Metals
Sodium and potassium
✔ Introduction to Metals
✔ Occurrence of Metals
✔ Metallurgy
✔ Band Theory of Electrical Conductivity
✔ The Alkali and Alkaline Earth Metals
✔ Aluminum
✔ Transition Metals
Metal is an element, compound or alloy that is a
good conductor of both electricity and heat.
Metal crystal structure and specific metal
properties are determined by holding together
the atoms of a metal.
Physical Properties of Metals
✔ State: Metals are solids at room temperature
with the exception of Hg, which is liquid at
room temperature (Ga is liquid on hot days).
✔ Luster: Metals have the quality
of reflecting light from their surface
and can be polished e.g., Au, Ag and Cu.
✔ Malleability: Metals have the
ability to withstand
hammering and can be made into thin sheets
known as foils. E.g., a sugar cube
sizedchunk of gold can be
pounded into a thin sheet that will cover a
football field.
Slide 6
Physical Properties of Metals
✔ Ductility: Metals can be drawn into wires.
For example, 100 g of silver can be drawn into
a thin wire about 200 meters long.
✔ Hardness: All metals are hard except sodium
and potassium, which are soft and can be cut
with a knife.
✔ Valency: Metals typically have 1 to 3
electrons in the outermost shell of their atoms.
✔ Conduction: Metals are good conductors
because they have free electrons. Silver and
copper are the two best conductors of heat and
electricity. Lead is the poorest conductor of heat.
Bismuth, mercury and iron are also poor
conductors.
Physical Properties of Metals
✔ Density: Metals have high density and are
very heavy. Iridium and osmium have the
highest densities whereas lithium has the
lowest density.
✔ Melting and Boiling Points: Metals have
high melting and boiling points. Tungsten has
the highest melting and boiling points whereas
mercury has the lowest.
also have low melting points.
Chemical Properties of Metals
✔ Electropositive Character:Metals tend to
have low
ionization energies, and typically lose
electrons (are oxidized) when they
undergo chemical reactions.
 They normally do not accept electrons.
 For example:
 Alkali metals are always 1+ (lose the
electron in s subshell)
 Alkaline earth metals are always
2+ (lose both electrons in s
subshell)
 Transition metal ions do not follow an
obvious pattern, 2+ is common (lose both
electrons in s subshell), and 1+ and 3+ are
also observed
Occurrence of Metal
Clay (mineral of Aluminum)
Bauxite (principal ore of Aluminum)
Occurrence of Metal
Manganese nodule
Metallurgy
Metallurgy is the science and technology of
separating metals from their ores and of
compounding alloys
An alloy is a solid solution either of two or more
metals, or of a metal or metals with one or
more nonmetals.
Preparation of the ore, production of the metal,
and purification of the metal are the three
principal steps in the recovery of a metal from its
ore.
Ore is natural rock or sediment that contains one
or more valuable minerals, typically containing
metals, that can be mined, treated and sold at a
profit.
The Role of Metallurgy in Today's Society
They form a very essential part of manufacturing
modern aircraft, vehicles of transportation
(automobiles, trains, ships) and recreational
vehicles; buildings; implantable devices;
cutlery and cookware; coins and jewelry;
firearms; and musical instruments.
While threats abound from alternative material
choices, metals continue to be at the forefront
and the only choice for many industrial
applications.
Metallurgy of Iron
Iron ore, limestone, and coke are introduced at
the top of the furnace.
The metallurgical processing of iron involves the
chemical reduction of the minerals by carbon (in
the form of coke) in a blast furnace
A blast of hot air is forced up the furnace from
the bottom.
The oxygen gas reacts with the carbon in the
coke to form mostly carbon monoxide and
some carbon dioxide. These reactions are
highly exothermic, and as the hot CO and CO2
gases rise, they react with the iron oxides in
different temperature zones which are the key
steps in the extraction of iron.
Production of Metal
The mixture of calcium silicate and calcium
aluminate that remains molten at the furnace
temperature is known as slag.
Production of Metal
Steelmaking
Steel is an alloy of iron with a small carbon
content plus various other elements
The conversion of iron to steel is essentially an
oxidation process in which the unwanted
impurities are removed from the iron by
reaction with oxygen gas.
One of several methods used in steelmaking is
the basic oxygen process.
Production of Metal
The molten steel is sampled at intervals. When
the desired blend of carbon and other
impurities has been reached, the vessel is
rotated to a horizontal position so that the
molten steel can be tapped off.
The basic oxygen process of steelmaking.
The capacity of a typical vessel isv100 tons of
cast iron.
Production of Metal
 Molten iron from the blast furnace is
poured into an upright
cylindrical vessel.
 Pressurized oxygen gas is
introduced via a
water-cooled tube above the
molten metal
 Under these conditions, manganese,
phosphorus, and silicon, as well as excess
carbon, react with oxygen to form oxides.
 These oxides are then reacted with the
appropriate fluxes (for example, CaO or
SiO2 ) to form slag.
 CaO - If the main impurities are silicon and
phosphorus SiO2 - if manganese is the
main impurity
Tempering - HeatingPthreosdteeul
ctotsioomne apopfropMriaetettaemlperature for
a short
time and then cooling it rapidly in order to give
it the desired mechanical properties
Purification of Metals
Band Theory of Electrical Conductivity
In solid-state physics, the band structure of a
solid describes those ranges of energy, called
energy bands, that an electron within the solid
may have (“allowed bands”) and ranges of
energy called band gaps (“forbidden bands”),
which it may not have.
Band theory models the behavior of electrons in
solids by postulating the existence of energy
bands.
Band Theory of Electrical Conductivity
Band Theory states that delocalized electrons
move freely through “bands” formed by
overlapping molecular orbitals.
Band Theory of Electrical Conductivity
- The freedom of electron movement accounts
for the fact that metals are good conductors.
Band Theory of Electrical Conductivity
Formation of conduction bands in magnesium
In a metallic crystal, the atoms are packed
closely together, so the energy levels of each
magnesium atom are affected by the
immediate neighbors of the atom as a result of
orbital overlaps. These molecular orbitals are
so closely spaced on the energy scale that they
are more appropriately described as a “band”
The closely spaced filled energy levels make up
the valence band.
The upper half of the energy levels corresponds
to the empty, delocalized molecular orbitals
formed by the overlap of the 3p orbitals. This
set of closely spaced empty levels is called the
conduction band. Molecular overlapping
electrons can Due to orbitals, throughout
accounts travel this The metal, and for the
electrical conductivity of the metal.
Band Theory of Electrical Conductivity
 Much more energy is needed to excite an
electron into the conduction band
 Examples are wood and glass
Semiconductors
Semiconductors are materials that have
properties in between those of normal
conductors and insulators;
They are often produced by doping.
Doping can enhance the ability of a
semiconductor to conduct electricity, by
adding small amounts of certain impurities to
the element
Alkali Metals
Alkali Metals are the elements in group 1 of the
periodic table. They are the most reactive metals.
Like other metals, alkali metals are shiny,
malleable, ductile, and good conductors of heat
and electricity.
They react rapidly and sometimes violently with
oxygen and water, as shown at the right.
Because they are so reactive, alkali metals do not
occur naturally in their elemental forms, and
pure samples must be stored in oil to prevent
reaction with oxygen and water in the air.
Alkali Metals
Hydrogen is not technically an alkali metal
since it rarely exhibits similar behavior.
The word "alkali" received its name from the
Arabic word "al qali," meaning "from ashes",
which since these elements react with water to
form hydroxide ions, creating alkaline solutions
(pH>7).
Alkali Metals
Common properties of Alkali metals are as
follows:
✔ The most electropositive or the least
electronegative elements
✔ Common oxidation state +1
✔ Found dissolved in seawater due to
geologic erosion of minerals
✔ All the discovered alkali metals occur in
nature
✔ These metals have a BCC structure with
low packing efficiency
✔ Low melting point
Alkaline Earth Metals
Alkaline Earth Metals make up group 2 of the
periodic table.
Like the alkali metals, they combine readily with
other elements and are not found as free
elements in nature.
Alkaline Earth Metals
Common properties of Alkali earth metals are as
follows:
✔ Less electropositive and less reactive than
Group IA
✔ Common oxidation state +2
✔ IIA Metals attain stable
electron configuration preceding noble
gases
of the
✔ Have much higher melting points than the
alkali metals, harder metals than the Group 1A
elements, but are soft and lightweight
compared to many of the transition metals.
✔ The chemistry of radium is not well
established due to its radioactivity.
Alkaline Earth Metals
Alkaline Earth Metals
Emerald is a variety of beryl, a mineral that
contains the alkaline earth metal beryllium.
Beryllium only occurs naturally in
combination with other elements in minerals.
Aluminum
✔ Most abundant metal and the 3rd most
plentiful element in the Earth’s crust
✔ Elemental form doesn’t occur in nature
✔ Principal ore: Bauxite (Al2O3 • H2O)
✔ Other minerals containing aluminum are
orthoclase (KAlSi3O8), beryl (Be3Al2Si6O18),
cryolite (Na3AlF6), and corundum (Al2O3).
✔ Considered a precious metal until Hall
developed a method of Aluminum production
Charles Hall
-pioneer of development of Aluminum
production
Preparation of Bauxite
✔ Aluminum is usually prepared from bauxite,
which is frequently contaminated with silica
(SiO2 ), iron oxides, and titanium(IV) oxide.
✔ The ore is first heated in
sodium hydroxide solution to convert
the silica into soluble silicates.
✔ At the sametime,aluminum oxide is
converted to the aluminate ion.
✔ Next, the solution is treated
with acid to precipitate the
insoluble aluminum hydroxide.
✔ After filtration, the aluminum hydroxide is
heated to obtain aluminum oxide.

Production of Aluminum
✔ Anhydrous aluminum oxide (Al2O3 or
corundum) is reduced to aluminum by
the Hall process.
Electrolytic production of aluminum based
on the Hall process
The cathode is also made of carbon
and
constitutes the lining inside the cell.
✔ The key to the Hall process is
the use of
cryolite, or Na3AlF6 (melting point is 1000°C),
as the solvent for aluminum oxide (melting
point is 2045°C).
✔ The mixture is electrolyzed to produce
aluminum and oxygen gas. Oxygen gas reacts
with the carbon anodes to form carbon
monoxide, which escapes as a gas.
Production of Aluminum
The liquid aluminum metal (melting point is
660.2°C) sinks to the bottom of the vessel,
from which it can be drained from time to time
during the procedure.
Recycling of Aluminum
 Aluminum is one of the most recycled and
most recyclable materials on the market
today. Nearly 75% of all aluminum
produced in the U.S. is still in use today.
 Aluminum can be recycled directly back
into itself over and over again in a true
closed loop.
 Recycling aluminum costs 95% less
energy compared to producing primary
aluminum.
Transition Metals
Transition Metal – any of various chemical
elements that have valence
electrons—electrons that can participate in the
formation of chemical bonds—in two shells
instead of only one.
✔ Transition metals are the elements in
groups 3 through 12 in the periodic table.
✔ Transition metals typically have
incompletely filled dsubshells or readily give
rise to ions with incompletely filled d subshells.
✔ Many transition element compounds are
brightly colored due to the inner-level d
electron transitions.
✔ They often occur in nature as uncombined
elements
Properties of Transition Metals
Transition metals have similar properties, and
some of these properties are different from
those of the metals in group 1.
Physical Properties
✔ they are good conductors of heat and
electricity
✔ they can be hammered or bent into shape
easily
✔ they have high melting points (but mercury
is a liquid at room temperature)
✔ they are usually hard and tough
✔ they have high densities
Uses of Transition Metals
Transition metals have a wide range of uses.
Their properties are very similar but not
identical. It is important to choose the right
transition metal for the required purpose.
GOLD
Uses of Transition Metals
SILVER
COPPER
Uses of Transition Metals
IRON
Iron is usually too soft to be used as the metal
alone. It is usually mixed with small amounts
of other elements to make steels, which are
harder and stronger than iron, but easily
shaped. However, iron and steel react slowly
with water and air to produce rust. They must be
protected with, for example, a layer of paint.
Uses of Transition Metals
CHROMIUM