MISSING NOTES

UNIT 2

OUTCOMES/ STRENGHTS OF ORGANISATIONAL COMMITMENT

Organizational commitment is most often defined as a strong desire to remain a member of a

particular organization; a willingness to exert high levels of effort on behalf of the organization; and
a definite belief in, and acceptance of the values and goals of the organization1 . In other words, this
is an attitude reflecting employees’ loyalty to their organization and is an ongoing process through
which organizational participants express their concern for the organization and its continued
success and well-being2 . In the opinion of Robbins, Judge and Sanghi, ‘organizational commitment
means the degree to which an employee identifies with a particular organization and its goals and
wishes to maintain membership in the organization.

Looked from the above definitions, the organizational commitment has been explained in the four
major meanings, namely: (I) Permanence (II) Preference, (III) Identification and (IV) Performance.
The various definitions postulated can be thought of as attitudinal or behavioral definition using one
or more of the above meanings-

(i) Permanence: According to Becker (1960) a person can be said to be committed “when
we observe him / her pursuing a consistent line of activity in a sequence of varied
situations” . Industrial sociologists concerned with commitment to the industrial way of
life and factory employment have thought of commitment in this sense. In Myer’s view
(1998) committed labour force can be said to have developed when worker, no longer
look on their industrial employment as temporary”4 . Lambert (1963) used “the
intention to remain in factory employment’ as an index of commitment to factory
employment”5 . Porter and other (1976) definition of organizational commitment
include a strong desire to maintain organizational membership. as one of the three
factors characterizing organizational commitment6 . Thus, these definitions suggest
permanence or willingness to continue membership in an organization as the meaning
of organizational commitment.
(ii) (ii) Preference: The second concept indicates that the organizational commitment
implies preference for one’s organization over others. Sheldon (1971) has used the level
to which one positively evaluates one’s organization as an index of such preference7 .
Sharma (1974) and Gupta (1982) have used index which measure one’s preference of
one’s current employing organization over others as indicators of organizational
commitment. Such preference occurs due to one evaluating one’s organization as better
than similar other organizations. This is owing to positive evaluation.
(iii) dentification: A person is said to be committed when he or she accepts and internalizes
the goals and values of the organization. Morris (1960) holds that commitment involves
both performance and acceptance of the behavior appropriate to the industrial way of
life9 . Though in his definition the focus is on commitment to the industrial way of life, it
can be transferred to commitment to the organization. “Linking the identity of the
person to the organization” (Sheldon 1971) and strongly believing in and accepting the
organizations goal and values10 (Porter and others 1974) are other ways in which this
identifications” has been expressed as the meaning of organizational commitment.
(iv) The term ‘organizational commitment’ has also been used to indicate ‘performance’.
Morris definitions (1960) consider performance appropriate to the industrial way of
life12. Kanter (1968) considers organizational commitment to signify the willingness of
 social actors to give their energy and loyalty to the organization13. Sheldon’s, definition
(1971) include the intention to work towards organizational goals as an aspect of
organizational commitment14. Porter and other’s (1974) include “a willingness to exert
considerable effect on behalf of the organization as one of the characteristics of
organizational commitment”.

ANTECEDENTS OF OC –

Conceptually, organizational commitment has certain causes and effects. The antecedents of
organizational commitment can be broadly classified as variable related to the organization and
those related to the person. Organizational commitment has several consequences to the
organization as well as to the employees. Different studies have discovered several antecedents
and consequences of organizational commitment. In this study the focus is laid on the
antecedents and outcomes of organizational commitment. Studies designed to ascertain the
antecedents of organizational commitment have identified two sets of variables namely:

(1) Organisational

(2) Personal.

Organizational variables: This study focuses attention on discovering the relationship between
organizational commitment and organization related variables. The identified organization
related variables include.

1. Task identity, job challenges, feed back, task autonomy, job involvement and skill variety
(Buchanan 1974, steers, 1977).

2. Organizational structure characteristics like size span of control, centralization, formalization

and functional dependence (Stevens, Beyer and Trice 1978).

3. Role conflict, role ambiguity, role overload, role stress, and power (Morris and Slernan 1981,
Welsach and La van 1981).

4. Interpersonal variables like team work and group attitudes (Steers 1977, Welsach

5. Organizational climate characteristics such as decision making, communication, leadership,

motivation and goal setting (Welch La van 1981).

6. Organizational process like participation in decision making (Rhodes and Steers 1981). 32

7. Rewards (Gusky 1966, Welsach La van 1981).

Personal variables: There exists the relationship between personal variables and commitment to
the employing organization. Adequate person related variables have been found to be related to
organizational commitment. Three frameworks have been used in studying the relationship of
organizational commitment with the personal variables. They are investment, exchange and
value notions. Investments notion denotes that the greater the stake one has in an organization
the greater one is likely to be committed to the organization. Investments will produce
commitment to the organization, regardless of other features of the person’s relationship to the
organization (Sheldon 1971). Variables which have been studied under the investment notion
are age, tenure, education, marital status, number of dependants and 59 gender. Ritzer and
Trice 1969, Alutto and others 1973, Porter and other 1974, Steers 1977, Angle and Perry 1981,
Cohen 1992).
 The exchange notion states that the greater the level to which one’s expectations are met, the
stronger is likely to be the one’s organizational commitment. The expectations include the need
for achievement and personal importance. (Steers 1977 and Welsach and La Van 1981)

The value notion suggests that those with high work ethics tend to express high moral
commitment. Work values and professionalism have been studied under this notion. It also
shows the destination made between moral and calculative commitment, (Kidron 1988, Welsach
and La Van 1981).

Other personal related variables are

1. Demographic variables such as age, sex, marital status and professional educational (if any).

2. Career variables like the selection, total number of years of employment, tenure in the
organization, number of years of working in the present position, promotion, number of
organizations employed before joining the present organization and management level of one’s
present position in the hierarchy.

OUTCOMES OF O COMMITMENT

Organisational outcomes are measured in terms of loyalty, intention to leave, work stress and
selfperformance. These four elements are sufficient to include all elements considered by
Steers[16] as organizational outcomes.

The consequences of workplace commitment are the effects and outcomes that result from
organizational and individual employee commitment. Employees with strong organizational
affective commitment are emotionally attached to the organization having a greater desire to
contribute meaningfully to the organization, choose to be absent less, work harder (Mathieu &
Zajac, 1990), improving production (Randal & Cote, 1994) and overall performance on the job
(Meyer & Allen, 1997). Managers with strong affective commitment report higher levels of
compliance with strategic decisions and avoidance of budgetary slack in financial planning (Kim
& Mauborgne, 1993; DeCotiis & Summers, 1987), are more willing to engage in organizational
citizenship (Nouri, 1994) or extrarole performance (Meyer et al, 1993). The willingness to go
above and beyond the call of duty (extra-role performance) include things such as providing
extra help to coworkers, volunteering for special work activities, being particularly considerate
of coworkers and customers, arrive early to work and/or leave late, and make suggestions when
problems arise (Meyer & Allen, 1997). Affective commitment leads to increased
competitiveness, accountability and the desire to improve overall performance of the job
(Konovsky & Cropanzano, 1991).

Affective organizational commitment is beneficial to the employee as well. Employees that have
high levels of affective commitment, experience lower stress levels even though they work
longer and harder than those not committed. Affective commitment encourages motivation
(Meyer & Allen, 1997) and lower psychological physical, work-related stress (Reilly & Orsak,
1991), less emotional exhaustions and depersonalization (Jamal, 1990). Employees committed to
the organization, their jobs and careers appear happier, and are able to exert more quality time
to their families and hobbies (Reilly & Orsak, 1991).

Individual employee commitment and commitment to work groups improves team

performance, pro-social behavior and group cohesion enhancing individual job performance and
satisfaction (Bishop and Scott, 1997). Those committed to their jobs and/or careers are absent
less and have lower intentions to quit (Bishop & Scott, 1997), increased job satisfaction, and
increased intrinsic motivation (Hackman & Oldham, 1976). Job characteristics or interesting
work such as task identity, skill variety, task significance and autonomy increases motivation, job
satisfaction and job performance (Hackman & Oldham, 1976). Career commitment and job
involvement affect professionals' job satisfaction, turnover intention, role stress, productivity,
and job migration (Aranya & Ferris, 1984; Gunz & Gunz, 1994).

Cognitive mapping was used to create a model of the relationships between the elements,
antecedents, and consequences of workplace commitment, which lead to organizational
commitment and/or individual employee commitment (See Figure 1). The antecedents to
organizational commitment (clarity of purpose, equity & fairness, empowerment, congruency,
feedback & recognition, autonomy and interesting work) lead to an employee’s perception of
organizational and supervisory support creating an emotional attachment to the organization
(organizational commitment). The antecedents to individual commitment (congruency, feedback
& recognition, autonomy and interesting work) lead to meaningfulness of work, career, peers,
and self, creating an attachment to ones job, career, and work teams (individual commitment).
Organizational and individual commitment results in positive outcomes and implications for the
organization and the individual (consequences of commitment).

As in the case with job satisfaction, there are mixed outcomes of organizational commitment.
Both early and more recent research summarizes do show support of a positive relationship
between organizational commitment and desirable outcomes such as high performance, low
turnover and low absenteeism. There is also evidence that employee commitment relates to
other desirable outcomes, such as the perception of warm, supportive organizational climate36
and being and a goal team member willing to help. Yet, as with satisfaction there are some
studies that do not show strong relationships between commitment and outcome variables and
others where there are moderating effects between organizational commitment and
performance. For example one study found a stronger relationship between organizational
commitment and performance for those with low financial needs than for those with higher
ones39, and another study found that the more tenure the employees had on the job and with
the employing organization, the less impact their commitment had on performance40. Also a
study found that commitment to supervisors was more strongly related to performance than
was commitment to organizations. Those and a number of other studies indicate the complexity
of an attitude such as commitment. However most researchers would agree that the
organizational commitment attitude as defined here may be a better predictor of desirable
variables than job satisfaction and thus deserves management’s attention.
UNIT 3

SEXUAL HARASSMENT

PREVENTION OFF SEXUAL HARASSMENT AT WORPLACE AND ORGANISATIONAL RESPONSIBILTY

Sexual harassment is unwanted and unwelcome acts of a sexual nature, also known as “eve-
teasing”, are not a new phenomenon in India as in other parts of the world. It is a reality for many
women in India. While the majority of cases of sexual harassment in the workplace are perpetuated
by men against women, no woman or man should have to tolerate such conduct as it violates the
respect and dignity of the victim, and has negative effects on individuals, enterprises and society.
Recognizing the need to suppress such conduct, many countries in Asia have taken legislative action
to prohibit sexual harassment at the workplace, and this year.

It can be prevented by the following interventions

1- Developing and adopting a comprehensive policy on the prevention of sexual harassment is

one of the key actions in preventing sexual harassment and promoting a safe working
environment. The aim of such a policy should be to change behaviour and attitude of
women and men at the workplace, and to provide a workplace environment conducive for
both.

The contents of a workplace policy on sexual harassment may include22:

• A clear organization’s statement on sexual harassment, e.g - Sexual harassment is strictly

prohibited - Zero-tolerance policy: Organization will pursue all sexual harassment cases and not
make any exception for perpetrator in question irrespective of the person’s status - Anyone found
guilty of sexual harassment after investigation will be subject to immediate and appropriate
disciplinary action

• Key definitions and examples related to sexual harassment

• Reference to relevant legislations

• Consequences in case of breach of policy

• Responsibilities of management and staff

• Adequate provisions for regular and repeated training of employees at all levels

• Details of the members of the Internal Complaints Committee (For more details on the Committee,
see Chapter V)

• Procedures and options available for getting help and advice, making complaints, and handling
cases which can include both formal and informal procedures

• Procedures and rules for harassment of or by third parties such as clients and customers •
Timeframe for redressal procedures

• A clear indication that all cases of sexual harassment will be kept confidential

• Effective safeguards to ensure that the recommendations of the Committee are implemented by
the management of the institution

• Frequency of discussion and review of the policy.

2- RAISE AWARENESS - Once a policy on sexual harassment is developed, employers must raise
awareness among employees about the policy and its contents including what constitutes
sexual harassment, what an employee can do when he or she experiences sexual
harassment, and consequences in case of breach of policy. This may be done through
induction programme of new employees, regular staff meetings or training, email, display on
the website, and other appropriate forums. In addition, employers may use visual materials
such as notices, posters or brochures to disseminate information on the anti-sexual
harassment policy. Sensitizing employees with the provisions of the Act is stated as one of
 the duties of an employer and/ or the appropriate government (Section 19 of the Act). Along
with awareness raising on sexual harassment policy and its contents, it is important to
promote gender equality. Experience has shown that patriarchal attitudes and values are the
biggest challenge in the implementation of any law concerning gender equality and women’s
rights such as the Act on Sexual Harassment. Combating these attitudes is crucial in the
prevention of sexual harassment at the workplace.
3- PROVIDE TRAINIING - Effective training programmes are essential for sensitizing all their
staff members, both men and women to recognize sexual harassment to prevent it, and to
deal with it when it occurs. The training programme is the best way to ensure proper
understanding and implementation of the organization’s policy on sexual harassment. It is
the best forum to communicate to employees what behaviour is acceptable and what is not,
in a non-threatening atmosphere of mutual learning. Training for the members of the
Complaints Committee and others who are going to be instrumental in implementing the
policy is very essential. The Act specifies that it is the duty of an employer to organize
orientation programmes for the members of the Internal Committee.

Training should include a component on gender sensitization, along with the procedures for taking
complaints and enquiry. Sexual harassment training for all employees should address perceptions
and understanding of sexual harassment, impact of sexual harassment on individuals and workplace,
understanding the policy and complaint mechanism. The training for Complaints Committee should
address, in addition to these, the procedures of investigation, skills necessary for enquiries,
documenting the procedures.

A separate training for supervisors and managers may be organized to encourage appropriate
conduct by themselves. As a manager, they play a key role in promoting the organization’s sexual
harassment policy to ensure that the workplace is free from sexual harassment. They also need to
monitor the working environment by closely scrutinizing performance and morale.

of all employees and assessing changes in employees’ behavior patterns such as high turnover. The
training for supervisors becomes especially important when sexual harassment cases are handled
through informal mechanisms..

4- OTHER PRACTICAL MEASURES OR CULTURE RELATED MEASURES-

In addition to the above mentioned measures, employers can take practical actions that can
contribute to preventing sexual harassment at workplace as follows:

• Create appropriate and safe working environment for all workers to focus on work free from
sexual harassment

- Remove offensive, sexually explicit or pornographic calendars, literature, posters and other
materials from the workplace

- Improve safety of working environment by ensuring sufficient lighting, open space offices, good
balance of men and women at workplace at different levels, and organizing work during working
hours

• Establish a panel consisting of both women and men rather than just one individual who is
responsible for making decisions concerning job vacancies or promotions

• Translate policy into relevant languages of workers and for those who cannot read use images to
explain
• Display posters about zero-tolerance for -sexual harassment

• Distribute brochures on frequently asked questions and answers on sexual harassment

• Conduct surveys to identify factors and situations leading to incidence of sexual harassment. The
survey can be done anonymously and ask employees whether they have experienced any form of
sexual harassment in the past year.

SEXUAL HARASSMENT IN INDIAN CONTEXT

Sexual harassment is unwanted and unwelcome acts of a sexual nature, also known as “eve-
teasing”, are not a new phenomenon in India as in other parts of the world. It is a reality for many
women in India. While the majority of cases of sexual harassment in the workplace are perpetuated
by men against women, no woman or man should have to tolerate such conduct as it violates the
respect and dignity of the victim, and has negative effects on individuals, enterprises and society.
Recognizing the need to suppress such conduct, many countries in Asia have taken legislative action
to prohibit sexual harassment at the workplace, and this year.

Sexual harassment refers to unwelcome sexual advances or verbal or physical conduct of a sexual
nature which has the effect of unreasonably interfering with the individual’s work performance or
creating an intimidating, hostile, abusive or offensive working environment15 . Sexual harassment
can range from misbehaviour of an irritating nature to the most serious forms such as sexual abuse
and assault including rape. The Sexual Harassment of Women (Prevention, Prohibition and
Redressal) Act 2013 defines sexual harassment to include any one or more of the following
unwelcome acts or behaviour (whether directly or by implication) namely: i. physical contact and
advances ii. a demand or request for sexual favours iii. making sexually coloured remarks iv. showing
pornography v. any other unwelcome physical, verbal or non-verbal conduct of sexual nature.

India has taken further substantial measures by approving the Sexual Harassment of Women at
Workplace. This Act was passed by the Lok Sabha and the Rajya Sabha on 3 September 2012 and 26
February 2013 respectively, and notified on 23 April 2013. It recognizes that sexual harassment
results in the violation of a woman’s fundamental right to equality under Articles 14, 15 and 21 -
which provide for equality under the law, prohibition of discrimination on grounds of religion, race,
caste, sex or place of birth, and protection of life and personal liberty. The Act provides protection
against sexual harassment of women at work and for the prevention and redressal of complaints of
sexual harassment within the workplace. The Act uses the same definition of sexual harassment that
was laid down by the Supreme Court of India in Vishaka v. State of Rajasthan (1997), and is an
important step in addressing gender-based discrimination and violence in India, even if some
legislative gaps remain as it protects only women (and not men) from sexual harassment at
workplace.

In India, the Vishaka Guidelines was the first ever legal action that provided a broad framework for
preventing and addressing cases of sexual harassment of women within the workplace. It recognized
that sexual harassment of women in the workplace resulted in the violation of their fundamental
rights of gender equality, right to life and liberty, and the right to carry out any occupation, trade or
profession. 12 Judgments issued in respect of the Vishaka Guidelines regarding sexual harassment at
the workplace and status of implementation of Vishaka Directives are included in Annex 3 for
reference.
In India, the issue of sexual harassment in the workplace gained precedence with the pivotal case of
Vishaka and others vs. The State of Rajasthan, 1992. This was the much publicized case of the gang-
rape of a government social worker, Bhanwari Devi. A Writ Petition filed in the Supreme Court under
the collective platform of Vishaka, a women’s organization, along with four others, led to the
Supreme Court directives which were to serve as guidelines on prevention of sexual harassment of
women until the enactment of the Sexual Harassment Act in 2013. These directives, termed the
Vishaka Guidelines were part of the historic judgment passed on 13 August 1997. It recognized that
sexual harassment of working women amounts to violation of the rights of gender equality, violation
of the right to practice any profession, occupation, and trade. It included definition of sexual
harassment, and stated that “such conduct can be humiliating and may constitute a health and
safety problem”, emphasizing preventive measures for sexual harassment. Though the writ petition
went on to give a concrete direction to preventing and addressing sexual harassment in the
workplace, Bhanwari Devi still continues to fight to get justice in her case in the local courts.

In 2012, India saw increased and strong calls for addressing violence against women, with the
increasing number of reported cases of sexual harassment and violence against women. In this
context, the Sexual Harassment of Women (Prevention, Prohibition and Redressal) Act 2013 was
enacted to provide protection against sexual harassment of women at workplace and for preventing
and addressing complaints of sexual harassment. The Act recognizes that sexual harassment results
in the violation of a woman’s fundamental right to equality under Articles 14, 15 and 21 of the
Constitution which provide for equality before law, prohibition of discrimination on grounds of
religion, race, caste, sex or place of birth and protection of life and personal liberty. The Act includes
key definitions and measures to be taken by different stakeholders for preventing and addressing
sexual harassment at the workplace, which is further explained in Chapters III, IV, V, and VI of this
guide. Section 28 of the Act mentions that its provisions shall be in addition to and not in derogation
of the provisions of any other law for the time being in force. Therefore, this guidebook should be
read along with the Vishaka Guidelines, as well as rules when they are notified by the Government.

The Act specifies that: • No court shall take cognizance of any offense punishable under this Act, or
any of its rules, save on a complaint made by the aggrieved woman, or any other person authorized
by the Internal Complaint Committee (ICC) and the Local Complaint Committee (LCC) 13 • No court
inferior to that of a Metropolitan Magistrate of Judicial Magistrate of the first class, shall try any
offense punishable under this Act • Every offense under this Act is non-cognizable.

Offences are essentially of two types: Cognizable and Non-cognizable The essential difference
between ''cognizable'' and ''non-cognizable'' offence is that in the case of a cognizable offence, a
police officer of a special rank shall have the power to arrest an offender without warrant. In case of
a non-cognizable offence, a police officer has no authority to arrest an offender without warrant
issued by a Magistrate. Cognizable offences are generally offences of a serious nature and which
affect the whole society- such as murder, rape, theft, dowry death, cruelty to married women,
kidnapping, etc. Non-cognizable offences are generally offences which relate to the personal harm
caused to an individual, such as defamation, bigamy, etc. In Cognizable offences, the police will
record a “First Information Report (FIR)”, and in Non-cognizable offences, the police will record a
“Non–cognizable FIR (NCR)”. Whether an offence under the Indian Penal Code is cognizable or non-
cognizable can be found out by referring to a list in the Criminal Procedure Code, 1973 (Cr. PC) called
‘The First Schedule’ and “Schedule II”. When something is an offence under some other law, it will
be written in that law, whether the offence is cognizable or non-cognizable. In case of the Sexual
Harassment Act, unless there is a complaint made by the aggrieved woman herself or any other
person authorized by the Internal Complaint Committee or the Local Complaint Committee, courts
will not recognize or register any offense under the Act.

ORGANISATIONAL POLITICS

HOW DO PEOPLE RESPOND TO ORGANISATIONAL POLITICS ?

Organizational politics (OP) is described by many researchers as actions which affect activities,
behaviors, and most importantly decision making through the use of power. OP within a workplace
is implied by Bouckenooghe, Zafar and Raja (2015) as the premeditated use of power by individuals
to satisfy personal interests and goals within their workplace. Many managers resort to using their
position of power within an organization to affect decision making and influence an action. OP can
manipulate behaviors and transform organizational harmony and effectiveness to a more
destructive outcome. Destructive outcomes include but not limit to reduction in job satisfaction and
commitment to the overall organization, reduction in job effectiveness, higher intents to turnovers
and higher job anxiety. Daskin and Tezer (2012) illustrated some of these destructive organizational
consequences in their research.

According to Abbas and Raja (2014), OP can be considered as a portion of organization’s social
fabric. Although, some researchers consider OP to be a necessity for the growth of the organization,
others argue that it is an organizational stressor that negatively affects proper functioning of an
organization. However, mixed evidence has been found regarding the impact of perceived
organizational politics on various job outcomes.

Politics is an unofficial and informal behavior, which is not defined in any employee’s task structure
or role, and whose beneficiary is solely determined by individual rather the firm. As people compete
with each other to fulfill their personal goals and acquire power, their behavior tend to shape the
psycho-social and informal context of the environment of the workplace, which revolves around
social influences. This behavior naturally arises between the gaps in procedures, formally prohibited
behaviors and policies of the organization. This entire process tends to shape a unique political
context.

Research by Zhonghua and Chen (2014) argued that perception of employees of organizational
politics leads to different negative and adverse outcome, including lowered organizational
commitment, decreased task performance, lessened organizational citizenship behavior and job
satisfaction.

According to Vigoda (2000) principles of organizational politics, it has a negative relation with job-
related feelings of managerial loyalty and employment fulfillment. In a research, Kodisinghe (2010)
described the impact of perceived organizational political matters on working pleasures of
organizations.

Politics is referred to both the strategic processes that challenge or use power, as well as the force
that exerts social influence on organizations. Voronov (2008) distinguished between deep structure
politics rooted in symbols, communication, and culture, and surface politics as a way of practicing
power on different influential source (authority, gatekeeping, resources, manipulation). Deep
structure politics is referred to the sense making, the taken-for granted rules, the system, and the
organizational structure. For managers, organizational politics is all about their ability to force or
influence processes and changes and their political agenda. Therefore, politics is about shaping a
perception of the organizational reality and creating legitimate perception as well as imposing that
perception on others (Voronov, 2008). Elbanna, Benedetto and Gherib (2015) concluded that there
is a negative impact of the practice of political behavior on decision making process. It is highlighted
by Khalid and Ishaq (2015) that political tactics and behaviors are widely observed in every
organization. These tactics have a significant impact on performance of employees at workplace.
Perceptions of employees about the politics prevailing in their work environment can significantly
affect their work. Naturally, politics occur due to diverse workforce within an organization, along
with the differences between employees’ knowledge, agendas, skills, and views.

Gull and Zaidi (2012) conducted research to identify the impact of workplace politics on job
satisfaction of employees. The researchers determined the association and effect of workplace
politics and the impact of various dimensions of organizational politics on job satisfaction of
employees . The study findings also determined that there is a negative relation between the levels
of job satisfaction among employees and employees’ silent actions to achieve personal benefits.
Moreover, it was also highlighted by the researchers that there is a negative association between
level of job satisfaction among employees and organizational politics based on the policies. Based on
their findings, researchers concluded a negative relation exists between perceived organizational
politics and job satisfaction level (Gull & Zaidi, 2012). There was an inverse relation between both
the construct that is higher perceived organizational politics results in decreased levels of job
satisfaction among employees. Garcia-Morales, Jimenez-Barrionuevo & Gutierrez-Gutierrez (2012)
have supported the outcomes that transformational leadership can easily influence the
organizational performance in regards of the learning and innovation. Transformational leadership is
relatively helpful for the employees to improvise their regulative processes through better
consultation. Thus, organizational politics can be easily reduced through transformational
leadership.

The concept of organizational politics, which is well-understood these days, was explained by Ferris
and Kacmar in 1991 as the extent to which an employee views his/her workplace as political, which
makes them feel that their workplace environment is unjust and unfair. Furthermore, it was argued
by Gotsis and Kortezi (2011) that organizational politics is individuals seeking self-interests in a firm,
without considering the impact it would have on the ability of an organization to acquire its goals
and meet its objectives.

According to previous studies, organizational politics has a negative association with organizational
outcomes, like intention to quit, stress, organizational citizenship behaviors, and job satisfaction
(Perrewé, Rosen, & Maslach, 2012). In a research, Gbadamosi and Chinaka (2011) analyzed the
impact organizational politics, organizational commitment and turnover intention on the efficiency
and effectiveness of employees.

The researchers also identified that there is a negative relation between the perception of
organizational politics with job involvement, job stress, job satisfaction and intentions to quit.
Perceptions related to organizational politics and job stress demonstrated that transactional
leadership style has an impact on work-related outcomes. The research findings explained weak
impact of perceptions of organizational politics on job involvements and job satisfaction, having a
negative relationship between them. Furthermore, the researcher highlighted a positive correlation
of organizational politics with intentions to quit and job stress, suggesting that these variables can
have an adverse impact on employees’ overall performance (Ram & Prabhakar, 2010).

Chang, Rosen and Levy (2009) developed a model to test the association between turnover
intentions and job performance and perception of organization politics. The meta-analytic research
highlighted a bivariate and significant relation between perception of politics and strain, job
satisfaction, task performance, affective commitment, turnover intentions, and organizational
citizenship behavior towards organization as well as individuals. In addition, the results highlighted
that there is a mediating effect of work related perceived politics on turnover intentions of
employees, and a mediating effect of stress due to organizational politics on performance.

INFLUENCE TACTICS

Rational Persuasion: The agent uses logical arguments and factual evidence to show that a proposal
or request is necessary to attain task objectives and will benefit the organization.

RPW Written Explanation: The agent sends the target a memo explaining why the request or
proposal is important for the organization.

APP Appraising: The agent uses logical arguments and factual evidence to show that a proposal or
request will benefit the target personally.

CONS Consultation: The agent seeks target input or active participation in planning a strategy,
activity, or change for which target support and assistance are desired.

INSP Inspirational Appeals: The agent makes an emotional appeal to the target’s values and ideals
during a request or proposal.

IGT Ingratiating Tactics: The agent uses praise and flattery, or expresses confidence in the target
during the influence attempt.

EXC Exchange Tactics: The agent offers to do something for the target in exchange for doing what
the agent wants

. CLB Collaboration Tactics: The agent offers to provide resources and assistance, or to share the
benefits if the target will carry out a request or approve a change.

PERS Personal Appeals: The agent asks the target to carry out a request or support a proposal out of
loyalty or friendship.

PRES Pressure Tactics: The agent uses demands, threats, frequent checking, or persistent reminders
to convince the target to do something.

COAL Coalition Tactics: The agent enlists the aid of others, or uses the support of others who are
close to the target person, to influence the target to do something.

UP Upward Appeal: The agent seeks help from someone who has higher authority over the target.
GIFT Gift: The agent gives small gifts to the target person or his/her family prior to making a request.
PST Persistence: The agent repeatedly asks the target to carry out a request or support a proposal in
an effort to overcome the target’s initial resistance.

INF Informal Approach: The agent takes the target person to a non-work setting (home, restaurant,
or other place) to make the influence attempt.

SOC Socializing: Before making a request, the agent talks about a subject that is irrelevant to the
request but of interest to the target person (such as family, children, or sports).

CULTURAL INFLUENCE OF POWER AND POLITICS

Vigoda (2001) noted a lack of theoretical and empirical precision in articulating cross-cultural aspects
that might prove important for the development of a comprehensive theory in the field. Many
studies in organizational behaviour point to the central role of culture reflected in an organization
and its influence on the organization and its dynamics emphasized the importance of culture in
ethical decision-making in business. In a different study, Arzu Wasti (2003) indicated that satisfaction
with work and promotion are the primary determinants of affective and normative commitment for
individuals who endorse individualist values. On the basis of cultural values, House et al. (2004)
identified and tested characteristics of an effective leader in an organization across 62 countries. In
the context of organizational politics, Vigoda (2001) suggested that cultural values might explain the
extent to which employees respond to the politics in their organization.

CULTURE INFLUENCING PERCEPTION OF POLITICS - Political games in an organization are affected

by external forces such as cultural, political and economic systems (Mintzberg, 1985). Organizations
must adapt to the nation-level values that prevail in their society in order to gain and maintain
legitimacy and to function effectively (Sagiv, Schwartz & Arieli, 2011). In order to explain the
differences in perceptions of politics on the individual level (micro) with predictors from the social
level (macro), the factor which is common to both should be used. As noted above, some studies
(Romm & Drory, 1988; Vigoda, 2001) have aimed at predicting perceptions of organizational politics
and have provided insights about the roles of culture. Romm and Drory (1988) compared
perceptions of organizational politics in Israel and Canada, and found that Canadians define a variety
of situations as more political and less ethical than do Israelis. The researchers explained this
phenomenon as the Israelis’ greater familiarity with political processes within the workplace and in
other realms. According to the researchers, Israelis are characterized by tolerance of political activity
and award it natural legitimacy (Romm & Drory, 1988).

In another study, Vigoda (2001) found differences between Israeli and British employees’ reactions
to perception of organizational politics. British employees indicate a lower level of job satisfaction
and expectations from work and even have a higher tendency to leave a job, as compared to Israeli
employees. This study’s main focus lies in the implications of these concepts rather than specifically
on differences in the perception of organizational politics between countries; nevertheless, the
researcher attributes the findings to cultural differences between the two countries. Israeli culture,
as opposed to British, is characterized by individualism that allows the people to be more familiar
with political behaviour in an organization. As a result, organizational politics earns greater
legitimacy among the Israelis than among the British. The studies mentioned here highlight the
existence of perceptions of politics in different countries and attribute the variance of perceptions to
cultural differences.

CULTURE AFFECTING POWER OF INFLUENCE TACTICS - While important distinctions can be drawn
between ‘nation’ and ‘culture’ (Earley & Singh, 1995), most international studies of influence tactics
have tended to use national origin as the basis for determining cultural groupings. Some studies are
primarily concerned with identifying the tactics used by people in a particular country, whereas
other studies compare two or more countries in terms of how often each type of tactic is used or the
effectiveness of the tactic in that country. Both types of studies will be reviewed.

Beyond these initial similarities, however, researchers have identified important differences in the
perception of tactics across countries. For example, Krone et al.’s (1997) factory directors’
descriptions of ‘rationality tactics’ revealed an underlying ‘consciousness-raising process which
reflects and reinforces interrelated cultural values and political ideology” (p. 312). Relevant cultural
values included group-centeredness, hierarchy, and concerns for face. For example, one factory
director (describing his approach to a tardy employee) said he would explain: “You should have the
spirit of loving the factory as your own family” (p. 304) while another would argue for the
importance of maintaining “a sense of care and a sense of collectivity” (p. 304). Political ideology
was reinforced by reminders that workers were “all masters of the factory,” or, as one director
expressed it: “The employee is the owner of the organization. I am giving him an education in proper
ownership spirit”.

Rao et al. asked their Japanese respondents to describe additional tactics not included in the POIS.
Content analysis of the responses suggested the existence of a number of culturally-specific tactics,
including: reliance on the firm’s authority; linkage to skill development and career development
within the firm; open communication of information; acting as a role model in the expectation that
subordinates will follow the manager’s example; and using social settings (e.g. meeting in a bar after
work) to communicate requests in a frank, assertive manner. Rao et al. argue for the existence of
important differences that are likely to limit the effectiveness of these tactics in non-Japanese
contexts. However, some of these tactics have also been identified in research with American, Swiss,
and Chinese managers.

CULTURE INFLUENCING EFFECTIVENESS OF DIFFERENT TACTICS – Several studies have compared

responses of managers from two or more countries to some measure of influence tactic use or
perceived effectiveness. A common practice in such research is to infer differences in cultural values
such as power distance, individualism-collectivism, or uncertainty tolerance. Bond 1991 found that
Hong Kong Chinese expressed a greater preference for use of assertiveness than did Americans, who
preferred ingratiation, rationality and exchange. Schermerhorn and Bond suggested that power
distance might account for these differences. Use of assertive tactics in a low power distance culture
(such as in the United States) may engender greater resentment than in a high power distance
culture. Even if the outcome is successful (i.e. the target complies), the cost (feelings of resentment)
may be considered too high for the tactic to be considered useful for most influence attempt.

Ralston et al (2001) suggests that similarity in the Dutch and American ratings are due to the
similarity of the two countries (i.e. scores in the same quartiles) across the cultural dimensions of
power distance, individualism-collectivism, and Confucian dynamism (Hofstede & Bond, 1988). In
considering the underlying reasons for similarity in ratings made by Hong Kong and Mexican
managers, the authors discuss cultural variables but also suggest that economic and political
variables may be relevant. Pressures for economic development and a long-term experience of non-
democratic rule may make ‘hard’ influence tactics more acceptable in these nations.

COVID 19 EXAMPLES THAT CAN BE USED IN THE ANSWER

oogle executives continue to send out updates on the status of the

coronavirus with encouraging messages, according to CNBC.

"As our company manages this issue, it's important to remember that millions
of people and companies around the world are relying on us," said CFO Ruth
Porat in an internal member viewed by CNBC.

Ms. Porat and Alphabet CEO Sundar Pichai have sent out various motivation
and cautionary emails to employees. The executives are reminding
employees to prevent the spread of misinformation while also promoting a
sense of urgency to keep the company running smoothly
Empowering remote workers to stay connected
As more and more businesses rely on connecting an at-home workforce to maintain
productivity, we’ve seen surges in the use of Google Meet, our video conferencing product,
at a rate we’ve never witnessed before. Over the last few weeks, Meet’s day -over-day growth
surpassed 60%, and as a result, its daily usage is more than 25 times what it was in January.
Despite this growth, the demand has been well within the bounds of our network’s ability.

as people transition to remote work and learning in response to COVID-19, many are looking
to build their skills and increase their knowledge while at home. To help, we’re offering our
portfolio of Google Cloud learning resources, including our extensive catalog of training
courses, hands-on labs on Qwiklabs, and interactive Cloud OnAir webinars at no cost until
April 30. Anyone can gain cloud experience through hands-on labs no matter where they
are—and learn how to prototype an app, build prediction models, and more—at their own
pace. Teams can also build their skills through our on-demand courses on Pluralsight and
Coursera. Our most popular learning paths, including Cloud Architecture and Data
Engineering,
Last week, we joined the COVID-19 Healthcare Coalition, a group of healthcare, technology,
and research organizations who have come together to share resources in order to fight the
virus. Coalition members include athenahealth, Mayo Clinic, University of California Health
System, and others. As part of the coalition, we’re helping build a data exchange that allows
coalition members to safely and securely share and analyze data—ultimately enabling many
of the world’s top researchers with data to work together.

How to motivate your employees in covid 19 -

Recent studies show that a large majority are struggling with loneliness. The same
number find it difficult with collaboration and communication online, and while only a
small percentage reported challenges staying focused on the job at hand, employers
understand the value of finding ways to motivate their workers during this period of
uncertainty and stress.

We’ve checked out companies that are investing time in this quest, and we’ve come
up with a list of options for you, from regular team huddles—connecting co-workers
with short, online meetings, to virtual coffee chats (GitLab)—video calls scheduled in
between meetings for friendly, fun, non-work conversation.

Here are some other ideas on how to motivate your workers:

▪ Face to face engagement. Use Zoom and Skype to improve engagement

through video chat.

▪ Recognition and rewards. Give your remote employees a gift card or meal
voucher for their extra diligence and acts of kindness outside the office in
fighting the COVID-19 virus. Perkbox is a good example.

▪ Staying in touch. Slack, Microsoft Teams and Google Hangouts are

examples of how your remote employees can keep in contact with each other
wherever they are located. Also, keep in mind that it pays to invest in internal
 communication tools that are reliable and secure at the same time.

▪ Encouragement. Send regular email messages to your workers and reassure

them that their role is essential, whatever that may be.

▪ Counseling. Offer psychological helplines, to aid workers suffering from

anxiety or stress-related issues.

▪ Professional development. Initiate opportunities for personal growth

including learning new skills and tackling new projects.

▪ Workswell works well too! It’s an online consulting group and their aim is to
incorporate more playful elements into company meetings.

However, when it comes down to it, it’s not really about motivation. As Adam Gerhar,
CEO of Mindshare aptly puts it: “… it’s about support, empowerment and empathy.
People want to know that [you’re] in their corner, and that we’re in it together.”

Creative thinking, smart innovations and motivation itself all stem from this concept.

Keep this in mind and always provide clear information and instructions. Push the
importance and effectiveness of virtual meetings, and your workers will undoubtedly
be more productive and happier in the workplace, as remote as that might be.

Extra I just liked it can be used or just read

Google is consistently rated as being a top employer, and the culture
it created helps to attract and retain top talent. The company
optimizes its talent by designing and motivating strong teams—an
ability that is essential to be successful, says Robert Bruce Shaw,
author of Extreme Teams: Why Pixar, Netflix, Airbnb, and Other
Cutting-Edge Companies Succeed Where Most Fail.

here are commonalities across extreme teams, but the culture of

each is unique,” says Shaw. “Google has created a culture that
supports teams. You can try to apply what works for others and
there are lessons to be learned, but there are a broader set of
factors to consider.”

For example, Google is known for tough and thorough screening,

says Shaw. “Everybody who is hired is highly qualified,” he says.
“Fitting the culture is not a factor because candidates are screened
for it. With high-caliber talent, culture fit can be taken for granted. If
you have that, you can use their techniques. If you don’t, you have
to be more deliberate.”

oogle uses its own data analytics to study itself, and it shares its
findings. The company succeeds due to a combination of hard and
soft elements, says Shaw.

PSYCHOLOGICAL SAFETY
In a study of its teams, Google found that psychological safety—the
ability to take risks without feeling insecure or embarrassed—
explained why some teams outperformed others, says Amy
Edmondson, author of The Fearless Organization: Creating
Psychological Safety in the Workplace for Learning, Innovation, and
Growth.

“What they discovered was that even the extremely smart, high-
powered employees at Google needed a psychologically safe work
environment to contribute their talents,” she says.

Google’s culture encourages asking questions and sharing

information. To duplicate its success, create a team environment
that invites and elicits contributions from all members, says Shaw.

“This can be done by going around the table and asking each
member for his or her point of view on the decision being debated,”
he says. “The best teams are those where everyone is engaged and
contributing to the group’s performance.”

DEPENDABILITY
Team members must be able to count on each other to do high-
quality work. Google’s culture includes training for teams and
individuals. For example, its “G2G”—Googler-to-Googler—network
includes more than 6,000 Google employees who volunteer time to
helping their peers improve and learn.

“G2G members do one-on-one mentoring, coach teams on

psychological safety, and teach courses in professional skills
ranging from leadership to Python coding,” says Edmonson. “G2G
helps develop the skills of countless employees at Google, while
helping build a psychologically safe culture where everyone can be
both a learner and a teacher.”

Google also allows employees to spend up to 20% of their working

hours on developing their own innovative ideas, says Lucy Ford,
professor of management at Saint Joseph’s University’s Haub
School of Business.

“Many of the Google products that are integrated into our daily lives
are the result of this 20% time,” she says. “What is critical is that
employees are not required to spend 20% of their time on their own
projects, but if they choose to, it is encouraged. In fact, the 20% is
more of an idea than a reality, as Google employees work long and
hard on their regular jobs.”

STRUCTURE AND CLARITY

A culture that values structure and clarity helps Google employees
understand their goals, roles, and plans of execution. Teams are
assembled according to individual strengths and chemistry. This is
important for measuring the team’s success as well as each
person’s role in achieving the group’s common goal, says Shaw.

“The research at Google stresses the need for team members with
the social and emotional skills needed to work well together,” he
says. “I view this as staffing teams with people who will ‘gel’ to
produce something greater than they would if working alone.”

Transparency also contributes to clarity. In an interview with

the Society for Human Resource Management, former Google
senior vice president of people operations Laszlo Bock said,
“[Transparency is] part of everything we do. For example, we give
engineers access to almost our entire code base on day one.
Google employees get to see the presentation that was given to the
board of directors. Our belief is that if you have good people—and if
you believe that people are fundamentally good—they’re going to
make better decisions by being exposed to what is going on in the
organization.”

Transparency, however, can be difficult in business, adds Brad

Wolff, author of People Problems? How to Create People Solutions
for a Competitive Advantage.
“Leaders have a lot at stake,” he says. “They have an image to
uphold, and it’s hard to be transparent and authentic. Our society is
about protecting yourself. At Google it’s embedded in their culture.
We all have strengths and we all have weakness. There’s a
willingness to admit imperfections.”

MEANING AND IMPACT

Google separates “meaning of work” and “impact of work” into two keys to building
successful teams, but the two ideas work hand in hand, says Shaw. “Leaders need to foster a
common purpose that guides and motivates the team members,” he says. “People want to
work on something significant that makes a difference to their organization and society at
large.”

Google publishes the core values that guide their engagement with each other and their
customers and they revisit these values, tweaking when necessary, says Susan Kuczmarski,
author of Lifting People Up: The Power of Recognition.

“An update or revisit is critically important to maintain the innovative culture,” she says. “It
keeps what is shared and top-of-mind for all employees meaningful and actionable.”

Values and norms are the DNA of a culture, says Kuczmarski. “They tell employees what
beliefs are to be shared and what behaviors are expected,” she says.

Employees must agree with the values to make it work, says Wolff. “Companies miss this all
the time,” he says. “An alignment of values is important. It’s an important part of hiring and
fit. You have to question people, not just on what’s important to them, but why it’s
important.”