÏòy !¢k˛yˆÏhs˛Ó˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe !òã !¢k˛yhs˛ @˘Ã£ˆÏí x!Óâ˛ú–
Ó˚y!üÎ˚yÓ˚ !Ó!ü‹T õyÑ≈˛¢Óyî# !ã. !¶˛. ˆ≤’Öyò¶˛ (G. V. Plekhanov) ì§˛yÓ˚ 'On the role of the individual in history'
Ó˚â˛òyÎ˚ õhs˛Óƒ Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ˆÏäÈò ˆÎ ~Ñ˛ãò õ£yò Óƒ!_´ ÷ï%õye ì§˛yÓ˚ Óƒ!_´Üì˛ =íyÓú#Ó˚ ãòƒ£z õ£yò ˙!ì˛£y!¢Ñ˛ ᛲòyÓú#Ó˚
ˆ«˛ˆÏe õ£yò £Î˚ òyñ Ólfl˛ì˛˛ôˆÏ«˛ ì§˛yÓ˚ ¢õˆÏÎ˚Ó˚ ¢yõy!ãÑ˛ ≤ÈÏÎ˚yãò=!úÓ˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe ÎÖò ˆ¢£z Óƒ!_´ ì˛§yÓ˚ =íyÓú#ˆÏÑ˛ ˆ¢ÓyÓ˚
Ñ˛yˆÏã úyÜyò ì˛Öò£z !ì˛!ò õ£yò ÓˆÏú ˛ô!Ó˚Ü!íì˛ £ò– £z!ì˛£yˆÏ¢Ó˚ xyˆÏúyâ˛òyÎ˚ õyÑ≈˛¢ÓyˆÏî ˆ¢£z !ü«˛yÓ˚ v˛z˛ôÓ˚ =Ó˚&c xyˆÏÓ˚y˛ô
Ñ˛Ó˚y £ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏäÈ ˆÎÖyˆÏò ˜Ó≤’!ÓÑ˛ ¢Ç܇˛òˆÏÑ˛ ܈Ïv˛¸ ˆì˛yúy ÎyÎ˚– ~£z !ü«˛y äÈyv˛¸y ˛ô)ˆÏÓ≈Ó˚ ÓÇüïyÓ˚yÓ˚ !ü«˛y=!ú ˛ôÓ˚Óì≈˛#Ñ˛yˆÏú
!Óú#ò £ˆÏÎ˚ ÎyÎ˚– õyÑ≈˛¢ÓyˆÏîÓ˚ õyÏõ xyõÓ˚y ~Ñ˛!›˛ x!ÓˆÏFäÈîƒ ¢)ˆÏeÓ˚ ¢ı˛yò ˛ôy£z ˆÎÖyˆÏò ¢õyãì˛s˛fÓyˆÏîÓ˚ ¢Ç@˘ÃyõˆÏÑ˛
ö˛ú≤â) Ñ˛Ó˚y ÎyÎ˚– õyÑ˛≈¢ÓyˆÏî ¢ÓˆÏâ˛ˆÏÎ˚ ¢yïyÓ˚í xy£zò Îy £z!ì˛£yˆÏ¢Ó˚ Ólfl˛Üì˛ î,!‹T¶˛!D =Ó˚&c xyˆÏÓ˚y˛ô Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ ì˛y£ú v˛zͲôy!îÑ˛y
ü!_´ ¢õ)ˆÏ£Ó˚ !ÓÑ˛yü (development of productive forces) ˆÎÖyˆÏò =Ó˚&c !îˆÏÎ˚ Óúy £Î˚ Ó,£_Ó˚ î,!‹T¶˛!D xò%ÎyÎ˚#
õyòÓãy!ì˛ ≤ÃÑ,˛!ì˛Ó˚ v˛z˛ôÓ˚ ~ÓÇ xyõyˆÏîÓ˚ ã#ÓòÎyeyÓ˚ õyˆÏòÓ˚ Ó,!k˛Ó˚ v˛z˛ôÓ˚ =Ó˚&c xyˆÏÓ˚y˛ô Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ ~ÓÇ ¢yõy!ãÑ˛ hfl˛ˆÏÓ˚ !ÓK˛yò
!ü“ñ Ñ˛y!Ó˚ÜÓ˚# ÓƒÓfl˛iy ~ÓÇ ˆÑ˛ÔüˆÏúÓ˚ v˛zߨ!ì˛Ó˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe ì˛y ˛ô!Ó˚ú!«˛ì˛ £Î˚– ¢£ã¶˛yˆÏÓ Óúy ÎyÎ˚ Óì≈˛õyò Óy xyã £ú
Üì˛Ñ˛yˆÏúÓ˚ ˆâ˛ˆÏÎ˚ x!ïÑ˛ì˛Ó˚ ¶˛yˆÏúy ~ÓÇ xyÜyõ#Ñ˛yú £ˆÏÓ xyãˆÏÑ˛Ó˚ ˆâ˛ˆÏÎ˚ ¶˛yˆÏúy– ÎÖò ~Ñ˛!›˛ ¢õyˆÏãÓ˚ xÌ≈ˆÏò!ì˛Ñ˛ ÓƒÓfl˛iy
~ÓÇ ¢¡ô!_ ¢Çe´yhs˛ ¢¡ôÑ≈˛=!ú v˛zߨÎ˚ˆÏòÓ˚ ˛ôˆÏÌ ≤Ã!ì˛Óı˛Ñ˛ì˛y ¢,!‹T Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ñ ˆ¢ÖyˆÏò ì˛Öò ¢yõy!ãÑ˛ !Ó≤’ˆÏÓÓ˚ ÜÜ ¢)!â˛ì˛
£Î˚ (Then begins the year of social revolution)– õyÑ˛≈¢ÓyˆÏî xyÓ˚Á Óúy £Î˚ ˆÎ £z!ì˛£y¢ xˆÏ˛ô«˛y Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ òyñ ¢yïyÓ˚í
ãòÜí xˆÏ˛ô«˛y Ñ˛Ó˚ˆÏì˛ ˛ôyˆÏÓ˚ òy Ñ˛Öò ˜Ó≤’!ÓÑ˛ îú Óy ˆòì˛y ¢yõy!ãÑ˛ ˛ô!Ó˚Óì≈˛ò ¢yïˆÏò ~!܈ÏÎ˚ xy¢ˆÏÓ– ˆÑ˛yò ˆÑ˛yò
ˆ«˛ˆÏe îy!Ó˚o ~ÓÇ ÓM˛Èòy Îy ãòÜí ¢¡ø%Ö#ò £Î˚ ˆ¢ÖyˆÏò ˆÑ˛yò îú Óy ˆòì,˛c ~!܈ÏÎ˚ xy¢%Ñ˛ Óy òy xy¢%Ñ˛ñ !Ó!¶˛ß¨
fl˛iyˆÏò òy›˛Ñ˛#Î˚ ˛ô!Ó˚Óì≈˛ò ˆîÖy !îˆÏì˛ ˛ôyˆÏÓ˚– £z!ì˛£yˆÏ¢Ó˚ ˛ô!Ó˚Óì≈˛ˆÏòÓ˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe ~ˆÏDú¢ £zv˛zˆÏ›˛y!˛ôÎ˚yò (Utopean) ¢õyãì˛s˛fÓyˆÏîÓ˚
¢ˆÏD õyÑ≈˛¢ Á ì§˛yÓ˚ î,!‹T¶˛!DÓ˚ ˛ôyÌ≈ˆÏÑ˛ƒÓ˚ !îÑ˛!›˛ ì%˛ˆÏú ïˆÏÓ˚ˆÏäÈò– ~ˆÏDú¢ ~ÓÇ õyÑ≈˛ˆÏ¢Ó˚ ˛ô)Ó≈¢)Ó˚#Ó˚y õ)úì˛ Î§yˆÏîÓ˚ £zv˛zˆÏ›˛y!˛ôÎ˚yò
¢õyãì˛y!s˛fÑ˛ ÓˆÏú Üíƒ Ñ˛Ó˚y £Î˚ xyîü≈Üì˛¶˛yˆÏÓ ì§˛yÓ˚y !ÓŸªy¢ Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ò ˆÎ ¢õyãì˛s˛f xyòyÓ˚ ãòƒ Îy ≤ÈÏÎ˚yãò ì˛y £ú ≤Ã!ì˛¶˛y
(genius) ¢¡ôߨ ~Ñ˛ãò Óƒ!_´ ΧyÓ˚ v˛zayò áˆÏ›˛ˆÏäÈ ~ÓÇ !Î!ò ¢ì˛ƒˆÏÑ˛ ˆÓyˆÏG˛ò– !Ó˛ôÓ˚#ì˛ ˛ôˆÏ«˛ õyÑ≈˛¢ ~ÓÇ ~ˆÏDú¢ ˜ÓK˛y!òÑ˛
Á Ólfl˛Üì˛ ¢õyãì˛s˛fÓyîˆÏÑ˛ ì%˛ˆÏú ïˆÏÓ˚ˆÏäÈò– õyÑ≈˛ˆÏ¢Ó˚ £z!ì˛£y¢ ¢Çe´yhs˛ ì˛_¥ ì§˛yÓ˚ ˙!ì˛£y!¢Ñ˛ Ólfl˛ÓyîˆÏÑ˛ ˆÑ˛w Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ ܈Ïv˛¸
v˛zˆÏ‡˛ˆÏäÈ ÙÙÙȈÎÖyˆÏò ˆ¢£z xyîü≈ˆÏÑ˛ ˆÑ˛w Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ ¢õyˆÏãÓ˚ v˛zayò Á ˛ôì˛ò áˆÏ›˛–
5.3.1 xy!îõ ¢yõƒÓyî# ¢õyã
õyÑ˛≈¢ÓyˆÏî £z!ì˛£yˆÏ¢Ó˚ !ÓÓì˛≈ˆÏò ¢õyˆÏãÓ˚ xy!î hfl˛Ó˚ £ú xy!îõ ¢yõƒÓyî# ¢õyã ÓƒÓfl˛iy– î#á≈Ñ˛yú Óƒy˛ô# !Óhfl+˛ì˛ ~£z
¢yõy!ãÑ˛ hfl˛Ó˚ˆÏÑ˛ ≤Ãâ˛!úì˛ v˛zͲôy!îÑ˛y ü!_´ñ v˛zͲôyîò ¢¡ôÑ≈˛ Á ¢õyã ÓƒÓfl˛iyÓ˚ ˛ô!Ó˚ˆÏ≤Ã!«˛ˆÏì˛ xy!îõ ¢yõƒÓyî# ¢õyã Óúy
£Î˚– xy!îõ õyò%ˆÏ°ÏÓ˚ ˛ôˆÏ«˛ ~Ñ˛Ñ˛ ˛≤ÈÏⲋTy ˆÓ§ˆÏⲠÌyÑ˛y !îò x¢Ω˛Ó– ã#ÓˆÏòÓ˚ !òÓ˚y˛ô_y ~ÓÇ Öyîƒ ¢yõ@˘Ã# Á xòƒyòƒ ≤ÈÏÎ˚yãò#Î˚
!ã!ò¢˛ôe ¢Ç@˘ÃˆÏ£Ó˚ fl˛∫yˆÏÌ≈ xy!îõ õyò%°Ï ˆÜy¤˛#Ók˛ £ˆÏÎ˚ Ó¢Óy¢ Ñ˛Ó˚ì˛– ◊õü!_´£z !äÈú xy!îõ ¢õyã ÓƒÓfl˛iyÓ˚ v˛zͲôyîˆÏòÓ˚
≤Ãïyò v˛z˛ôyîyò– ì˛yäÈyv˛¸y ˛ôyÌÓ˚ñ Ñ˛y‡˛ Óy £yˆÏv˛¸Ó˚ ˜ì˛!Ó˚ !Ñ˛ä%È xì˛ƒhs˛ ¢yïyÓ˚í Á fl˛i(úïÓ˚ˆÏòÓ˚ £y!ì˛Î˚yÓ˚ õyò%ˆÏ°ÏÓ˚ £yˆÏì˛ !äÈú–
v˛zͲôyîˆÏòÓ˚ v˛z˛ôyîyò ~ÓÇ v˛zͲôy!îì˛ ¢yõ@˘Ã# ≤ö,˛!ì˛ ¢Ó !Ñ˛ä%ÈÓ˚ v˛z˛ôÓ˚ !äÈú ˆÜy¤˛#Ó˚ ˆÎÔÌ õy!úÑ˛yòy– ~£z ¢õÎ˚ ¢õˆÏÓì˛¶˛yˆÏÓ
◊õîyò Ñ˛Ó˚yÓ˚ ãòƒ ¢Ñ˛ˆÏú£z !äÈú v˛zͲôyîˆÏòÓ˚ v˛z˛ôyîyò Á v˛zͲôߨ oÓƒ¢yõ@˘Ã#Ó˚ õy!úÑ˛–
v˛zͲôyîò ÓƒÓfl˛iy xò%ß¨ì˛ !äÈú ÓˆÏú ÷ï% ã#ÓòïyÓ˚ˆÏòÓ˚ ãòƒ ≤ÈÏÎ˚yãò#Î˚ Öyîƒ v˛zͲôy!îì˛ £ì˛– ì˛y£z v˛zm,_ v˛zͲôyîò
Óy ¢M˛ÈÎ˚ !äÈú òy– xy!îõ ¢yõƒÓyî# ¢õyã ÓƒÓfl˛iyÎ˚ ˆ◊í#ˆÏ¶˛î Óy ˆ◊í# ˆüy°Ïí !äÈú òy– fl˛∫y¶˛y!ÓÑ˛ Ñ˛yÓ˚ˆÏí ˆ◊í# ˆüy°ÏˆÏíÓ˚

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Îs˛f Á Ó˚y‹T… !äÈú òy– Ólfl˛ì˛ xy!îõ ¢õyã ÓƒÓfl˛iyÎ˚ x¢yõƒ !äÈú òy– ~£z Ñ˛yÓ˚ˆÏí ~ˆÏÑ˛ xy!îõ ¢yõƒÓyî# ¢õyã ÓƒÓfl˛iy
Óúy £Î˚–
5.3.2 îy¢ ¢õyã ÓƒÓfl˛iy
îy¢ ¢õyã ÓƒÓfl˛iyÓ˚ xy!Ó¶≈˛yˆÏÓÓ˚ Ó#ã xy!îõ ¢yõƒÓyî# ¢õyˆÏãÓ˚ xÓ¢yˆÏòÓ˚ õˆÏz !ò!£ì˛ !äÈú– xy!îõ ¢õyã ÓƒÓfl˛iyÓ˚
xò%ß¨ì˛ v˛zͲôyîò ïyÓ˚yˆÏÑ˛ x!ì˛e´õ Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ õyò%°Ï ˛ô÷˛ôyúò Á Ñ,˛!°ÏÑ˛yÎ≈ ¢¡ô!Ñ≈˛ì˛ K˛yò úy¶˛ Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚– ˛ôÿÏÓ˚Ó˚ £y!ì˛Î˚yˆÏÓ˚Ó˚
˛ô!Ó˚ÓˆÏì≈˛ ïyì%˛ !ò!õ≈ì˛ £y!ì˛Î˚yˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ ÓƒÓfl˛iy Ó˚Æ Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚– ~£z ïyì%˛Ó˚ ÓƒÓ£yÓ˚ xy!îõ ¢õyˆÏãÓ˚ x!ïÓy¢#ˆÏîÓ˚ ã#ÓòïyÓ˚yÎ˚ Î%Üyhs˛Ñ˛yÓ˚#
˛ô!Ó˚Óì≈˛ˆÏòÓ˚ ˛ôÌ ≤Ãühfl˛ Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚– ïyì%˛ !îˆÏÎ˚ õyò%°Ï v˛zͲôyîˆÏòÓ˚ v˛zß¨ì˛ ¢Ó˚Oyõ Á xydÓ˚«˛yÓ˚ òì%˛ò £y!ì˛Î˚yÓ˚ ˜ì˛!Ó˚ Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚– xyÓyÓ˚
Ñ˛yúe´ˆÏõ !Ñ˛ä%È õyò%°Ï Üy£≈fl˛iƒ Óy £hfl˛!üˆÏ“Ó˚ Ñ˛úyˆÏÑ˛Ôüú xyÎ˚_ Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚– ~£z¶˛yˆÏÓ v˛zͲôyîˆÏòÓ˚ ~Ñ˛y!ïÑ˛ v˛zÍ¢ ~ÓÇ v˛zß¨ì˛ v˛zͲôyîò
ü!_´Ó˚ ≤ÈÏÎ˚yãˆÏòÓ˚ ì%˛úòyÎ˚ v˛zͲôyîò Ó,!k˛ ˆ˛ôˆÏì˛ úyˆÏÜ– xÌ≈yÍ v˛zm,_ v˛zͲôyîˆÏòÓ˚ ¢,!‹T £Î˚ñ e´ˆÏõ Ñ,˛!°ÏÎ%ˆÏÜÓ˚ ¢)e˛ôyì˛ áˆÏ›˛–
Ñ˛yúe´ˆÏõ õyò%°Ï ì˛yõy Á ˆÓ yˆÏOÓ˚ ÓƒÓ£yÓ˚ ˆüˆÏÖ– ì˛yÓ˚ö˛ˆÏú £y!ì˛Î˚yÓ˚ñ xúÇÑ˛yÓ˚ Á xòƒyòƒ ÓƒÓ£yÎ≈ ¢yõ@˘Ã#Ó˚ v˛zͲôyîò
÷Ó˚& £Î˚– ~£z¶˛yˆÏÓ v˛zͲôyîò ÓƒÓfl˛iy ≤ây!Ó˚ì˛ £ˆÏì˛ ÌyˆÏÑ˛ó ì˛yÓ˚ ö˛ˆÏú !Ó!¶˛ß¨ Ó,!_ Á ˆ˛ôüyÓ˚ ¢,!‹T £Î˚–
v˛zͲôyîˆÏòÓ˚ v˛z˛ôyîyò ¢õ)ˆÏ£Ó˚ v˛z˛ôÓ˚ ¢õyˆÏãÓ˚ ¢Ñ˛ˆÏúÓ˚ ¢õyòy!ïÑ˛yÓ˚ !Ó÷k˛ £Î˚– ¢õyˆÏã !Ó_õyò Á !Ó_£#ò Óy ˆüy°ÏÑ˛
Á üy!¢ì˛ ~£z î%!›˛ ˆ◊í#Ó˚ ¢,!‹T £Î˚– ¢õyˆÏã ~Ñ˛îú õyò%ˆÏ°ÏÓ˚ myÓ˚y xyÓ˚ ~Ñ˛îú õyò%ˆÏ°ÏÓ˚ ˆüy°Ïí ÷Ó˚& £Î˚– ¢yõy!ãÑ˛
¢¡ôˆÏÑ≈˛Ó˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe ¢yˆÏõƒÓ˚ xÓ¢yò áˆÏ›˛ ~ÓÇ x¢yõƒ ≤ÃÑ˛›˛ £ˆÏÎ˚ ÁˆÏ‡˛– ~£z Ó˚Ñ˛õ ~Ñ˛ xÓfl˛iyÎ˚ ~Ñ˛ òì%˛ò v˛zͲôyîò ¢¡ôˆÏÑ≈˛Ó˚
¢,!‹T £Î˚– ˆüy°Ïí x¢yˆÏõƒÓ˚ !¶˛!_ˆÏì˛£z ~£z ¢¡ôÑ≈˛ ܈Ïv˛¸ ÁˆÏ‡˛– ~£z xÌ≈˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ x¢yõƒ Á Óƒ!_´Üì˛ ¢¡ô!Ñ≈˛ì˛ ¢,!‹T îy¢
ÓƒÓfl˛iy ¢,!‹TÓ˚ õ)ú Ñ˛yÓ˚í– ~£z ˛ôÎ≈yˆÏÎ˚ Î%k˛Óyî#ˆÏîÓ˚ £ì˛ƒyÓ˚ ˛ô!Ó˚ÓˆÏì˛≈ v˛zͲôyîò Ñ˛yˆÏÎ≈ !òˆÏÎ˚yÜ ÷Ó˚& £Î˚– ~£z¶˛yˆÏÓ v˛zͲôyîò
ÓƒÓfl˛iyÓ˚ v˛zߨ!ì˛Ó˚ fl˛∫yˆÏÌ≈ x!ì˛!Ó˚_´ ◊õ ü!_´Ó˚ ≤ÈÏÎ˚yãò ˆõˆÏ›˛ ~ÓÇ e´#ì˛îy¢ ≤ÃÌyÓ˚ ¢)â˛òy £Î˚– ~ÖyˆÏò ¢õyã î%!›˛ ˆ◊í#ˆÏì˛
!Ó¶˛_´ £ˆÏÎ˚ ˛ôˆÏv˛¸ÈÙÙÙÈîy¢ÈÙÈõy!úÑ˛ Á îy¢ñ ˆüy°ÏÑ˛ Á ˆüy!°Ïì˛– ˆÜyv˛¸yÓ˚ !îˆÏÑ˛ îy¢Ó˚y v˛zͲôyîò ÓƒÓfl˛iyÎ˚ ¢y£yÎƒÑ˛yÓ˚#Ó˚ ¶)˛!õÑ˛y£z
˛ôyúò Ñ˛Ó˚ì˛– ˛ôÓ˚Óì˛≈#Ñ˛yˆÏú ì˛yÓ˚y õ!òˆÏÓÓ˚ xfl˛iyÓÓ˚ ¢¡ô!_ˆÏì˛ ˛ô!Ó˚íì˛ £Î˚– !Ó!òõÎ˚ õyïƒõ !£ˆÏ¢ˆÏÓ ÎÖò ›˛yÑ˛y Ñ˛!v˛¸Ó˚
¢,!‹T £Î˚ !òñ ì˛Öò xˆÏòÑ˛ ˆ«˛ˆÏe îy¢ˆÏîÓ˚ ˛ôòƒ !Ó!òõˆÏÎ˚Ó˚ õyïƒÏõ !£ˆÏ¢ˆÏÓ ÓƒÓ£yÓ˚ Ñ˛Ó˚y £ì˛– îy¢ˆÏîÓ˚ Óƒ!_´Üì˛ ÓˆÏú
!Ñ˛ä%È£z !äÈú òy– ˆú!úò ÓˆÏúˆÏäÈò Úîy¢ÈÙÈx!ïÑ,˛ì˛ ¢õyˆÏã îy¢ˆÏîÓ˚ ˆÑ˛yò x!ïÑ˛yÓ˚ ˆ¶˛yÜ Ñ˛Ó˚yÓ˚ x!ïÑ˛yÓ˚ !äÈú òy ~ÓÇ ì˛yˆÏîÓ˚
õyò%°Ï !£ˆÏ¢ˆÏÓ Üíƒ Ñ˛Ó˚y £ì˛ òy– ~£z îy¢ÈÙÈ¢õyã ÓƒÓfl˛iyÎ˚ îy¢ÈÙÈõy!úˆÏÑ˛Ó˚ fl˛∫yˆÏÌ≈ ˆ◊í# üy¢ò Á ˆ◊í# ˆüy°ÏˆÏíÓ˚ Îs˛f Ó˚yˆÏ‹T…Ó˚
¢,!‹T £Î˚–
îy¢ ¢õyã ÓƒÓfl˛iyÎ˚ !˛ôì,˛ÈÙÈì˛y!s˛fÑ˛ ˛ô!Ó˚ÓyÓ˚ ≤Ã!ì˛!¤˛ì˛ £Î˚– xy!îõ ¢yõƒÓyî# ¢õyˆÏã òyÓ˚#Ó˚ ¢õyò õÎ≈yîy !äÈú– ~ˆÏDúˆÏ¢Ó˚
õì˛yò%¢yˆÏÓ˚ îy¢ ¢õyˆÏã ÚÚfl˛f#ˆÏúyÑ˛ £ú ˛ôîyúì˛ñ ü,C!úì˛ñ òyÓ˚# £ú ˛ô%Ó˚&ˆÏ°ÏÓ˚ úyú¢yÓ˚ îy¢#ñ ¢hs˛yò v˛zͲôyîˆÏòÓ˚ Îs˛f õye–
õyòÓ ¢õyˆÏãÓ˚ e´õ!ÓÑ˛yˆÏüÓ˚ ïyÓ˚yÎ˚ ≤ÃÌõ ˆ◊í# !Ó¶˛_´ Á m®μü#ú ¢õyã £ú îy¢ÈÙÈ¢õyã– ˛ô!Ó˚◊õˆÏ¶˛yÜ# îy¢ÈÙÈõy!úÑ˛
Á e´#ì˛îy¢ £ú ~£z ¢õyˆÏãÓ˚ î%!›˛ õ)ú m®μü#ú ¢õyã– ~£z ˆ◊í# mˆÏ®μÓ˚ ö˛ú◊&!ì˛ !£ˆÏ¢ˆÏÓ ¢õyã ÓƒÓfl˛iyÎ˚ Ó˚yãò#!ì˛Ó˚
˛ô!Ó˚Óì≈˛ˆÏòÓ˚ ≤ÈÏÎ˚yãò ˆîÖy ˆîÎ˚ñ ÓƒˆÏÎ˚ x!ïÑ˛ ¢¡ôˆÏîÓ˚ ãòƒ îy¢ÈÙÈõy!úÑ˛Üí îy¢ˆÏîÓ˚ v˛z˛ôÓ˚ ˆüy°Ïí ˛ô#v˛¸òˆÏÑ˛ xÓƒy£ì˛
Ó˚yÖyÓ˚ v˛zˆÏjˆÏüƒ üì˛ ¢!e´Î˚ ÌyˆÏÑ˛– xõyò!ÓÑ xì˛ƒyâ˛yˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ !üÑ˛yÓ˚ îy¢Üí v˛zͲôyîò Ñ˛yˆÏÎ≈ v˛zÍ¢y£ £yÓ˚yÎ˚– îy¢ ¢õyã ÓƒÓfl˛iyÓ˚
~£z xy¶˛ƒhs˛Ó˚#í ˆ◊í# mˆÏ®μÓ˚ ö˛ú◊&!ì˛ !£ˆÏ¢ˆÏÓ îy¢ ¢õyˆÏãÓ˚ ˛ôì˛ò áˆÏ›˛ ~ÓÇ ¢õyãì˛y!s˛fÑ˛ ¢õyã ÓƒÓfl˛iy (Feudal
System)ÈÙÈ~Ó˚ v˛zqÓ áˆÏ›˛–

5.3.3 ¢yõhsì˛y!s˛fÑ˛ ¢õyã ÓƒÓfl˛iy

îy¢ ¢õyã ÓƒÓfl˛iyÓ˚ xÓ¢yˆÏòÓ˚ õˆÏz ¢yõhsì˛y!s˛fÑ˛ ¢õyã ÓƒÓfl˛iyÓ˚ xy!Ó¶≈˛yˆÏÓÓ˚ Ó#ã Óì≈˛õyò !äÈú– îy¢ ¢õyˆÏã x¢yõƒ
xì˛ƒyâ˛yÓ˚ Á ˆüy°Ïí xÓƒy£ì˛ !äÈú ~Ñ˛Ìy !‡˛Ñ˛– !Ñ˛ls˛ õyòÓ ¢õyˆÏãÓ˚ ¢yõ!@˘ÃÑ˛ £z!ì˛£yˆÏ¢Ó˚ ˛ô!Ó˚ˆÏ≤Ã!«˛ˆÏì˛ îy¢ ¢õyˆÏãÓ˚
˛ôÎ≈yÎ˚!›˛ £ú ~Ñ˛!›˛ xhs˛Óì≈˛# ˛ôîˆÏ«˛˛ô– îy¢ ¢õyã ÓƒÓfl˛iyÎ˚ Ñ,˛!°Ï ~ÓÇ £hfl˛â˛y!úì˛ !Ó!¶˛ß¨ !üˆÏ“Ó˚ !ÓÑ˛yü áˆÏ›˛ !üˆÏ“Ó˚ !Ó!¶˛ß¨

44
ˆ«˛ˆÏe ◊õÈÙÈ!Ó¶˛yãò ÓƒÓfl˛iy ≤ây!Ó˚ì˛ £Î˚– !Ñ˛ls˛ îy¢ õy!úÑ˛Ó˚y !òˆÏãˆÏîÓ˚ xyÌ≈ò#!ì˛Ñ˛ fl˛∫yÌ≈ ¢ÇÓ˚«˛ˆÏíÓ˚ ãòƒ v˛zͲôyîò ü!_´Ó˚
v˛zߨ!ì˛ˆÏì˛ ≤Ã!ì˛Óı˛Ñ˛ì˛yÓ˚ ¢,!‹T Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚– Ñ˛yÓ˚í îy¢ õy!úÑ˛ˆÏîÓ˚ v˛zˆÏjüƒ £ú Ó˝ xÌ≈˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ e´#ì˛îyˆÏ¢Ó˚ ◊õ ˆüy°ÏˆÏíÓ˚ õyÏõ
!òˆÏãˆÏîÓ˚ xÌ≈˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ fl˛∫yÌ≈ ¢ÇÓ˚«˛ˆÏíÓ˚ ãòƒ v˛zͲôyîò ü!_´Ó˚ v˛zߨ!ì˛ˆÏì˛ ≤Ã!ì˛Óı˛Ñ˛ì˛y ¢,!‹T Ñ˛Ó˚y– Ñ˛yÓ˚í îy¢ õy!úÑ˛ˆÏîÓ˚ v˛zˆÏjüƒ
£ú Ó˝ e´#ì˛îyˆÏ¢Ó˚ ◊õ ˆüy°ÏˆÏíÓ˚ õyÏõ !òˆÏãˆÏîÓ˚ xyÌ≈ò#!ì˛Ñ˛ fl˛∫yÌ≈ˆÏÑ˛ x!ïÑ˛ì˛Ó˚ ¢õ,k˛ Ñ˛Ó˚y– ì˛y£z ì˛yÓ˚y v˛zͲôyîˆÏòÓ˚
¢yã ¢Ó˚OyˆÏõÓ˚ v˛zߨÎ˚ˆÏòÓ˚ Óƒy˛ôyˆÏÓ˚ v˛zˆÏîƒyÜ# £Î˚ òy– îy¢ÈÙÈ¢õyã ÓƒÓfl˛iyÎ˚ v˛zͲôyîò ≤Ã!e´Î˚yÓ˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe !ÓˆÏÓ˚yï ˆîÖy ˆîÎ˚–
~£z !ÓˆÏÓ˚yï Ñ˛yúe´ˆÏõ â˛Ó˚õ ˛ôÎ≈yˆÏÎ˚ v˛z˛ôò#ì˛ £Î˚– e´#ì˛îy¢ˆÏîÓ˚ õˆÏïƒ v˛zayò áˆÏ›˛– îy¢ÈÙÈõy!úÑ˛ˆÏîÓ˚ õˆÏïƒ xhs˛Ñ≈˛ú£ â˛Ó˚õ
xyÑ˛yÓ˚ ïyÓ˚í Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚– ~Ó˚ ö˛ú◊&!ì˛ !£ˆÏ¢ˆÏÓ îy¢ÈÙÈ¢õyˆÏãÓ˚ xÓ¢yò ~ÓÇ ¢yõhsì˛y!s˛fÑ˛ ¢õyˆÏãÓ˚ xy!Ó¶≈˛yÓ áˆÏ›˛– ¢yõhs˛ì˛y!s˛fÑ˛
¢õyˆÏã v˛zͲôyîˆÏòÓ˚ v˛z˛ôyîyˆÏòÓ˚ õy!úÑ˛ £ú ¢yõhs˛≤ö)˛Ó˚y– Ñ,˛°ÏÑ˛ˆÏîÓ˚ ◊õ Ñ˛yˆÏã úyÜyˆÏòyÓ˚ x!ïÑ˛yÓ˚ ¢yõhs˛ ≤ö%˛ˆÏîÓ˚ £yˆÏì˛£z
!äÈú– Ñ,˛°ÏÑ˛Üí ¶)˛fl˛∫yõ# Óy ¢yõhs˛≤ö%˛Ó˚ v˛z˛ôÓ˚ !ò¶≈˛Ó˚ü#ú !äÈú–
¢yõhs˛ì˛y!s˛fÑ˛ ¢õyˆÏã îy¢ ¢õyˆÏãÓ˚ îy¢Üí ¶)˛!õîyˆÏ¢ ˛ô!Ó˚íì˛ £Î˚ ~ÓÇ îy¢ õy!úÑ˛Üí ¶)˛fl˛∫yõ# Óy ¢yõhs˛≤ö%˛Ó˚ fl˛iyò
îÖú Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚– ¢yõhs˛ ≤ö%˛ˆÏîÓ˚ ˝Ñ%˛õ ì˛y!õú Ñ˛Ó˚y ~ÓÇ ≤ÃyÎ˚ ˆÓÜyÓ˚ Öy›˛y£z !äÈú Ñ,˛°ÏÑ˛ˆÏîÓ˚ xî,‹T– ¢yõhs˛ ¢õyˆÏã õ%!‹TˆÏõÎ˚ ¶)˛fl˛∫yõ#
!Ó˛ô%ú ¢ÇÖƒÑ˛ Ñ,˛!°Ï ◊!õÑ˛ˆÏÑ˛ ˆüy°Ïí Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚– õ)úì˛ Ñ,˛!°Ï ÓƒÓfl˛iyˆÏÑ˛ ˆÑ˛w Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚£z ¢yõhs˛ ÓƒÓfl˛iy v˛zͲô!_ £ˆÏúÁ !Ñ˛ä%È «%˛oyÎ˚ì˛ò
£hfl˛!ü“ Á ¢yõhs˛ ÓƒÓfl˛iyÓ˚ xhs˛¶%≈˛_´ !äÈú– ~£z ¢Ñ˛ú !üˆÏ“Ó˚ !ü“˛ô!ì˛Üí Ñ˛y!Ó˚ÜÓ˚ˆÏîÓ˚ ◊ˆÏõ !òˆÏãˆÏîÓ˚ ˛≤ÈÏÎ˚yãò#Î˚ ¢yõ@˘Ã#
v˛zͲôyîò Ñ˛Ó˚ì˛ ~ÓÇ v˛z˛ôÎ%_´ õã%!Ó˚ ˆÌˆÏÑ˛ Ó!M˛Èì˛ Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ Ñ˛y!Ó˚ÜÓ˚ˆÏîÓ˚ ˆüy°Ïí Ñ˛Ó˚ì˛– ¢yõhs˛ ¢õyˆÏã Ñ,˛!°Ï Á £hfl˛!üˆÏ“Ó˚ ◊õ
!Ó¶˛yÜñ òì%˛ò òì%˛ò Îs˛f˛ôy!ì˛Ó˚ v˛zqyÓò Á ÓƒÓ£yÓ˚ñ ѧ˛yâ˛yõyú ˆÌˆÏÑ˛ òì%˛ò ˆ¶˛y܃oˆÏÓƒÓ˚ v˛zͲôyîò ≤ö,˛!ì˛Ó˚ ö˛ú◊&!ì˛ !£ˆÏ¢ˆÏÓ
¢õyã !ÓÑ˛yˆÏüÓ˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe v˛zˆÏÕ‘ÖˆÏÎy܃ ˛ô!Ó˚Óì≈˛ò ˛ô!Ó˚ú!«˛ì˛ £Î˚– ~£z ¢õÎ˚ @˘ÃyõyM˛ÈˆÏúÓ˚ ˛ôyüy˛ôy!ü ü£Ó˚yM˛ÈˆÏúÁ ÓyãyÓ˚ Á
!Óe´Î˚ ≤ÃÌyÓ˚ !Óhfl˛yÓ˚ áˆÏ›˛– ÓƒÓ¢yÈÙÈÓy!íˆÏãƒÓ˚ ¢¡±¢yÓ˚í Á ¢õ,!k˛Ó˚ ö˛ˆÏú !£¢yˆÏÓ ü£Ó˚yM˛ÈˆÏú ~Ñ˛ òì%˛ò Ó!íÑ˛ Á õ£yãò
ˆ◊í#Ó˚ v˛zqÓ £Î˚– ~£z Ó!íÑ˛ ˆ◊í#ˆÏÑ˛ ö˛Ó˚y¢# ¶˛y°ÏyÎ˚ Burghers Óúy £ì˛– ~£z Burghers ü∑!›˛ ˆÌˆÏÑ˛ Ó%ˆÏã≈yÎ˚y
(Bourgeoisie) ü∑!›˛ ~ˆÏ¢ˆÏäÈ– ~£z Ó%ˆÏã≈yÎ˚y Óy ˛˛ô%§!ãÓyî# ¢õyã ¢yõhs˛ì˛y!s˛fÑ˛ ÓƒÓfl˛iyÓ˚ x˛ô¢yÓ˚í á!›˛ˆÏÎ˚ xy!ï˛ôì˛ƒ !Óhfl˛yÓ˚
Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ ì˛y£z õyÑ≈˛ˆÏ¢Ó˚ ˙!ì˛£y!¢Ñ˛ Ólfl˛ÓyˆÏî ¢yõhs˛ì˛y!s˛fÑ˛ ¢õyˆÏãÓ˚ ˛ôÓ˚Óì≈˛# hfl˛Ó˚ £ú ˛ô%§!ãÓyî# Óy ïòì˛y!s˛fÑ˛ ¢õyã ÓƒÓfl˛iy–
5.3.4 ïòì˛y!s˛fÑ˛/˛ô%§!ãÓyî# ¢õyã ÓƒÓfl˛iy
ˆú!òò ÓˆÏúˆÏäÈò ÚÚ.....Óy!íムÁ õ%oy¢M˛ÈúˆÏòÓ˚ !ÓÑ˛yü Á ˛˛ô,!ÌÓ#Óƒy˛ô# ÓyãyÓ˚ ܈Ïv˛¸ v˛z‡˛yÓ˚ ¢ˆÏD ¢ˆÏD ¢yõhs˛ì˛y!s˛fÑ˛
¢õyˆÏãÓ˚ õyˆÏG˛ ~Ñ˛ òì%˛ò ˆ◊í# ˆîÖy ˆîÎ˚ ˛ô%§!ã˛ô!ì˛ˆÏîÓ˚ ˆ◊í#– ¢yõhs˛ì˛ˆÏs˛fÓ˚ ãyÎ˚ÜyÎ˚ xyˆÏ¢ ˛ô%§!ãÓyî– ˛˛ô%Ó˚yì˛ò ¢õyã
ÓƒÓfl˛iyÓ˚ !¶˛ì˛Ó˚ ˆÌˆÏÑ˛£z òì%˛ò ¢õyã ÓƒÓfl˛iyÓ˚ ¢,!‹T £ú– ¢yõhs˛ì˛y!s˛fÑ˛ ÓƒÓfl˛iyˆÏì˛£z Ñ,˛!°ÏÑ˛yÎ≈ Á «%˛oyÎ˚ì˛ò £hfl˛!üˆÏ“ v˛zͲôyîò
ü!_´Ó˚ v˛zߨ!ì˛ ˛ô!Ó˚ú!«˛ì˛ £Î˚– òì%˛ò Îs˛f˛ôy!ì˛ ≤ÈÏÎ˚yÜ v˛zͲôyîò ïyÓ˚yÎ˚ ˜Ó≤’!ÓÑ˛ ˛ô!Ó˚Óì≈˛ˆÏòÓ˚ ¢)â˛òy Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚– õy!úÑ˛ ˆ◊í#
ÎÖò ˆÌˆÏÑ˛ !Ó!òˆÏÎ˚yÜ Ó,!k˛Ó˚ õyÏõ v˛zm,_ ¢yõ@˘Ã# Á x!ïÑ˛ õ%òyö˛y xã≈ˆÏò ≤ÃÓ,_ £Î˚ ì˛Öò ˆÌˆÏÑ˛£z ïòì˛y!s˛fÑ˛ ÓƒÓfl˛iyÓ˚
˛ôîïπ!ò ˆüyòy ÎyÎ˚– ì˛ˆÏÓ !ü“ !Ó≤’ˆÏÓÓ˚ ˛ôˆÏÓ˚£z ˛ô%§!ãÓyˆÏîÓ˚ ¢yv˛¸¡∫Ó˚ xy!Ó¶≈˛yÓ áˆÏ›˛–
ïòì˛y!s˛fÑ˛ ÓƒÓfl˛iyÓ˚ õ)ú ˜Ó!ü‹Tƒ=!ú £úÈÙÙÙÈ
(i) ïòì˛y!s˛fÑ˛ ¢õyã ÓƒÓfl˛iyÓ˚ v˛zͲôyîˆÏòÓ˚ Ñ˛úyˆÏÑ˛Ôüú ≤ÃÎ%!_´!Óîƒy– !ü“ÈÙÈ¢Ç܇˛ò ≤ö,˛!ì˛Ó˚ v˛zߨ!ì˛ ¢y!ïì˛ £Î˚–
v˛zͲôyîˆÏòÓ˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe v˛zÍÑ,˛‹T Îs˛f˛ôy!ì˛Ó˚ Óy˝ú ÓƒÓfl˛iyÓ˚ ~ÓÇ v˛zß¨ì˛ õ)úïˆÏòÓ˚ !¶˛!_ˆÏì˛ ◊!õˆÏÑ˛Ó˚ v˛zͲôyîò ü!_´Ó˚ xfl˛∫y¶˛y!ÓÑ˛
Ó,!k˛ ˛ô!Ó˚ú!«˛ì˛ £Î˚–
(ii) ïòì˛y!s˛fÑ˛ ÓƒÓfl˛iyÎ˚ v˛zͲôyîˆÏòÓ˚ v˛z˛ôyîyò=!úÓ˚ õy!úÑ˛yòy ˛ô%§!ã˛ô!ì˛ˆÏîÓ˚ £yˆÏì˛ ÌyˆÏÑ˛– ã!õñ Ñ˛úÑ˛yÓ˚Öyòy ≤ö,˛!ì˛Ó˚
x!ïÑ˛yÓ˚# £ú ~£z ˛ô%§!ã˛ô!ì˛Ó˚y– xy˛ôyì˛î,!‹TˆÏì˛ ◊!õÑ˛Ó˚y õ%_´ñ fl˛∫yï#ò ÓˆÏú õˆÏò £ˆÏúÁ Ñ˛yÎ≈ì˛ ì˛yÓ˚y õy!úÑ˛ˆÏ◊í#Ó˚ xÌ≈˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛
!òÎ˚s˛fˆÏíÓ˚ xï#ò– ~£z ◊!õÑ˛ ¢¡±îyÎ˚ v˛zͲôyîˆÏòÓ˚ ¢Ó≈≤ÃÑ˛yÓ˚ v˛z˛ôÑ˛Ó˚í ˆÌˆÏÑ˛ Ó!M˛Èì˛– !òˆÏãˆÏîÓ˚ ◊õü!_´›%˛Ñ%˛£z ì˛yˆÏîÓ˚ ~Ñ˛õye
˛ô%§!ã– ˆ¢£zãòƒ ~£z ¢Ó≈£yÓ˚y î%Ó≈ú ˆ◊í#ˆÏÑ˛ ã#ÓòïyÓ˚ˆÏíÓ˚ ãòƒ £ˆÏÎ˚ ˛ô%§!ã˛ô!ì˛ˆÏîÓ˚ Ñ˛yˆÏäÈ ì§˛yˆÏîÓ˚ ◊õ !Ó!e´ Ñ˛Ó˚ˆÏì˛ £Î˚–
◊!õÑ˛ˆÏîÓ˚ ~£z x¢£yÎ˚ xÓfl˛iyÓ˚ ¢%ˆÏÎyˆÏÜ õy!úÑ˛Üí òyõõye õã%!Ó˚ !îˆÏÎ˚ ì˛yˆÏîÓ˚ ˆüy°Ïí Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚–
45
 (iii) ˛ô%§!ãÓyî#/ïòì˛y!s˛fÑ˛ ÓƒÓfl˛iyÎ˚ ◊!õÑ˛ ˆüy°ÏˆÏíÓ˚ ~Ñ˛!›˛ !ÓˆÏü°Ï ïÓ˚í xyˆÏäÈ– ◊!õÑ˛ˆÏîÓ˚ v˛zm,_õ)úƒ (Surplus Value)
xyd¢ƒyÍ Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ ˛ô%§!ã˛ô!ì˛ ˆ◊í# õ%òyö˛y Ó,!k˛ Á ◊!õÑ˛ˆÏüy°Ïí xÓƒy£ì˛ Ó˚yˆÏÖ– v˛zm,_ õ)úƒ v˛zͲôߨ ¢yõ@˘Ã#Ó˚ ˆ¢£z xLjÏüÓ˚
õ)úƒ Îy v˛zͲôyîˆÏòÓ˚ ãòƒ ◊!õÑ˛ˆÏÑ˛ ˆÑ˛yò õã%!Ó˚ ˆîÁÎ˚y £Î˚ òy– õy!úÑ˛ ˆ◊í# ◊!õÑ˛ ˆüy°ÏˆÏíÓ˚ v˛zm,_ õ)úƒˆÏÑ˛ Ñ%˛!«˛Üì˛
Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ ~ÓÇ ì˛yˆÏîÓ˚ õ%òyö˛y Á õ)úïˆÏòÓ˚ ¢M˛ÈyÓ˚ e´õü Ó,!k˛ ˆ˛ôˆÏì˛ ÌyˆÏÑ˛–
(iv) ïòì˛ˆÏs˛f ˛ô%§!ã˛ô!ì˛ˆÏîÓ˚ ◊!õÑ˛ ˆüy°Ïí Á v˛zm,_õ)ˆÏúƒÓ˚ x˛ô£Ó˚íˆÏÑ˛ xÓƒy£ì˛ Ó˚yÖyÓ˚ ãòƒ£z Ó˚y‹T… ΈÏs˛fÓ˚ ¢y£y΃ @˘Ã£í
Ñ˛Ó˚y £Î˚– Ó˚y‹T… Îs˛f ~£z ˛ôˆÏÓ≈ ˆüy°ÏÑ˛ ˛ô%§!ã˛ô!ì˛ˆÏîÓ˚ fl˛∫yˆÏÌ≈ñ ˆüy!°Ïì˛ ¢Ó≈£yÓ˚y ◊!õÑ˛ ¢¡±îyˆÏÎ˚Ó˚ !ÓÓ˚&ˆÏk˛ ≤Ãõ%_´ £Î˚–
˛ô%§!ãÓyî# ¢õyã ÓƒÓfl˛iyÎ˚ ˆüy!°Ïì˛ ◊!õÑ˛ˆÏ◊í# ˆüy°ÏˆÏíÓ˚ â)˛v˛¸yhs˛ xÓfl˛iyÎ˚ !òˆÏãˆÏîÓ˚ x!ïÑ˛yÓ˚ ¢¡ôˆÏÑ≈˛ ¢ˆÏâ˛ì˛ò Á ¢ÇÜ!‡˛ì˛
£ˆÏì˛ ÌyˆÏÑ˛– ˛ô%§!ã˛ô!ì˛ ~ÓÇ ˆüy!°Ïì˛ ˆ◊í#Ó˚ õˆÏïƒ ˆ◊í# ¢Ç@˘Ãyõ e´õü ì˛#Ó ì˛Ó˚ £ˆÏì˛ ÌyˆÏÑ˛ ~ÓÇ ~Ñ˛ ¢õÎ˚ !Ó≤’ˆÏÓÓ˚ õyÏõ
ïòì˛ˆÏs˛fÓ˚ ˛ôì˛ò Á ¢Ó≈£yÓ˚yÓ˚ ~Ñ˛òyÎ˚Ñ˛c (Dictatorship of the Protetariat) ≤Ã!ì˛!¤˛ì˛ £Î˚ ~ÓÇ Îy ˛ôÓ˚Óì≈˛# õyÑ≈˛¢#Î˚
îü≈ˆÏò ¢õyãì˛y!s˛fÑ˛ ¢õyã ÓƒÓfl˛iyÎ˚ Ó˚*˛ôyhs˛!Ó˚ì˛ £Î˚–
5.3.5 ¢õyãì˛y!s˛fÑ˛ ÓƒÓfl˛iy
¢õyãì˛y!s˛fÑ˛ ÓƒÓfl˛iy £ˆÏFäÈ ïòì˛y!s˛fÑ˛ ¢õyã ÓƒÓfl˛iy ˆÌˆÏÑ˛ ¢yõƒÓyî# ¢õyã ÓƒÓfl˛iyÎ˚ v˛z_Ó˚ˆÏíÓ˚ ~Ñ˛!›˛ õïƒÓì≈˛# ˛ôÎ≈yÎ˚–
~£z ˛ôÎ≈yˆÏÎ˚ ¢Ó≈£yÓ˚y ˆ◊í#Ó˚ ~Ñ˛òyÎ˚Ñ˛c ≤Ã!ì˛!¤˛ì˛ £Î˚– Ó˚y‹T… «˛õì˛y ~£z ¢Ó≈£yÓ˚y ˆ◊í#Ó˚ îÖˆÏú ÌyˆÏÑ˛ñ ¢Ó≈£yÓ˚y ˆ◊í#Ó˚
ˆòì,˛cyï#ˆÏò Ó˚y‹T… ¢õyãì˛y!s˛fÑ˛ ܇˛òõ)úÑ˛ Ñ˛yˆÏã !òÎ%_´ ÌyˆÏÑ˛ñ ¢Ó≈£yÓ˚yˆ◊í#Ó˚ ~Ñ˛òyÎ˚Ñ˛ˆÏc ◊õã#!Ó õyò%ˆÏ°ÏÓ˚ ≤ÃÑ,˛ì˛ fl˛∫yï#òì˛y
fl˛∫#Ñ,˛ì˛ £Î˚ ~ÓÇ ïòì˛y!s˛fÑ˛ x!ïÑ˛yÓ˚ Óyhfl˛ˆÏÓ Ó˚*˛ôy!Î˚ì˛ £Î˚– ì˛ˆÏÓ ~£z ˛ôÎ≈yˆÏÎ˚Á ˆ◊í# ¢ÇáˆÏ°Ï≈Ó˚ ˛ô!Ó˚˛ô)í≈ xÓ¢yò áˆÏ›˛ òy–
«˛õì˛yâ%˛ƒì˛ ˆüy°ÏÑ˛ ˆ◊í# ≤Ã!ì˛ !Ó≤’ˆÏÓÓ˚ õyÏõ Ó˚y‹T… «˛õì˛y ˛ô%òî≈ÖˆÏúÓ˚ ˆâ˛‹Ty Ñ˛Ó˚ˆÏì˛ ÌyˆÏÑ˛– ¢õyãì˛y!s˛fÑ˛ Ó˚y‹T… ~£z ≤Ã!ì˛
!Ó≤’Ó îõò Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ ◊!õÑ˛ˆÏ◊í#Ó˚ x!ã≈ì˛ ¢%òyõ=!úˆÏÑ˛ ¢ÇÓ˚«˛ˆÏíÓ˚ ˆâ˛‹Ty Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚– ˆ¢£z ãòƒ ~£z ˛ôˆÏÓ≈Á Ó˚y‹T…ì˛ˆÏs˛fÓ˚ ≤ÈÏÎ˚yãò
xyˆÏäÈ– ì˛ˆÏÓ ¢õyãì˛y!s˛fÑ˛ ¢õyã ÓƒÓfl˛iyÎ˚ ˆüy°ÏÑ˛ Óy ˆüy!°Ïì˛ ˆ◊í# ˆò£z– ~ÖyˆÏò ˆÎ ˆÎõò Ñ˛yã Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ ˆ¢ ˆì˛õò v˛zͲôߨ
¢yõ@˘Ã#Ó˚ ¶˛yÜ ˛ôyÎ˚– ¢%fl˛i ¢Óú ˆÎ Ñ˛yã Ñ˛Ó˚ˆÏÓ òy ˆ¢ ˆÖˆÏì˛Á ˛ôyˆÏÓ òy–
¢õyãì˛y!s˛fÑ˛ ¢õyˆÏãÓ˚ õ)ú ˜Ó!ü‹Tƒ=!ú £úÈÙÙÙÈ
(i) ¢õyãì˛y!s˛fÑ˛ ¢õyã ÓƒÓfl˛iyÎ˚ v˛zͲôyîˆÏòÓ˚ v˛z˛ôyîyò ¢õ)£ Óƒ!_´Üì˛ õy!úÑ˛yòyÓ˚ ˛ô!Ó˚ÓˆÏì≈˛ ¢yõy!ãÑ˛ õy!úÑ˛yòyÎ˚
ÌyˆÏÑ˛–
(ii) Óƒ!_´Üì˛ ¢¡ô!_Ó˚ v˛zˆÏFäÈî Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ ¢õyˆÏãÓ˚ ¢¡ôî ¢yõ@˘Ã#Ó˚ òƒyÎ˚¢Dì˛ Ó^˘›˛ˆÏòÓ˚ õyÏõ ¢õ!‹TÓ˚ ¢yõ!@˘ÃÑ˛ Ñ˛úƒyí
¢yïò£z ¢õyãì˛ˆÏs˛fÓ˚ v˛zˆÏjüƒ–
(iii) ¢õyãì˛y!s˛fÑ˛ ÓƒÓfl˛iyÎ˚ ˆüy°Ïí ÌyˆÏÑ˛ òy– ¢õyãì˛y!s˛fÑ˛ ÓƒÓfl˛iyÎ˚ xÌ≈˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ ˆ«˛ˆÏe ¢yõƒ Á fl˛∫yï#òì˛y ≤Ã!ì˛!¤˛ì˛
£Î˚– ~£z ÓƒÓfl˛iyÎ˚ òyÓ˚# Á ˛ô%Ó˚&°Ï ¢õõÎ≈yîy ¢¡ôߨ–
¢õyãì˛y!s˛fÑ˛ ¢õyã ÓƒÓfl˛iy£z Ñ˛yúe´ˆÏõ ˛ô!Ó˚˛ô)í≈ ¢yõƒÓyî# ¢õyˆÏã v˛z_#í≈ £Î˚– ì˛ˆÏÓ ~£z v˛z_Ó˚í ˛ô)Ó≈ xy˛ôòy xy˛ô!ò
¢¡ôy!îì˛ £ˆÏÎ˚ ÎyÎ˚ ~õò òÎ˚– ~£z v˛z_Ó˚í ¢ÇÜ!‡˛ì˛ £Î˚ !ò!î≈‹T ~Ñ˛!›˛ ˙!ì˛£y!¢Ñ˛ ≤Ã!e´Î˚yÓ˚ õyÏõ–
5.3.6 ¢yõƒÓyî# ¢õyã ÓƒÓfl˛iy
¢yõƒÓyî# ¢õyã v˛z_Ó˚ˆÏíÓ˚ ãòƒ xyÓüƒÑ˛ £ú ¢õyãì˛ˆÏs˛fÓ˚ ü!_´üyú# v˛zͲôyîò !¶˛!_ ܈Ïv˛¸ ˆì˛yúyñ ¢yõy!ãÑ˛ ¢¡ôÑ≈˛
¢õ)ˆÏ£Ó˚ !ÓÑ˛yü Á v˛zÍÑ˛°Ï≈ ¢yïò ~ÓÇ õyò%ˆÏ°ÏÓ˚ ˆâ˛ì˛òyÓ˚ =íÜì˛ ˛ô!Ó˚Óì≈˛ò ¢yïò– ¢%ì˛Ó˚yÇ ¢yõƒÓyî# ¢õyˆÏã v˛z_Ó˚ˆÏíÓ˚ ãòƒ
˛≤ÈÏÎ˚yãò £ú ¢£yÎ˚Ñ˛ ˜Ó°Ï!Î˚Ñ˛– ≤Ãy!ì˛¤˛y!òÑ˛ Á ˆÓÔ!k˛Ñ˛ !¶˛!_ ≤Ãlfl˛ì˛ Ñ˛Ó˚y– ¢õyãì˛y!s˛fÑ˛ ¢õyˆÏã£z ~Ó˚Ñ˛õ ¢£yÎ˚Ñ˛ ˛ô!Ó˚!fl˛i!ì˛
˛ô!Ó˚õu˛ˆÏúÓ˚ ¢,!‹T ¢Ω˛Ó–

46
 ¢yõƒÓyî# ¢õyã ÓƒÓfl˛iyÓ˚ Ó^˘›˛ò ò#!ì˛ £ú ≤ÈÏì˛ƒˆÏÑ˛ ì˛yÓ˚ ¢yõÌ≈ƒ xò%¢yˆÏÓ˚ Ñ˛yã Ñ˛Ó˚ˆÏÓ ~ÓÇ ≤ÈÏÎ˚yãò xò%¢yˆÏÓ˚ ˆ¶˛yÜ
Ñ˛Ó˚ˆÏÓ (from each according to his ability to each according to his need)– ¢yõƒÓyî# ¢õyˆÏã ˆÑ˛yò Ó˚*˛ô ˆ◊í#
˜Ó°Ïõƒ ÌyÑ˛ˆÏÓ òy– ¢õyãì˛y!s˛fÑ˛ ÓƒÓfl˛iy ¢yõƒÓyî# ÓƒÓfl˛iyÓ˚ !îˆÏÑ˛ Îì˛£z x@˘Ã¢Ó˚ £ˆÏì˛ ÌyÑ˛ˆÏÓ ˆ◊í# ˜Ó°Ïõƒ ì˛ì˛£z £…y¢ ˆ˛ôˆÏì˛
ÌyÑ˛ˆÏÓ ~ÓÇ ˆ◊í#£#ò Á ˆüy°Ïí£#ò ¢õyã ≤Ã!ì˛¤˛yÓ˚ ˛ôÌ ≤Ãühfl˛ £ˆÏÓ– ¢yõƒÓyî# ¢õyã ¢¡ô)í≈ ˆ◊í#£#ò ¢õyã– ˆ◊í#£#ò
ÓˆÏú£z ¢yõƒÓyî# ¢õyˆÏã Ó˚y‹T… x≤ÈÏÎ˚yãò#Î˚ Á x≤Ãy¢!DÑ˛– Ó˚y‹T… £ú ˆ◊í# üy¢ò Á ˆ◊í# ≤ö%˛ˆÏcÓ˚ £y!ì˛Î˚yÓ˚– ˆ◊í# òy
ÌyÑ˛ˆÏúñ ˆ◊í# üy¢ò òy ÌyÑ˛ˆÏú Ó˚yˆÏ‹T…Ó˚ Á ≤ÈÏÎ˚yãò ÌyÑ˛ˆÏÓ òy– fl˛∫¶˛yÓì˛£z ˆ◊í#£#ò ¢yõƒÓyî# ¢õyˆÏã Ó˚y‹T… òyõÑ˛ !ò˛ô#v˛¸ò
ΈÏs˛fÓ˚ xÓú%!Æ á›˛ˆÏÓ– ì˛ˆÏÓ ¢õyãì˛y!s˛fÑ˛ ¢õyˆÏã !Ó!Óï Ñ˛yÎ≈Ñ˛úy˛ô !òÎ˚s˛fˆÏíÓ˚ ãòƒ ˆÎ !Ó!¶˛ß¨ Ó˚y‹T… ¢Çfl˛iy ÌyˆÏÑ˛ ¢yõƒÓyî#
¢õyˆÏã ~=!ú xÓú%Æ £ˆÏÓ òy– ¢õyˆÏãÓ˚ !ÓÑ˛yˆÏüÓ˚ ˛ô!Ó˚ˆÏ≤Ã!«˛ˆÏì˛ ~£z ¢õhfl˛ ¢Çfl˛iy ˛ô%òÜ≈!‡˛ì˛ £ˆÏÓ– Ólfl˛ì˛ ¢yõƒÓyî# ¢õyˆÏãÁ
üy¢ò ÌyÑ˛ˆÏÓ– ì˛ˆÏÓ ~£z üy¢ò ÓƒÓfl˛iy ≤Ã!ì˛!¤˛ì˛ £ˆÏÓ ˆfl˛∫FäÈyõ)úÑ˛ ü,CúyÓ˚ v˛z˛ôÓ˚–
£zÓ˚ö˛yò £y!ÓÓñ ì§˛yÓ˚ Ñ˛yú≈ õyÑ≈˛¢ ~ÓÇ ì§˛yÓ˚ £z!ì˛£y¢ ¢¡ôˆÏÑ≈˛ ïyÓ˚íy !òÓˆÏı˛ v˛zˆÏÕ‘Ö Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ˆÏäÈò ˆÎñ £z!ì˛£yˆÏ¢Ó˚ !ÓÖƒyì˛
xyï%!òÑ˛ ì˛y!_¥Ñ˛Üí õyÑ≈˛¢ ˆÎ ïyÓ˚íy xò%ˆÏõyîò Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ò ì˛yˆÏÑ˛£z fl˛∫#Ñ,˛!ì˛ !îˆÏÎ˚ˆÏäÈò–
£z. ~£zâ˛. Ñ˛yÓ˚ (E.H. Carr) ~Ó˚ õˆÏì˛ Ú˙!ì˛£y!¢Ñ˛ ᛲòyÓú#Û (historical facts) ¢¡ôˆÏÑ≈˛ õyÑ≈˛ˆÏ¢Ó˚ õì˛yõì˛ˆÏÑ˛ @˘Ã£íˆÏÎy܃
ÓˆÏú Üíƒ Ñ˛Ó˚y ˆÎˆÏì˛ ˛ôyˆÏÓ˚– ~Ñ˛ãò ì˛yÓ˚ xì˛#ì˛ ¢¡ôˆÏÑ≈˛ K˛yòˆÏÑ˛ ÎÌyÌ≈ Ñ˛Ó˚ˆÏì˛ ˛ôyˆÏÓ˚ ᛲòyÓ˚ ÎÌyÎÌ xy!Ó‹ÒyÓ˚ñ !òÓ≈yâ˛ò
Á ÓƒyÖƒyÓ˚ õyÏõ– xò%Ó˚*˛ô¶˛yˆÏÓ £z!ì˛£y¢ ¢¡ôˆÏÑ≈˛ õyâ˛≈ ÓœÑ˛ (March Bloch) ~Ó˚ Ó_´ÓƒˆÏÑ˛Á õyÑ≈˛¢ ¢õyò¶˛yˆÏÓ =Ó˚&c
!îˆÏÎ˚ˆÏäÈòÈÙÙÙÈˆÑ˛yò !ü“ ÷ï%õye !Ó!FäÈߨ !ü“ òÎ˚– ~!›˛Á £ú K˛yˆÏòÓ˚ ~Ñ˛!›˛ üyÖy ÎyÓ˚ myÓ˚y xyõÓ˚y xyõyˆÏîÓ˚ Óyhfl˛Óñ ÎÌyÌ≈
x!¶˛K˛ì˛y=ˆÏúyˆÏÑ˛ Ñ˛yˆÏã úyÜyˆÏì˛ ˛ôy!Ó˚ Îy xyõyˆÏîÓ˚ ¶˛!Ó°ÏƒÍ Ñ˛yãˆÏÑ˛ ¢y£y΃ Ñ˛Ó˚ˆÏÓ–
1845 ¢yˆÏú£z !Ì!¢¢ xò ˛ö˛ˆÏÎ˚Ó˚ÓyÑ˛ (Theses on Feuerbach) Ó˚â˛òyÎ˚ v˛zˆÏÕ‘Ö Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚!äȈÏúòÈÙÙÙÈÚîyü≈!òÑ˛Üí ˆÑ˛Óúõye
ãÜ͈ÏÑ˛ !Ó!¶˛ß¨ !îÑ˛ ˆÌˆÏÑ˛ ÓƒyÖƒy Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ˆÏäÈòñ Îy ≤ÈÏÎ˚yãò ì˛y £ú ì˛yˆÏÑ˛˛ ˛ô!Ó˚Óì≈˛ò Ñ˛Ó˚y–Û £z!ì˛£y¢ˆÏÑ˛ î%!›˛ v˛z˛ôyˆÏÎ˚ xyˆÏúyâ˛òy
Ñ˛Ó˚y ÎyÎ˚– ~Ñ˛!›˛ £ú ÷ï%õye !Ó!¶˛ß¨ ᛲòyÓú#ˆÏÑ˛ ì%˛ˆÏú ïÓ˚yÈÙÙÙÈ !ÓˆÏü°Ï Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ Óy ¢yÇfl˛,Ò!ì˛Ñ˛ ᛲòyÓú# Îy xì˛#ˆÏì˛Ó˚
ˆúÖÑ˛Ó˚y Óí≈òy Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ò– ~Ó˚ xÌ≈ £ú xì˛#ì˛ˆÏÑ˛ xyõÓ˚y !Ó!¶˛ß¨ Î%ˆÏÜÓ˚ õyÏõ ˛ô)Ó≈¢)Ó˚#ˆÏîÓ˚ î,!‹TˆÏÑ˛yí ˆÌˆÏÑ˛ ú«˛ƒ Ñ˛!Ó˚ ~ÓÇ
ΧyÓ˚y ¢¡ô)í≈ !¶˛ß¨ ¢yõy!ãÑ˛ ~ÓÇ ˙!ì˛£y!¢Ñ˛ ˛ô!Ó˚ˆÏÓˆÏü Ó¢Óy¢ Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ˆÏäÈò– ˆ¢£z ¢õhfl˛ ˆúÖÑ˛ˆÏîÓ˚ !ӈϟ’°Ïí Óì≈˛õyˆÏò ¢#õyÓk˛
≤ÈÏÎ˚yÜ !£ˆÏ¢ˆÏÓ Üíƒ Ñ˛!Ó˚– £z!ì˛£yˆÏ¢Ó˚ !mì˛#Î˚ !ӈϟ’°Ïí ≤Ã!e´Î˚y!›˛ £ú ˆÎÖyˆÏò ¢yïyÓ˚í¶˛yˆÏÓ £z!ì˛£yˆÏ¢Ó˚ ¢yÓ≈ãò#ò ÓƒyÖƒyˆÏÑ˛
!ò!î≈‹T Î%ˆÏÜÓ˚ Óy ˆÑ˛yò ˆîü Óy xM˛ÈˆÏúÓ˚ ¢õˆÏÎ˚Ó˚ ¢ˆÏD ˆÎÔ̶˛yˆÏÓ !ӈϟ’°Ïí Ñ˛Ó˚y £Î˚– ¢yÓ≈ãò#òì˛yÓ˚ ¢ˆÏD !ò!î≈‹T ¢õˆÏÎ˚Ó˚
!úÖˆÏì˛ ˆÎyÜyˆÏÎyÜ Ñ˛yõƒ– ~£z ≤âˆÏD õyÑ≈˛¢ õhs˛Óƒ Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ˆÏäÈò ˆÎñ ~Ñ˛ãò ˆÎ ÷ï%õye ˆ¢ !òˆÏãˆÏÑ˛ ˆÎõò¶˛yˆÏÓ ˆîˆÏÖ ˆ¢£z¶˛yˆÏÓ
ˆÑ˛yò Óƒ!_´ˆÏÑ˛ !Óâ˛yÓ˚ Ñ˛Ó˚ˆÏì˛ ˛ôyˆÏÓ˚ òy ˆì˛õ!ò ~Ñ˛ãò !òˆÏãÓ˚ !ÓˆÏÓâ˛òyÓ˚ myÓ˚y ˆÑ˛yò Î%ˆÏÜÓ˚ ˛ô!Ó˚Óì≈˛òˆÏÑ˛ ÎÌyÎÌ !ӈϟ’°Ïí
Ñ˛Ó˚ˆÏì˛ ˛ôyˆÏÓ˚ òy– (Preface with critique of political economy)– õyÑ≈˛¢ ì§˛yÓ˚ £z!ì˛£yˆÏ¢Ó˚ xyˆÏúyâ˛òyÎ˚ !Ó!ü‹T Óƒ!_´ˆÏîÓ˚
õì˛yõˆÏì˛Ó˚ ¢ˆÏD !Ó!¶˛ß¨ ¢õyã Ó˚y‹T… ãò܈ÏíÓ˚ xÌ≈˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ ¢yõy!ãÑ˛ ã#ÓˆÏòÓ˚ Óyhfl˛Ó !îÑ˛=!úÓ˚ !ӈϟ’°ÏˆÏíÓ˚ v˛z˛ôÓ˚Á ˆãyÓ˚
!îˆÏÎ˚ˆÏäÈò–
xƒyúyò Ñ˛yÓ˚!úÇ (Alan Carling) ì§˛yÓ˚ 'Karl Marxs Theory of history and the recovery of the Marxian
tradition Ó˚â˛òyÎ˚ õyÑ≈˛¢#Î˚ !â˛hs˛yÎ˚ ¢yõy!ãÑ˛ ~ÓÇ ˙!ì˛£y!¢Ñ˛ ì˛_¥ñ ¢õyãì˛y!s˛fÑ˛ õ)úƒˆÏÓyï ¢õ)£ ~ÓÇ Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ xyâ˛Ó˚ˆÏíÓ˚
¢ˆÏD ïõ≈ !òÓ˚ˆÏ˛ô«˛ Óhfl%˛Óyî# ¶˛yÓòyÓ˚ ¢õß∫ˆÏÎ˚Ó˚ !îÑ˛!›˛ ì%˛ˆÏú ïˆÏÓ˚ˆÏäÈò– ~£z ≤âˆÏD !ã. ~. ˆÑ˛yˆÏ£ò (G. A. Cohen) ÈÙÈÓ˚
£z!ì˛£y¢ ì˛ˆÏ_¥Ó˚ ܈ÏÓ°Ïíy ¢õyãì˛y!s˛fÑ˛ õ)úƒˆÏÓyˆÏïÓ˚ !¶˛!_Ó˚ ~Ñ˛!›˛ ÜÜ @˘Ãy£ƒ xyˆÏúyâ˛òy v˛zˆÏÕ‘Öƒñ ˆÎÖyˆÏò õyÑ≈˛¢ÓyˆÏîÓ˚
˙!ì˛£y!¢Ñ˛ xì˛#ˆÏì˛Ó˚ ˆò!ì˛Óyâ˛Ñ˛ !îÑ˛!›˛ ˆÌˆÏÑ˛ õ%!_´Ó˚ !Ó°ÏÎ˚!›˛ =Ó˚&c ˆ˛ôˆÏÎ˚ˆÏäÈ– ˛ô!Ó˚ˆÏüˆÏ°Ï õyÑ≈˛¢#Î˚ £z!ì˛£y¢ Ó˚â˛òyÎ˚ (Marxist
historiography) £z!ì˛£yˆÏ¢Ó˚ ˛ôk˛!ì˛ˆÏì˛ ò#â%˛ ˆÌˆÏÑ˛ ¢£yÎ˚Ñ˛ !£¢yˆÏÓ =Ó˚&c ˆîÁÎ˚y £Î˚ÈÙÙÙȈÎõò !ò˛ô#v˛¸ì˛ ◊!õÑ˛ ˆ◊í#Ó˚ñ

47
ãy!ì˛=!úÓ˚ v˛zߨÎ˚ˆÏòÓ˚ Ñ˛Ìy Óúy £Î˚ñ ì˛yˆÏîÓ˚ ¢%Ó˚«˛yÓ˚ v˛z˛ôÓ˚ ˆãyÓ˚ ˆîÁÎ˚y £Î˚– ˛ô,!ÌÓ#Ó˚ !Ó!¶˛ß¨ ˆîˆÏüÓ˚ ˙!ì˛£ƒñ xyM˛È!úÑ˛ì˛yñ
Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ xÓfl˛iyˆÏÑ˛ !ӈϟ’°Ïí Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ õyÑ≈˛¢#Î˚ î,!‹TˆÏÑ˛yí ˆÌˆÏÑ˛ !ӈϟ’°ÏˆÏíÓ˚ v˛z˛ôÓ˚ õyÑ≈˛¢#Î˚ ˙!ì˛£y!¢Ñ˛ =Ó˚&c xyˆÏÓ˚y˛ô Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ˆÏäÈò
ˆÎõò ≤Ãy_´ò ˆ¢y!¶˛ˆÏÎ˚ì˛ £zv˛z!òÎ˚òñ ¶˛yÓ˚ì˛ñ xy!ö ˛Ñ˛yÓ˚ xyM˛È!úÑ˛ ˙!£ì˛ƒñ xy!ö ˛Ñ˛yò xyˆÏõ!Ó˚Ñ˛yò ˙!ì˛£ƒ ≤ö,˛!ì˛– ì˛y£z õyÑ≈˛¢#Î˚
£z!ì˛£y¢ Ó˚â˛òy £ú ~Ñ˛£z ¢ˆÏD ˙!ì˛£y!¢Ñ˛ ~ÓÇ õ%!_´ ≤ÃîyòÑ˛yÓ˚# ≤ÃÑ˛“–
ÎÖò õyÑ≈˛¢ 1883 ¢yˆÏú õyÓ˚y Îyò ì˛Öò ì§˛yÓ˚ Óı%˛ ~ˆÏDú¢ õyÑ≈˛ˆÏ¢Ó˚ ˙!ì˛£ƒ ì%˛ˆÏú ïˆÏÓ˚ ÓˆÏúòñ ˆÎõò v˛yÓ˚v˛z£zò
¢Ç܇˛ò (Organization) ~Ó˚ v˛zߨÎ˚òˆÏÑ˛ xy!Ó‹ÒyÓ˚ Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚!äȈÏúòñ ˆì˛õ!ò õyÑ≈˛¢ õyò%ˆÏ°ÏÓ˚ £z!ì˛£yˆÏ¢Ó˚ v˛zߨÎ˚ˆÏòÓ˚ !Ó!ï xy!Ó‹ÒyÓ˚
Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚!äȈÏúò– xyã ˛ôÎ≈hs˛ ˆÎ õyò%ˆÏ°ÏÓ˚ £z!ì˛£y¢ xyîü≈ÓyˆÏîÓ˚ ≤ö˛yˆÏÓÓ˚ xï#ˆÏò ¢%Æ !äÈúñ ì˛yÓ˚ Ó˚yãò#!ì˛ñ !ÓK˛yòñ Ñ˛úyñ
ïõ≈ ≤ö,˛!ì˛ xò%¢Ó˚í Ñ˛Ó˚yÓ˚ ˛ô!Ó˚ÓˆÏì≈˛ õyÑ≈˛ˆÏ¢Ó˚ ¶˛yÓòyÎ˚ õyò%°ÏˆÏÑ˛ ≤Ã̈Ïõ ˆÎˆÏì˛ ˆîÁÎ˚yñ ˛ôyò Ñ˛Ó˚ˆÏì˛ ˆîÁÎ˚yñ xy◊Î˚ Á ˆ˛ôyüyÑ˛
˛ô!Ó˚ˆÏFäÈîˆÏÑ˛ ¢£ãú¶˛ƒ Ñ˛Ó˚ˆÏì˛ £ˆÏÓ– ì˛y£z Ó§yâ˛ÓyÓ˚ ãòƒ ãÓ˚&!Ó˚¶˛yˆÏÓ Ólfl˛Üì˛ v˛z˛ôÑ˛Ó˚í=!úÓ˚ ì˛yÍ«˛!íÑ˛ v˛zͲôyîò ~ÓÇ
xÌ≈˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ v˛zߨÎ˚ˆÏòÓ˚ v˛z˛ôÓ˚ =Ó˚&c !îˆÏì˛ £ˆÏÓ–

5.4 xyï%!òÑ˛ì˛y ¢¡ôˆÏÑ≈˛ õyÑ≈˛ˆÏ¢Ó˚ ïyÓ˚íy

õyòÓãy!ì˛Ó˚ £z!ì˛£yˆÏ¢ ~Ñ˛!›˛ !ò!î≈‹T Î%܈ÏÑ˛ xyï%!òÑ˛ì˛yÓ˚ Î%Ü ÓˆÏú !â˛!£´ì˛ Ñ˛Ó˚y £ˆÏÎ˚ ÌyˆÏÑ˛– ~!›˛ £ú ˆ¢£z Î%Ü Îy
x!ï!Óîƒyõ)úÑ˛ (Metaphosical) Óy x!ì˛≤ÃyÑ,˛!ì˛Ñ˛ (Supernatural) !ÓŸªyˆÏ¢Ó˚ ˛ô!Ó˚ÓˆÏì≈˛ Óƒ!_´fl˛∫yì˛s˛fÓyîñ !ü“yÎ˚ò ~ÓÇ
Ñ˛y!Ó˚ÜÓ˚#Üì˛ v˛zÎ˚ߨˆÏòÓ˚ v˛z˛ôÓ˚ ˆãyÓ˚ ˆîÁÎ˚y £Î˚ ~ÓÇ !Ñ˛ä%È !Ñ˛ä%È ˙!ì˛£ƒÜì˛ (Traditional) õ)úˆÏÓyïˆÏÑ˛ Óy!ì˛ú Ñ˛Ó˚y £Î˚–
ˆÑ˛yò ˆÑ˛yò ¢õyãì˛_¥!ÓîˆÏîÓ˚ õˆÏì˛ xyõÓ˚y ~ÖòÁ xyï%!òÑ˛ Î%ˆÏÜ£z xÓfl˛iyò Ñ˛Ó˚!äÈñ xyÓyÓ˚ ˆÑ˛v˛z ˆÑ˛v˛z ¶˛yˆÏÓò xyõÓ˚y ~Öò
!Ó!¶ß¨ Ó˚Ñ˛õ xyï%!òÑ˛ì˛yÓ˚ õˆÏïƒ Ó˚ˆÏÎ˚!äÈñ ˆÎõò xyï%!òÑ˛ì˛yÓ˚ ˆü°Ï ˛ôˆÏÓ≈ (late modernity), xòƒyòƒ ˆÑ˛v˛z ˆÑ˛v˛z ¢õyã!ÓK˛yò#Ó˚
õˆÏì˛ xyõÓ˚y ~Ñ˛!›˛ òì%˛ò Î%ˆÏÜ xÓfl˛iyò Ñ˛Ó˚!äÈ– ÎyˆÏÑ˛ v˛z_Ó˚ÈÙÈxyï%!òÑ˛ì˛y (Post-Modernity) Óúy £Î˚– Ñ˛y!Ó˚ÜÓ˚# K˛yˆÏòÓ˚
xy!Ó¶≈˛yˆÏÓÓ˚ ¢ˆÏD ¢ˆÏD xyõÓ˚y ˆÎ ¢õyˆÏã Óy¢ Ñ˛!Ó˚ ì˛y£ú ~Ñ˛!›˛ xyï%!òÑ˛ ˛ô!Ó˚ˆÏÓü– ~£z xyï%!òÑ˛ ¢õyˆÏã xyõÓ˚y ˆ¢£z
¢õhfl˛ Ñ˛yˆÏãÓ˚ ¢ˆÏD Î%_´ ££z ÎyˆÏì˛ xyˆÏÜÑ˛yÓ˚ ˆÎ ã#ÓòÎyey !äÈú ì˛y ˆÌˆÏÑ˛ xyõyˆÏîÓ˚ ã#ÓòÎyeyÓ˚ v˛zߨ!ì˛ áˆÏ›˛ˆÏäÈ–
xyï%!òÑ˛ì˛yÓ˚ Ñœ˛ƒy!¢Ñ˛yú ì˛y!_¥Ñ˛ˆÏîÓ˚ õˆÏïƒ xòƒì˛õ £ˆÏúò Ñ˛yú≈ õyÑ≈˛¢ S1818ÈÙÈ1883V– õyÑ≈˛ˆÏ¢Ó˚ xyï%!òÑ˛ì˛yÓ˚ xyˆÏúyâ˛òy
oÓƒyÎ˚ò (Commodification) xÌ≈yÍ ˛ôˆÏíƒÓ˚ ¢ˆÏD Á v˛zͲôyîˆÏòÓ˚ ¢¡ôˆÏÑ≈˛Ó˚ ¢ˆÏD ¢Ç!Ÿ’‹T– ≤âDì˛ oÓƒyÎ˚ˆÏòÓ˚ ¢ˆÏD ˛ô%§!ãÓyî#
ˆ◊í#Ó˚ ¢¡ôÑ≈˛ á!ò¤˛ ˛ô%§!ãÓyî# ˆ◊í#Ó˚ ú«˛ƒ £ú ˆÓ!ü v˛zͲôyîòñ õyˆÏò ˆÓ!ü úy¶˛– õyÑ≈˛ˆÏ¢Ó˚ ì˛y£z Ó_´Óƒ £ú ˛ô%§!ãÓyˆÏî
ˆü°Ï ˛ôÎ≈hs˛ â)˛v˛¸yhs˛¶˛yˆÏÓ ú«˛ƒ £ú õ%òyö˛y xã≈ò– õyÑ≈˛¢ Î%!_´ ˆî!ÖˆÏÎ˚ˆÏäÈò ˆÎ ˛ô%§!ãÓyˆÏî ≤Ã!ì˛!›˛ Ólfl˛£z £ú oÓƒ (commodity)
xÌ≈˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ v˛z˛ôÑ˛Ó˚í äÈyv˛¸yÁ xÈÙÈxÌ≈ˆÏò!ì˛Ñ˛ v˛z˛ôÑ˛Ó˚ òyâ˛ñ òy›˛Ñ˛ñ ¢y!£ì˛ƒñ ïõ≈ÈÙÈÓlfl˛ì˛ ¢õyˆÏã ¢Ó !Ñ˛ä%È£z £ú ˛ôíƒoÓƒ
(commodity) Îy ˜ì˛!Ó˚ Ñ˛Ó˚y ~ÓÇ ÓyãyˆÏÓ˚ !Ó!e´ Ñ˛Ó˚y £Î˚– ~õò!Ñ˛ ïõ≈ ~ÓÇ ïˆÏõ≈Ó˚ ¢ˆÏD ¢Ç!Ÿ’‹T xyâ˛yÓ˚ xò%¤˛yò Á
˛ôíƒoÓƒ (Commodity)– !Ó!FäÈßì¨ ˛y ˆüy°Ïí (exploitation) ~ÓÇ îõò (oppression) ¢õhfl˛£z ˛ôíƒyÎ˚ˆíÏ Ó˚ (commodification)
ãòƒ£z áˆÏ›˛– õyÑ≈˛ˆÏ¢Ó˚ õˆÏì˛ xyï%!òÑ˛#Ñ˛Ó˚í (modernization) ì˛y£z oÓƒ (commodity) äÈyv˛¸y xyÓ˚ !Ñ˛ä%È£z òÎ˚ñ ~£z oÓƒ ˆÑ˛òy
Á ˆÓâ˛y ÎyˆÏÓ ~ÓÇ ÓƒÓ¢y Óy!íˆÏãƒÓ˚ ~Ñ˛!›˛ v˛z˛ôÑ˛Ó˚í (item)– ~Ñ˛Ñ˛ÌyÎ˚ xyï%!òÑ˛ì˛y £ú Óy!í!ãƒÑ˛#Ñ˛Ó˚í (Commercialization)–
~£z ≤âˆÏD v˛zˆÏÕ‘Öƒ ˆÎ xyï%!òÑ˛#Ñ˛Ó˚í ˆÎõò oÓƒyÎ˚ˆÏíÓ˚ (commodification) v˛z˛ôÓ˚ =Ó˚&c ˆîÎ˚ñ ˆ¢ÖyˆÏò ÁˆÏÎ˚ÓyÓ˚ (Weber)
xyï%!òÑ˛#Ñ˛Ó˚íˆÏÑ˛ ˆáÔ!¢Ñ˛ì˛y (rationality) v%˛Ö≈yˆÏÎõ˚ (Durkheim) !Ó!¶˛ß¨ì˛y (diffentiation) xÌ≈yÍ hfl˛Ó˚yáò (Stratification)
!¢ˆÏõú (Simmel) xyï%!òÑ˛#Ñ˛Ó˚íˆÏÑ˛ òÜÓ˚ã#Óò Á xy!Ì≈Ñ˛ xÌ≈ò#!ì˛ (money economy) ÓˆÏú Üíƒ Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ò–
õyÑ≈˛¢ ì§˛yÓ˚ ¢õˆÏÎ˚Ó˚ ˙!ì˛£y!¢Ñ˛ ˛ô›˛¶)˛!õˆÏì˛ xyï%!òÑ˛ì˛yÓ˚ !Ó!¶˛ß¨ !îÑ˛=!ú xyˆÏúyâ˛òy Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ˆÏäÈò Îy ˛ô%§!ãÓyˆÏîÓ˚ Î%!_´Ó˚
õˆÏïƒ !ò!£ì˛ ~ÓÇ ˙!ì˛£y!¢Ñ˛ !ÓÓì≈˛ˆÏòÓ˚ õˆÏïƒ !îˆÏÎ˚ ¢yõy!ãÑ˛ m®μñ ¢Çá°Ï≈ !Ó!¶˛ß¨ !Ó¶˛yãˆÏòÓ˚ õˆÏïƒ !îˆÏÎ˚ !ӈϟª£z !Ó!¶˛ß¨
≤ÃyˆÏhs˛ ì˛yÓ˚ ≤ÃÑ˛yü áˆÏ›˛– ˛ô%§!ãÓyˆÏîÓ˚ Î%!_´ ˙!ì˛£y!¢Ñ˛ î,!‹T¶˛!D ˛ôÓ˚fl˛ôÓ˚ !ÓˆÏÓ˚yï# ˜Ó˛ôÓ˚#ˆÏì˛ƒÓ˚ (Contradiction) v˛z˛ôÑ˛Ó˚í=!ú
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5.4.1 xyï%!òÑ˛ì˛y ¢¡ôˆÏÑ≈˛ õyÑ≈˛ˆÏ¢Ó˚ !â˛hs˛yÓ˚ ì˛y!_¥Ñ˛ !¶˛!_
xyï%!òÑ˛ì˛y ¢¡ôˆÏÑ≈˛ õyÑ≈˛ˆÏ¢Ó˚ !â˛hs˛yïyÓ˚yˆÏÑ˛ !Ó!¶˛ß¨ ¶)˛!õÑ˛y Á î,!‹T¶˛!D ˆÌˆÏÑ˛ ˆîÖyÓ˚ ≤ÃÓíì˛yÓ˚ v˛zˆÏÕ‘Ö Ñ˛Ó˚y £ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏäÈ ~Ñ˛!îˆÏÑ˛
ˆÌˆÏÑ˛ Óúy £ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏäÈ õyÑ≈˛ˆÏ¢Ó˚ xòƒì˛õ ≤ÃyÌ!õÑ˛ xÓfl˛iyò £ú ˆÎ !ì˛!ò xyï%!òÑ˛ì˛yÓ˚ Ó˚*˛ôyÎ˚ˆÏí ¢£yÎ˚Ñ˛ õyÑ≈˛ˆÏ¢Ó˚ xˆÏòÑ˛ xyîü≈
¢¡ô)í≈¶˛yˆÏÓ xyï%!òÑ˛ì˛yÓ˚ ≤ÃyïyòƒÑ˛yÓ˚# õ)úƒˆÏÓyˆÏïÓ˚ ¢yõO¢ƒ ¢)â˛Ñ˛– x˛ôÓ˚!îˆÏÑ˛ õyÑ≈˛¢ˆÏÑ˛ xyï%!òÑ˛ì˛yÓ˚ ¢õyˆÏúyâ˛òy !£¢yˆÏÓ
Üíƒ Ñ˛Ó˚y £Î˚ Ñ˛yÓ˚í !ì˛!ò Ñ˛Öò£z ¢¡ô)í≈¶˛yˆÏÓ xyï%!òÑ˛ ¢õyˆÏãÓ˚ ≤ÃüÇ¢y Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ò !ò ~ÓÇ !ì˛!ò ì§˛yÓ˚ ¢õhfl˛ ã#ÓˆÏò xyï%!òÑ˛
˛ô%§!ãÓyî# ¢õyˆÏãÓ˚ xyï%!òÑ˛ì˛yÓ˚ ¢õyˆÏúyâ˛òy Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ˆÏäÈò ˆÎÖyˆÏò ˆò!ì˛Óyâ˛Ñ˛ m®μõ)úÑ˛ ÓƒÓfl˛iy Ñ˛Ìy Óú £Î˚– Ólfl˛ì˛˛ôˆÏ«˛ õyÑ≈˛¢
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xhs˛!ò≈!£ì˛ ÷¶˛ v˛z˛ôÑ˛Ó˚ˆÏíÓ˚ !îÑ˛!›˛Á ì%˛ˆÏú ïˆÏÓ˚ˆÏäÈò– õyÑ≈˛ˆÏ¢Ó˚ ~£z ¢yõy!ãÑ˛ Ñ˛úƒyíõ)úÑ˛ xyï%!òÑ˛ì˛yÎ˚ ˆüy°Ïí ÌyÑ˛ˆÏÓ òy–
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ì˛Ìy!Ñ˛ õyÑ≈˛ˆÏ¢Ó˚ ¢õyã !â˛hs˛yÓ˚ xyˆÏúyâ˛òyÓ˚ õˆÏïƒ xyï%!òÑ˛ì˛yÓ˚ !ӈϟ’°Ïí ˛ôˆÏÓ˚y«˛¶˛yˆÏÓ ¢Ç!Ÿ’‹T– õyÑ≈˛ˆÏ¢Ó˚ xyï%!òÑ˛ ¢õyãì˛ˆÏ_¥Ó˚
xyˆÏúyâ˛òy õˆÏz xyï%!òÑ˛ì˛yÓ˚ Ó#ã !ò!£ì˛–
!úv˛z›≈˛yv˛ (Lyotard) v˛zˆÏÕ‘Ö Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ˆÏäÈò ˆÎ ˛ô%§!ãÓyî xyï%!òÑ˛ì˛yÓ˚ ¢ˆÏD ~Ñ˛yhs˛¶˛yˆÏÓ ¢Ç!Ÿ’‹T– xyÓyÓ˚ xyï%!òÑ˛ì˛y Îy ˛ô%§!ãÓyî#
¢õyˆÏã !ÓÑ˛!üì˛ £Î˚ ì˛y ÷ï% ˛ô%§!ãÓyî# ÓƒÓfl˛iyÓ˚ Ó!£≤ÃÑ˛yü òÎ˚– ~Ñ˛£z ¢ˆÏD xyÓyÓ˚ ˛ô%§!ãÓyˆÏîÓ˚ !ÓÑ˛yˆÏüÓ˚ xhs˛!ò≈!£ì˛ v˛z˛ôÑ˛Ó˚íÁ
ӈϛ˛– õyÑ≈˛¢Á ˛ô%§!ãÓyˆÏîÓ˚ Î%!_´Ó˚ !ӈϟ’°ÏˆÏí xyï%!òÑ˛ì˛y ì˛ˆÏ_¥Ó˚ !ÓÑ˛yü ¢yïò Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ˆÏäÈò– õyÑ≈˛ˆÏ¢Ó˚ õˆÏì˛ xyï%!òÑ˛ì˛y £ú ˛ô%§!ãÓ˚
x@˘ÃÜ!ì˛Ó˚ ö˛¢ú ~ÓÇ ~£z õ)úïò xyï%!òÑ˛ v˛zͲôyîˆÏòÓ˚ v˛z˛ôÓ˚ !ò¶≈˛Ó˚ü#ú– xyÓ˚ ˛ô%§!ãÓ˚ Î%!_´ £ú ¢îy ¢Ó≈îy ¢ˆÏÓ≈yFⲠúy¶˛
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ÓyãyˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ !òÎ˚õyÓú#ˆÏì˛ Ñ˛ˆÏ‡˛yÓ˚¶˛yˆÏÓ Ó˚*˛ôyÎ˚í Ñ˛Ó˚ˆÏì˛ ¢ˆÏⲋT £Î˚ ~ÓÇ Îy £ˆÏÓ ˛ô%§!ãÓ˚ v˛zߨÎ˚ˆÏòÓ˚ ¢£yÎ˚Ñ˛– v˛z˛ôˆÏÓ˚y_´ ≤Ã!e´Î˚y
xÌ≈˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ fl˛∫yï#òì˛y ~ÓÇ ¢yõƒ xã≈ˆÏò ≤ÈÏÎ˚yãò#Î˚ £ˆÏÓ Ñ˛yÓ˚í xyˆÏ®yúˆÏòÓ˚ ö˛ˆÏú ˛ô%§!ãÓ˚ ˛≤ÈÏÎ˚yÜ Ñ˛yÎ≈Ñ˛!Ó˚ £ˆÏì˛ ˛ôyˆÏÓ˚
òy– xyÓ˚ Î!î òy ÓyãyˆÏÓ˚ xyîyò ≤Ãîyò áˆÏ›˛ ì˛y£ˆÏú xÌ≈˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ fl˛∫yï#òì˛y Á Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ ¢yõƒ Óƒy£ì˛ £ˆÏÓ– Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛
¢yõƒ Á fl˛∫yï#òì˛yÓ˚ v˛zayòñ ˛ô%§!ãÓ˚ ¢£ã ≤Ã!e´Î˚yÓ˚ ¢£yÎ˚Ñ˛ £ˆÏÓ ~ÓÇ ~Ó˚ ö˛ˆÏú Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ ~ÓÇ ¢yõy!ãÑ˛ ¢¡ôˆÏÑ≈˛Ó˚ ~ì˛
òì%˛ò Ñ˛y‡˛yˆÏõy ܈Ïv˛¸ v˛z‡˛ˆÏÓ Îy xyï%!òÑ˛ì˛yÓ˚ ¢£yÎ˚Ñ˛– ¢õhfl˛ ≤ÈÏÎ˚yãò#Î˚ xy£zò=!úˆÏÑ˛ ¢yõO¢ƒ˛ô)í≈¶˛yˆÏÓ ÜˆÏv˛¸ ˆì˛yúy ÎyˆÏÓ
~Ó˚ ö˛ˆÏú Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ ~ÓÇ ¢yõy!ãÑ˛ ¢¡ôˆÏÑ≈˛Ó˚ ~Ñ˛ òì%˛ò Ñ˛y‡˛yˆÏõy ܈Ïv˛¸ v˛z‡˛ˆÏÓ– ~£z¶˛yˆÏÓ õ)úïˆÏòÓ˚ ¢¡±¢yÓ˚í ~ÓÇ e´õÓï≈õyò
!ÓÑ˛yˆÏüÓ˚ õyÏõ õyò%ˆÏ°ÏÓ˚ õˆÏòyã܈Ïì˛Ó˚ ~úyÑ˛y ¢¡±¢y!Ó˚ì˛ £ˆÏÓ ~ÓÇ ~Ó˚ ö˛ˆÏú Üíì˛s˛f xy£zò ¢¡ôˆÏÑ≈˛ ¢ˆÏâ˛ì˛òy ~ÓÇ
¢yõy!ãÑ˛ ¢î¢ƒ ÓƒÓfl˛iy ܈Ïv˛¸ v˛z‡˛ˆÏÓ–
5.4.2 ˙!ì˛£y!¢Ñ˛ !ÓÓì˛≈ˆÏòÓ˚ õˆÏïƒ xyï%!òÑ˛ì˛yÓ˚ xÓfl˛iyò
õyÑ≈˛¢ xyï%!òÑ˛ì˛yˆÏÑ˛ £z!ì˛£yˆÏ¢Ó˚ ˛ô›˛¶)˛!õˆÏì˛ ~ÓÇ xyï%!òÑ˛ ¢õyˆÏãÓ˚ v˛zߨÎ˚ò ~ÓÇ !ÓÓì˛≈ˆÏòÓ˚ ˛ô!Ó˚ˆÏ≤Ã!«˛ˆÏì˛ !ӈϟ’°Ïí
Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ˆÏäÈò– ì§˛yÓ˚ õˆÏì˛ Î!îÁ xyï%!òÑ˛ ¢õyã ¢ÓˆÏâ˛ˆÏÎ˚ v˛zß¨ì˛ ïÓ˚ˆÏòÓ˚ñ ì˛Ìy!˛ô ~!›˛ ˆÑ˛yòÁ £‡˛yÍ !Ó°ÏÎ˚ òÎ˚ ~ÓÇ ˙!ì˛£y!¢Ñ˛
˛ô)Ó≈ᛲòyÓú# ˆÌˆÏÑ˛ !Óâ%˛ƒì˛ òÎ˚–
xÌ≈yÍ xyï%!òÑ˛ ¢õyã ›˛Δy!v˛üòyú Óy ˙!ì˛£ƒÜì˛ ¢õyˆÏãÓ˚ õˆÏz !ÓÑ˛!üì˛ £Î˚– xyï%!òÑ˛ ¢¶˛ƒì˛y ˙!ì˛£ƒ ¢õ,k˛ ˛ô%O#¶)˛ì˛
!â˛Ó˚yÎ˚ì˛ ¢¶˛ƒì˛yÓ˚ õˆÏïƒ ˆÌˆÏÑ˛£z v˛zq(ì˛– xyÓ˚ ~£z ¢¶˛ƒì˛y ~Ñ˛!îˆÏÑ˛ Ólfl˛Üì˛ !¶˛!_Ó˚ myÓ˚y ~ÓÇ xòƒ!îˆÏÑ˛ ¢!¡ø!úì˛ K˛yˆÏòÓ˚
~ÓÇ Ñ˛y!Ó˚ÜÓ˚# ÓƒÓfl˛iyÓ˚ myÓ˚y ¢õ,k˛– ~Ó˚ xÌ≈ £ú v˛zͲôyîò ~ÓÇ !Ó!òõÎ˚ ÓƒÓfl˛iy ÎyÓ˚ v˛z˛ôÓ˚ Ó%ˆÏã≈yÎ˚y ÓƒÓfl˛iyÓ˚ !¶˛ì˛ ܈Ïv˛¸
v˛zˆÏ‡˛ˆÏäÈ ì˛y ¢yõhsì˛y!s˛fÑ˛ ¢õy㠈̈ÏÑ˛ v˛zq(ì˛–
~›˛y Óúy =Ó˚&c˛ô)í≈ ˆÎ xyï%!òÑ˛ ¢õyã £ú ˆ¢£z ÓƒÓfl˛iy ˆÎÖyˆÏò ¢yõy!ãÑ˛ ˜Ó˛ôÓ˚#ì˛=!úÓ˚ ¢õyïyò áˆÏ›˛ ~ÓÇ xyÓyÓ˚
~Ñ˛!›˛ òì%˛ò ¢õyã ܈Ïv˛¸ ÁˆÏ‡˛ ~ÓÇ xyÓyÓ˚ ¢yõy!ãÑ˛ ˜Ó˛ôÓ˚#ì˛ƒ=!ú Ñ˛yã Ñ˛Ó˚ˆÏì˛ ÌyˆÏÑ˛– ~£z¶˛yˆÏÓ ˆò!ì˛Ó˚ ˆò!ì˛ (Negation
of Negation) ÓƒÓfl˛iyÎ˚ ¢yõy!ãÑ˛ x@˘ÃÜ!ì˛ Á xyï%!òÑ˛ì˛yÓ˚ x@˘ÃÜ!ì˛ áˆÏ›˛–

49
 xyï%!òÑ˛ì˛y ~ÓÇ xyï%!òÑ˛ ¢õyãˆÏÑ˛ ¶˛yˆÏúy¶˛yˆÏÓ Ó%G˛ˆÏì˛ ˆÜˆÏú xyõyˆÏîÓ˚ õyÑ≈˛ˆÏ¢Ó˚ xyîˆÏü≈Ó˚ ≤Ã!ì˛ ÎˆÏÌy˛ôÎ%_´ î,!‹T !îˆÏì˛
£ˆÏÓ ˆÎÖyˆÏò Óúy £ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏäÈ xyï%!òÑ˛ ¢õyã £ú ˜ã!ÓÑ˛ ¢_y (Organic body)– õyÑ≈˛ˆÏ¢Ó˚ Ó_´Óƒ £ú Óì≈˛õyò ¢õyã ˆÑ˛yò
î,벸 fl˛≥˛!›˛Ñ˛ (Solid Crystal) òÎ˚ ÓÓ˚Ç ~Ñ˛!›˛ ˆî£ (Organ/body) Îy ˛ô!Ó˚Óã≈òˆÏÎy܃ ~ÓÇ !òÖ%ì˛ ì˛yÓ˚ ˛ô!Ó˚Óì≈˛ò £ˆÏFäÈ–
~£z ¢yïyÓ˚í î,!‹T¶˛!D ˆÌˆÏÑ˛ xyï%!òÑ˛ ¢õyˆÏãÓ˚ !ӈϟ’°ÏˆÏíÓ˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe õyÑ≈˛ˆÏ¢Ó˚ Ó_´Óƒ ˛ô!Ó˚fl˛≥%˛›˛–
5.4.3 xyï%!òÑ˛ì˛y ¢yõy!ãÑ˛ m®μ¢õ)£ ~ÓÇ !Ó¶˛yãò ˆÌˆÏÑ˛ v˛zq(ì˛
õyÑ≈˛ˆÏ¢Ó˚ õˆÏì˛ Î!îÁ xyï%!òÑ˛ì˛yÓ˚ x@˘ÃÜ!ì˛ ¢õyˆÏãÓ˚ v˛zߨÎ˚ˆÏòÓ˚ ¢ˆÏD ã!v˛¸ì˛ñ ì˛Ìy!˛ô ~Ó˚ õˆÏïƒ xhs˛!ò≈!£ì˛ ˜Ó˛ôÓ˚#ì˛ƒ=!ú
v˛zˆÏÕ‘Öƒ ~ÓÇ m®μõ)úÑ˛ ≤Ã!e´Î˚yÓ˚ õyÏõ xyï%!òÑ˛ì˛yÓ˚ x@˘ÃÜ!ì˛ £z!ì˛£yˆÏ¢ Îy ˛ô!Ó˚ú!«˛ì˛ ì˛y õyÑ˛≈ˆÏ¢Ó˚ xyï%!òÑ˛ì˛y ò#!ì˛ˆÏÑ˛
Óyhfl˛Óy!Î˚ì˛ Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚– xyï%!òÑ˛ì˛yÓ˚ ÎyeyÓ˚ x@˘ÃÜ!ì˛ m®μõ)úÑ˛ ˜Ó˛ôÓ˚#ˆÏì˛ƒÓ˚ myÓ˚y ≤ö˛y!Óì˛– !òÉ¢ˆÏ®ˆÏ£ õyÑ≈˛¢ xyï%!òÑ˛ì˛yÓ˚
£z!ì˛Óyâ˛Ñ˛ ö˛úyö˛ú=!ú v˛zˆÏÕ‘Ö Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ˆÏäÈò ~ÓÇ ˛ô%§!ãÓ˚ õ£yò ¢¶˛ƒì˛y !ÓÑ˛yˆÏüÓ˚ fl˛∫Ó˚*˛ô!›˛ v˛zˆÏÕ‘Ö Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ˆÏäÈòñ !Ñ˛ls˛ ~Ñ˛£z ¢ˆÏD
!ì˛!ò ¢yõy!ãÑ˛ xÓ«˛Î˚ ~ÓÇ xyï%!òÑ˛ì˛y ˆÌˆÏÑ˛ v˛zq(ì˛ ¢õ¢ƒy=!úÁ !ӈϟ’°Ïí Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ˆÏäÈò– 1840ÈÙÈ~Ó˚ ˛ôÓ˚ xÌ≈˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛
¢õyˆÏúyâ˛òy Îy õyÑ≈˛¢ xyï%!òÑ˛ì˛yÓ˚ !ÓÓ˚&ˆÏk˛ ì%˛ˆÏú ïˆÏÓ˚ò ì˛y õ)úì˛ ˛ô%§!ãÓ˚ !ÓÓ˚&ˆÏk˛ ˛ô!Ó˚ú!«˛ì˛ £Î˚ ~ÓÇ ˛ô%•!ãÓyˆÏîÓ˚ xhs˛!ò≈!£ì˛
m®μ Îy Óyhfl˛Ó v˛zͲôyîò ≤Ã!e´Î˚yÓ˚ !ÓÓ˚&ˆÏk˛ ˛ô!Ó˚fl˛≥%˛›˛ £Î˚–
5.4.4 xyï%!òÑ˛ì˛yÓ˚ !ÓŸªÓúˆÏÎ˚ ≤ÃÑ˛yü
≤ÃÌõì˛ ≠ xyï%!òÑ˛ì˛yÓ˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe õyÑ≈˛ˆÏ¢Ó˚ !ӈϟ’°Ïí ÷ï% ˙!ì˛£ƒ ~ÓÇ xyï%!òÑ˛ ¢õˆÏÎ˚Ó˚ õˆÏz ¢#õyÓk˛ òÎ˚– ~Ñ˛£z ¢ˆÏD
xyÓ˚Á Ó,£_Ó˚ ≤ÃyˆÏhs˛ ÎÌy !ÓŸªyÎ˚ò ~ÓÇ xyï%!òÑ˛ì˛yÓ˚ õˆÏïƒ ¢¡±¢y!Ó˚ì˛– Ólfl˛ì˛ xyï%!òÑ˛ì˛yÓ˚ ãß√ xyhs˛ã≈y!ì˛Ñ˛ ˛ô›˛¶)˛!õˆÏì˛
܈Ïv˛¸ ÁˆÏ‡˛– ãyì˛#Î˚ £z!ì˛£y¢ ÎÖò !ӈϟªÓ˚ £z!ì˛£yˆÏ¢Ó˚ ¢ˆÏD ˆõúÓı˛ˆÏò ܈Ïv˛¸ ÁˆÏ‡˛ ì˛Öò xyï%!òÑ˛ì˛y òì%˛ò õyey ˛ôyÎ˚–
xyï%!òÑ˛ì˛y ~õò ~Ñ˛!›˛ ˛ô!Ó˚ˆÏÓˆÏü ˆÓˆÏv˛¸ ÁˆÏ‡˛ ÎÖò !Ó!¶˛ß¨ ˆîü=!ú ~ˆÏÑ˛ x˛ôˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ v˛z˛ôÓ˚ ≤ö˛yÓ !Óhfl˛yÓ˚ Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚– !ÓŸª £z!ì˛£yˆÏ¢Ó˚
܇˛ò ¢õhfl˛ ˆîˆÏüÓ˚ xÌ≈˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ Ñ˛yÎ≈Ñ˛úy˛ô=!úˆÏÑ˛ ¢ÇáÓk˛ Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ ~Ñ˛!›˛ ~Ñ˛Ñ˛ ¢Ç܇˛ò ܈Ïv˛¸ ˆì˛yˆÏú ~ÓÇ ì˛y oˆÏÓƒÓ˚ v˛zͲôyîòˆÏÑ˛
ˆÑ˛w Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚£z ˆîÖy ÎyÎ˚ ~ÓÇ ~£z oˆÏÓƒÓ˚ v˛zͲôyîò ãy!ì˛=!ú ◊õ !Ó¶˛yãˆÏòÓ˚ õyÏõ ~Ñ˛!›˛ ¢Ç£!ì˛ ÜˆÏv˛¸ ÁˆÏ‡˛–
!mì˛#Î˚ì˛ ≠ Î!îÁ xyï%!òÑ˛ì˛y fl˛∫y¶˛y!ÓÑ˛ ¶˛yˆÏÓ£z !Ó!¶˛ß¨ ˆîˆÏüÓ˚ ~ÓÇ ãy!ì˛Ó˚ ˜Ó!ü‹Tƒ xò%ÎyÎ˚# ܈Ïv˛¸ ÁˆÏ‡˛ ~ÓÇ !Ó!¶˛ß¨
ˆîˆÏüÓ˚ !òã !òã xyï%!òÑ˛ì˛yÓ˚ fl˛∫Ó˚*˛ô ˛ô!Ó˚ú!«˛ì˛ £Î˚– ì˛Ìy!˛ô ~Ñ˛£z ¢ˆÏD xyï%!òÑ˛ì˛y !ÓŸªãò#òì˛yÓ˚ ¢ˆÏD ~Ñ˛yhs˛– ˆÑ˛yò
~Ñ˛!›˛ ˆîˆÏüÓ˚ ≤ÃÌy ~ÓÇ ˛ô!Ó˚ˆÏÓü ˆÎõò =Ó˚&c˛ô)í≈ ˆì˛õ!ò ˆ¢£z ˆîˆÏüÓ˚ ¢%fl˛i¶˛yˆÏÓ ˆÓ§ˆÏⲠÌyÑ˛y ~ÓÇ v˛zߨÎ˚ˆÏòÓ˚ !îÑ˛!›˛Á
=Ó˚&c˛ô)í≈– ~ˆÏ«˛ˆÏe ˆ¢£z ˆîˆÏüÓ˚ v˛zͲôyîò ÎÌyÌ≈¶˛yˆÏÓ Ó,!k˛ Ñ˛Ó˚y Á !òã !òã ≤ÈÏÎ˚yãò=!ú ˆõ›˛yˆÏì˛ ¢ˆÏⲋT £ˆÏì˛ £ˆÏÓ–
~ˆÏ«˛ˆÏe Á£z ˆîˆÏüÓ˚ xyï%!òÑ˛ì˛yÓ˚ ˜Ó!üˆÏ‹TƒÓ˚ ¢ˆÏD !ӈϟªÓ˚ õyò!¢Ñ˛ì˛yñ ¢õ,!k˛ ~ÓÇ xyï%!òÑ˛ì˛yÓ˚ ˆõúÓı˛ò Ñ˛yõƒ ~ÓÇ
¢yÓ≈ãò#ò !ÓŸª ¢Çfl˛,Ò!ì˛Ó˚ ¢ˆÏD !ÓŸª xyï%!òÑ˛ì˛yÓ˚ ¢£yÓfl˛iyò ÎÌyÌ≈ õyòÓì˛yÓyˆÏî ˛ô!Ó˚â˛Î˚–
ì,˛ì˛#Î˚ì˛ ≠ v˛zß√%_´ì˛y £ú xyï%!òÑ˛ì˛yÓ˚ xyÓ˚ ~Ñ˛!›˛ v˛zˆÏÕ‘ÖˆÏÎy܃ ˜Ó!ü‹Tƒ Îy ¢¶˛ƒì˛yÓ˚ ¢ˆÏD ¢Ç!Ÿ’‹T– õyÑ≈˛¢ ~£z Ñ˛yÓ˚ˆÏíÓ˚
ãòƒ Ñ˛ÖòÁ Ñ˛ÖòÁ ì˛yˆÏîÓ˚ xÈÙÈ¢¶˛ƒì˛y ¢¡ôߨ Óy xk≈˛ ¢¶˛ƒì˛y Óy xõy!ã≈ì˛ ãy!ì˛ ÓˆÏú Üíƒ Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ˆÏäÈò ÎyÓ˚y ˛ô%§!ãÓyîˆÏÑ˛
@˘Ã£í Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚!ò– ì˛ˆÏÓ õyÑ≈˛¢ ~£z ˛ô%§!ãÓyîˆÏÑ˛ xÌ≈˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ !îÑ˛ ˆÌˆÏÑ˛ ˆüy°ÏˆÏíÓ˚ â)˛v˛¸yòì˛ ÓƒÓfl˛iy ÓˆÏúˆÏäÈò– ì˛y£z xyï%!òÑ˛ì˛y
˛ô%§!ãÓyî# «˛õì˛yÓyò ˆ◊í#Ó˚ xï#ò Îy ÎÌyÌ≈ xyï%!òÑ˛ì˛yˆÏÑ˛ ¢)!â˛ì˛ Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ òy– õyÑ≈˛¢ ˆÑ˛yò¶˛yˆÏÓ£z ˛ô%§!ãÓyîˆÏÑ˛ ˲ô!òˆÏÓˆÏüÓ˚
î,!‹TˆÏÑ˛yí ˆÌˆÏÑ˛ Ó˚!Oì˛ Ñ˛Ó˚ˆÏì˛ â˛yò!òñ ˛ôÓ˚ls˛ õyò%ˆÏ°ÏÓ˚ ¢¶˛ƒì˛yÓ˚ !ÓÑ˛yü Á v˛zߨÎ˚ˆÏòÓ˚ !îÑ˛ ˆÌˆÏÑ˛ ì˛yˆÏÑ˛ !ӈϟ’°Ïí Ñ˛ˆÓ˚ˆÏäÈò–
xyÓyÓ˚ õ)úƒˆÏÓyˆÏïÓ˚ !îÑ˛ ˆÌˆÏÑ˛ ÷ï% xyï%!òÑ˛ì˛yˆÏÑ˛ !ӈϟ’°ÏˆÏíÓ˚ ˛ô!Ó˚ÓˆÏì≈˛ !ӈϟªÓ˚ £z!ì˛£yˆÏ¢Ó˚ !îÑ˛ ˆÌˆÏÑ˛ ì˛yˆÏÑ˛ =Ó˚&c ˆîÁÎ˚y
£ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏäÈ– Î!î v˛zß√%_´ì˛yˆÏÑ˛ Óy!ì˛ú Ñ˛Ó˚y £Î˚ ì˛y£ˆÏú ¢¶˛ƒì˛y ~ÓÇ xyï%!òÑ˛#Ñ˛Ó˚íˆÏÑ˛£z xfl˛∫#Ñ˛yÓ˚ Ñ˛Ó˚y £ˆÏÓ– xyï%!òÑ˛ì˛y ¢¡ôˆÏÑ≈˛
xyõyˆÏîÓ˚ ïyÓ˚íy ÎÌyÌ≈ £Î˚ òy– Î!î òy !ÓŸªyÎ˚ˆÏòÓ˚ ≤Ã!ì˛ xyõyˆÏîÓ˚ î,!‹T Á ˛ôÎ≈yˆÏúyâ˛òy ÎÌy˛ôÎ%_´ òy £Î˚–
50
 ~£z ≤âˆÏD v˛zˆÏÕ‘Ö ˆÎ xyï%!òÑ˛ì˛yÓ˚ v˛zߨÎ˚ò ÷ï% ~Ñ˛!›˛ xyîü≈Üì˛ õˆÏòyÓ˚õ ~ÓÇ v˛zߨÎ˚ˆÏòÓ˚ ˙Ñ˛ƒÓk˛ £z!ì˛£y¢ òÎ˚ñ ~!›˛
£ú ~Ñ˛£z ¢ˆÏD m®μñ ¢Çá°Ï≈ ~ÓÇ ˜Ó˛ôÓ˚#ˆÏì˛ƒÓ˚ Á !Óhfl+˛ì˛ £z!ì˛£y¢Á ӈϛ˛– õyÑ≈˛¢ v˛zˆÏÕ‘Ö Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ˆÏäÈò ˆÎ ˛ô%§!ãÓyˆÏîÓ˚ v˛zqÓ
v˛zߨÎ˚ò Á !ÓŸª ÓyãyˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ ˛ô!Ó˚ˆÏ≤Ã!«˛ˆÏì˛ !ÓŸªÓƒy˛ô# !ò˛ô#v˛¸ò ~ÓÇ ˆüy°Ïí õ%_´ Óy!íˆÏãƒÓ˚ ˆÑ˛w Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ õyÌyâ˛yv˛¸y !îˆÏÎ˚ ÁˆÏ‡˛
~ÓÇ ü!_´üyú# ˆîü=!ú î%Ó≈ú ˆîü=!úˆÏÑ˛ îÖú Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ ~ÓÇ Ë˛ô!òˆÏÓü=!úÓ˚ v˛z˛ôÓ˚ xy!ï˛ôì˛ƒ !Óhfl˛yÓ˚ Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚– ì˛y£z ˛ô%§!ãÓyî#
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5.6 ¢y£yÎƒÑ˛yÓ˚# @˘Ãs˛i˛ôO#
i. Bennett, Jane. (2008). Modernity and Its Critics. In B. H. John S. Dryzek (Ed.), The Oxford
Handbook of Political Theory.
ii. Bottomore, Tom. (1991). A Dictionary of Marxist Thought. (Second, Ed.) Blackwell.
iii. Carling, Alan. (2006). Karl Marx’s “Theory of History” and the Recovery of the Marxist Tradition.
Science and Society, 70 (2), 275-297.
iv. Cohen, G. (2001). Karl Marx’s Theory of History: A Defence. Princeton University Press.
v. Giddens, Anthony. (1990). The Consequences of Modernity. Cambridge: Polity Press.
vi. Habib, Irfan. (2002). Essays in Indian History: Towards a Marxist Perception. London: Anthem
Press.
vii. Mcllelan, David. (1971). The Thought of Karl Marx: An Introduction. Macmillan.

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 C.C. 1.1

Unit-6

Nietzsche : Critique of Modernity

Contents :
6.1 Objectives
6.2 Introduction
6.3 Life and Background
6.4 Important Works and Corresponding Ideas
6.5 Major themes in Nietzsche’s Thought
6.6 Contemporary Relevance
6.7 Self-Assessment Questions
6.8 Suggested Readings

6.1 Objectives
This unit discusses the critical writings of Friedrich Nietzsche and their influence on Western thinking. The
module will explain to the students the value of Nietzsche’s thought and their relevance across the spatio-
temporal divisions between cultures. We shall start by discussing the influences on Nietzsche’s thought and
chart the development of his ideas in a chronological order. The text will then move into detailed discussions
of some of his most crucial ideas in the fields of religious and cultural thought. The last section will identify
the significant ways in which Nietzsche’s thoughts are relevant for the development and shaping of twentieth-
century philosophical writing.

6.2 Introduction
Friedrich Nietzsche (1844-1900) is one of the foremost European philosophers whose writings have had
enormous influence in the evolution of modern Western thought. His ideas are marked by their revolutionary
anachronism and the challenge they pose to the rigid institutions in society. Nietzsche’s works taken together
develop a “hermeneutics of suspicion”: hermeneutics involves the interpretation of branches of knowledge and
approaching that with suspicion suggests that Nietzsche is skeptical of the unquestioned validity enjoyed by
enduring branches of knowledge, especially that of religion. Marx’s critique of existing economical structures
of society, Freud’s critique of the psyche of an uniformed self, and Paul Ricouer’s critique of the ways in which
one extracts information from texts all trace their roots back to the writings of Nietzsche.

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6.3 Life and Background
Friedrich Nietzsche was born on October 15, 1844, in Leipzig in Germany. His father was a Lutheran
minister and from a young age, Nietzsche was exposed to lessons in theology and religious thought. He was
an exceptional student, both at the school and university levels. As a young scholar, Nietzsche was interested
in philology or the study of languages. He was, however, equally interested in philosophy. He was deeply
influenced by the music of Richard Wagner. His worll The Birth of Tragedy Out of the Spirit of Music
(1872) argues that the potential that Greek tragedy possessed in bringing about a transformative experience
in the audience can be revisited by listening to the music of Wagner in the modern times.
Nietzsche’s philosophical essays are in dialogue with the ideas of David Freidrich Strauss (a German
liberal Protestant theologian), Arthur Schopenhauer, and Richard Wagner. In many ways, Nietzsche’s
statement that musical knowledge reveals transcendental truths about human life can be argued as deriving
from Schopenhauer. Critics argue that Schopenhauer’s concept of Wille-lem-zeuben or “Will to life” was
adapted by Nietzsche into Will to Power in Ecce Homo (published posthumously).
Throughout his life, Nietzsche suffered from numerous physical ailments which many critics argue as
having influenced his thought process. His desire to question the validity and systems of knowledge drawn
from existing systems that subordinated the knowledge of the material body has been argued by critics to be
one of the primary catalysts behind his style of thinking.
Nietzsche’s earlier writings were deeply influenced by the music of Richard Wagner so much so that he
argued that the music of Richard Wagner served the function that Greek tragedy performed in Ancient Greece.
Nietzsche marks the distinction between Apolline and Dionysian music and claims that while Apolline music
progressed in wave-like forms and gave rise to images, Dionysian music, carried by melody and harmony,
resulted in the complete disordering of the existing belief systems of the individual. The section on “The
Chorus” goes into detail on the symbolic function of the chorus, and how in its Dionysian form of endless
repetition, it allows for the disintegration of the individual and her merger with the unity that exists in the
universe. According to Nietzsche, in the absence of the artistic function of the Greek tragedy, certain types
of music operate to alleviate the existence of human beings on earth.

6.4 Important Works and Corresponding Ideas

A) The most important early work of Nietzsche is The Birth of Tragedy (1872). Some of the important
claims that Nietzsche makes in the book are as follows:
i) The Division Between the Apolline and the Dionysian: Nietzsche argues that the Greeks approached
the Apolline artistic form, inspired by the god Apollo, as the necessity for dream experience. The
Apolline, then, becomes symbolic of the expression of the individual. On the other hand, the
Dionysian artistic principle, stemming from the name of the god Dionysius, surpasses the individual.
It is in moments of Dionysian festivities that the bonds between the individuals and humanity are

54
 restored. According to Nietzsche, Dionysian music raises man’s consciousness and catalyzes the
ability of symbolic expression.
ii) The Creative Artist as Reassessing the Separation Between the Dionysian and the Apolline:
Nietzsche argues that individuals are the artworks of nature. The “world” comes to be justified to
nature only in so far it reflects, as an aesthetic phenomenon, the primal pains and contradictions that
are part of nature.
B) Between 1873 and 1876, Nietzsche wrote four pieces called “Untimely Meditations.” The second of
these works is referred to as “The Use and Abuse of History for Life” (1874). The essay characterizes
history as “historical knowledge of previous cultures (eg. Greece, Rome, the Renaissance), which includes
knowledge of past philosophy, literature, art, music, and so on” (Westacott “Nietzsche’s “The Use And
Abuse Of History”). Nietzsche does not specifically define “life” in the essay other than hinting at the fact
that it is an exhilarating engagement with the world. In the 19th century, Hegel had distinctly popularized
the study of history as leading to an expansion of human understanding. Nietzsche, in the essay, however,
calls this into question. He proposes that there are three approaches to history, “the monumental, the
antiquarian, and the critical” (Westacott). The “monumental” is when history is studied through the lives
of remarkable figures. The drawback to such an approach to history is that it remains blind to the
circumstances that led to the emergence of such eminent figures. “Antiquarian” history is described by
Nietzsche as being an academic involvement with the past which almost always runs the risk of becoming
too scholarly and inhibitive of interest towards the present. “Critical” history is characterized by Nietzsche
as a negation of the past in support of the new. This is also deemed problematic as it leads to an unfair
assessment of the achievements of the past.
C) The next book that Nietzsche publishes is Human, All-too Human (1879). It looks at how idealism as
a philosophy is flawed and discusses the possibilities of overcoming it. He argues that by the end of his
philosophical practice, instead of the ideal being refuted, it merely “freezes.” The work was written to
articulate a break from his intellectual master, the music composer Wagner, and uncharacteristically
proposes hedonistic moral psychology which Nietzsche refutes in his later works.
D) The Dawn of Day: Thoughts on the Prejudices of Morality (1881) argues for a greater individualism
and suggests that it becomes a medium for addressing issues of society and family. Nietzsche suggests
that balance in the world rests on the persistence of change. He writes: “The snake that cannot cast its
skin perishes. So too with those minds which are prevented from changing their views: they cease to be
minds” (Nietzsche The Dawn of Day 394).
E) The Gay Science (1882): In this book, Nietzsche makes two of his most famous proclamations, that of
God being dead and the doctrine of eternal recurrence. The death of God becomes symbolic of all
absolutist beliefs and ideals that govern the functioning of society. Associated with his claim of the death
of the Christian God is his critique of morality that derives from reason. He states that instead of deriving
morality from reason, it ought to be derived from the tastes of the individual:
All the nobler spirits and tastes select their audience when they wish to communicate; and
choosing that, one at the same time erects barriers against “the others.” All the more subtle laws

55
 of any style have their origin at this point: they at the same time keep away, create a distance,
forbid “entrance,” understanding, as said above—while they open the ears of those whose ears
are related to ours. (The Gay Science 343)
Shared common tastes then become a way of communicating common philosophical convictions. On the
other, the doctrine of “eternal recurrence” argues for the willingness to repeat life in all its painful detail over
and over again, so that one comes to terms with their inherent freedom.
F) Beyond Good and Evil (1886): Here, Nietzsche distinguishes between qualities that belong to genuine
philosophers and those who perform research in humanities. According to him, philosophers are
distinguished by their ability to imagine, self-assert, and create values. In support of the individual
philosophical self-assertions made by the philosophers, Nietzsche writes:
That individual philosophical concepts are not anything capricious or autonomously evolving, but
grow up in connection and relationship with each other; that, however suddenly and arbitrarily
they seem to appear in the history of thought, they nevertheless belong just as much to a system
as all the members of the fauna of a continent—is betrayed in the end also by the fact that the
most diverse philosophers keep filling in a definite fundamental scheme of possible philosophies.
(Beyond Good and Evil 27)
Nietzsche’s arguments made in the book, then, allow for greater credibility to philosophical thought that
appears to arise in a void, seemingly disconnected from the larger matrix of philosophical thought.
G) On the Genealogy of Morals (1887): This work continues with the critique of Christian morality that
Nietzsche extends in Beyond Good and Evil. It comprises of three essays. The first essay distinguishes
between the master and slave morality. He argues that the morality formulated by the Christians, namely
the praise of selflessness, piety, humility, and chastity, was created to account for the lives lived by the
people who were the first converts to Christianity. In the second essay, he states that feelings of guilt were
reasoned and instilled into the minds of the followers of the religion to cope with the limited means of
meeting with their natural inclinations. In the third essay, “What is the Meaning of Ascetic Ideals?”
Nietzsche makes his most important claim concerning “perspectivism.” He writes:
Henceforth, my dear philosophers, let us be on guard against the dangerous old conceptual fiction
that posited a “pure, will-less, painless, timeless knowing subject” […] There is only a
perspective seeing, only a perspective “knowing”; and the more affects we allow to speak about
one thing, the more eyes, different eyes, we can use to observe one thing, the more complete
will our “concept” of this thing, our “objectivity,” be. But to eliminate the will altogether, to
suspend each and every affect, supposing we were capable of this—what would that mean but
to castrate the intellect?—” (On the Genealogy of Morals and Ecce Homo 119)
H) The AntiChrist (1895): Here, Nietzsche criticizes the Christian concept of faith which relies on the values
of a world that is separated from the real world. He writes:
The pathos which develops out of this calls itself faith: closing one’s eyes to oneself once and
for all so as not to suffer at the sight of an incurable falsehood. One creates for oneself a moral,
a virtue, a holiness out of the faulty perspective towards all things, one connects a good
conscience with false seeing—one demands that no other kind of perspective shall have value

56
 anymore once one’s own has been made sacrosanct with the names “God,” “salvation,”
“eternity.” (Ecce Homo and the Antichrist 108)
For Nietzsche, Christianity is a form of popular Platonism, where the order of the real world is
subordinated to the values of the ideal world. It is interesting to note that Nietzsche displays sympathy towards
the truly pious followers of Christianity. His critique is directed towards the priests and the rest who fall within
a superior order of the religious hierarchy, and who exercise their greater claims over morality to attack and
denigrate the genuine values of the aristocratic order that have hitherto been unaffected by false beliefs of
piety.
I) Ecce Homo (1908): Published posthumously, this book is perhaps the most eccentric of Nietzsche’s
works, containing sections named, ‘Why I am so wise?’ ‘Why I am so clever?’ and ‘Why I write such
good books?.’ One of the most significant claims that Nietzsche makes in the book is regarding the
experience of resentment. He states that all feelings of resentment fundamentally stem from the hatred of
the passing of time. He writes that for man to fully embrace the present, he must conquer what he calls
the will’s unwillingness towards time and its tendency to become past. In the book, he also discusses
excerpts from his previous books. The section on Thus Spoke Zarathustra brings in pieces of his
writings from the earlier text:
The man of knowledge must not only love his enemies, he must also be able to hate his friends.
One repays a tender teacher badly if one always remains a pupil.
You revere me: but what if one day your reverence comes tumbling down? Beware lest a statue
slay you!
You say you believe in Zarathustra? But what does Zarathustra matter? You are my believers: but
what do all believers matter?
You had not yet sought yourselves: then you found me. Thus do all believers; therefore all belief
means so little.” (Ecce Homo and The AntiChrist 10)
This is one of the instances in the book where Nietzsche revisits his critique of the Christian faith in
parousia or the Second Coming of Christ. For Nietzsche, the notion of waiting for parousia is inherently
flawed because it rests on the impossibility of living a full existence in the real world, as opposed to the ideal
world. The hope for parousia essentially translates into that of despair for Nietzsche because Christians must
spend their lives waiting for the arrival for Christ while doing everything they can to make it come about, and
so long as it does not come about, come to reckon with all of their actions as being inadequate and their
earthly existence a sinful one. To render the present as flawed and, thus, ungraspable employing such a
theological hope is unbecoming of human existence for Nietzsche.

6.5 Major themes in Nietzsche’s Thought

Although controversial, Nietzsche’s ideas are still very relevant today in offering a critique of existing
orders of thought. The critique of Christianity offered by him, starting from Beyond Good and Evil and

57
continuing to The AntiChrist, is not merely a reassessment of theological claims; instead, it is a philosophical
attempt to reexamine and overcome the inauthentic existence lived under the false shade offered by
institutionalized religion. In Daybreak, Nietzsche discusses that even though God is dead the shadow of his
presence still lingers amongst the followers in the residual form of Christian morality. To overcome the
significations of the super signifier, in this case, God, it is necessary to override its attendant values. Nietzsche
is open to the re-evaluation of values and the creation of new value systems since they allow for an opening
up of belief systems that are rooted in the exaltation of the ideal. He goes so far to say that ideas and things
do not have an intrinsic value in themselves but are indeed granted that value through the thought systems that
are built around it. Such a statement brings with its paradox since, for Nietzsche, the truth-value of his
statements rests on his intrinsic faith in the value of his thoughts.
Nietzsche’s idea of nihilism also needs to be emphasized since it marks a break with the pessimistic
tradition of thought engendered by Schopenhauer and his ascetic notion of the “will-to-death.” For Nietzsche,
the “will-to-death” is not a signal for the ceasing of human action but instead brings forth the affirmation of
life or what he calls, “amor fati” or the “love of fate.” To affirm life in all its hopefulness and despair is to
embrace the present, which for Nietzsche, marks the authenticity of human existence. The attendant belief that
corresponds to this affirmation of the present is that of “eternal recurrence,” which implies an openness to the
repetition of events, good and bad, in the life of the individual, repeated in the same fashion for recurring
lifetimes. Nietzsche’s “active nihilism” then allows despair to be lived as hope and gives rise to tragic wisdom,
in contrast to “passive nihilism” which leads to the cessation of all activity and thinking.
Embedded within Nietzsche’s critique of the “master/slave” morality is his dissection of modernity that
relies upon the existence of a seemingly a priori value system. For Nietzsche, what is modern depends upon
its ability to question itself and reassess the belief systems that declare certain ideas and virtues as sacrosanct.

6.6 Contemporary Relevance

Many twentieth-century thinkers have been deeply influenced by Nietzsche’s philosophy. One of the
foremost philosophers of the past century, Martin Heidegger maps his discussions on Dasein or being as time
back to Nietzsche’s discussions on the radical hope for the present. If reality is understood as an endlessly
repeated occurrence, going by the writings of Nietzsche, then, according to Heidegger, the question, “what
is time?” is rendered redundant. Since time itself comes to be enacted as being, as it dissolves and rearranges
itself continuously, the question then transforms into “who is time?” This forms one of the basic foundational
arguments of modernity where the linearity of time and the causality between events are called into question
to yield the individual as both the product of as well as the cause behind the instantiation of the present.
Nietzsche’s fervent affirmation of the present is further elaborated on by Heidegger. In his earlier works of
the 1920s, Heidegger argues that thought emerges from the acceptance that the present can never be grasped
in its entirety. In his later works, such as The Black Notebooks (1947), Heidegger argues that thinking in
itself is made possible because of the truncated experience of the present. In other words, modernity is to

58
be engaged with a phenomenon that is consistently rewriting its own self, such that the impossibility of being
modern throughout a stretch of time ensures the very renewal of the modern.
Nietzsche’s notion of the “radical hope for the present” is important for thinkers like Brian Massumi who
argues for “hopefulness” for the present even with more and more countries facing the consequences of
climate change. He writes:
If hope is the opposite of pessimism, then there’s precious little to be had. On the other hand,
if hope is separated from concepts of optimism and pessimism, from a wishful projection of
success or even some kind of a rational calculation of outcomes, then I think it starts to be
interesting—because it places it in the present. (The Politics of Affect 10)
For Massumi, like Nietzsche, the crisis of the modern and the irreparable damages that it brings about
on the individual and the society alike can only have meaning when “hope” is removed from its bearings in
the past and its implications for the future. What one is hopeful for is neither a consolation nor a compensation,
but the act of being hopeful is solely a form of alertness to the present, with all its accompanying victories
and sufferings.
The philosophy of deconstruction, formulated by Jacques Derrida, owes a lot of its critical impetus to
Nietzsche’s questioning of what is given and what is taken as incontrovertible cultural and religious beliefs.
Derrida’s questioning of the stability of the binary, whether between man and god, the material and the
immaterial, the nation and the individual, stems from this critical belief in configuring new forms of thinking that
are responsive to historical changes and practices.
Nietzsche’s critique of traditional morality has also helped shape the theoretical convictions of thinkers like
Bernard Williams, Martha Nussbaum, Alasdair MacIntyre, and Philippa Foot. Nietzsche’s influence on
political philosophy can be perceptibly felt in the writings of the American political philosopher, Richard Rorty.
Rorty’s critique of the supremacy of the intellectual mind and the unity of truth derive from the Nietzschean
disregard for any master signifier. In Beyond Good and Evil, Nietzsche extends one of his most insightful
criticisms on the problem of synthetic or a priori judgment as proposed by Kant—
“How are synthetic judgements a priori possible?” Kant asked himself—and what really is his
answer? “By virtue of a faculty”—but unfortunately not in five words [….] People were actually
beside themselves with delight over this new faculty, and the jubilation reached its climax when
Kant further discovered a moral faculty in man—for at that time the Germans were still moral
and not yet addicted to Realpolitik. (18)
Nietzsche critiques Kant’s assertion of the value of statements that derive from a pre-existing notion of
truth. Rorty engages with this further in his work, Philosophy and the Mirror of Nature (1979), where he
states that what is “given” and what is “added by the mind” can never be completely distinguished from each
other. The distinction between the nation that exists and the nation that serves as an ideal reaffirms the
meaning-bestowing function of the mind. Such an idea ties back with Nietzsche’s claims that value systems
have to be constantly evaluated and shaped and chiseled for the emergence of new values and ideas. The
nation, within such a context, no longer remains a pre-given entity with unquestioned values, but becomes an

59
amalgam of individual affects and linguistic convictions, which constantly evolve and inform the signification
of the nation.

6.7 Self-Assessment Questions

a) How is Nietzsche’s idea of “active nihilism” different from that of “passive nihilism”?
b) Discuss the trajectory of Nietzsche’s critique of Christian morality.
c) Discuss the importance of Nietzsche’s works for philosophers of the twentieth century.
d) What values do Nietzsche accord to music and why?
e) How is Nietzsche’s critique of parousia linked with his critique of modernity?

6.8 Suggested Readings

i. Rorty, Richard. (1979). Philosophy and the Mirror of Nature. Princeton: Princeton University
Press.
ii. Massumi, Brian. (2015). The Politics of Affect. Cambridge: Polity Press.
iii. Nietzsche, Friedrich. (1966). Beyond Good and Evil. New York: Vintage Books.
iv. Nietzsche, Friedrich. (2004). Ecce Homo and the AntiChrist. New York: Algora.
v. Nietzsche, Friedrich. (1989). On the Genealogy of Morals and Ecce Homo. New York: Vintage
Books.
vi. Nietzsche, Friedrich. (2007). The Dawn of Day. New York: Dover Press.
vii. Nietzsche, Friedrich. (1974). The Gay of Science. New York: Vintage Books.

60
 ˛ôy‡˛e´õ ≠ 1.1
Unit-7

!õˆÏüú ö%˛ˆÏÑ˛yÛÓ˚ xyˆÏúyÑ˛≤Ãy!Æ ¢Çe´yhs˘˛ ¶˛yÓòy

Foucault: Views on Enlightenment

!Ó°ÏÎ˚¢)!Ⲡ:
7.1 ˛ôy‡˛ÈÙÈv˛zˆj
Ï üƒ
7.2 !õˆÏüú ö%˛ˆÏÑ˛y ≠ ~Ñ˛!›˛ ¢Ç!«˛Æ ˛ô!Ó˚â˛Î˚
7.3 Ñ˛yˆÏr›˛Ó˚ xyˆÏúyÑ˛≤Ãy!Æ !òˆÏÎ˚ ïyÓ˚òyÓ˚ ˆ≤Ã!«˛ˆÏì˛ ö%˛ˆÏÑ˛yÓ˚ xyˆÏúyÑ˛≤Ãy!Æ îü≈ò
7.4 ö%˛ˆÏÑ˛yÛÓ˚ñ Ñ˛yˆÏr›˛Ó˚ ˆúÖyÎ˚ !ö˛ˆÏÓ˚ xy¢y
7.5 õ)úƒyÎ˚ò !ò!õ_ ≤ß¿yÓú#
7.6 ¢y£yÎƒÑ˛yÓ˚# @˘Ãs˛i˛ôO#

7.1 ˛ôy‡˛ÈÙÈv˛zˆÏjüƒ ˛
~£z £zv˛z!òˆÏ›˛ xyˆÏúy!â˛ì˛ £ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏäÈ ö˛Ó˚y!¢ îyü≈!òÑ˛ !õˆÏüú ö%˛ˆÏÑ˛yÛÓ˚ xyˆÏúyÑ˛≤Ãy!Æ ¢Çe´yhs˘˛ ¶˛yÓòy– ~£z £zv˛z!ò›˛!›˛ ˛ôv˛¸ÓyÓ˚
õˆÏïƒ !îˆÏÎ˚ xyõÓ˚y ãyòˆÏì˛ ˛ôyÓ˚ˆÏÓyñ xyˆÏúyÑ˛≤Ãy!Æ ÓúˆÏì˛ !Ñ˛ ˆÓyG˛yÎ˚⁄ Ó%G˛ˆÏì˛ ˛ôyÓ˚Óñ ãyõ≈yò îyü≈!òÑ˛ £zõƒyò%ˆÏÎ˚ú Ñ˛yr›˛ x‹Tyîü
üì˛ˆÏÑ˛ xyˆÏúyÑ˛≤Ãy!Æ Óƒy˛ôyÓ˚!›˛ˆÏÑ˛ !Ñ˛¶˛yˆÏÓ ˆîˆÏÖ!äȈÏúò ~ÓÇ ö%˛ˆÏÑ˛y xyï%!òÑ˛ì˛y Á xyˆÏúy˛ô≤Ãy!ÆÓ˚ ïyÓ˚íyˆÏÑ˛ Ñ˛#¶˛yˆÏÓ
¢¡ôÑ≈˛y!Î˚ì˛ Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚!äȈÏúò ~ÓÇ ö%˛ˆÏÑ˛yÛÓ˚ !òãfl˛∫ ¶˛yÓòy xyˆÏúy˛ô≤Ãy!Æ ¢Çe´yhs˘˛ñ ~£z ¢õhfl˛Ï !Ó°ÏÎ˚–

7.2 !õˆÏüú ö%˛ˆÏÑ˛y ≠ ~Ñ˛!›˛ ¢Ç!«˛Æ ˛ô!Ó˚â˛Î˚

!õˆÏüú ö%˛ˆÏÑ˛y S1926ÈÙÈ1984V !ӈϟªÓ˚ Ó˝ !ÓŸª!ÓîƒyúˆÏÎ˚ xïƒy˛ôòyÓ˚ ˛ôÓ˚ ã#ÓˆÏòÓ˚ ˆü°Ï!îˆÏÑ˛ ˛ôƒy!Ó˚ˆÏ¢Ó˚ ö ˛y™ Ñ˛ˆÏúˆÏã
!â˛hs˘˛yÓ˚ £z!ì˛£y¢ !Ó¶˛yˆÏÜ xïƒy˛ôÑ˛ ˛ôˆÏî !òÎ%_´ £ò– °ÏyˆÏ›˛Ó˚ Á ¢_ˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ îüˆÏÑ˛ ö ˛yˆÏ™Ó˚ Ó%!k˛Ó,!_Ñ˛ ã܈Ïì˛Ó˚ !ì˛!ò !äȈÏúò x@˘ÃÜíƒ
Óƒ!_´– ì§˛yˆÏÑ˛ ~Ñ˛yïyˆÏÓ˚ îyü≈!òÑ˛ñ ¢õyã!ÓK˛yò# Á !â˛hs˘˛y˛ôk˛!ì˛Ó˚ £z!ì˛£y¢!Óî !£ˆÏ¢ˆÏÓ xyÖƒy!Î˚ì˛ Ñ˛Ó˚y £ˆÏÎ˚ ÌyˆÏÑ˛– ì§˛yÓ˚ ˆúÖyÓ˚
˛ô!Ó˚!ï !äÈú Ó˝ïy !Ó¶˛_´– ˆÎ ˆÎ !ӰψÏÎ˚Ó˚ v˛z˛ôˆÏÓ˚ !ì˛!ò !úˆÏÖˆÏäÈò ì˛yÓ˚ Ñ˛ˆÏÎ˚Ñ˛!›˛ £úñ ˛ôyÜúy!õ ïyÓ˚íy!›˛Ó˚ £z!ì˛£y¢ñ !â˛hs˘˛y˛ôk˛!ì˛
!ÓÓì≈˛ˆÏòÓ˚ £z!ì˛£y¢ñ ¢õyˆÏã !Ñ˛¶˛yˆÏÓ xò%üy¢òñ üy!hfl˛Ï Á ˆãúÖyòyÓ˚ v˛zͲô!_ £ˆÏúy ì˛yÓ˚ ˙!ì˛£y!¢Ñ˛ Óí≈òyñ ¢ì˛ƒ ÓúˆÏì˛ Ñ˛#
ˆÓyG˛yÎ˚ñ ˜ò!ì˛Ñ˛ì˛y !Ñ˛ ~ÓÇ !Ó!¶˛ß¨ Ñ˛yú˛ôˆÏÓ≈ ~£z ïyÓ˚íy!›˛ !Ñ˛¶˛yˆÏÓ ˛ô!Ó˚Ó!ì≈˛ì˛ £ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏäÈñ ¢y!£ˆÏì˛ƒÓ˚ îü≈òñ Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ îü≈òñ
≤ÃÎ%!_´Ó˚ îü≈òñ Óƒ!_´Ó˚ ì˛Ìy !Ó°ÏÎ˚#Ó˚ !òõ≈yí !Ñ˛¶˛yˆÏÓ £Î˚ñ K˛yò ÓúˆÏì˛ Ñ˛# ˆÓyG˛yÎ˚ñ «˛õì˛y ÓúˆÏì˛ !Ñ˛ Ó%!G˛ñ «˛õì˛y !Ñ˛¶˛yˆÏÓ Ñ˛yã
Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ñ K˛yò «˛õì˛y ~ÓÇ ¢ì˛ƒ ˛ôÓ˚fl˛ôÓ˚ !Ñ˛¶˛yˆÏÓ ¢¡ô!Ñ≈˛ì˛ñ ¢yõy!ãÑ˛ Á Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ «˛õì˛yÓ˚ ïÓ˚òïyÓ˚í Á ì˛yÓ˚ ˛ô!Ó˚Óì≈˛òñ
ˆÎÔòì˛y ÓúˆÏì˛ Îy Ó%!G˛ ì˛yÓ˚ ~Ñ˛›˛y ˙!ì˛£y!¢Ñ˛ xò%¢ı˛yò ¢£ xòƒyòƒ– ÁòyÓ˚ ≤Ãî_ v˛zˆÏÕ‘ÖˆÏÎy܃ Ñ˛ì˛=!ú ïyÓ˚íy £ˆÏúyñ ˜ãÓ

61
«˛õì˛y Á ˜ãÓ Ó˚yãò#!ì˛Ó˚ ïyÓ˚íyñ xyï%!òÑ˛ ¢õyˆÏã xò%üy¢ˆÏòÓ˚ ≤Ã!ì˛¤˛yò=!úÓ˚ ˆÎ Ñ˛yÎ≈yÓú# ì˛yÓ˚ ÓƒyÖƒyñ !v˛¢ˆÏÑ˛yˆÏ¢≈Ó˚
!ӈϟ’°Ïíñ ≤Ãbì˛_¥ Á ÓÇüyò%â˛!Ó˚ì˛ õïƒ !îˆÏÎ˚ £z!ì˛£y¢!¶˛!_Ñ˛ ¢õyˆÏúyâ˛òyõ)úÑ˛ xò%¢ı˛yˆÏòÓ˚ xy!Ó‹ÒyÓ˚ñ ≤Ãüy¢!òÑ˛ì˛y !Óhfl˛ÏyˆÏÓ˚Ó˚
≤ÃÎ%!_´ñ ¢õyˆÏã ¢Ó≈o‹TyÓ˚ v˛zͲô!_ñ !Ó°ÏÎ˚#ì˛yÓ˚ xï#òì˛y £zì˛ƒy!î £zì˛ƒy!î– ö%˛ˆÏÑ˛yÓ˚ ˆúÖy Ñ˛ˆÏÎ˚Ñ˛!›˛ v˛zˆÏÕ‘ÖˆÏÎy܃ Ó£z £úÈÙÙÙÈMadness
and Civilization: A History of Insanity in the Age of Reason (1961), The Order of Things: An
Archaeology of The Human Sciences (1966), Discipline and Punish: The Birth of Prison (1975), ~ÓÇñ
The History of Sexuality (1975-2018)– Î!îÁ ~£z ≤ÈÏì˛ƒÑ˛!›˛ Ó£z ö˛Ó˚y!¢ ¶˛y°ÏyÎ˚ ˆúÖy– ˛ôÓ˚Óì≈˛#Ñ˛yˆÏú ~£z Ó£z=!ú
£zLjÏÓ˚!ã ¢£ xòƒyòƒ ¶˛y°ÏyÎ˚ xò%!îì˛ £Î˚–

7.3 Ñ˛yˆÏr›˛Ó˚ xyˆÏúyÑ˛≤Ãy!Æ !òˆÏÎ˚ ïyÓ˚òyÓ˚ ˆ≤Ã!«˛ˆÏì˛ ö%˛ˆÏÑ˛yÓ˚ xyˆÏúyÑ˛≤Ãy!Æ îü≈ò

!õˆÏüú ö%˛ˆÏÑ˛y xyˆÏúyÑ˛≤Ãy!Æ Óú!ì˛ Ñ˛# ˆÓyG˛yÎ˚ ~£z ïyÓ˚íy!›˛ˆÏÑ˛ ÓƒyÖƒyÓ˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe ãyõ≈yò îyü≈!òÑ˛ £zõƒyò%ˆÏÎ˚ú Ñ˛yˆÏr›˛ÛÓ˚
xyˆÏúyÑ˛≤Ãy!Æ ¢Çe´yhs˘˛ ˆúÖy!›˛Ó˚ v˛z˛ôˆÏÓ˚ !ÓˆÏü°Ï¶˛yˆÏÓ =Ó˚&c xyˆÏÓ˚y˛ô Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ò– ì§˛yÓ˚ ˆúÖyÓ˚ ÷Ó˚&ˆÏì˛£z !ì˛!ò Ñ˛yˆÏr›˛Ó˚ xyˆÏúyÑ˛≤Ãy!Æ
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fl˛∫ÈÙÈxïƒyˆÏÓ˚y!˛ôì˛–
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!òˆÏãÁ xyˆÏúyÑ˛≤Ãy!Æ ì˛Ìy xyï%!òÑ˛ì˛y ˆÑ˛ ˆîÖˆÏäÈò Ñ˛yˆÏr›˛ÛÓ˚ õˆÏì˛y Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚£z– ö%˛ˆÏÑ˛yÛÓ˚ Ñ˛yˆÏäÈ xyï%!òÑ˛ì˛y £ˆÏÎ˚ Á‡˛y õyˆÏò Óƒ!_´Ó˚
òyÓyúÑ˛c xÓfl˛iy Ñ˛y!›˛ˆÏÎ˚ ì˛yÓ˚ ¢yÓyúÑ˛ˆÏc ˆ˛ôÔ§äÈyˆÏòy– ì§˛yÓ˚ Ñ˛yˆÏäÈ Á xyˆÏúyÑ˛≤Ãy!Æ ˆÑ˛yò ~Ñ˛!›˛ ˙!ì˛£y!¢Ñ˛ xïƒyÎ˚ òÎ˚ Óy ˆÑ˛yò

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~Ñ˛!›˛ ≤Ã!e´Î˚yÓ˚ ¢%¢¡ôߨ ö˛úyö˛ú Á òÎ˚– ö%˛ˆÏÑ˛yÛÓ˚ Ñ˛yˆÏäÈ xyˆÏúyÑ˛≤Ãy!Æ ~Ñ˛!›˛ â˛úõyò ≤Ã!e´Î˚yñ Îy ÷Ó˚& £ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏäÈ !Ñ˛ls˘˛ ~ÖˆÏòy
ˆü°Ï £Î˚!ò– ö%˛ˆÏÑ˛yÛÓ˚ ¶˛yÓòy xˆÏòÑ˛›˛y ~£z Ó˚Ñ˛õ ˆÎñ ÚxyˆÏúyÑ˛≤Ãy!ÆÛ òyõÑ˛ ˙!ì˛£y!¢Ñ˛ ᛲòy xyõyˆÏîÓ˚ ¢yÓyúÑ˛ˆÏc ˆ˛ôÔ§ˆÏäÈ
ˆîÎ˚!ò ÓÓ˚Ç xyõÓ˚y ¢yÓyúÑ˛c ì˛Ìy xyˆÏúyÑ˛≤ÃyÆ £ÓyÓ˚ ˆÎ ≤Ã!e´Î˚y ì˛yÓ˚ õˆÏz xÓfl˛iyò Ñ˛Ó˚!äÈ– ö%˛ˆÏÑ˛y ì˛y£z xyˆÏúyÑ˛≤Ãy!ÆÓ˚
˛ôˆÏ«˛ Óy !Ó˛ôˆÏ«˛ ~£zÓ˚Ñ˛õ ˆÑ˛yò xÓfl˛iyò @˘Ã£í Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ò!ò– ÓÓ˚Çñ xyˆÏúyÑ˛≤Ãy!ÆÓ˚ myÓ˚y ˆÎ¶˛yˆÏÓ xyõÓ˚y ≤ö˛y!Óì˛ ~ÓÇ Ü!‡˛ì˛
£ˆÏÎ˚!äÈ ˆ¢£z ¢õhfl˛Ï üì≈˛ñ xyˆÏúyÑ˛≤Ãy!Æ ˆÌˆÏÑ˛ v˛zq(ì˛ !â˛Ó˚hs˘˛ò Á !ÓŸªãò#ò ¢ˆÏì˛ƒÓ˚ îyÓ#ñ xyÌ≈ÈÙÈ¢yõy!ãÑ˛ Ó˚*˛ôyhs˘˛ˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ ¢õhfl˛Ï Ó˚Ñ˛õ
@˘Ãƒyu˛ òƒyˆÏÓ˚!›˛¶˛ˆÏÑ˛ ö%˛ˆÏÑ˛y òì%˛ò Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ ˛ôÓ˚#«˛yñ ˛ôÎ≈yˆÏúyâ˛òy ì˛Ìy !e´!›˛ˆÏÑ˛Ó˚ Ñ˛Ìy ÓúˆÏäÈò– ö%˛ˆÏÑ˛yÓ˚ õˆÏì˛ Óƒ!_´Ó˚ !òõ≈yí ì˛Ìy
܇˛ˆÏòÓ˚ v˛z˛ôˆÏÓ˚ !v˛¢ˆÏÑ˛y¢≈ñ «˛õì˛yÓ˚ !e´Î˚yÑ˛úy˛ôñ K˛yò Á ì˛yÓ˚ xò%ü#úòñ xyÌ≈ÈÙÈ¢yõy!ãÑ˛ Ñ˛y‡˛yˆÏõy £zì˛ƒy!îÓ˚ ≤ö˛yÓ ˛ôˆÏv˛¸– ö%˛ˆÏÑ˛y
~£z ¢õhfl˛Ï !Ñ˛ä%ȈÏÑ˛ !e´!›˛Ñ˛ Ñ˛Ó˚ÓyÓ˚ v˛z˛ôÓ˚ ˆãyÓ˚ !îˆÏFäÈò–
ö%˛ˆÏÑ˛yÛÓ˚ Ñ˛yˆÏäÈ xyˆÏúy≤Ãy!Æ £ú ~Ñ˛›˛y ˆG§˛yÑ˛ ì˛Ìy ≤ÃÓíì˛y– xyõÓ˚y ãy!ò xyˆÏúyÑ˛≤Ãy!ÆÓ˚ ¢õÎ˚˛ôÓ≈ ˆÌˆÏÑ˛£z ˆÎ ≤ÃÓíì˛y›˛y
÷Ó˚& £ˆÏÎ˚!äÈú ì˛y £ú !e´!›˛Ñ˛ ì˛Ìy Î%!_´Ó˚ myÓ˚y ¢õhfl˛Ï !Ñ˛ä%ȈÏÑ˛ ˛ôÎ≈yˆÏúyâ˛òy Ñ˛Ó˚y– ì˛y£z xyˆÏúyÑ˛≤Ãy!Æ Á ì˛yÓ˚ ˛ôÓ˚Óì≈˛# Î%܈ÏÑ˛
Óúy £Î˚ !e´!›˛Ñ˛ ì˛Ìy ¢õ#«˛yÓ˚ Î%Ü– ˆÎ ≤Ã!e´Î˚yÓ˚ õïƒ !îˆÏÎ˚ xyõÓ˚y xyˆÏúyÑ˛≤ÃyÆ £ˆÏÎ˚ v˛z‡˛Ó ö%˛ˆÏÑ˛y ˆ¢£z ≤Ã!e´Î˚y!›˛ˆÏÑ˛ òyõ
!îˆÏFäÈò !e´!›˛Ñ˛– !e´!›˛Ñ˛ ü∑›˛y ö%˛ˆÏÑ˛y Ñ˛yˆÏr›˛ÛÓ˚ ˆÌˆÏÑ˛ @˘Ã£í Ñ˛Ó˚ˆÏúÁ !ì˛!ò !e´!›˛ˆÏÑ˛Ó˚ ïyÓ˚íyÓ˚ õˆÏïƒ ˆÓü!Ñ˛ä%È òì%˛ò õyey Î%_´
Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ˆÏäÈòñ Îy Ñ˛yˆÏr›˛ÛÓ˚ ˆúÖyÓ˚ õˆÏïƒ !äÈú òy– ~äÈyv˛¸yÁñ xyˆÏúyÑ˛≤Ãy!ÆÓ˚ ˆÎ ˜Ó!ü‹Tƒ!›˛ ö%˛ˆÏÑ˛y ¢ÓˆÏâ˛ˆÏÎ˚ ˆÓ!ü =Ó˚&c !îˆÏÎ˚ˆÏäÈò
ì˛y £ˆÏúy !e´!›˛Ñ˛ ì˛Ìy !e´!›˛Ñ˛ƒyú õˆÏòy¶˛!D– ö%˛ˆÏÑ˛yÓ˚ õˆÏì˛ !e´!›˛Ñ˛ ì˛Ìy ¢õhfl˛Ï !Ñ˛ä%ȈÏÑ˛ ˛ôÓ˚#«˛y !òÓ˚#«˛y Ñ˛Ó˚ÓyÓ˚ õïƒ !îˆÏÎ˚£z
xyõÓ˚y xyˆÏúyÑ˛≤ÃyÆ ì˛Ìy ¢yÓyúÑ˛ £ˆÏÎ˚ v˛z‡˛Ó– ~õò!Ñ˛ xyˆÏúyÑ˛≤Ãy!Æ Î%!_´Ó˚ òyˆÏõ ˆÎ !fl˛iì˛yÓfl˛iy ãy!Ó˚ Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ˆÏäÈ ì˛y K˛yˆÏòÓ˚
ˆ«˛ˆÏe ˆ£yÑ˛ Óy !â˛Ó˚hs˘˛ò Á !ÓŸªãò#ò ¢ˆÏì˛ƒÓ˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe ˆ£yÑ˛ Óy «˛õì˛yÓ˚ ¢¡ôˆÏÑ≈˛Ó˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe ˆ£yÑ˛ Óy !v˛¢ˆÏÑ˛y¢≈ ~Ó˚ õˆÏz ˆ£yÑ˛ñ
ì˛yÓ˚ ¢õhfl˛Ï !Ñ˛ä%ȈÏÑ˛£z !ì˛!ò !e´!›˛ˆÏÑ˛Ó˚ õïƒ !îˆÏÎ˚ ¢õ¢ƒy!Î˚ì˛ Ñ˛Ó˚ˆÏì˛ ˆâ˛ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏäÈò–
ö%˛ˆÏÑ˛yÛÓ˚ õˆÏì˛ñ xyõyˆÏîÓ˚ x!hfl˛ÏˆÏcÓ˚ fl˛∫Ó˚*˛ô !Ó°ÏÎ˚Ñ˛ ¢õyˆÏúyâ˛òyõ)úÑ˛ x!ï!ÓîƒyˆÏÑ˛ xÓüƒ£z ~Ñ˛!›˛ ì˛_¥ñ õì˛Óyî ~õò!Ñ˛
K˛yˆÏòÓ˚ ˛ô%!O¶)˛ì˛ Ó˚*˛ô !£ˆÏ¢ˆÏÓÁ !ÓˆÏÓâ˛òy Ñ˛Ó˚y v˛z!â˛ì˛ òÎ˚ñ ÓÓ˚Ç ~!›˛ £ú ~Ñ˛!›˛ õˆÏòy¶˛yÓñ ò#!ì˛ Á ~Ñ˛!›˛ îyü≈!òÑ˛ ã#Óò– ~Ó˚
õ)ú v˛zˆÏjüƒ £ˆÏúy xyõyˆÏîÓ˚ Óì≈˛õyò xÓfl˛iyˆÏÑ˛ !e´!›˛Ñ˛ Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ xyõyˆÏîÓ˚ v˛z˛ôÓ˚ xyˆÏÓ˚y!˛ôì˛ ¢#õyÓk˛ì˛yÓ˚ ˙!ì˛£y!¢Ñ˛ !ӈϟ’°Ïí Ñ˛Ó˚y
~ÓÇ ˆ¢£z ¢#õyÓk˛ì˛yˆÏÑ˛ x!ì˛e´õ Ñ˛Ó˚yÓ˚ ¢Ω˛yÓòyˆÏÑ˛ Ö%§ˆÏã ÓyÓ˚ Ñ˛Ó˚y– ö%˛ˆÏÑ˛yÛÓ˚ ¶˛yÓòyÎ˚ !e´!›˛ˆÏÑ˛Ó˚ Ñ˛yã £ˆÏúy xyˆÏÓ˚y!˛ôì˛
¢#õyÓk˛ì˛y=ˆÏúyˆÏÑ˛ !òÓ˚!Ó!Fâ˛ß¨¶˛yˆÏÓ ≤ß¿ Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ Á ì˛yˆÏÑ˛ x!ì˛e´õˆÏíÓ˚ v˛z˛ôyÎ˚ Ö%§ˆÏã ÓyÓ˚ Ñ˛Ó˚yÓ˚ ˛ôyüy˛ôy!ü «˛õì˛yÓ˚ myÓ˚y Óy!£ì˛
¢ì˛ƒ Á !v˛¢ˆÏÑ˛yˆÏ¢≈Ó˚ myÓ˚y fl˛∫y¶˛y!ÓÑ˛#Ñ˛Ó˚ˆÏíÓ˚ ≤Ã!e´Î˚y ˆÌäȈÏÑ˛ Óƒ!_´ˆÏÑ˛ õ%_´ Ñ˛Ó˚y ~ÓÇ ¢yõy!ãÑ˛ Ñ˛y‡˛yˆÏõyÓ˚ ˛ô!Ó˚Óì≈˛ˆÏòÓ˚ xy@˘ÃˆÏ£Ó˚
¢yˆÏÌ ¢yˆÏÌ xyd ¢,!‹TÓ˚ â˛ƒyˆÏúˆÏO Óƒ!_´ ˆÑ˛ ¢¡ø%Ö#ò Ñ˛Ó˚y– ~£z Ñ˛yÓ˚ˆÏí£z ö%˛ˆÏÑ˛y !e´!›˛ˆÏÑ˛ ˆîˆÏÖˆÏäÈò õyò%ˆÏ°ÏÓ˚ ˛ô!Ó˚íì˛õò‹Òì˛y
xã≈ˆÏòÓ˚ ~Ñ˛›˛y !¶˛!_ !£ˆÏ¢ˆÏÓ– ö%˛ˆÏÑ˛y õˆÏò Ñ˛Ó˚ˆÏäÈò !e´!›˛ˆÏÑ˛Ó˚ ~£z xò%¢ı˛yò ˛ôk˛!ì˛ˆÏÑ˛ ≤Ãbì˛y!_¥Ñ˛ ~ÓÇ ÓÇüyò%â˛!Ó˚ì˛ ~£z î%£z!›˛
˛ôk˛!ì˛£z xò%¢Ó˚í Ñ˛Ó˚ˆÏì˛ £ˆÏÓ–
ö%˛ˆÏÑ˛y xyˆÏúyÑ˛≤Ãy!ƈÏÑ˛ !ӈϟ’°Ïí Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ˆÏäÈò ~Ñ˛!›˛ Óƒ!_´Üì˛ ~ÓÇ ¢yõy!ãÑ˛ îy!Î˚c ì˛Ìy ˆÖ§yã !£ˆÏ¢ˆÏÓ– ÎyÓ˚ õ)ú v˛zˆÏjüƒ
Î%!_´Ó˚ ¢£yÎ˚ì˛yÎ˚ Á !e´!›˛Ñ˛ÈÙÈ~Ó˚ ¢y£yˆÏ΃ Óƒ!_´Ó˚ Á ˆÜy¤˛#Ó˚ fl˛∫ÈÙÈxïƒyˆÏÓ˚y!˛ôì˛ x˛ô!Ó˚íì˛õò‹Òì˛y ˆÌˆÏÑ˛ ˆÓ!Ó˚ˆÏÎ˚ ~ˆÏ¢ fl˛∫yï#ò
Á xyï%!òÑ˛ £ˆÏÎ˚ Á‡˛y– !òˆÏã£z !òˆÏãÓ˚ Ñ˛ì≈˛y £ˆÏÎ˚ Á‡˛y– ö%˛ˆÏÑ˛y ~ÖyˆÏò xyï%!òÑ˛ «˛õì˛yÓ˚ myÓ˚y Ü!‡˛ì˛ ¢yÓˆÏãQ/!Ó°ÏÎ˚#Ó˚ ˛ô!Ó˚ÓˆÏì≈˛
xyï%!òÑ˛ ˜ò!ì˛Ñ˛ ¢yÓˆÏãQ/!Ó°ÏÎ˚#Ó˚ xÌ≈yÍ ˆÎ xydüy¢ò xÌ≈yÍ xyd ˛ô!Ó˚â˛yúòyÓ˚ ≤Ã!ì˛ !ò¤˛ ˆÌˆÏÑ˛ xyd Ó˚*˛ôyÎ˚ˆÏò Ó ì˛#ñ ì˛yÓ˚
v˛z˛ôÓ˚ =Ó˚&c !îˆÏÎ˚ˆÏäÈò–
1784 ¢yˆÏúÓ˚ òˆÏ¶˛¡∫Ó˚ õyˆÏ¢ Berlinische Monatsschrift òyõÑ˛ ~Ñ˛!›˛ ãyõ≈yò ˛ô!eÑ˛yˆÏì˛ Was ist Aufklarung? òyˆÏõ
~Ñ˛!›˛ ≤ß¿ Ó˚yÖy £Î˚– ≤ß¿!›˛ˆÏÑ˛ ãyõ≈yò ˆÌˆÏÑ˛ ÓyÇúyÎ˚ Ñ˛Ó˚ˆÏú î§yv˛¸yÎ˚ xyˆÏúyÑ˛≤Ãy!Æ Ñ˛#⁄ !¶˛ß¨¶˛yˆÏÓ Á£z ¢yõ!Î˚Ñ˛#ˆÏì˛ ~£z ≤ß¿!›˛Ó˚
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v˛z_Ó˚ !îˆÏÎ˚!äȈÏúò ˆõyˆÏ㢠ˆõˆÏu˛úˆÏüy£ò ~ÓÇ £zõƒyò%ˆÏÎ˚ú Ñ˛yr›˛– Ñ˛yˆÏr›˛Ó˚ ˆúÖyÓ˚ ˛ô)ˆÏÓ≈£z ˆõˆÏu˛úˆÏüy£ò ~ÓÇ ˆú!¢Ç ãyõ≈yò
¢Çfl,Ò!ì˛Ó˚ õˆÏïƒ £z˝!î ¢Çfl,Ò!ì˛Ó˚ ~Ñ˛›˛y xÓfl˛iyò Ö%§ˆÏã ˆ˛ôˆÏÎ˚!äȈÏúò– ì§˛yˆÏîÓ˚ õˆÏì˛ñ ãyõ≈yò Aufklarung ~ÓÇ £z˝!î Haskalah
~£z î%£z!›˛ ≤Ã!e´Î˚y ≤ÃyÎ˚ ¢õˆÏÜye#Î˚– ì˛yÓ˚y ~£z î%£z!›˛ ≤Ã!e´Î˚yÓ˚ õˆÏïƒ ~Ñ˛!›˛ ˙!ì˛£y!¢Ñ˛ !õú ~ÓÇ ~ˆÏîÓ˚ ~Ñ˛£z Ó˚Ñ˛õ ¶˛!ӰσÍ
ú%!Ñ˛ˆÏÎ˚ xyˆÏäÈ ÓˆÏú õˆÏò Ñ˛Ó˚ˆÏì˛ò– ˆõˆÏu˛úˆÏüy£ò ~ÓÇ Ñ˛yr›˛ î%ãˆÏò£z ˆÎ ¢õˆÏÎ˚ ≤Ã!ì˛!ò!ïc ì§˛yÓ˚y Ñ˛Ó˚ˆÏäÈò ˆ¢£z ¢õˆÏÎ˚Ó˚
˜Ó!ü‹Tƒ=!ú ˆÑ˛ ì§˛yˆÏîÓ˚ ≤ÃÓˆÏı˛ ì%˛ˆÏú ïÓ˚ÓyÓ˚ ˆâ˛‹Ty Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ˆÏäÈò– î%ÛãˆÏò£z ì˛yˆÏîÓ˚ ¢õ¢yõ!Î˚Ñ˛ Óì≈˛õyò !òˆÏÎ˚ !â˛hs˘˛y¶˛yÓòy Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ˆÏäÈò–
ˆîÖÓyÓ˚ ˆâ˛‹Ty Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ˆÏäÈò Ñ˛# xˆÏÌ≈ Óì≈˛õyò xì˛#ì˛ ˆÌˆÏÑ˛ xyúyîy ~ÓÇ ˆÑ˛yò ˆÑ˛yò ˜Ó!ü‹Tƒ=ˆÏúy Óì≈˛õyˆÏòÓ˚ fl˛∫yì˛s˛fƒˆÏÑ˛ ¢)!â˛ì˛
Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚– £z!ì˛£y¢ ˆÌˆÏÑ˛ ˆîÖy ˆÜˆÏäÈ ˆÑ˛yò îyü≈!òÑ˛ !â˛hs˘˛y ÎÖò v˛zq(ì˛ £Î˚ ì˛Öò ˆ¢›˛y xÓüƒ£z ì˛ÍÑ˛yú#ò ¢õÎ˚ ~ÓÇ xÓfl˛iyˆÏÑ˛
≤Ã!ì˛ö˛úò Ñ˛Ó˚yÓ˚ ˆâ˛‹Ty Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚– Óì≈˛õyˆÏòÓ˚ ˜Ó!ü‹Tƒ Ñ˛#ñ Óì≈˛õyò ˆÑ˛yÌyÎ˚ xì˛#ˆÏì˛Ó˚ ˆÌˆÏÑ˛ xyúyîy ~£z !ӰψÏÎ˚ ˆÓü!Ñ˛ä%È îyü≈!òÑ˛
ˆúÖy xyõÓ˚y ~Ó˚ xyˆÏÜÁ ˆ˛ôˆÏÎ˚!äÈ– ~£z ≤Ã!ì˛ö˛úò xì˛#ˆÏì˛Ó˚ !Ó!¶˛ß¨ Ó˚â˛òyˆÏì˛ xyõÓ˚y õ)úì˛ !ì˛ò ¶˛yˆÏÓ ˆîˆÏÖ!äÈ–
1V Óì≈˛õyò ¢õÎ˚ ˛ô,!ÌÓ#ˆÏì˛ ~Ñ˛!›˛ !ÓˆÏü°Ï ¢õˆÏÎ˚Ó˚ ≤Ã!ì˛!ò!ïc Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚– ~Ó˚ ˜Ó!ü‹Tƒ £ˆÏúy ~Ó˚ xhs˘˛!ò≈!£ì˛ ˆÑ˛yò òy ˆÑ˛yò
!ÓˆÏü°Ïc xÌÓy ˆÑ˛yò x¶)˛ì˛˛ô)Ó≈ â˛õÑ˛≤Ãî ᛲòy ÎyÓ˚ myÓ˚y ˆ¢ xì˛#ì˛ ˆÌˆÏÑ˛ ˛ô,ÌÑ˛– ˆ≤’ˆÏ›˛y ì§˛yÓ˚ Úˆfi›˛›˛¢õƒyòÛ @˘ÃˆÏs˛i
~£z Óƒy˛ôyˆÏÓ˚ xyˆÏúyâ˛òy Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ˆÏäÈò– ~£z @˘ÃˆÏs˛iÓ˚ Ñ˛ˆÏÌy˛ôÑ˛ˆÏÌyÑ˛Üí ~›˛y xò%¶˛Ó Ñ˛Ó˚ˆÏì˛ ˛ôyÓ˚ˆÏäÈòñ ì˛ÍÑ˛yú#ò ˛ô,!ÌÓ#
ˆÎ ˛ôÿ˛yîÜyõ# !Ó≤’ˆÏÓ xD#¶)˛ì˛ ~ÓÇ ~£z ˛ôÿ˛yîÜyõ#ì˛yÓ˚ õˆÏïƒ ˆÎ ˆò!ì˛Óyâ˛Ñ˛ !îÑ˛=!ú xyˆÏäÈ ¢Ó!Ñ˛ä%ÈÓ˚ õˆÏz
ì˛yÓ˚y !ïˆÏÓ˚ !ïˆÏÓ˚ xhs˘˛ú≈#ò £ˆÏÎ˚ ˛ôv˛¸ˆÏäÈò–
2V Óì≈˛õyò Óy ¢y¡±!ì˛Ñ˛Ñ˛yˆÏúÓ˚ õˆÏz ¶˛!ӰσˆÏì˛Ó˚ ¢ÇˆÏÑ˛ì˛ ú%!Ñ˛ˆÏÎ˚ xyˆÏäÈ ˆÎ¶˛yˆÏÓ ˆ¢£zr›˛ xÜyfi›˛y£zò ì§˛yÓ˚ Úîƒ !¢!›˛
x¶˛ Üv˛Û @˘ÃˆÏs˛i Óƒy˛ôyÓ˚!›˛ˆÏÑ˛ ÓƒyÖƒy Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚!äȈÏúò– !ì˛!ò õˆÏò Ñ˛Ó˚ˆÏì˛ò ˙!ì˛£y!¢Ñ˛ !ӈϟ’°ÏˆÏíÓ˚ ò#!ì˛õyúy ≤ÈÏÎ˚yÜ Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚
Óì≈˛õyò ˆÌˆÏÑ˛£z ¶˛!ӰσˆÏì˛Ó˚ xyÜyõ Óyì≈˛y v˛zk˛yÓ˚ Ñ˛Ó˚y ¢Ω˛Ó–
3V !¶˛ˆÏÑ˛y ì§˛yÓ˚ ¢õ¢yõ!Î˚Ñ˛ Óì≈˛õyòˆÏÑ˛ ~Ñ˛!›˛ e´y!hs˘˛Ñ˛yú ÓˆÏú ÓƒyÖƒy Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ˆÏäÈò– ˆÎÖyò ˆÌˆÏÑ˛ ~Ñ˛›˛y òì%˛ò ¶˛!ӰσˆÏì˛Ó˚
¢)â˛òy £ˆÏÓ xÌ≈yÍ òì%˛ò ˛ô,!ÌÓ#Ó˚ ¢)ˆÏÎ≈yîÎ˚ Óì≈˛õyò ˆÌˆÏÑ˛£z £ˆÏÓ ÓˆÏú !ì˛!ò !ò!ÿ˛ì˛¶˛yˆÏÓ õˆÏò Ñ˛Ó˚ˆÏì˛ò–
xyˆÏúyÑ˛≤Ãy!Æ ¢Çe´yhs˘˛ Ó˚â˛òyÎ˚ Ñ˛yr›˛ Óyhfl˛ÏÓˆÏÑ˛ Ó%G˛ˆÏì˛ ˆâ˛ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏäÈò ì§˛yÓ˚ ¢õ¢yõ!Î˚Ñ˛ Óyhfl˛ÏˆÏÓÓ˚ ì˛Ìy Óì≈˛õyˆÏòÓ˚ !ò!Ó˚ˆÏÖ– !ì˛!ò
Óì≈˛õyòˆÏÑ˛ xì˛#ˆÏì˛Ó˚ xyïyÓ˚ !£ˆÏ¢ˆÏÓ ˆîÖˆÏäÈò òyñ ˆîÖˆÏäÈò òy ¶˛!ӰσˆÏì˛Ó˚ ˆÑ˛yˆÏòy Ñ˛õ≈¢¡ôyîˆÏòÓ˚ ˛ô!Ó˚ˆÏ≤Ã!«˛ˆÏì˛Á– !ì˛!ò
Óì≈˛õyò ~Ó˚ ¢ˆÏD xì˛#ˆÏì˛Ó˚ ˛ôyÌ≈ˆÏÑ˛ƒÓ˚ ãyÎ˚Üy!›˛ˆÏÑ˛ !â˛!£´ì˛ Ñ˛Ó˚ˆÏì˛ â˛y£zˆÏäÈò– Ñ˛yr›˛ õ)úì˛ ~Ñ˛!›˛ ˛ôyÌ≈ˆÏÑ˛ƒÓ˚ xò%¢ı˛yò Ñ˛Ó˚ˆÏäÈò–
xì˛#ˆÏì˛Ó˚ ˆ≤Ã!«˛ˆÏì˛ Óì≈˛õyò !‡˛Ñ˛ ˆÑ˛yò ˛ôyÌ≈ˆÏÑ˛ƒÓ˚ ¢)â˛òy ᛲyú xò%¢ı˛yò Ñ˛Ó˚ˆÏäÈò ˆ¢£z !Ó°ÏÎ˚!›˛ˆÏÑ˛–
xyˆÏúyÑ˛≤Ãy!ÆÓ˚ (Aufklarung) Óƒy˛ôyÓ˚!›˛ˆÏÑ˛ Ñ˛yr›˛ ¢¡ô)í≈ !¶˛ß¨ ¶˛yˆÏÓ ˆîÖˆÏäÈò– ì§˛yÓ˚ õˆÏì˛ ~!›˛ ˛ô,!ÌÓ#Ó˚ ˆÑ˛yò ¢õÎ˚˛ôÓ≈
òÎ˚ñ ~!›˛ î,üƒì˛ Óy xò%¶)˛ì˛ ˆÑ˛yò ᛲòy ˛ôÓ˚¡ôÓ˚y Á òÎ˚ Óy ~!›˛ ˆÑ˛yò !e´Î˚yÑ˛ˆÏõ≈Ó˚ ¢%¢¡ôߨ ö˛úyö˛úÁ òÎ˚– Ñ˛yr›˛
~òúy£zˆÏ›˛òˆÏõˆÏr›˛Ó˚ xÌ≈ Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ˆÏäÈò ¢¡ô)í≈ ˆò!ì˛Óyâ˛Ñ˛ !îÑ˛ ˆÌˆÏÑ˛– !ì˛!ò ~ˆÏÑ˛ ˆîÖˆÏäÈò !ò‹;˛õí Óy Ó!£Ü≈õò (Ausgang)
!£ˆÏ¢ˆÏÓ– ~£z Ó!£Ü≈õò (Way out) £ˆÏúy òyÓyúÑ˛c hfl˛ÏÓ˚ ˆÌˆÏÑ˛ xyõyˆÏîÓ˚ ˆÓ!Ó˚ˆÏÎ˚ xy¢y– Ñ˛yr›˛ xyˆÏúyÑ˛≤Ãy!ƈÏÑ˛ ˆîˆÏÖˆÏäÈò
~Ñ˛!›˛ ≤Ã!e´Î˚y !£ˆÏ¢ˆÏÓ– ˆÎ ≤Ã!e´Î˚yÓ˚ xÇü#îyÓ˚ £ˆÏÎ˚ Á‡˛yÓ˚ õˆÏïƒ !îˆÏÎ˚ Óƒ!_´ Á ˆÜy¤˛#ÓÜ≈ ì˛yˆÏîÓ˚ fl˛∫ÈÙÈxïƒyˆÏÓ˚y!˛ôì˛ x˛ô!Ó˚íì˛
õò‹Òì˛y ì˛Ìy òyÓyúÑ˛c ˆÌˆÏÑ˛ ˆÓ!Ó˚ˆÏÎ˚ xy¢yÓ˚ ¢y£ã xã≈ò Ñ˛Ó˚ˆÏì˛ ˛ôyˆÏÓ˚– ì˛y£z ~£z ≤Ã!e´Î˚yÎ˚ xÇü@˘Ã£í Ñ˛Ó˚y Óƒ!_´ ì˛Ìy
ˆÜy¤˛#Ó˚ ~Ñ˛Ó˚Ñ˛õ Ñ˛ì≈˛Óƒ ~ÓÇ îy!Î˚cÁ ӈϛ˛– ~£z Ó!£Ü≈õò Óy !ò‹;˛õí xyõyˆÏîÓ˚ x˛ô!Ó˚íì˛ õò‹Òì˛y ˆÌˆÏÑ˛ õ%_´ Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚– Î%!_´Ó˚
˛ô!Ó˚ÓˆÏì≈˛ x˛ôˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ Ñ˛ì,≈˛cˆÏÑ˛ fl˛∫#Ñ˛yÓ˚ Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ ˆòÁÎ˚yñ x˛ôˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ !òÎ˚s˛fˆÏí ˛ô!Ó˚â˛y!úì˛ £ÁÎ˚y ~ÓÇ x˛ôˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ !òˆÏî≈ü xò%ÎyÎ˚# !òˆÏãÓ˚
Ó%!k˛ !ÓˆÏÓâ˛òy ÓƒÓ£yÓ˚ Ñ˛Ó˚yˆÏÑ˛ Ñ˛yr›˛ x˛ô!Ó˚íì˛ õò‹Òì˛y ì˛Ìy òyÓyúÑ˛c !£ˆÏ¢ˆÏÓ ˆîˆÏÖˆÏäÈò–

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 Ñ˛yr›˛ xyˆÏúyÑ˛≤Ãy!ƈÏÑ˛ ¢ÇK˛y!Î˚ì˛ Ñ˛Ó˚ˆÏäÈò òyÓyúÑ˛c ˆÌˆÏÑ˛ ˆÓ!Ó˚ˆÏÎ˚ ~ˆÏ¢ ˛ô!Ó˚íì˛õòflÒ £ˆÏÎ˚ Á‡˛y ~ÓÇ x!¶˛¶˛yÓÑ˛ˆÏcÓ˚
ü,Cú ˆÌˆÏÑ˛ ˆÓ!Ó˚ˆÏÎ˚ xy¢yÓ˚ ~Ñ˛›˛y ≤Ã!e´Î˚y !£ˆÏ¢ˆÏÓ– x˛ô!Ó˚íì˛õò‹Òì˛yˆÏÑ˛ Ñ˛yr›˛ ˆîˆÏÖˆÏäÈò x˛ôˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ x!¶˛¶˛yÓÑ˛c ì˛Ìy !òˆÏî≈ü
äÈyv˛¸y !òˆÏãÓ˚ !â˛hs˘˛yü!_´ ÓƒÓ£yˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ x«˛õì˛y !£ˆÏ¢ˆÏÓ– Ñ˛yr›˛ ¢õyˆÏã Ñ˛ì,≈˛ˆÏcÓ˚ Ñ˛ˆÏ‡˛yÓ˚ !òÎ˚s˛fí ~ÓÇ Óƒ!_´ ì˛Ìy ˆÜy¤˛#Ó˚ !â˛hs˘˛y
Ñ˛Ó˚ÓyÓ˚ ¢y£ˆÏ¢Ó˚ x¶˛yˆÏÓÓ˚ õˆÏïƒ ~Ñ˛!›˛ ≤Ãì˛ƒ«˛ ¢¡ôÑ≈˛ˆÏÑ˛ ÓƒyÖƒy Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ˆÏäÈò ì§˛yÓ˚ ˆúÖyÎ˚– Ñ˛yr›˛ ì§˛yÓ˚ ˆúÖyÓ˚ ÷Ó˚&ˆÏì˛£z
xyˆÏúyÑ˛≤Ãy!ÆÓ˚ ˆÎ ˜Ó!ü‹TƒˆÏÑ˛ ¢ÓˆÏâ˛ˆÏÎ˚ ˆÓ!ü Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ =Ó˚&c !îˆÏÎ˚ˆÏäÈò ì˛y £ú !ò‹;˛õí Óy Ó!£Ü≈õò– ì§˛yÓ˚ õˆÏì˛ ~£z Ó!£Ü≈õò Óƒ!_´
ì˛Ìy ˆÜy¤˛#Ó˚ òyÓyúÑ˛ˆÏcÓ˚ hfl˛ÏÓ˚ ˆÌˆÏÑ˛ ì˛yˆÏîÓ˚ v˛zk˛yÓ˚ Ñ˛Ó˚yÓ˚ ~Ñ˛!›˛ !e´Î˚y– Ñ˛yr›˛ òyÓyúÑ˛ˆÏcÓ˚ v˛zîy£Ó˚í !£¢yˆÏÓ xyõyˆÏîÓ˚ !ì˛ò!›˛Î˚
xÓfl˛iyÓ˚ Ñ˛Ìy !úˆÏÖˆÏäÈò– ˆ¢=!ú £úÈÙÙÙÈxyõyˆÏîÓ˚ !òãfl˛∫ ˆÓyïü!_´Ó˚ ˛ô!Ó˚ÓˆÏì≈˛ ~Ñ˛!›˛ Ó£z ÎÖò xyõyˆÏîÓ˚ !ü«˛ˆÏÑ˛Ó˚ Óy ˆÓyˆÏïÓ˚
fl˛iyò @˘Ã£í Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ ì˛Öòñ xyïƒy!dÑ˛ =Ó˚&Ó˚ !òˆÏî≈ü ÎÖò xyõyˆÏîÓ˚ ˜ò!ì˛Ñ˛ ˆâ˛ì˛òy ì˛Ìy !ÓˆÏÓÑ˛ˆÏÓyˆÏïÓ˚ |ˆÏïπ≈ xy¢ò ˛ôyÎ˚ ì˛Öò
~ÓÇ ÎÖò ~Ñ˛ãò v˛y_´yÓ˚ xyõyˆÏîÓ˚ £ˆÏÎ˚ !¢k˛yhs˘˛ @˘Ã£í Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ò xyõyˆÏîÓ˚ xy£yÎ≈ !Ñ˛ £ˆÏÓ ì˛Öò– x˛ô!Ó˚íì˛õò‹Òì˛yˆÏÑ˛ Ñ˛yr›˛
ˆîˆÏÖ!äȈÏúò Ñ˛ì,≈˛ˆÏcÓ˚ Ñ˛yˆÏäÈ !â˛hs˘˛y!Ó£#ò xyò%܈Ïì˛ƒÓ˚ ≤ÃÑ˛yü !£ˆÏ¢ˆÏÓ– ì§˛yÓ˚ Ñ˛yˆÏäÈ xyˆÏúyÑ˛≤Ãy!Æ !äÈú ˆ¢£z õ%£)ì≈˛ñ ÎÖò õyò%°Ï
ì˛yÓ˚ !òˆÏãÓ˚ Î%!_´ ˆÑ˛ fl˛∫yï#ò ¶˛yˆÏÓ ÓƒÓ£yÓ˚ Ñ˛Ó˚ˆÏÓ ˆÑ˛yò Ñ˛ì,≈˛ˆÏcÓ˚ ˛ôˆÏÓ˚yÎ˚y òy Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ Óy ˆÑ˛yò Ñ˛ì,≈˛ˆÏcÓ˚ Ñ˛yˆÏäÈ ˆÑ˛yò Ó˚Ñ˛õ xyò%Üì˛ƒ
≤ÃÑ˛yü òy Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚– xÌ≈yÍ Óƒ!_´ÓÜ≈ ãò˛ô!Ó˚¢ˆÏÓ˚ fl˛∫yï#ò ¶˛yˆÏÓ Îì˛ ˆÓ!üõyeyÎ˚ Î%!_´Ó˚ ÓƒÓ£yÓ˚ Ñ˛Ó˚ˆÏì˛ ˛ôyÓ˚ˆÏÓ ˆ¢£z õyeyÎ˚ ì˛yÓ˚y
fl˛∫yï#ò Á xyˆÏúyÑ˛≤ÃyÆ £ˆÏÎ˚ v˛z‡˛ˆÏÓ–
Ñ˛yˆÏr›˛Ó˚ Ñ˛yˆÏäÈ xyˆÏúyÑ˛≤Ãy!Æ ~Ñ˛!›˛ â˛úõyò ≤Ã!e´Î˚y– !ì˛!ò ~ˆÏÑ˛ ~Ñ˛£z ¢ˆÏD Óƒ!_´Ó˚ îy!Î˚c Á ì˛yÓ˚ Ñ˛ì≈˛Óƒ ÓˆÏú v˛zˆÏÕ‘Ö
Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ˆÏäÈò– ì§˛yÓ˚ ˆúÖyÓ˚ ÷Ó˚&ˆÏì˛£z Ñ˛yr›˛ !úÖˆÏäÈò ˆÎñ Óƒ!_´Ó˚ òyÓyúÑ˛c Óy x˛ô!Ó˚íì˛õòflÒì˛yÓ˚ ãòƒ Óƒ!_´ ì˛Ìy !Ó°ÏÎ˚# !òˆÏã£z
îyÎ˚#– ì˛y£z Ñ˛yˆÏr›˛Ó˚ õˆÏì˛ñ Óƒ!_´Ó˚ ~£z x˛ô!Ó˚íì˛ xÓfl˛iy õ%!_´ ˛ôyÓyÓ˚ ãòƒ Óƒ!_´ˆÏÑ˛ !òˆÏãˆÏÑ˛£z v˛zˆÏîƒyÜ# £ˆÏì˛ £ˆÏÓñ ~ÓÇ
!òˆÏãˆÏÑ˛£z !òˆÏãˆÏîÓ˚ˆÏÑ˛ ˛ô!Ó˚Óì≈˛ò Ñ˛Ó˚ÓyÓ˚ îy!Î˚c !òˆÏì˛ £ˆÏÓ– Ñ˛yˆÏr›˛Ó˚ õˆÏì˛ xyˆÏúyÑ˛≤Ãy!ÆÓ˚ ~Ñ˛!›˛ ˜Ó!ü‹Tƒ˛ô)í≈ ˙!ì˛£ƒÓ£òÑ˛yÓ˚#
Ó˚*˛ôÑ˛ (Wahlsprach) Ó˚ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏäÈ– xyˆÏäÈ ~Ñ˛!›˛ !òˆÏî≈üñ Îy !òˆÏãˆÏîÓ˚ ˛ôyúò Ñ˛Ó˚yÓ˚ ~ÓÇ xòƒˆÏÑ˛ ˛ôyúò Ñ˛Ó˚ÓyÓ˚ xy£πyò ãyòyÎ˚–
ì˛y£ˆÏú ˆ¢£z !òˆÏî≈ü!›˛ !‡˛Ñ˛ !Ñ˛⁄ Ñ˛yˆÏr›˛Ó˚ õˆÏì˛ !òˆÏî≈ü!›˛ £ˆÏúy ≠ ‘Audi sapre’ xÌ≈yÍ Ú!òˆÏãÓ˚ ãòƒ !òˆÏã£z !â˛hs˘˛y Ñ˛Ó˚ÓyÓ˚ ¢y£¢
Ó˚yˆÏÖyÛñ ÚãyòÓyÓ˚ ãòƒ ¢y£¢# £ÁÎ˚yÛñ Ú¢y£¢ ~ÓÇ fl˛ôï≈y Ó˚yÖ ãyòÓyÓ˚ ãòƒÛ– Ñ˛yˆÏr›˛Ó˚ õˆÏì˛ xyˆÏúyÑ˛≤Ãy!ƈÏÑ˛ ˆîÖy v˛z!â˛ì˛
~Ñ˛!›˛ ≤Ã!e´Î˚y !£ˆÏ¢ˆÏÓ ˆÎÖyˆÏò Óƒ!_´ÓÜ≈ xÇü@˘Ã£í Ñ˛Ó˚ˆÏÓ ˆÎÔ̶˛yˆÏÓ !Ñ˛ls˘˛ ¢y£ˆÏ¢Ó˚ ˛ô!Ó˚â˛Î˚ ˆîˆÏÓ Óƒ!_´Üì˛¶˛yˆÏÓ– Ñ˛yˆÏr›˛Ó˚
Ó_´Óƒò%¢yˆÏÓ˚ñ Óƒ!_´ ~Ñ˛£z ¢ˆÏD ~£z ≤Ã!e´Î˚yÓ˚ v˛z˛ôÑ˛Ó˚í xyÓyÓ˚ ~Ñ˛£z ¢ˆÏD ~£z ≤Ã!e´Î˚yˆÏÑ˛ ~!܈ÏÎ˚ !òˆÏÎ˚ ÎyÓyÓ˚ ~Ñ˛ãò ¢!e´Î˚
Ñ˛ì≈˛yÁ ӈϛ˛– Óƒ!_´ÓÜ≈ ì˛ì˛›˛y ˛ôÎ≈hs˘˛ ~£z ≤Ã!e´Î˚yÎ˚ xÇü@˘Ã£íÑ˛yÓ˚# £ˆÏÎ˚ v˛z‡˛ˆÏì˛ ˛ôyˆÏÓ˚ Îì˛›˛y ˛ôÎ≈hs˘˛ ì˛yÓ˚y ˆfl˛∫FäÈyÎ˚ xÇü@˘Ã£í Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚–
xyÓyÓ˚ xyˆÏúyÑ˛≤Ãy!ÆÓ˚ ≤Ã!e´Î˚y!›˛Á ì˛ì˛ î)Ó˚ x!∑ !Óhfl˛,Ïì˛ £Î˚ Îì˛›˛y x!∑ Óƒ!_´ÓÜ≈ ~£z ≤Ã!e´Î˚yÎ˚ xÇü@˘Ã£í Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ ~ˆÏÑ˛ ~!܈ÏÎ˚
!òˆÏÎ˚ ÎyÎ˚ñ ì˛yÓ˚ õyeyÓ˚ Á˛ôÓ˚ !ò¶≈˛Ó˚ Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚–
Ñ˛yr›˛ ì§˛yÓ˚ Ó˚â˛òyˆÏì˛ î%!›˛ =Ó˚&c˛ô)í≈ üˆÏì≈˛Ó˚ Ñ˛Ìy !úˆÏÖˆÏäÈòñ ÎyÓ˚ myÓ˚y õyòÓãy!ì˛ ˆÎ x˛ô!Ó˚íì˛õò‹Ò ì˛Ìy òyÓyúÑ˛ˆÏcÓ˚
xÓfl˛iyÎ˚ Ó˚ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏäÈ ˆ¢Öyò ˆÌˆÏÑ˛ ˆÓ!Ó˚ˆÏÎ˚ xy¢ˆÏì˛ ˛ôyˆÏÓ˚– ì˛yÓ˚ õˆÏïƒ ≤ÃÌõ!›˛ £ˆÏúyñ xyïƒy!cÑ˛ ~ÓÇ ≤Ãy!ì˛¤˛y!òÑ˛ ~ÓÇ !mì˛#Î˚!›˛
£ˆÏúy ˜ò!ì˛Ñ˛ ~ÓÇ Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛– ≤ÃÌõ üì≈˛ !£¢yˆÏÓ Ñ˛yr›˛ î%£z!›˛ ˛ô!Ó˚¢Ó˚ˆÏÑ˛ ¢¡ô)í≈ ˛ô,ÌÑ˛ Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ ˆîÖÓyÓ˚ Ñ˛Ìy ÓˆÏúò– ≤ÃÌõ
˛ô!Ó˚¢Ó˚!›˛ £ú xyò%Üì˛ƒ Á Óyïƒì˛yÓ˚ ˛ô!Ó˚¢Ó˚ xÌ≈yÍ ˆÑ˛yÌyÎ˚ ~ÓÇ Ñ˛Öò xyõÓ˚y xò%Üì˛ ¶˛yˆÏÓ Î%!_´Ó˚ ÓƒÓ£yÓ˚ Ñ˛Ó˚ˆÏÓy Á Óyïƒì˛y
≤Ãîü≈ò Ñ˛Ó˚ˆÏÓy ~ÓÇ !mì˛#Î˚ ˛ô!Ó˚¢Ó˚!›˛ £ú Î%!_´ ÓƒÓ£yˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ ¢yÓ≈ãò#ò ˛ô!Ó˚¢Ó˚ xÌ≈yÍ ˆÑ˛yÌyÎ˚ ~ÓÇ Ñ˛Öò xyõÓ˚y fl˛∫yï#ò¶˛yˆÏÓ
Î%!_´Ó˚ ÓƒÓ£yÓ˚ Ñ˛Ó˚Ó– Î%!_´Ó˚ xò%Üì˛ Á ¢yÓ≈ãò#ò ÓƒÓ£yˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ ˛ô!Ó˚¢ˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ ˛ô,ÌÑ˛#Ñ˛Ó˚íˆÏÑ˛ Ñ˛yr›˛ x˛ô!Ó˚íì˛ xÓfl˛iy ˆÌˆÏÑ˛ Óƒ!_´Ó˚
¢yÓyúÑ˛ˆÏc v˛z˛ôyÎ˚ !£ˆÏ¢ˆÏÓ ˆîˆÏÖˆÏäÈò–

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 òyÓúÑ˛ˆÏcÓ˚ xÓfl˛iy ÓúˆÏì˛ Ñ˛# ˆÓyG˛yÎ˚ ì˛yÓ˚ ~Ñ˛!›˛ ¢Ç!«˛Æ !ÓÓÓ˚í ˆîÓyÓ˚ ˛ôÓ˚ Ñ˛yr›˛ ~£z xÓfl˛iyˆÏÑ˛ ÓƒyÖƒy Ñ˛Ó˚yÓ˚ ãòƒ
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xò%üy¢òñ Ó˚yã˜Ïò!ì˛Ñ˛ ü!_´ ~ÓÇ ïõ≈#Î˚ Ñ˛ì,≈˛˛ô«˛ ¢yïyÓ˚íì˛ ~£zÓ˚Ñ˛õ !òˆÏî≈ü !îˆÏÎ˚ ÌyˆÏÑ˛– Ñ˛yˆÏr›˛Ó˚ õˆÏì˛ õyòÓãy!ì˛ ì˛Öò£z
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Á ¢¡ôÑ≈˛ õyò%°ÏˆÏÑ˛ üy!¢ì˛ñ !òï≈y!Ó˚ì˛ñ ¢#õy!Î˚ì˛ Á !ò!õ≈ì˛ Ñ˛Ó˚ˆÏì˛ ¢ˆÏⲋT ì˛yÓ˚ ˆÌˆÏÑ˛ ˆÓ!Ó˚ˆÏÎ˚ xy¢ÓyÓ˚ ~Ñ˛›˛y ≤ÈÏⲋTy !£ˆÏ¢ˆÏÓ–
!e´!›˛ˆÏÑ˛Ó˚ ~£z ïÓ˚ò!›˛ˆÏÑ˛ ö%˛ˆÏÑ˛y ÓƒyÖƒy Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ˆÏäÈò xyd!òÎ˚s˛fˆÏíÓ˚ xò%ü#úò !£ˆÏ¢ˆÏÓ– ö%˛ˆÏÑ˛yÓ˚ õˆÏì˛ !e´!›˛ˆÏÑ˛Ó˚ xyï%!òÑ˛ ïyÓ˚íyÓ˚
ãß√ £ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏäÈ üy¢òì˛s˛fˆÏÑ˛ ≤ß¿ Ñ˛Ó˚ÓyÓ˚ õïƒ !îˆÏÎ˚£z– ö%˛ˆÏÑ˛y ˆî!ÖˆÏÎ˚ˆÏäÈò üy¢òì˛ˆÏs˛fÓ˚ !ÓÓ˚&ˆÏk˛ ≤Ã!ì˛ˆÏÓ˚yï Ñ˛ÖˆÏòy£z â˛Ó˚õ !ÓÓ˚&k˛ì˛yÓ˚
xÌ≈yÍ xyõÓ˚y üy!¢ì˛ £ˆÏì˛£z â˛y£zòy ~£z Ó˚Ñ˛õ Ó˚*˛ô ˆòÎ˚òy– ÓÓ˚Çñ üy¢òì˛ˆÏs˛fÓ˚ !ÓÓ˚&ˆÏk˛ ≤Ã!ì˛ˆÏÓ˚yï xˆÏòÑ˛›˛y£z xyÇ!üÑ˛– ~ÓÇ
ì˛y üy¢òì˛ˆÏs˛fÓ˚ !Ñ˛ä%È !Ñ˛ä%È ò#!ì˛Üì˛ Á ˛ôk˛!ì˛Üì˛ !ÓˆÏÓ˚y!ïì˛yÓ˚ v˛z˛ôÓ˚ î§y!v˛¸ˆÏÎ˚– ~ÖyˆÏò ~£z Óƒy˛ôyÓ˚›˛y =Ó˚&c ˛ôyÎ˚ òy ˆÎñ xyõÓ˚y
üy!¢ì˛ £ˆÏì˛£z â˛y£z òy ÓÓ˚Ç ˆÎ Óƒy˛ôyÓ˚!›˛ ˆÓ!ü =Ó˚&c ˛ôyÎ˚ ˆ¢!›˛ £úñ xyõÓ˚y !‡˛Ñ˛ Ñ˛# xˆÏÌ≈ Óy !Ñ˛¶˛yˆÏÓ üy!¢ì˛ £ˆÏì˛ â˛y£z òy–
«˛õì˛y Ú¢ì˛ƒÛ ÓúˆÏì˛ !Ñ˛ ˆÓyG˛yÎ˚ñ Úfl˛∫y¶˛y!ÓÑ˛Û ÓúˆÏì˛ !Ñ˛ ˆÓyG˛yÎ˚ ì˛y ¢Ç˘K˛y!Î˚ì˛ Á !òï≈y!Ó˚ì˛ Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚– !Ó°ÏÎ˚# ˆ¢£z ¢ì˛ƒ ˆõyì˛yˆÏÓÑ˛
!òˆÏãˆÏîÓ˚ fl˛∫y¶˛y!ÓÑ˛ !£ˆÏ¢ˆÏÓ ÜˆÏv˛¸ ì%˛ˆÏú !òˆÏãÓ˚ xãyˆÏhs˘˛£z !òˆÏãˆÏîÓ˚ˆÏÑ˛ «˛õì˛yÓ˚ xï#ˆÏò !òˆÏÎ˚ xyˆÏ¢– ~ÖyˆÏò !e´!›˛Ñ˛ õ)úì˛
!Ó°ÏÎ˚#ˆÏÑ˛ «˛õì˛yÓ˚ myÓ˚y !ò!õ≈ì˛ ¢ì˛ƒˆÏÑ˛ xfl˛∫#Ñ˛yÓ˚ Ñ˛Ó˚ÓyÓ˚ «˛õì˛y ˆîÎ˚– üy¢òì˛s˛f !Ó°ÏÎ˚#ˆÏÑ˛ «˛õì˛yÓ˚ xï#ò Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ ˆÎ «˛õì˛y
¢ˆÏì˛ƒÓ˚ îyÓ# Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚– xòƒ!îˆÏÑ˛ !e´!›˛Ñ˛ !Ó°ÏÎ˚#ˆÏÑ˛ x!ïÑ˛yÓ˚ ˆîÎ˚ñ ˆÎÖyˆÏò !Ó°ÏÎ˚# ¢ˆÏì˛ƒÓ˚ v˛z˛ôÓ˚ «˛õì˛yÓ˚ ≤ö˛yÓ ~ÓÇ «˛õì˛yÓ˚
v˛z˛ôˆÏÓ˚ ¢ˆÏì˛ƒÓ˚ !v˛¢Ñ˛yÓ˚!¢¶˛ !òÎ˚s˛fí ¢¡ôˆÏÑ≈˛ xhs˘˛Ó˚ì˛îhs˘˛ Ñ˛Ó˚ÓyÓ˚– ö%˛ˆÏÑ˛y !e´!›˛ˆÏÑ˛ ˆîˆÏÖˆÏäÈò Ú˜fl˛∫!FäÈÑ˛ ¶˛yˆÏÓ îy¢c ˆÌˆÏÑ˛
ˆÓ!Ó˚ˆÏÎ˚ xy¢yÓ˚ ~Ñ˛!›˛ ˆÑ˛Ôüú !£ˆÏ¢ˆÏÓÛñ ˆÎ!›˛ õ)úì˛ Ú~Ñ˛!›˛ !â˛hs˘˛y˛ô)í≈ xÓyïƒì˛yÛ ÎyÓ˚ õ)ú v˛zˆÏjüƒ £ˆÏFäÈ Ú¢ˆÏì˛ƒÓ˚ Ó˚yãò#!ì˛Û
ˆÌˆÏÑ˛ Ú!Ó°ÏÎ˚#Ó˚ õ%!_´Ñ˛Ó˚íÛ– ö%˛ˆÏÑ˛yÓ˚ õˆÏì˛ !e´!›˛ˆÏÑ˛Ó˚ ~Ñ˛!›˛ ≤Ã!ì˛ˆÏÓ˚yïÑ˛yÓ˚# Á !ÓˆÏÓ˚yï#ì˛yÓ˚ ¶)˛!õÑ˛y xyˆÏäÈ– ÎÖò Óƒ!_´ÓˆÏÜ≈Ó˚
Ñ˛yˆÏäÈ !Óîƒõyò ¢ì˛ƒ K˛yò Á «˛õì˛yÓ˚ ¢¡ôÑ≈˛ x¢£ò#Î˚ £ˆÏÎ˚ ÁˆÏ‡˛ñ ì˛Öò ì˛yÓ˚y Ñ˛ì,≈˛ˆÏcÓ˚ !ÓÓ˚&ˆÏk˛ ≤ß¿ Ñ˛Ó˚ˆÏì˛ Óyïƒ £Î˚ñ ˆÎ Úxy!õ

67
!Ñ˛¶˛yˆÏÓ üy!¢ì˛ £Ó òyñ ~ˆÏîÓ˚ myÓ˚yñ ~£zÓ˚Ñ˛õ ¶˛yˆÏÓñ ~£z¢Ó ò#!ì˛Ó˚ òyˆÏõñ ~£z¢Ó v˛zˆÏjüƒ ãòƒñ ~£z¢Ó ˛ôk˛!ì˛Ó˚ ¢y£yˆÏ΃–Û
ì˛y£z !e´!›˛ˆÏÑ˛ ÓƒyÖƒy Ñ˛Ó˚y ÎyÎ˚ ~£z¶˛yˆÏÓ ˆÎñ ÚÁ£zÓ˚Ñ˛õ ˛ôk˛!ì˛Ó˚ myÓ˚y üy!¢ì˛ òy £ÁÎ˚yÓ˚ ˆÑ˛ÔüúÛ Óy Úˆfl˛∫FäÈyÎ˚ üy¢ò!ÓˆÏÓ˚yï#ì˛yÓ˚
ˆÑ˛ÔüúÛ !£ˆÏ¢ˆÏÓ–
ö%˛ˆÏÑ˛y !úÖˆÏäÈò Ñ˛yˆÏr›˛Ó˚ xyˆÏúyÑ˛≤Ãy!Æ ¢Çe´yhs˘˛ ~£z Ó˚â˛òy ¢yˆÏÌ ì˛yÓ˚ £z!ì˛£y¢ ¢Çe´yhs˘˛ xòƒyòƒ Ó˚â˛òyÈÙÈ¢õˆÏ@˘ÃÓ˚ ~Ñ˛!›˛
xhs˘˛!ò≈!£ì˛ ¢¡ôÑ≈˛ Ö%§ˆÏã ÓyÓ˚ Ñ˛Ó˚y îÓ˚Ñ˛yÓ˚– £z!ì˛£y¢ !Ó°ÏÎ˚Ñ˛ x!ïÑ˛yÇü ˆúÖy˛ôˆÏe Ñ˛yr›˛ ¢õˆÏÎ˚Ó˚ xhs˘˛!ò≈!£ì˛ ˛ôÓ˚õÑ˛yÓ˚íÓyî ~ÓÇ
õyòÓì˛yÓ˚ £z!ì˛£yˆÏ¢Ó˚ x@˘ÃÜ!ì˛ ˆÑ˛ ÓƒyÖƒy Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ˆÏäÈò– xyˆÏúyÑ˛≤Ãy!ÆÓ˚ !ӈϟ’°ÏˆÏíÓ˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe ~£z £z!ì˛£y¢ˆÏÑ˛ ÓƒyÖƒy Ñ˛Ó˚y £ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏäÈ
õyòÓì˛yÓ˚ ¢yÓyúÑ˛ˆÏc v˛z_Ó˚ˆÏíÓ˚ ˆ≤Ã!«˛ˆÏì˛– ˆÎ£z Ó˚*˛ôyhs˘˛ˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ ≤Ã!e´Î˚y!›˛ xÓüƒ£z ¢õ¢yõ!Î˚Ñ˛ Óyhfl˛ÏˆÏÓÓ˚ õˆÏïƒ xhs˘˛!ò≈!£ì˛ Ó˚ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏäÈ–
xyÓyÓ˚ ~Ñ˛£z ¢yˆÏÌ ¢yˆÏÌ xyˆÏúyÑ˛≤Ãy!ÆÓ˚ ¢y!Ó≈Ñ˛ xyˆÏ®yúò Á ì˛yÓ˚ õ)ú !îÑ˛=ˆÏúyÓ˚ ˆ≤Ã!«˛ì˛ ¢õ¢yõ!Î˚Ñ˛ Óyhfl˛ÏÓˆÏÑ˛ ~Ñ˛!›˛
!Ó!ü‹T xÓfl˛iyˆÏò v˛z˛ôò#ì˛ Ñ˛Ó˚ˆÏäÈ– ~›˛y ˆîÖyÎ˚ ˆÎñ ~£z õ%£)ˆÏì≈˛ ≤Ã!ì˛!›˛ Óƒ!_´ÓÜ≈ ˆÑ˛yò òy ˆÑ˛yˆÏòy¶˛yˆÏÓ xyˆÏúyÑ˛≤Ãy!ÆÓ˚
≤Ã!e´Î˚y!›˛ˆÏÑ˛ ¢ö˛ú¶˛yˆÏÓ ~!܈ÏÎ˚ !òˆÏÎ˚ ÎyÁÎ˚yÓ˚ ãòƒ îyÎ˚#–
ö%˛ˆÏÑ˛y ÓúˆÏäÈò Ñ˛yˆÏr›˛Ó˚ ~£z ˆäÈyR Ó˚â˛òy!›˛Ó˚ xÓfl˛iyò ì˛yÓ˚ !e´!›˛Ñ˛ƒyú !â˛hs˘˛y ~ÓÇ ì˛yÓ˚ £z!ì˛£y¢ !â˛hs˘˛yÓ˚ ¢!ı˛«˛ˆÏíÓ˚ õˆÏïƒ
xÓ!fl˛iì˛–

7.4 ö%˛ˆÏÑ˛yÛÓ˚ñ Ñ˛yˆÏr›˛Ó˚ ˆúÖyÎ˚ !ö˛ˆÏÓ˚ xy¢y

ö%˛ˆÏÑ˛y ≤ß¿ ì%˛ˆÏúˆÏäÈòñ xyõÓ˚y Ñ˛ÖˆÏòy£z ˛ô!Ó˚íì˛ ¢yÓyúÑ˛c xã≈ò Ñ˛Ó˚Ó !Ñ˛òy⁄ ì§˛yÓ˚ õˆÏì˛ñ xyˆÏúyÑ˛≤Ãy!ÆÓ˚ õˆÏì˛y ˙!ì˛£y!¢Ñ˛
ᛲòy xyõyˆÏîÓ˚ ¢yÓyúÑ˛ˆÏc v˛z_Ó˚í ᛲyˆÏì˛ ˛ôyˆÏÓ˚!ò– ~ÓÇ xyõÓ˚y ~ÖˆÏòyÁ ˆ¢£z ˛ôÎ≈yˆÏÎ˚ ˆ˛ôÔ§äÈyÎ˚!ò– xyˆÏúyÑ˛≤Ãy!ÆÓ˚ !ӰψÏÎ˚
Ñ˛yr›˛ ˆÎ !ӈϟ’°Ïí Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ˆÏäÈò ì˛yÓ˚ !¶˛!_ˆÏì˛ Óì≈˛õyò Á xyõyˆÏîÓ˚ !òˆÏãˆÏîÓ˚ v˛z˛ôˆÏÓ˚ ~Ñ˛!›˛ ¢õ#«˛yÜì˛ !ãK˛y¢yÓ˚ ¢,!‹T £ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏäÈ–
Óƒ!_´ÓÜ≈ ì˛Ìy xyõyˆÏîÓ˚ !òˆÏãˆÏÓ˚ ¢¡ôˆÏÑ≈˛ Ñ˛yˆÏr›˛Ó˚ ¢õ#«˛yÜì˛ x!ï!ÓîƒyˆÏÑ˛ ~Ñ˛!›˛ ì˛_¥ñ õì˛Óyî ~õò!Ñ˛ K˛yˆÏòÓ˚ fl˛iyÎ˚# Ó˚*˛ô Óúy
ÎyÎ˚ òy– ~›˛yˆÏÑ˛ ÓƒyÖƒy Ñ˛Ó˚y ÎyÎ˚ñ ~Ñ˛!›˛ õˆÏòy¶˛yÓñ ~Ñ˛!›˛ ¶˛yÓ¢_y Á ~Ñ˛!›˛ îyü≈!òÑ˛ ã#Óò !£¢yˆÏÓ– Îy !e´!›˛Ñ˛ Ñ˛Ó˚ˆÏÓ xyõÓ˚y
!‡˛Ñ˛ Ñ˛# xÌ≈yÍ xyõyˆÏîÓ˚ Óì≈˛õyò xÓfl˛iyñ xyõyˆÏîÓ˚ v˛z˛ôÓ˚ xyˆÏÓ˚y!˛ôì˛ ¢#õyÓk˛ì˛yÓ˚ ˙!ì˛£y!¢Ñ˛ Á îyü≈!òÑ˛ !ӈϟ’°Ïí ~ÓÇ ˆ¢£z
¢#õyÓk˛ì˛yˆÏÑ˛ x!ì˛e´õ Ñ˛Ó˚yÓ˚ ãòƒ ≤ÃyˆÏÎ˚y!ÜÑ˛ ˛ôÓ˚#«˛yõ)úÑ˛ Ñ˛yãÈÙÙÙÈ~£z ¢õhfl˛Ï !ӰψÏÎ˚–
~£z îyü≈!òÑ˛ õˆÏòy¶˛yÓˆÏÑ˛ òyòy!Óï xò%¢ı˛yˆÏòÓ˚ Ñ˛yˆÏÎ≈ !òˆÏÎ˚y!ãì˛ Ñ˛Ó˚ˆÏì˛ £ˆÏÓ– Óƒ!_´!ÓˆÏüˆÏ°ÏÓ˚ x¶˛ƒy¢ Á Ñ˛yÎ≈Ñ˛úy˛ôˆÏÑ˛
xyõyˆÏîÓ˚ ˆîÖˆÏì˛ £ˆÏÓ ~Ñ˛yïyˆÏÓ˚ ≤ÃÎ%!_´Üì˛ Î%!_´Ó˚ !òÎ˚!s˛fì˛ Ó˚*˛ô !£ˆÏ¢ˆÏÓ xyÓyÓ˚ !ò˛ô#v˛¸ò ˆÌˆÏÑ˛ õ%!_´Ó˚ ˆÑ˛Ôüú !£ˆÏ¢ˆÏÓÁ–
~£z xò%¢ı˛yò Ñ˛yÎ≈ ≤Ãíyú#Üì˛ ¶˛yˆÏÓ ¢Ç£!ì˛ ÓãyÎ˚ Ó˚yÖyÓ˚ ãòƒ ≤Ãbì˛y!_¥Ñ˛ Á ÓÇüyò%â˛!Ó˚ì˛ ~£z î%!›˛ ˛ôk˛!ì˛Ó˚£z ~Ñ˛£z¢ˆÏD
xò%ü#úò Ñ˛Ó˚ˆÏÓ– ì˛_¥Üì˛¶˛yˆÏÓñ xyõyˆÏîÓ˚ ¢ˆÏD Óhfl%˛Ó˚ ¢¡ôÑ≈˛ñ xyõyˆÏîÓ˚ ¢ˆÏD xˆÏòƒÓ˚ ¢¡ôÑ≈˛ñ ~ÓÇ xyõyˆÏîÓ˚ ¢ˆÏD xyõyˆÏîÓ˚
¢¡ôÑ≈˛ ~£z¢ˆÏÓÓ˚ ¢Ó≈ãò#òì˛y xÌ≈yÍ !â˛Ó˚hs˘˛ò ¶˛yÓòyˆÏÑ˛ ¢õ¢ƒy!Î˚ì˛ Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ ~£z ≤ÈÏì˛ƒÑ˛!›˛ ¢¡ôˆÏÑ≈˛Ó˚ !ò!î≈‹Tì˛y Á xòòƒì˛yˆÏÑ˛
¢ÇK˛y!Î˚ì˛ Ñ˛Ó˚ˆÏÓ– ˙!ì˛£y!¢Ñ˛ ¢õyˆÏúyâ˛òy !¶˛!_Ñ˛ ≤Ã!ì˛Ó˚*˛ôˆÏÑ˛ Óyhfl˛ÏˆÏÓÓ˚ xò%ü#úò=!úˆÏÑ˛ ˛ôÓ˚#«˛yÓ˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe ÓƒÓ£yÓ˚ Ñ˛Ó˚ˆÏì˛
£ˆÏÓ– ö%˛ˆÏÑ˛yÓ˚ õˆÏì˛ñ !e´!›˛Ñ˛ƒyú Ñ˛õ≈ïyÓ˚y xyˆÏúyÑ˛≤Ãy!ÆÓ˚ v˛z˛ôÓ˚ ¢y!Ó≈Ñ˛ !ÓŸªy¢ fl˛iy˛ôò Ñ˛ˆÏÓ˚ ~ˆÏÜyˆÏÓ Óƒy˛ôyÓ˚›˛y !Ñ˛ls˘˛ ì˛y òÎ˚– ÓÓ˚Çñ
xyˆÏúyÑ˛≤Ãy!ÆÓ˚ ö˛¢ú !e´!›˛Ñ˛ xyˆÏúyÑ˛≤Ãy!Æãyì˛ !â˛hs˘˛y¶˛yÓòy Á Î%!_´ˆÏÑ˛Á ≤Èϟ¿Ó˚ ¢¡ø%Ö#ò Ñ˛Ó˚ˆÏÓ– ö%˛ˆÏÑ˛y xyˆÏúyÑ˛≤Ãy!ƈÏÑ˛
ˆîˆÏÖˆÏäÈò ~Ñ˛!›˛ !e´!›˛Ñ˛yú õˆÏòy¶˛!D !£¢yˆÏÓ– !ì˛!òñ xyõyˆÏîÓ˚ v˛z˛ôÓ˚ xyˆÏÓ˚y!˛ôì˛ ¢#õyÓk˛ì˛y Á ˆ¢£z ¢#õyÓk˛ì˛y ˆÌˆÏÑ˛
v˛z_Ó˚ˆÏíÓ˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe !e´!›˛ˆÏÑ˛Ó˚ Ó,£Íì˛Ó˚ ¶)˛!õÑ˛yÓ˚ v˛z˛ôˆÏÓ˚ ˆÓ!üõyeyÎ˚ ˆãyÓ˚ !îˆÏÎ˚ˆÏäÈò– ö%˛ˆÏÑ˛y !úˆÏÖˆÏäÈòñ ÚxˆÏòÑ˛ Ñ˛yã Ñ˛Ó˚y
≤ÈÏÎ˚yãò˛ó õ%!_´Ó˚ ãòƒ xyõyˆÏîÓ˚ x˜ÏïÎ≈ì˛y ˆÑ˛ ˜ïÎ≈˛ô)í≈ Ñ˛õ≈Ñ˛yˆÏ[˛Ó˚ xyÑ˛yÓ˚ !îˆÏì˛ £ˆÏÓ–Û

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7.5 õ)úƒyÎ˚ò !ò!õ_ ≤ß¿yÓú#
Ñ˛V ÚxyˆÏúyÑ˛≤Ãy!ÆÛ !òˆÏÎ˚ xyˆÏúyâ˛òy Ñ˛Ó˚&ò–
ÖV Ñ˛yˆÏr›˛Ó˚ xyˆÏúyÑ˛≤Ãy!Æ ¢Çe´yhs˘˛ ¶˛yÓòyÓ˚ ˆ≤Ã!«˛ˆÏì˛ ö%˛ˆÏÑ˛yÛÓ˚ xyˆÏúyÑ˛≤Ãy!Æ îü≈ò !òˆÏÎ˚ xyˆÏúyâ˛òy Ñ˛Ó˚&ò–

7.6 ¢y£yÎƒÑ˛yÓ˚# @˘Ãs˛i˛ôO#

i. Clarke, Michael. (1997). Kant’s Rhetoric of Enlightenment. The Review of Politics, 59 (1),
53-73.
ii. Pryor, Benjamin S. (2002). Foucault’s Enlightened Reaction. Human Studies, 25 (3), 317-321.
iii. Rousseau, G. S. (1972-1973). Review: Whose Enlightenment? Not Man’s: The Case of Michel
Foucault. Eighteenth Century Studies, 6 (2), 238-256.

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 C.C. : 1.1
Unit-8

Richard Rorty : Critique of Cartesian-Kantian

Foundation
Contents :
8.1 Objectives
8.2 Life, Background, and Influences
8.3 Important Works and Corresponding Ideas
8.3.1 Important Works
8.3.2 Critical Concepts
i. Language as a Tool
ii. On Human Nature
iii. On the American Democracy
8.4 Contemporary Relevance
8.5 Self Assessment Questions
8.6 Suggested Readings

8.1 Objectives
This unit provides on introduction to the philosophy of the American philosopher Richard Rorty (1931-
2007). Rorty was one of the foremost practitioners of pragmatist thought in America. The significance of his
writings to American society at the turn of the century is similar to the critical hold exercised by John Stuart
Mill’s works in England of the early nineteenth-century. The module shall offer ways of conceptualizing Rorty’s
most significant arguments and place them in relation to the developments in American society of the time.

8.2 Life, Background, and Influences

Richard Rorty was born on October 4th, 1931, in New York City. The household he was born into was
anti-Leftist. In his Achieving Our Country, Rorty qualifies the circle he was born into as bringing together
“American patriotism, redistributionist economics, anticommunism, and Deweyan pragmatism” easily and
organically (AC 61). In 1946, Rorty went to the University of Chicago, to a philosophy department which

70
at that time included Rudolph Carnap, Charles Hartshorne, and Richard McKeon, all of whom were Rorty’s
teachers. After receiving his BA in 1949, Rorty stayed on at Chicago to complete an M.A. (1952) with a
thesis on Whitehead supervised by Hartshorne. From 1952 to 1956 Rorty was at Yale, where he wrote a
dissertation entitled “The Concept of Potentiality.” His supervisor was Paul Weiss. After the completion of his
Ph.D., followed by two years in the army, Rorty received his first academic appointment, at Wellesley
College. In 1961, after three years at Wellesley, Rorty moved to Princeton University where he stayed until
he went to the University of Virginia, in 1982, as Kenan Professor of the Humanities. Rorty left the University
of Virginia in 1998, accepting an appointment in the Department of Comparative Literature at Stanford
University. In the course of his career, Rorty received several academic awards and honours, including a
Guggenheim Fellowship (1973-74) and a MacArthur Fellowship (1981-1986). He held a number of
prestigious lectureships, giving, among others, the Northcliffe Lectures at University College, London (1986),
the Clark Lectures at Trinity College, Cambridge (1987), and the Massey Lectures at Harvard (1997). Rorty
died June 8, 2007.

8.3 Important Works and Critical Concepts

8.3.1 Important Works

One of the earliest books written by Rorty was Philosophy and the Mirror of Nature (1979) and it
discusses the critical significance of Cartesian thought for transforming the ways of viewing the world.
Descartes proposed a radical skepticism towards the world, denying the independent existence of objects
outside of the perceptible abilities of the discerning mind. His statement, “I think therefore I am,” although
controversial in its closing off of the sensorial sensations of the world, is important because it allows the human
mind an autonomy towards making sense of the world.
Drawing from Cartesian principles, Immanuel Kant, one of the leading minds who helped shape the
Enlightenment, suggests that the truths perceived by the mind can be gathered into a uniform whole. For Rorty,
a postmodernist, both the supremacy of the mind and the unity of truth are problematic. However, he
acknowledges the importance of Kant’s philosophy when he writes:
This is equivalent to saying that if we do not have the distinction between what is “given” and
what is “added by the mind,” or that between the “contingent” (because influenced by what is
given) and the necessary (because entirely “within” the mind and under its control), then we will
not know what would count as a “rational reconstruction” of our knowledge. We will not know
what epistemology’s goal or method could be. (PMN 168-9)
Kantian principles are therefore important for Rorty because they offer the paradigm of the confluence
of concepts and intuitions. The combinatory logic between the two makes it easy to dismantle the paradigm
since the individual is not dealing with one singular truth.
Cartesian principles of understanding the world through the deductions of the mind paved the way for
Rationalist thought. It denied the sensory experience of the world in order to maintain a purity of the mind’s

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deductions about the world. Kant, in an attempt to bridge the world of matter and spirit, suggests that
knowledge of the world is dependent on both rational concepts and on the ways in which one intuits a sense
of the world. Both these ideas do not hold in the postmodern world where everything is linguistically
contingent, and where there cannot be an existence of a singular truth.
Richard Rorty’s claims about the world are advancement on these logical deadends of Cartesian and
Kantian thought. His ideas are indebted to Thomas Kuhn’s idea of “paradigm shift” and Wilfrid Sellar’s
concept of “psychological nominalism.” Kuhn’s idea of “paradigm shift” suggests that certain ideas and beliefs
hold true within a certain paradigm. For example, Newton’s concept of space-time linearity holds true within
a particular paradigm. Post the discoveries of Einstein, the folds of space-time were revealed to be curves
and thus constituted a “paradigm shift” in science. Rorty develops on this idea to state that certain truths—
whether political or social—hold true for only their specific paradigms. In addition he borrows from Sellar’s
notion of all truth being a product of language. In Empiricism and the Philosophy of the Mind, Sellars
describes “psychological nominalism” as “the denial that there is any awareness of logical space prior to, or
independent of the acquisition of a language” (66). Thus, not only are truths dependent on the paradigms that
they belong to, they are also established by the orders of language and cannot exist a priori.
In the introduction to the works, Truth and Progress (1998) and Philosophy and Social Hope (2000),
Rorty attacks the transcendental and universally applicable nature of truths. In these two principle writings,
Rorty claims that although striving towards truth is a commendable goal, yet aiming for truth does not mean
nearing the approximation to truth. For Rorty, what is important, is apprehending the concept of truth not as
fixed but dependent on specific realities and linguistic modes of expression. Due to this fundamental
contingency, there can be no superlative or legitimate practice for inferring truth.

8.3.2 Critical Concepts

i. Language as a Tool
As mentioned earlier, Thomas Kuhn argues that within a specific paradigm, only one particular truth can
hold true. But in a separate paradigm, the truth may be entirely different. Kuhn goes so far to claim that
changes in the perceptions of the world results in new ways of perceiving the world. The transformation of
the old world into the new develops from a faith in the transformational power of the metaphor. As we know,
according to the scientific realist, the truth is out there to be perceived in the external world, and the truth
requires some sort of correspondence between words and objects and events in the external world. However,
such a view is contested by the anti-realist Quine, who says that there can be no single theoretical statement
that can be conclusively verified or falsified. For Quine, the meaning of a statement is given by its truth-
conditions, which are in turn interwoven with the entire fabric of accepted beliefs. Rorty is against the
correspondence-theory of truth as proposed by Kuhn and supports Quine’s argument that that there can be
as many ways of relating observation to theory as there are language games
The correspondence theory about truth states that a sentence is true if what it describes really occurs in
the world. For example, “The cat is on the table.” The delineation of the truth in this case appears simple

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and unobjectionable, given that the cat is really located on the table. Rorty contests this idea, stating that the
sentence is only a mere structure of relations between words rather than the origin for ideas or concepts. For
example, the noun “cat” is related to “table” by the means of the phrase “is on”, which in turn comprises of
“is” and “on.” Rorty, therefore, claims that one must not mistake the ways in which things occur in the world
with the way in which they are represented in language. In some languages, the preposition “on” and its related
meaning can be replaced by “over” and its attendant meanings.
Rorty comes to the conclusion that the world really does not have a structure. This goes against
Descartes’s faith in the conditionality implicit in the statement, “I think, therefore, I am.” In other languages,
the conditional fact of “I am” can very well precede “I think.” For Rorty, then, discovery of particular
structures in the world is contingent on the abilities to converse in a particular language. We see the world
through the language that we use. So, instead of analyzing truths and their irrefutable claims over the nature
of human ethics and value, language itself needs to be analysed.
When Rorty’s arguments are applied to the study of political societies, it becomes apparent that language
is merely a tool utilized for reaching a goal. For example, mainstream Western societies might want to achieve
stable democracies with reasonable amounts of personal liberties and economic freedom. In order to function
with such political ideals, they have to generate a specific set of political terminologies which can hold true
for a particular society and are in turn, communicable to other societies. Terms such as “constitution,” “human
rights,” “libel” and “dissent,” among others, and their meanings play a significant role in upholding a collectively
ascertained set of political goals. For Rorty, a theory of the best-functioning political society is best on account
of its efficiency in leading one to a specific goal. One political model cannot be deemed superior to another,
since at any given point, it is impossible to know if there are better theories which allow us to reach our goals
quicker and more efficiently. Rorty, then, famously claims that if there are incompatible goals then the truths
are also equally incompatible.

ii. On Human Nature

Rorty argues that there is no point in talking about and recovering an idea of a constant human nature
when all that should actually be talked about is the nature of political societies. He argues that there is no merit
in arguing that Communism doesn’t hold because humans are instinctively greedy. In this regard, he agrees
with Charlotte Perkins who claims, “You can’t change human nature, without changing the law.” He argues
that instead of being a fixed identity, human nature has been changing in accordance with the changes in human
evolution and cultural progress. He argues that a particular kind of human history produces a particular kind
of human nature and that human nature can only take decisions based upon the consciousness of a culture.
Change in human nature can only be brought about by the visionaries who work to shift the paradigm of a
culture.
There are flaws in this anti-realist stance of Rorty who quests for a complete freedom of representation.
This goes back to the belief that for freedom to exist there must also be the existence of boundaries. Harry
Frankfurt argues that because the anti-realist is convinced that reality has no inherent nature, he tries to identify

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the truth of things by trying to understand his own nature. However, there is something inherently problematic
in this approach. By trying to understand the world on the basis of one’s own nature, the anti-realist suspends
the autonomous existence of the world and its ability to bring about changes in the human. Kant in his Critique
of Pure Reason says that no sense that can be made of the idea of a subject whose world is entirely a
construction out of his own sense data, language games etc. Thus, in order to have autonomous thinking, the
anti-realist should attempt to accept the limits of their conceptual freedom. Another postmodernist approach
to Rorty’s concept of the conditionality of human nature can become a striving for an expansion of boundaries
rather than merely accepting one’s limits. Especially with the aid of technology, it is easier to gather and store
large amounts of data pertaining to different political societies in the world. Thus, even if one is unable to
conclude the characteristics of an abiding and unchanging human nature, one can still make predictions about
the pattern of human behavior.

iii. On the American Democracy

During his long career, Rorty has been questioned and interrogated about the relevance of his theories
for the American democracy. Rorty’s statements in response to the questions are quiet significant. He argues
that for the individual to break through the crust of convention, she/ he must have firm moral principles.
Otherwise, the individual becomes a relativist and is unable to effect change in society. Principles are
necessary for justifying social practice. For example, the judgement on abortion rights is often passed on the
merits of human principles. However, there are arguments against this. John Stuart Mill, who argues for
maximizing human happiness, justifies abortion. John Dewey, a forefather to the American pragmatist school
of thought to which Rorty belongs, argues that an action is justified if an educated individual finds it acceptable.
In this sense, Dewey and Habermas are on the same page: if one takes care of education and political
freedom, truth will take care of itself. Rorty, however, argues that eventually talking does not result in coming
up with common truths that are applicable to all. Thus, for Rorty, the only way in which one is able to arrive
at a truth is through the strength of one’s individual moral principles and not through the collective decisions
of others.
The effiency of labels notwithstanding, Rorty has often been labeled as a pragmatist and as a neo-
pragmatist by some. Rorty, however, prefers to be included in the pragmatist group. The question whether
pragmatism make people better citizens has become pertinent over the times. Carrying through with the
principles of Enlightenment, which established the superiority of the intellect, Rorty says that individuals cannot
look outside themselves for their moral principles. It is not possible to import the principles relevant in one
social context and apply that to a different one. There can be no specific reality. Truth is what gives democratic
communities what they want. Pragmatism says don’t look for a right answer.
Political views of Rorty has been maligned by both the Right and the Left. The Right maintains that a
democratic community needs to be objectively assessed. Rorty is skeptical about the nature of any objective
inquiry and the insights it can offer into the relative merits of democracy. For example, in order to decide the

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best course of action in relation to affirming the rights of the coloured in America, Rorty suggests that one
should take a sympathetic approach and approach the question from the point of view of ethical responsibility.
Most philosophers across time have perceived truth as singular. Such claims are analogous to the belief
that there is only one world and that a single world cannot contain confrontational truths. Rorty attacks this
very notion of the unity of truth. He says separate truths cannot be combined into one single truth. This is
where Rorty’s observations are similar to those of Nietzsche’s. Nietzsche in “Allegory of Lambs and the
Eagles” says that each party thought themselves to be good. The lambs believed themselves to be good and
not-evil and the eagles believed themselves to hold the same values. These two different truths could not be
right at the same time. Rorty, therefore, suggests that different perspectives towards the world cannot lead
to a single truth. This also leads one to question the subject positions that impale the observer and the
observed at a distance from each other. For Rorty, then, the constructive empiricist distinction between
acceptance and belief is not without its inconsistencies. According to Paul Horwich, “Believing a theory is
nothing over and above the mental state responsible for using it.” Horwich’s statement, therefore, complements
Rorty’s argument: truth and the act of believing in the truth are two different events, which are driven by their
own private logic.

8.4 Contemporary Relevance

In Achieving Our Country: Leftist Thought in Twentieth-Century America, Rorty outlines a broad
vision of the American nation. He says that one needs to have faith in the constitutional democracy of America
in order to improve it. America being the first country to achieve democracy and serving as an ideal to the
French Revolution has set its own standards of political governance very high. It helped to conquer Hitler and
end the Second World War. After the Vietnam war, the country’s ideals of itself changed from what they had
been formerly projected. The involvement of the Left was critical at that time because it helped put an end
to the Vietnam Wars. Rorty argues that in order to achieve a cultural ideal for the nation, it is important to
identify the distinct nature of the American nation. The writings of pragmatist John Dewey and Walt Whitman
become ideals for Rorty as they linguistically frame the imagination of the American nation and decide its
socio-political qualities. Dewey and Whitman say that the American nation has to think of itself in heroic
terms—without an appeal to God or to tradition. Dewey’s opinion that there can be no social principles to
abide by and that they can only be determined by social experimentations leaves a lasting impression on the
Left for a long time. Rorty, however, is of the opinion that good things can always come from the bottom.
In the 60s, the Marxist message to America was that anything at the top was corrupt. The upside of this
argument was the rise of the Civil Rights movement in the 60s. However, for Rorty, such a view-point can
no longer hold good for the changing times. For philosophers such as Ian Hacking, the solution to these forms
of dispute can be found at the level of intervention rather than at the level of representation. As he says in
his book Representing and Intervening, anti-realist arguments start to waver when they are seen at the level
of intervention. Thus, in order to arrive at a more holistic understanding of political societies, one must look
at the structural continuity of theories, rather than focusing on the idea of the truth.

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8.5 Self Assessment Questions
a) What is the significance of pragmatist thought for understanding democracy? Trace the evolution of
the thought in relation to John Dewey and Richard Rorty.
b) What are Rorty’s arguments on the nature of truth?
c) How does Rorty approach the concept of human nature?
d) To what extent are Rorty’s ideas influenced by the instrumentalization of language. Explain with
examples.
e) What are Rorty’s views on an ideal democracy?

8.6 Suggested Readings

i. Rorty, Richard. (1998). Achieving Our Country: Leftist Thought in Twentieth Century America.
Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
ii. Rorty, Richard. (1979). Philosophy and the Mirror of Nature. Princeton: Princeton University
Press.
iii. Rorty, Richard. (1979). Transcendental Arguements, Self-Reference and Pragmatism. In L. K. Peter
Bieri (Ed.), Transcendental Arguments and Science. Dordrecht, Holland: D. Reidel.
iv. Sellars, Wilfrid. (1997). Empiricism and the Philosophy of the Mind. Harvard University Press.

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