Metal

A metal (from Greek μέταλλον métallon, "mine, quarry, metal") is

a material that, when freshly prepared, polished, or fractured,
shows a lustrous appearance, and conducts electricity and heat
relatively well. Metals are typically malleable (they can be
hammered into thin sheets) or ductile (can be drawn into wires). A
metal may be a chemical element such as iron; an alloy such as
stainless steel; or a molecular compound such as polymeric sulfur
nitride.
Iron, shown here as fragments and a
In physics, a metal is generally regarded as any substance capable 1 cm3 cube, is an example of a
of conducting electricity at a temperature of absolute zero.[1] Many chemical element that is a metal.
elements and compounds that are not normally classified as metals
become metallic under high pressures. For example, the nonmetal
iodine gradually becomes a metal at a pressure of between 40 and
170 thousand times atmospheric pressure. Equally, some materials
regarded as metals can become nonmetals. Sodium, for example,
becomes a nonmetal at pressure of just under two million times
atmospheric pressure.

In chemistry, two elements that would otherwise qualify (in

physics) as brittle metals—arsenic and antimony—are commonly
instead recognised as metalloids due to their chemistry A metal in the form of a gravy boat
(predominantly non-metallic for arsenic, and balanced between made from stainless steel, an alloy
metallicity and nonmetallicity for antimony). Around 95 of the 118 largely composed of iron, carbon,
elements in the periodic table are metals (or are likely to be such). and chromium
The number is inexact as the boundaries between metals,
nonmetals, and metalloids fluctuate slightly due to a lack of
universally accepted definitions of the categories involved.

In astrophysics the term "metal" is cast more widely to refer to all chemical elements in a star that are
heavier than helium, and not just traditional metals. In this sense the first four "metals" collecting in stellar
cores through nucleosynthesis are carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, and neon, all of which are strictly non-metals
in chemistry. A star fuses lighter atoms, mostly hydrogen and helium, into heavier atoms over its lifetime.
Used in that sense, the metallicity of an astronomical object is the proportion of its matter made up of the
heavier chemical elements.[2][3]

Metals, as chemical elements, comprise 25% of the Earth's crust and are present in many aspects of modern
life. The strength and resilience of some metals has led to their frequent use in, for example, high-rise
building and bridge construction, as well as most vehicles, many home appliances, tools, pipes, and railroad
tracks. Precious metals were historically used as coinage, but in the modern era, coinage metals have
extended to at least 23 of the chemical elements.[4]

The history of refined metals is thought to begin with the use of copper about 11,000 years ago. Gold,
silver, iron (as meteoric iron), lead, and brass were likewise in use before the first known appearance of
bronze in the 5th millennium BCE. Subsequent developments include the production of early forms of
steel; the discovery of sodium—the first light metal—in 1809; the rise of modern alloy steels; and, since the
end of World War II, the development of more sophisticated alloys.

Contents
Properties
Form and structure
Electrical and thermal
Chemical
Periodic table distribution
Alloys
Categories
Ferrous and non-ferrous metals
Brittle metal
Refractory metal
White metal
Heavy and light metals
Base, noble and precious metals
Valve metals
Lifecycle
Formation
Abundance and occurrence
Extraction
Uses
Recycling
Biological interactions
History
Prehistory
Antiquity
Middle Ages
The Renaissance
Light metals
The age of steel
The last stable metallic elements
Post-World War II developments
Superalloys
Transcurium metals
Bulk metallic glasses
Shape-memory alloys
Quasicyrstalline alloys
Complex metallic alloys
High entropy alloys
MAX phase alloys
See also
Notes
References
Further reading
External links

Properties

Form and structure

Metals are shiny and lustrous, at least when freshly prepared,

polished, or fractured. Sheets of metal thicker than a few
micrometres appear opaque, but gold leaf transmits green light.

The solid or liquid state of metals largely originates in the capacity

of the metal atoms involved to readily lose their outer shell
electrons. Broadly, the forces holding an individual atom's outer
shell electrons in place are weaker than the attractive forces on the
same electrons arising from interactions between the atoms in the
solid or liquid metal. The electrons involved become delocalised Gallium crystals
and the atomic structure of a metal can effectively be visualised as
a collection of atoms embedded in a cloud of relatively mobile
electrons. This type of interaction is called a metallic bond.[5] The strength of metallic bonds for different
elemental metals reaches a maximum around the center of the transition metal series, as these elements have
large numbers of delocalized electrons.[n 1]

Although most elemental metals have higher densities than most nonmetals,[5] there is a wide variation in
their densities, lithium being the least dense (0.534 g/cm3 ) and osmium (22.59 g/cm3 ) the most dense.
Magnesium, aluminum and titanium are light metals of significant commercial importance. Their respective
densities of 1.7, 2.7 and 4.5 g/cm3 can be compared to those of the older structural metals, like iron at 7.9
and copper at 8.9 g/cm3 . An iron ball would thus weigh about as much as three aluminum balls of equal
volume.

Metals are typically malleable and ductile, deforming under stress

A metal rod with a hot-worked eyelet.
Hot-working exploits the capacity of
metal to be plastically deformed.
without cleaving.[5] The nondirectional nature of metallic bonding
is thought to contribute significantly to the ductility of most
metallic solids. In contrast, in an ionic compound like table salt,
when the planes of an ionic bond slide past one another, the
resultant change in location shifts ions of the same charge into
close proximity, resulting in the cleavage of the crystal. Such a
shift is not observed in a covalently bonded crystal, such as a
diamond, where fracture and crystal fragmentation occurs.[6]
Reversible elastic deformation in metals can be described by
Hooke's Law for restoring forces, where the stress is linearly
proportional to the strain.

Heat or forces larger than a metal's elastic limit may cause a

permanent (irreversible) deformation, known as plastic deformation or plasticity. An applied force may be a
tensile (pulling) force, a compressive (pushing) force, or a shear, bending or torsion (twisting) force. A
temperature change may affect the movement or displacement of structural defects in the metal such as
grain boundaries, point vacancies, line and screw dislocations, stacking faults and twins in both crystalline
and non-crystalline metals. Internal slip, creep, and metal fatigue may ensue.

The atoms of metallic substances are typically arranged in one of three common crystal structures, namely
body-centered cubic (bcc), face-centered cubic (fcc), and hexagonal close-packed (hcp). In bcc, each atom
is positioned at the center of a cube of eight others. In fcc and hcp, each atom is surrounded by twelve
others, but the stacking of the layers differs. Some metals adopt different structures depending on the
temperature.[7]

Body-centered cubic Face-centered cubic Hexagonal close-packed

crystal structure, with a crystal structure, with a crystal structure, with a
2-atom unit cell, as 4-atom unit cell, as 6-atom unit cell, as
found in e.g. chromium, found in e.g. aluminum, found in e.g. titanium,
iron, and tungsten copper, and gold cobalt, and zinc

The unit cell for each crystal structure is the smallest group of atoms which has the overall symmetry of the
crystal, and from which the entire crystalline lattice can be built up by repetition in three dimensions. In the
case of the body-centered cubic crystal structure shown above, the unit cell is made up of the central atom
plus one-eight of each of the eight corner atoms.

Electrical and thermal

The electronic structure of metals means they are relatively good conductors of electricity. Electrons in
matter can only have fixed rather than variable energy levels, and in a metal the energy levels of the
electrons in its electron cloud, at least to some degree, correspond to the energy levels at which electrical
conduction can occur. In a semiconductor like silicon or a nonmetal like sulfur there is an energy gap
between the electrons in the substance and the energy level at which electrical conduction can occur.
Consequently, semiconductors and nonmetals are relatively poor conductors.

The elemental metals have electrical conductivity values of from 6.9 × 103 S/cm for manganese to 6.3 ×
105 S/cm for silver. In contrast, a semiconducting metalloid such as boron has an electrical conductivity 1.5
× 10−6 S/cm. With one exception, metallic elements reduce their electrical conductivity when heated.
Plutonium increases its electrical conductivity when heated in the temperature range of around −175 to
+125 °C.

Metals are relatively good conductors of heat. The electrons in a metal's electron cloud are highly mobile
and easily able to pass on heat-induced vibrational energy.

The contribution of a metal's electrons to its heat capacity and thermal conductivity, and the electrical
conductivity of the metal itself can be calculated from the free electron model. However, this does not take
into account the detailed structure of the metal's ion lattice. Taking into account the positive potential caused
by the arrangement of the ion cores enables consideration of the electronic band structure and binding
energy of a metal. Various mathematical models are
applicable, the simplest being the nearly free electron
model.

Chemical

Metals are usually inclined to form cations through

electron loss.[5] Most will react with oxygen in the air
The energy states available to electrons in
to form oxides over various timescales (potassium
different kinds of solids at thermodynamic
burns in seconds while iron rusts over years). Some
equilibrium.
others, like palladium, platinum and gold, do not react
with the atmosphere at all. The oxides of metals are Here, height is energy while width is the density of
available states for a certain energy in the material
generally basic, as opposed to those of nonmetals,
listed. The shading follows the Fermi–Dirac
which are acidic or neutral. Exceptions are largely
distribution (black = all states filled, white = no
oxides with very high oxidation states such as CrO3 ,
state filled).
Mn2 O7 , and OsO4 , which have strictly acidic
The Fermi level EF is the energy level at which the
reactions. electrons are in a position to interact with energy
levels above them. In metals and semimetals the
Painting, anodizing or plating metals are good ways to
Fermi level EF lies inside at least one band of
prevent their corrosion. However, a more reactive
energy states.
metal in the electrochemical series must be chosen for
coating, especially when chipping of the coating is In insulators and semiconductors the Fermi level is
inside a band gap; however, in semiconductors the
expected. Water and the two metals form an
bands are near enough to the Fermi level to be
electrochemical cell, and if the coating is less reactive
thermally populated with electrons or holes.
than the underlying metal, the coating actually
promotes corrosion.

Periodic table distribution

In chemistry, the elements which are usually considered to be metals under ordinary conditions are shown
in yellow on the periodic table below. The remaining elements are either metalloids (B, Si, Ge, As, Sb, and
Te being commonly recognised as such) or nonmetals. Astatine (At) is usually classified as either a
nonmetal or a metalloid, but some predictions expect it to be a metal; as such, it has been left blank due to
the inconclusive state of the experimental knowledge. The other elements shown as having unknown
properties are likely to be metals, but there is some doubt for copernicium (Cn) and oganesson (Og).

Metals–metalloids–nonmetals in the periodic table

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
Group →
↓ Period
1 H He
2 Li Be B C N O F Ne
3 NaMg Al Si P S Cl Ar
4 K Ca Sc Ti V Cr MnFeCoNi CuZn GaGeAs SeBr Kr
5 RbSr Y Zr NbMoTc RuRhPdAgCd In SnSbTe I Xe
6 CsBaLa CePr NdPmSmEuGdTbDyHoEr TmYbLu Hf Ta W ReOs Ir Pt AuHgTl Pb Bi Po At Rn
7 Fr RaAcThPa U NpPuAmCmBkCf EsFmMdNoLr Rf DbSgBhHsMt DsRgCnNhFl McLv Ts Og
 Metal Metalloid Nonmetal Unknown properties
Background color shows metal–metalloid–nonmetal trend in the periodic table

Alloys
An alloy is a substance having metallic properties and which is
composed of two or more elements at least one of which is a metal.
An alloy may have a variable or fixed composition. For example,
gold and silver form an alloy in which the proportions of gold or
silver can be freely adjusted; titanium and silicon form an alloy
Ti2 Si in which the ratio of the two components is fixed (also
known as an intermetallic compound).

Samples of babbitt metal, an alloy of Most pure metals are either too soft,
tin, antimony and copper, used in brittle or chemically reactive for
bearings to reduce friction practical use. Combining different
ratios of metals as alloys modifies the
properties of pure metals to produce
desirable characteristics. The aim of making alloys is generally to make them
less brittle, harder, resistant to corrosion, or have a more desirable color and
luster. Of all the metallic alloys in use today, the alloys of iron (steel, stainless
steel, cast iron, tool steel, alloy steel) make up the largest proportion both by
quantity and commercial value. Iron alloyed with various proportions of
carbon gives low, mid and high carbon steels, with increasing carbon levels A sculpture cast in
reducing ductility and toughness. The addition of silicon will produce cast nickel silver—an alloy of
irons, while the addition of chromium, nickel and molybdenum to carbon copper, nickel, and zinc
steels (more than 10%) results in stainless steels. that looks like silver

Other significant metallic alloys are those of aluminum, titanium, copper and
magnesium. Copper alloys have been known since prehistory—bronze gave the Bronze Age its name—
and have many applications today, most importantly in electrical wiring. The alloys of the other three metals
have been developed relatively recently; due to their chemical reactivity they require electrolytic extraction
processes. The alloys of aluminum, titanium and magnesium are valued for their high strength-to-weight
ratios; magnesium can also provide electromagnetic shielding. These materials are ideal for situations where
high strength-to-weight ratio is more important than material cost, such as in aerospace and some
automotive applications.

Alloys specially designed for highly demanding applications, such as jet engines, may contain more than
ten elements.

Categories
Metals can be categorised according to their physical or chemical properties. Categories described in the
subsections below include ferrous and non-ferrous metals; brittle metals and refractory metals; white metals;
heavy and light metals; and base, noble, and precious metals. The Metallic elements table in this section
categorises the elemental metals on the basis of their chemical properties into alkali and alkaline earth
metals; transition and post-transition metals; and lanthanides and actinides. Other categories are possible,
depending on the criteria for inclusion. For example, the ferromagnetic metals—those metals that are
magnetic at room temperature—are iron, cobalt, and nickel.
Ferrous and non-ferrous metals

The term "ferrous" is derived from the Latin word meaning "containing iron". This can include pure iron,
such as wrought iron, or an alloy such as steel. Ferrous metals are often magnetic, but not exclusively. Non-
ferrous metals—alloys—lack appreciable amounts of iron.

Brittle metal

While nearly all metals are malleable or ductile, a few—beryllium, chromium, manganese, gallium, and
bismuth—are brittle.[8] Arsenic, and antimony, if admitted as metals, are brittle. Low values of the ratio of
bulk elastic modulus to shear modulus (Pugh's criterion) are indicative of intrinsic brittleness.

Refractory metal

In materials science, metallurgy, and engineering, a refractory metal is a metal that is extraordinarily
resistant to heat and wear. Which metals belong to this category varies; the most common definition
includes niobium, molybdenum, tantalum, tungsten, and rhenium. They all have melting points above
2000 °C, and a high hardness at room temperature.

Niobium crystals, and a Molybdenum crystals, and a Tantalum single crystal,

1 cm 3 anodized niobium 1 cm 3 molybdenum cube for some crystalline fragments,
cube for comparison comparison and a 1 cm 3 tantalum cube
for comparison

Tungsten rods with Rhenium single crystal, a

evaporated crystals, partially remelted bar, and a 1 cm 3
oxidized with colorful tarnish, rhenium cube for comparison
and a 1 cm 3 tungsten cube
for comparison
White metal

A white metal is any of range of white-coloured metals (or their alloys) with relatively low melting points.
Such metals include zinc, cadmium, tin, antimony (here counted as a metal), lead, and bismuth, some of
which are quite toxic. In Britain, the fine art trade uses the term "white metal" in auction catalogues to
describe foreign silver items which do not carry British Assay Office marks, but which are nonetheless
understood to be silver and are priced accordingly.

Heavy and light metals

A heavy metal is any relatively dense metal or metalloid.[9] More specific definitions have been proposed,
but none have obtained widespread acceptance. Some heavy metals have niche uses, or are notably toxic;
some are essential in trace amounts. All other metals are light metals.

Base, noble and precious metals

In chemistry, the term base metal is used informally to refer to a metal that is easily oxidized or corroded,
such as reacting easily with dilute hydrochloric acid (HCl) to form a metal chloride and hydrogen.
Examples include iron, nickel, lead and zinc. Copper is considered a base metal as it is oxidized relatively
easily, although it does not react with HCl.

The term noble metal is commonly used in opposition to base

metal. Noble metals are resistant to corrosion or oxidation,[10]
unlike most base metals. They tend to be precious metals, often
due to perceived rarity. Examples include gold, platinum, silver,
rhodium, iridium and palladium.

In alchemy and numismatics, the term base metal is contrasted with

precious metal, that is, those of high economic value.[11] A Rhodium, a noble metal, shown here
longtime goal of the alchemists was the transmutation of base as 1 g of powder, a 1 g pressed
cylinder, and a 1 g pellet
metals into precious metals including such coinage metals as silver
and gold. Most coins today are made of base metals with no
intrinsic value, in the past, coins frequently derived their value
primarily from their precious metal content.

Chemically, the precious metals (like the noble metals) are less reactive than most elements, have high luster
and high electrical conductivity. Historically, precious metals were important as currency, but are now
regarded mainly as investment and industrial commodities. Gold, silver, platinum and palladium each have
an ISO 4217 currency code. The best-known precious metals are gold and silver. While both have
industrial uses, they are better known for their uses in art, jewelry, and coinage. Other precious metals
include the platinum group metals: ruthenium, rhodium, palladium, osmium, iridium, and platinum, of
which platinum is the most widely traded.

The demand for precious metals is driven not only by their practical use, but also by their role as
investments and a store of value.[12] Palladium and platinum, as of fall 2018, were valued at about three
quarters the price of gold. Silver is substantially less expensive than these metals, but is often traditionally
considered a precious metal in light of its role in coinage and jewelry.

Valve metals
In electrochemistry, a valve metal is a metal which passes current in only one direction.

Lifecycle

Formation
Metals in the Earth's crust:
This sub-section abundance and main occurrence or source, by weight[n 2]
deals with the 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
formation of 1 H He
periodic table
2 Li Be B C N O F Ne
elemental metals
since these form 3 Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
the basis of 4 K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
metallic materials, 5 Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe
as defined in this 6 Cs Ba Lu Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi
article. 7

Metals up to the vicinity of La Ce Pr Nd Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb

iron (in the periodic table)
are largely made via stellar
nucleosynthesis. In this
process, lighter elements
from hydrogen to silicon
undergo successive fusion
reactions inside stars,
releasing light and heat and
forming heavier elements
with higher atomic
numbers. [13]
Th U
Most abundant (up to 82 000 ppm)
Abundant (100–999 ppm)
Uncommon (1–99 ppm)
Rare (0.01–0.99 ppm)
Very rare (0.0001–0.0099 ppm)
Metals left of the dividing line occur (or are sourced) mainly as lithophiles;
those to the right, as chalcophiles except gold (a siderophile) and tin (a
lithophile).

Heavier metals are not usually formed this way since fusion reactions involving such nuclei would
consume rather than release energy.[14] Rather, they are largely synthesised (from elements with a lower
atomic number) by neutron capture, with the two main modes of this repetitive capture being the s-process
and the r-process. In the s-process ("s" stands for "slow"), singular captures are separated by years or
decades, allowing the less stable nuclei to beta decay,[15] while in the r-process ("rapid"), captures happen
faster than nuclei can decay. Therefore, the s-process takes a more or less clear path: for example, stable
cadmium-110 nuclei are successively bombarded by free neutrons inside a star until they form cadmium-
115 nuclei which are unstable and decay to form indium-115 (which is nearly stable, with a half-life 30 000
times the age of the universe). These nuclei capture neutrons and form indium-116, which is unstable, and
decays to form tin-116, and so on.[13][16][n 3] In contrast, there is no such path in the r-process. The s-
process stops at bismuth due to the short half-lives of the next two elements, polonium and astatine, which
decay to bismuth or lead. The r-process is so fast it can skip this zone of instability and go on to create
heavier elements such as thorium and uranium.[18]

Metals condense in planets as a result of stellar evolution and destruction processes. Stars lose much of their
mass when it is ejected late in their lifetimes, and sometimes thereafter as a result of a neutron star
merger,[19][n 4] thereby increasing the abundance of elements heavier than helium in the interstellar
medium. When gravitational attraction causes this matter to coalesce and collapse new stars and planets are
formed.[21]
Abundance and occurrence

The Earth's crust is made of approximately 25% of metals by

weight, of which 80% are light metals such as sodium,
magnesium, and aluminum. Nonmetals (~75%) make up the rest of
the crust. Despite the overall scarcity of some heavier metals such
as copper, they can become concentrated in economically
extractable quantities as a result of mountain building, erosion, or
other geological processes.

A sample of diaspore, an aluminum

Metals are primarily found as lithophiles (rock-loving) or
oxide hydroxide mineral, α-AlO(OH) chalcophiles (ore-loving). Lithophile metals are mainly the s-block
elements, the more reactive of the d-block elements. and the f-
block elements. They have a strong affinity for oxygen and mostly
exist as relatively low density silicate minerals. Chalcophile metals are mainly the less reactive d-block
elements, and the period 4–6 p-block metals. They are usually found in (insoluble) sulfide minerals. Being
denser than the lithophiles, hence sinking lower into the crust at the time of its solidification, the
chalcophiles tend to be less abundant than the lithophiles.

On the other hand, gold is a siderophile, or iron-loving element. It does not readily form compounds with
either oxygen or sulfur. At the time of the Earth's formation, and as the most noble (inert) of metals, gold
sank into the core due to its tendency to form high-density metallic alloys. Consequently, it is a relatively
rare metal. Some other (less) noble metals—molybdenum, rhenium, the platinum group metals (ruthenium,
rhodium, palladium, osmium, iridium, and platinum), germanium, and tin—can be counted as siderophiles
but only in terms of their primary occurrence in the Earth (core, mantle and crust), rather the crust. These
metals otherwise occur in the crust, in small quantities, chiefly as chalcophiles (less so in their native
form).[n 5]

The rotating fluid outer core of the Earth's interior, which is composed mostly of iron, is thought to be the
source of Earth's protective magnetic field.[n 6] The core lies above Earth's solid inner core and below its
mantle. If it could be rearranged into a column having a 5 m2 (54 sq ft) footprint it would have a height of
nearly 700 light years. The magnetic field shields the Earth from the charged particles of the solar wind,
and cosmic rays that would otherwise strip away the upper atmosphere (including the ozone layer that
limits the transmission of ultraviolet radiation).

Extraction

Metals are often extracted from the Earth by means of mining ores that are rich sources of the requisite
elements, such as bauxite. Ore is located by prospecting techniques, followed by the exploration and
examination of deposits. Mineral sources are generally divided into surface mines, which are mined by
excavation using heavy equipment, and subsurface mines. In some cases, the sale price of the metal/s
involved make it economically feasible to mine lower concentration sources.

Once the ore is mined, the metals must be extracted, usually by chemical or electrolytic reduction.
Pyrometallurgy uses high temperatures to convert ore into raw metals, while hydrometallurgy employs
aqueous chemistry for the same purpose. The methods used depend on the metal and their contaminants.

When a metal ore is an ionic compound of that metal and a non-metal, the ore must usually be smelted—
heated with a reducing agent—to extract the pure metal. Many common metals, such as iron, are smelted
using carbon as a reducing agent. Some metals, such as aluminum and sodium, have no commercially
practical reducing agent, and are extracted using electrolysis instead.[22][23]
Sulfide ores are not reduced directly to the metal but are roasted in air to convert them to oxides.

Uses

Metals are present in nearly all aspects of modern life. Iron, a

heavy metal, may be the most common as it accounts for 90% of
all refined metals; aluminum, a light metal, is the next most
commonly refined metal. Pure iron may be the cheapest metallic
element of all at cost of about US$0.07 per gram. Its ores are
widespread; it is easy to refine; and the technology involved has
A neodymium compound alloy
been developed over hundreds of years. Cast iron is even cheaper,
magnet of composition Nd2Fe14B on
at a fraction of US$0.01 per gram, because there is no need for
a nickel-iron bracket from a computer
hard drive
subsequent purification. Platinum, at a cost of about $27 per gram,
may be the most ubiquitous given its very high melting point,
resistance to corrosion, electrical conductivity, and durability. It is
said to be found in, or used to produce, 20% of all consumer goods. Polonium is likely to be the most
expensive metal, at a notional cost of about $100,000,000 per gram, due to its scarcity and micro-scale
production.

Some metals and metal alloys possess high structural strength per unit mass, making them useful materials
for carrying large loads or resisting impact damage. Metal alloys can be engineered to have high resistance
to shear, torque and deformation. However the same metal can also be vulnerable to fatigue damage
through repeated use or from sudden stress failure when a load capacity is exceeded. The strength and
resilience of metals has led to their frequent use in high-rise building and bridge construction, as well as
most vehicles, many appliances, tools, pipes, and railroad tracks.

Metals are good conductors, making them valuable in electrical appliances and for carrying an electric
current over a distance with little energy lost. Electrical power grids rely on metal cables to distribute
electricity. Home electrical systems, for the most part, are wired with copper wire for its good conducting
properties.

The thermal conductivity of metals is useful for containers to heat materials over a flame. Metals are also
used for heat sinks to protect sensitive equipment from overheating.

The high reflectivity of some metals enables their use in mirrors, including precision astronomical
instruments, and adds to the aesthetics of metallic jewelry.

Some metals have specialized uses; mercury is a liquid at room temperature and is used in switches to
complete a circuit when it flows over the switch contacts. Radioactive metals such as uranium and
plutonium are used in nuclear power plants to produce energy via nuclear fission. Shape memory alloys are
used for applications such as pipes, fasteners and vascular stents.

Metals can be doped with foreign molecules—organic, inorganic, biological and polymers. This doping
entails the metal with new properties that are induced by the guest molecules. Applications in catalysis,
medicine, electrochemical cells, corrosion and more have been developed.[24]

Recycling

Demand for metals is closely linked to economic growth given their use in infrastructure, construction,
manufacturing, and consumer goods. During the 20th century, the variety of metals used in society grew
rapidly. Today, the development of major nations, such as China and India, and technological advances, are
fuelling ever more demand. The result is that mining activities are expanding, and more and more of the
 world's metal stocks are above ground in use, rather than below
ground as unused reserves. An example is the in-use stock of
copper. Between 1932 and 1999, copper in use in the U.S. rose
from 73 g to 238 g per person.[25]

Metals are inherently recyclable, so in principle, can be used over

and over again, minimizing these negative environmental impacts
and saving energy. For example, 95% of the energy used to make
aluminum from bauxite ore is saved by using recycled material.[26]
A pile of compacted steel scraps,
Globally, metal recycling is generally low. In 2010, the
ready for recycling
International Resource Panel, hosted by the United Nations
Environment Programme published reports on metal stocks that
exist within society[27] and their recycling rates.[25] The authors of
the report observed that the metal stocks in society can serve as huge mines above ground. They warned
that the recycling rates of some rare metals used in applications such as mobile phones, battery packs for
hybrid cars and fuel cells are so low that unless future end-of-life recycling rates are dramatically stepped
up these critical metals will become unavailable for use in modern technology.

Biological interactions
The role of metallic elements in the evolution of cell biochemistry has been reviewed, including a detailed
section on the role of calcium in redox enzymes. [28]

One or more of the elements iron, cobalt, nickel, copper and zinc are essential to all higher forms of life.
Molybdenum is an essential component of vitamin B12. Compounds of all other transition elements and
post-transition elements are toxic to a greater or lesser extent, with few exceptions such as certain
compounds of antimony and tin. Potential sources of metal poisoning include mining, tailings, industrial
wastes, agricultural runoff, occupational exposure, paints and treated timber.

History

Prehistory

Copper, which occurs in native form, may have been the first metal discovered given its distinctive
appearance, heaviness, and malleability compared to other stones or pebbles. Gold, silver, and iron (as
meteoric iron), and lead were likewise discovered in prehistory. Forms of brass, an alloy of copper and zinc
made by concurrently smelting the ores of these metals, originate from this period (although pure zinc was
not isolated until the 13th century). The malleability of the solid metals led to the first attempts to craft metal
ornaments, tools, and weapons. Meteoric iron containing nickel was discovered from time to time and, in
some respects this was superior to any industrial steel manufactured up to the 1880s when alloy steels
become prominent.
 Native copper Gold crystals Crystalline silver

A slice of meteoric iron Oxidised lead A brass weight (35 g)

nodules and 1 cm 3 cube

Antiquity

The discovery of bronze (an alloy of copper with arsenic or tin)

enabled people to create metal objects which were harder and
more durable than previously possible. Bronze tools, weapons,
armor, and building materials such as decorative tiles were harder
and more durable than their stone and copper ("Chalcolithic")
predecessors. Initially, bronze was made of copper and arsenic
(forming arsenic bronze) by smelting naturally or artificially mixed
ores of copper and arsenic.[29] The earliest artifacts so far known
come from the Iranian plateau in the 5th millennium BCE.[30] It
was only later that tin was used, becoming the major non-copper
ingredient of bronze in the late 3rd millennium BCE.[31] Pure tin
itself was first isolated in 1800 BCE by Chinese and Japanese
metalworkers.

Mercury was known to ancient Chinese and Indians before

2000 BCE, and found in Egyptian tombs dating from 1500 BCE. The Artemision Bronze[n 7] showing
either Poseidon or Zeus,
The earliest known production of steel, an iron-carbon alloy, is c. 460 BCE, National Archaeological
seen in pieces of ironware excavated from an archaeological site in Museum, Athens. The figure is more
Anatolia (Kaman-Kalehöyük) and are nearly 4,000 years old, than 2 m in height.
dating from 1800 BCE.[32][33]
From about 500 BCE sword-makers of Toledo, Spain were making early forms of alloy steel by adding a
mineral called wolframite, which contained tungsten and manganese, to iron ore (and carbon). The
resulting Toledo steel came to the attention of Rome when used by Hannibal in the Punic Wars. It soon
became the basis for the weaponry of Roman legions; their swords were said to have been "so keen that
there is no helmet which cannot be cut through by them."[n 8]

In pre-Columbian America, objects made of tumbaga, an alloy of copper and gold, started being produced
in Panama and Costa Rica between 300 and 500 CE. Small metal sculptures were common and an
extensive range of tumbaga (and gold) ornaments comprised the usual regalia of persons of high status.

At around the same time indigenous Ecuadorians were combining gold with a naturally-occurring platinum
alloy containing small amounts of palladium, rhodium, and iridium, to produce miniatures and masks
composed of a white gold-platinum alloy. The metal workers involved heated gold with grains of the
platinum alloy until the gold melted at which point the platinum group metals became bound within the
gold. After cooling, the resulting conglomeration was hammered and reheated repeatedly until it became as
homogenous as if all of the metals concerned had been melted together (attaining the melting points of the
platinum group metals concerned was beyond the technology of the day).[34][n 9]

A droplet of solidified molten Mercury being Electrum, a natural alloy of

tin poured into a petri dish silver and gold, was often
used for making coins.
Shown is the Roman god
Apollo, and on the obverse, a
Delphi tripod (circa 310–305
BCE).

A plate made of pewter, an A pectoral (ornamental

alloy of 85–99% tin and
(usually) copper. Pewter was
first used around the
beginning of the Bronze Age
in the Near East.
breastplate) made of
tumbaga, an alloy of gold and
copper
Middle Ages

Arabic and medieval alchemists believed that all Gold is for the mistress—silver for the maid—
metals and matter were composed of the Copper for the craftsman cunning at his trade.
principle of sulfur, the father of all metals and "Good!" said the Baron, sitting in his hall,
carrying the combustible property, and the "But Iron—Cold Iron—is master of them all."
principle of mercury, the mother of all
metals[n 10] and carrier of the liquidity, fusibility,
and volatility properties. These principles were from Cold Iron by Rudyard Kipling[35]
not necessarily the common substances sulfur
and mercury found in most laboratories. This
theory reinforced the belief that all metals were destined to become gold in the bowels of the earth through
the proper combinations of heat, digestion, time, and elimination of contaminants, all of which could be
developed and hastened through the knowledge and methods of alchemy.[n 11]

Arsenic, zinc, antimony, and bismuth became known, although these were at first called semimetals or
bastard metals on account of their immalleability. All four may have been used incidentally in earlier times
without recognising their nature. Albertus Magnus is believed to have been the first to isolate arsenic from a
compound in 1250, by heating soap together with arsenic trisulfide. Metallic zinc, which is brittle if impure,
was isolated in India by 1300 AD. The first description of a procedure for isolating antimony is in the 1540
book De la pirotechnia by Vannoccio Biringuccio. Bismuth was described by Agricola in De Natura
Fossilium (c. 1546); it had been confused in early times with tin and lead because of its resemblance to
those elements.

Arsenic, sealed in a container Zinc fragments and a 1 cm 3 Antimony, showing its brilliant
to prevent tarnishing cube lustre

Bismuth in crystalline form,

with a very thin oxidation
layer, and a 1 cm 3 bismuth
cube
The Renaissance

The first systematic text on the arts of mining and metallurgy was De
la Pirotechnia (1540) by Vannoccio Biringuccio, which treats the
examination, fusion, and working of metals.

Sixteen years later, Georgius Agricola published De Re Metallica in

1556, a clear and complete account of the profession of mining,
metallurgy, and the accessory arts and sciences, as well as qualifying
as the greatest treatise on the chemical industry through the sixteenth
century.

He gave the following description of a metal in his De Natura

Fossilium (1546):

Metal is a mineral body, by nature either liquid or

De re metallica, 1555
somewhat hard. The latter may be melted by the heat of
the fire, but when it has cooled down again and lost all
heat, it becomes hard again and resumes its proper form.
In this respect it differs from the stone which melts in the
fire, for although the latter regain its hardness, yet it loses
its pristine form and properties.

Traditionally there are six different kinds of metals,

namely gold, silver, copper, iron, tin and lead. There are
really others, for quicksilver is a metal, although the
Alchemists disagree with us on this subject, and bismuth
is also. The ancient Greek writers seem to have been
Platinum crystals
ignorant of bismuth, wherefore Ammonius rightly states
that there are many species of metals, animals, and plants
which are unknown to us. Stibium when smelted in the
crucible and refined has as much right to be regarded as a
proper metal as is accorded to lead by writers. If when
smelted, a certain portion be added to tin, a bookseller's
alloy is produced from which the type is made that is
used by those who print books on paper.

Each metal has its own form which it preserves when

A disc of highly enriched uranium
that was recovered from scrap
processed at the Y-12 National
Security Complex, in Oak Ridge,
Tennessee
separated from those metals which were mixed with it.
Therefore neither electrum nor Stannum [not meaning
our tin] is of itself a real metal, but rather an alloy of two
metals. Electrum is an alloy of gold and silver, Stannum
of lead and silver. And yet if silver be parted from the
electrum, then gold remains and not electrum; if silver be
taken away from Stannum, then lead remains and not
Stannum.

Whether brass, however, is found as a native metal or

not, cannot be ascertained with any surety. We only
know of the artificial brass, which consists of copper
 tinted with the colour of the mineral calamine. And yet if
any should be dug up, it would be a proper metal. Black
and white copper seem to be different from the red kind.

Metal, therefore, is by nature either solid, as I have stated,

or fluid, as in the unique case of quicksilver.

But enough now concerning the simple kinds.[36]

Ultrapure cerium under argon, 1.5
gm Platinum, the third precious metal after gold and silver, was
discovered in Ecuador during the period 1736 to 1744, by the Spanish
astronomer Antonio de Ulloa and his colleague the mathematician
Jorge Juan y Santacilia. Ulloa was the first person to write a scientific description of the metal, in 1748.

In 1789, the German chemist Martin Heinrich Klaproth was able to isolate an oxide of uranium, which he
thought was the metal itself. Klaproth was subsequently credited as the discoverer of uranium. It was not
until 1841, that the French chemist Eugène-Melchior Péligot, was able to prepare the first sample of
uranium metal. Henri Becquerel subsequently discovered radioactivity in 1896 by using uranium.

In the 1790s, Joseph Priestley and the Dutch chemist Martinus van Marum observed the transformative
action of metal surfaces on the dehydrogenation of alcohol, a development which subsequently led, in
1831, to the industrial scale synthesis of sulphuric acid using a platinum catalyst.

In 1803, cerium was the first of the lanthanide metals to be discovered, in Bastnäs, Sweden by Jöns Jakob
Berzelius and Wilhelm Hisinger, and independently by Martin Heinrich Klaproth in Germany. The
lanthanide metals were largely regarded as oddities until the 1960s when methods were developed to more
efficiently separate them from one another. They have subsequently found uses in cell phones, magnets,
lasers, lighting, batteries, catalytic converters, and in other applications enabling modern technologies.

Other metals discovered and prepared during this time were cobalt, nickel, manganese, molybdenum,
tungsten, and chromium; and some of the platinum group metals, palladium, osmium, iridium, and rhodium.

Light metals

All metals discovered until 1809 had relatively high densities; their heaviness was regarded as a singularly
distinguishing criterion. From 1809 onwards, light metals such as sodium, potassium, and strontium were
isolated. Their low densities challenged conventional wisdom as to the nature of metals. They behaved
chemically as metals however, and were subsequently recognised as such.

Aluminum was discovered in 1824 but it was not until 1886 that an industrial large-scale production
method was developed. Prices of aluminum dropped and aluminum became widely used in jewelry,
everyday items, eyeglass frames, optical instruments, tableware, and foil in the 1890s and early 20th
century. Aluminum's ability to form hard yet light alloys with other metals provided the metal many uses at
the time. During World War I, major governments demanded large shipments of aluminum for light strong
airframes. The most common metal in use for electric power transmission today is aluminum-conductor
steel-reinforced. Also seeing much use is all-aluminum-alloy conductor. Aluminum is used because it has
about half the weight of a comparable resistance copper cable (though larger diameter due to lower specific
conductivity), as well as being cheaper. Copper was more popular in the past and is still in use, especially at
lower voltages and for grounding.
While pure metallic titanium (99.9%) was first prepared in 1910 it was not used outside the laboratory until
1932. In the 1950s and 1960s, the Soviet Union pioneered the use of titanium in military and submarine
applications as part of programs related to the Cold War. Starting in the early 1950s, titanium came into use
extensively in military aviation, particularly in high-performance jets, starting with aircraft such as the F-
100 Super Sabre and Lockheed A-12 and SR-71.

Metallic scandium was produced for the first time in 1937. The first pound of 99% pure scandium metal
was produced in 1960. Production of aluminum-scandium alloys began in 1971 following a U.S. patent.
Aluminum-scandium alloys were also developed in the USSR.

Sodium Potassium pearls under Strontium crystals

paraffin oil. Size of the largest
pearl is 0.5 cm.

Aluminum chunk, A bar of titanium crystals Scandium, including a 1 cm 3

2.6 grams, 1 x 2 cm cube

The age of steel

The modern era in steelmaking began with the introduction of Henry Bessemer's Bessemer process in
1855, the raw material for which was pig iron. His method let him produce steel in large quantities cheaply,
thus mild steel came to be used for most purposes for which wrought iron was formerly used. The
Gilchrist-Thomas process (or basic Bessemer process) was an improvement to the Bessemer process, made
by lining the converter with a basic material to remove phosphorus.

Due to its high tensile strength and low cost, steel came to be a major component used in buildings,
infrastructure, tools, ships, automobiles, machines, appliances, and weapons.

In 1872, the Englishmen Clark and Woods patented an alloy that would today be considered a stainless
steel. The corrosion resistance of iron-chromium alloys had been recognized in 1821 by French
metallurgist Pierre Berthier. He noted their resistance against attack by some acids and suggested their use
in cutlery. Metallurgists of the 19th century were unable to produce
the combination of low carbon and high chromium found in most
modern stainless steels, and the high-chromium alloys they could
produce were too brittle to be practical. It was not until 1912 that
the industrialisation of stainless steel alloys occurred in England,
Germany, and the United States.

The last stable metallic elements

By 1900 three metals with atomic numbers less than lead (#82), White-hot steel pours like water from
the heaviest stable metal, remained to be discovered: elements 71, a 35-ton electric furnace, at the
72, 75. Allegheny Ludlum Steel Corporation,
in Brackenridge, Pennsylvania.
Von Welsbach, in 1906, proved that the old ytterbium also
contained a new element (#71), which he named cassiopeium.
Urbain proved this simultaneously, but his samples were very impure and only contained trace quantities of
the new element. Despite this, his chosen name lutetium was adopted.

In 1908, Ogawa found element 75 in thorianite but assigned it as element 43 instead of 75 and named it
nipponium. In 1925 Walter Noddack, Ida Eva Tacke and Otto Berg announced its separation from
gadolinite and gave it the present name, rhenium.

Georges Urbain claimed to have found element 72 in rare-earth residues, while Vladimir Vernadsky
independently found it in orthite. Neither claim was confirmed due to World War I, and neither could be
confirmed later, as the chemistry they reported does not match that now known for hafnium. After the war,
in 1922, Coster and Hevesy found it by X-ray spectroscopic analysis in Norwegian zircon. Hafnium was
thus the last stable element to be discovered.

Lutetium, including a 1 cm 3 Rhenium, including a 1 cm 3 Hafnium, in the form of a

cube cube 1.7 kg bar

By the end of World War II scientists had synthesized four post-uranium elements, all of which are
radioactive (unstable) metals: neptunium (in 1940), plutonium (1940–41), and curium and americium
(1944), representing elements 93 to 96. The first two of these were eventually found in nature as well.
Curium and americium were by-products of the Manhattan project, which produced the world's first atomic
bomb in 1945. The bomb was based on the nuclear fission of uranium, a metal first thought to have been
discovered nearly 150 years earlier.

Post-World War II developments

Superalloys

Superalloys composed of combinations of Fe, Ni, Co, and Cr, and lesser amounts of W, Mo, Ta, Nb, Ti,
and Al were developed shortly after World War II for use in high performance engines, operating at
elevated temperatures (above 650 °C (1,200 °F)). They retain most of their strength under these conditions,
for prolonged periods, and combine good low-temperature ductility with resistance to corrosion or
oxidation. Superalloys can now be found in a wide range of applications including land, maritime, and
aerospace turbines, and chemical and petroleum plants.

Transcurium metals

The successful development of the atomic bomb at the end of World War II sparked further efforts to
synthesize new elements, nearly all of which are, or are expected to be, metals, and all of which are
radioactive. It was not until 1949 that element 97 (berkelium), next after element 96 (curium), was
synthesized by firing alpha particles at an americium target. In 1952, element 100 (fermium) was found in
the debris of the first hydrogen bomb explosion; hydrogen, a nonmetal, had been identified as an element
nearly 200 years earlier. Since 1952, elements 101 (mendelevium) to 118 (oganesson) have been
synthesized.

Bulk metallic glasses

A metallic glass (also known as an amorphous or glassy metal) is a solid metallic material, usually an alloy,
with disordered atomic-scale structure. Most pure and alloyed metals, in their solid state, have atoms
arranged in a highly ordered crystalline structure. Amorphous metals have a non-crystalline glass-like
structure. But unlike common glasses, such as window glass, which are typically electrical insulators,
amorphous metals have good electrical conductivity. Amorphous metals are produced in several ways,
including extremely rapid cooling, physical vapor deposition, solid-state reaction, ion irradiation, and
mechanical alloying. The first reported metallic glass was an alloy (Au75 Si25 ) produced at Caltech in 1960.
More recently, batches of amorphous steel with three times the strength of conventional steel alloys have
been produced. Currently the most important applications rely on the special magnetic properties of some
ferromagnetic metallic glasses. The low magnetization loss is used in high efficiency transformers. Theft
control ID tags and other article surveillance schemes often use metallic glasses because of these magnetic
properties.

Shape-memory alloys

A shape-memory alloy (SMA) is an alloy that "remembers" its original shape and when deformed returns
to its pre-deformed shape when heated. While the shape memory effect had been first observed in 1932, in
an Au-Cd alloy, it was not until 1962, with the accidental discovery of the effect in a Ni-Ti alloy that
research began in earnest, and another ten years before commercial applications emerged. SMA's have
applications in robotics and automotive, aerospace and biomedical industries. There is another type of
SMA, called a ferromagnetic shape-memory alloy (FSMA), that changes shape under strong magnetic
fields. These materials are of particular interest as the magnetic response tends to be faster and more
efficient than temperature-induced responses.

Quasicyrstalline alloys

In 1984, Israeli chemist Dan Shechtman found an aluminum-manganese alloy having five-fold symmetry,
in breach of crystallographic convention at the time which said that crystalline structures could only have
two-, three-, four-, or six-fold symmetry. Due to fear of the scientific community's reaction, it took him two
years to publish the results for which he was awarded the Nobel
Prize in Chemistry in 2011. Since this time, hundreds of
quasicrystals have been reported and confirmed. They exist in
many metallic alloys (and some polymers). Quasicrystals are found
most often in aluminum alloys (Al-Li-Cu, Al-Mn-Si, Al-Ni-Co,
Al-Pd-Mn, Al-Cu-Fe, Al-Cu-V, etc.), but numerous other
compositions are also known (Cd-Yb, Ti-Zr-Ni, Zn-Mg-Ho, Zn-
Mg-Sc, In-Ag-Yb, Pd-U-Si, etc.). Quasicrystals effectively have
infinitely large unit cells. Icosahedrite Al63 Cu24 Fe13 , the first
quasicrystal found in nature, was discovered in 2009. Most
quasicrystals have ceramic-like properties including low electrical A Ho-Mg-Zn icosahedral quasicrystal
conductivity (approaching values seen in insulators) and low formed as a pentagonal
thermal conductivity, high hardness, brittleness, and resistance to dodecahedron, the dual of the
corrosion, and non-stick properties. Quasicrystals have been used icosahedron
to develop heat insulation, LEDs, diesel engines, and new
materials that convert heat to electricity. New applications may
take advantage of the low coefficient of friction and the hardness of some quasicrystalline materials, for
example embedding particles in plastic to make strong, hard-wearing, low-friction plastic gears. Other
potential applications include selective solar absorbers for power conversion, broad-wavelength reflectors,
and bone repair and prostheses applications where biocompatibility, low friction and corrosion resistance
are required.

Complex metallic alloys

Complex metallic alloys (CMAs) are intermetallic compounds characterized by large unit cells comprising
some tens up to thousands of atoms; the presence of well-defined clusters of atoms (frequently with
icosahedral symmetry); and partial disorder within their crystalline lattices. They are composed of two or
more metallic elements, sometimes with metalloids or chalcogenides added. They include, for example,
NaCd2, with 348 sodium atoms and 768 cadmium atoms in the unit cell. Linus Pauling attempted to
describe the structure of NaCd2 in 1923, but did not succeed until 1955. At first called "giant unit cell
crystals", interest in CMAs, as they came to be called, did not pick up until 2002, with the publication of a
paper called "Structurally Complex Alloy Phases", given at the 8th International Conference on
Quasicrystals. Potential applications of CMAs include as heat insulation; solar heating; magnetic
refrigerators; using waste heat to generate electricity; and coatings for turbine blades in military engines.

High entropy alloys

High entropy alloys (HEAs) such as AlLiMgScTi are composed of equal or nearly equal quantities of five
or more metals. Compared to conventional alloys with only one or two base metals, HEAs have
considerably better strength-to-weight ratios, higher tensile strength, and greater resistance to fracturing,
corrosion, and oxidation. Although HEAs were described as early as 1981, significant interest did not
develop until the 2010s; they continue to be the focus of research in materials science and engineering
because of their potential for desirable properties.

MAX phase alloys

In a MAX phase alloy, M is an early transition metal, A is an A group element (mostly group IIIA and
IVA, or groups 13 and 14), and X is either carbon or nitrogen. Examples are Hf2 SnC and Ti4 AlN3 . Such
alloys have some of the best properties of metals and ceramics. These properties include high electrical and
thermal conductivity, thermal shock resistance, damage tolerance, machinability, high elastic stiffness, and
MAX phase
low thermal expansion coefficients.[37]</ref> They can be polished to a alloy examples
metallic luster because of their excellent electrical conductivities. During MAX M A X
mechanical testing, it has been found that polycrystalline Ti3 SiC2 cylinders can
Hf2SnC Hf Sn C
be repeatedly compressed at room temperature, up to stresses of 1 GPa, and
fully recover upon the removal of the load. Some MAX phases are also highly Ti4AlN3 Ti Al N
resistant to chemical attack (e.g. Ti3 SiC2 ) and high-temperature oxidation in air Ti3SiC2 Ti Si C
(Ti2 AlC, Cr2 AlC2 , and Ti3 AlC2 ). Potential applications for MAX phase
Ti2AlC Ti Al C
alloys include: as tough, machinable, thermal shock-resistant refractories; high-
temperature heating elements; coatings for electrical contacts; and neutron Cr2AlC2 Cr Al C
irradiation resistant parts for nuclear applications. While MAX phase alloys Ti3AlC2 Ti Al C
were discovered in the 1960s, the first paper on the subject was not published
until 1996.

See also
Colored gold
Ductility
Ferrous metallurgy
Metal theft
Metallurgy
Metalworking
Properties of metals, metalloids and nonmetals
Structural steel
Transition metal

Notes
1. This is a simplified explanation; other factors may include atomic radius, nuclear charge,
number of bond orbitals, overlap of orbital energies, and crystal form.[5]
2. Trace elements having an abundance equalling or much less than one part per trillion
(namely Tc, Pm, Po, At, Ra, Ac, Pa, Np, and Pu) are not shown.
3. In some cases, for example in the presence of high energy gamma rays or in a very high
temperature hydrogen rich environment, the subject nuclei may experience neutron loss or
proton gain resulting in the production of (comparatively rare) neutron deficient isotopes.[17]
4. The ejection of matter when two neutron stars collide is attributed to the interaction of their
tidal forces, possible crustal disruption, and shock heating (which is what happens if you
floor the accelerator in car when the engine is cold).[20]
5. Iron, cobalt, nickel, and tin are also siderophiles from a whole of Earth perspective.
6. Another life-enabling role for iron is as a key constituent of hemoglobin, which enables the
transportation of oxygen from the lungs to the rest of the body.
7. Bronze is an alloy consisting primarily of copper, commonly with about 12% tin and often
with the addition of other metals (such as aluminum, manganese, nickel or zinc) and
sometimes non-metals or metalloids such as arsenic, phosphorus or silicon.
8. The Chalybean peoples of Pontus in Asia Minor were being concurrently celebrated for
working in iron and steel. Unbeknownst to them, their iron contained a high amount of
manganese, enabling the production of a superior form of steel.
 9. In Damascus, Syria, blade-smiths were able to forge knives and swords with a distinctive
surface pattern composed of swirling patterns of light-etched regions on a nearly black
background. These blades had legendary cutting abilities. The iron the smiths were using
was sourced from India, and contained one or more carbide-forming elements, such as V,
Mo, Cr, Mn, and Nb. Modern analysis of these weapons has shown that these elements
supported the catalytic formation of carbon nanotubes, which in turn promoted the formation
of cementite (Fe3C) nanowires. The malleability of the carbon nanotubes offset the brittle
nature of the cementite, and endowed the resulting steel with a unique combination of
strength and flexibility. Knowledge of how to make what came to called Damascus steel died
out in the eighteenth century possibly due to exhausting ore sources with the right
combination of impurities. The techniques involved were not rediscovered until 2009.
10. In ancient times, lead was regarded as the father of all metals.
11. Paracelsus, a later German Renaissance writer, added the third principle of salt, carrying the
nonvolatile and incombustible properties, in his tria prima doctrine. These theories retained
the four classical elements as underlying the composition of sulfur, mercury and salt.

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Further reading
Choptuik M. W., Lehner L. & Pretorias F. 2015, "Probing strong-field gravity through
numerical simulation", in A. Ashtekar, B. K. Berger, J. Isenberg & M. MacCallum (eds),
General Relativity and Gravitation: A Centennial Perspective, Cambridge University Press,
Cambridge, ISBN 978-1-107-03731-1.
Cox P. A. 1997, The elements: Their origin, abundance and distribution, Oxford University
Press, Oxford, ISBN 978-0-19-855298-7
Crow J. M. 2016, "Impossible alloys: How to make never-before-seen metals (https://www.ne
wscientist.com/article/mg23230950-500-a-mixedup-recipe-is-redefining-metals-into-impossi
ble-alloys/)", New Scientist, 12 October
Hadhazy A. 2016, "Galactic 'gold mine' explains the origin of nature's heaviest elements (htt
p://www.kavlifoundation.org/science-spotlights/cosmic-heavy-metals#.V4MEDleO7OY)",
Science Spotlights, 10 May 2016, accessed 11 July 2016.
Hofmann S. 2002, On Beyond Uranium: Journey to the End of the Periodic Table, Taylor &
Francis, London, ISBN 978-0-415-28495-0.
Padmanabhan T. 2001, Theoretical Astrophysics, vol. 2, Stars and Stellar Systems,
Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, ISBN 978-0-521-56241-6.
Parish R. V. 1977, The metallic elements, Longman, London, ISBN 978-0-582-44278-8
Podosek F. A. 2011, "Noble gases", in H. D. Holland & K. K. Turekian (eds), Isotope
Geochemistry: From the Treatise on Geochemistry, Elsevier, Amsterdam, pp. 467–492,
ISBN 978-0-08-096710-3.
Raymond R. 1984, Out of the fiery furnace: The impact of metals on the history of mankind,
Macmillan Australia, Melbourne, ISBN 978-0-333-38024-6
Rehder D. 2010, Chemistry in Space: From Interstellar Matter to the Origin of Life, Wiley-
VCH, Weinheim, ISBN 978-3-527-32689-1.
Russell A. M. & Lee K. L. 2005, Structure–property relations in nonferrous metals, John
Wiley & Sons, Hoboken, New Jersey, ISBN 978-0-471-64952-6
Street A. & Alexander W. 1998, Metals in the service of man, 11th ed., Penguin Books,
London, ISBN 978-0-14-025776-2
 Wilson A. J. 1994, The living rock: The tory of metals since earliest times and their impact on
developing civilization, Woodhead Publishing, Cambridge, ISBN 978-1-85573-154-7

External links
ASM International (http://www.asminternational.org) (formerly the American Society for
Metals)
Strong as Titanium, Cheap as Dirt: New Steel Alloy Shines (https://www.nbcnews.com/tech/i
nnovation/strong-titanium-cheap-dirt-new-steel-alloy-shines-n301226)
The Minerals, Metals & Materials Society Home Page (http://www.tms.org)

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