Organic Pest Management in Sugarcane

Introduction to Organic Agriculture
PEST MANAGEMENT IN ORGANIC SUGARCANE PRODUCTION

This lesson provides information on identification of insect pests attacking sugarcane, their
damage, and the non-pesticide methods of managing their population.
INTENDED LEARNING OUTCOMES
After completing this module, you must be able to:

1. Identify the common insect pests attacking sugarcane;
2. Describe the characteristic damage caused by insects; and
3. Enumerate the different non-pesticide management options against insect pests of sugarcane.
Estimated Time Frame: 2 hours
LESON 3
LEARNING CONTENT
White Grub (June or Toy Beetle), Leucopholis irrota Chevrolat

Several species of beetles are associated with sugarcane, but the most common and most
destructive is the Leucopholis irrota. These beetles are called ‘salagubang’ or labug-labug (Visayan) while
the grubs are called ‘ulalo’ or uok in Tagalog, ‘tatadin’ (Pampango) or ‘bucan’ or ‘bunlod’ in Visayan. The
grubs, the immature stage of several species of beetles, live almost entirely in the soil. Detection of
impending grub infestation is quite difficult due to its
subterranean habit. Damage to sugarcane is enormous as
the grubs enters the final growth stage. The full-grown
grub reaches its biggest size and is equipped with well-
developed, powerful mandibles capable of chewing
tough and mature roots. Crop damage is inconspicuous
during the early stage of infestation but when the visible
signs show up, actions for remedial measures to counter the
damage often become too late late and/or impractical.
After living for almost 300 days underground, the grubs Fig. 1. Sugarcane roots heavily
emerge as adult beetles immediately after the first heavy damaged by white grub. rain
in May or June. The beetles are virtually harmless to
sugarcane because their food preference shifts to leaves of trees. However, the beetles lay eggs that
become the succeeding batch grubs that will infest the existing cane plants in the field.
White grub is considered a menace because of its voracious root feeding habit. In sever
infestation, not only the roots but also the base of cane plants are eaten, so that the plants become
severely stunted, lose anchor and die prematurely (Fig. 1). Cane yield of 6-month-old crop can be reduced
by 60% (roughly 30 t cane/ha).
Previous accounts of severe grub infestation:
 Negros Island – Merril and Banks (1910) reported serious WG infestation while Saplala (1957)
reported severe damage in seven mill districts:
- Victorias – 85 ha infested; 1,700 piculs sugar loss
- Hawaiian-Philippines – 350 ha infested; 7,609 piculs sugar loss
- Talisay- Silay - 200 ha infested; 4,304 piculs sugar loss
- Bacolod-Murcia – 250 ha infested; 5,010 piculs sugar loss
- Ma-ao – 300 ha infested; 5,926 piculs sugar loss
- La Carlota – 500 ha infested; 11,650 piculs sugar loss
- Banalbagan- Isabela – 600 ha infested; 13,320 piculs sugar loss
 Batangas – about 71.9 ha were affected (1939) in Balayan, Calaca, Nasugbu, Lian, and Tuy.
 Uichanco (1929) reported infestation along riverside in Cabuyao, Laguna, and Maraoy, Lipa City.
 In 1992, ‘Operation Salagubang’ yielded about 2.5 million beetles at the Don Pedro mill district.
 Severe infestation noted in Tuy, Batangas with about 30 ha infested in 1999.
Life Cycle/Description
Adult is glossy and blackish gray with reddish tinge (Fig. 2). It is more active at night, feeds on
leaves, and flies to search for mates and then lay their eggs. Life cycle is about a year. Beetles begin to
emerge in April and May except in Negros, with two broods: November to December and April to June.
Fig. 2. Adults of white grubs.
The opaque- white eggs are laid singly at

night in the soil but close together; eggs hatch in about 6-9 days.
Newly emerged larvae are white while the fully grown ones are fleshy, wrinkled, and normally
curved. Larvae molt three times within 252-336 days (average of 289.5 days). Fully grown larva burrows
15-120 cm deep into the soil, then forms an earthen cell that encloses the pupa. It takes about 65-75 days
for pupa to transform into an adult.
Once the population of white grubs become established in the area, the pest will be quite difficult to
manage. Current developments in IPM suggest the integration of control approaches that are economical
and practical to achieve. Community-wide campaign on beetle collection for about 3 weeks starting from
the onset of beetle emergence significantly reduces the number of adults that will lay eggs for the next
season.
Collection and subsequent destruction of white grubs during tillage operations will help reduce
white grub infestation. In addition, thorough cultivation of cane field exposes white grubs to general
predators like birds, earwigs and fire ants and also inflicts physical damage on the grub.
Cultivation
 Collect and destroy WG during tillage operation to help reduce population.
 Plow soil deeply to expose grubs to predators (birds, earwigs, and fire ants) and also to inflict
physical damage to grubs. Grubs are very sensitive that mere physical abrasions and exposure to
sun could kill them.
Weeding and Sanitation
 Grubs also feed on grasses and plants with fibrous roots. Therefore, regular removal of alternate
host will help reduce their population.
Irrigation
 If irrigation facilities are available flooding the field will help reduce grub population. About 20-30%
grub mortality is achieved when areas are flooded after an extended rainfall.
Beetle Trapping
 Set light traps (white light > 150 watts) along the corners of sugarcane fields and/or close to trees
such as mango, ‘siniguelas’, or tamarind. Then beneath the light trap, place a wide basin half-full of
water with a pinch of detergent. The use of semi-UV light trap from China was found more efficient
in trapping the beetles (personal communication, Solsoloy). Light traps also capture beneficial
insects; therefore, they should be used in areas where natural enemy population is low.
 Use attractant-baited traps.
Types of Attractants
 Bark – based attractant
Since the beetles are normally active at dusk, then they can be collected easily by lures or
baits made of fermented barks of local tree species such as ‘aratiles’ (Muntingoa calabura), or ‘anabu’
(Melochia umbellate). Farmers in Northern Philippines particularly in Cagayan province, traditionally
use the trap called ‘kedeng’ or ‘imod’ to attract newly emerged beetles mainly to cook them.
 Chili-based attractant
Bamboo leaves laced with macerated red, hot chilies are uses as attractant bait for beetle
collection. Red hot peppers are macerated in mortar and pestle and the paste is spread on bamboo
leaves tied together to form a bundle. Bundles bamboo leaves are raised on 2-m poles and placed near
a cane field to attract emerging beetles.
Collection of Beetles
 Beetle collection from trees (mating sites) can also be done but should e properly timed during the
early weeks of beetle emergence such that the females have not mated and laid their eggs.
Beetles are inactive during the day and even the slightest shaking could easily dislodge them. To
facilitate beetle collection, large nets/sacks are placed under host trees before shaking the
branches.
 Ants, earwigs, and predatory beetles prey upon grubs.
 Ten species of parasitic wasps are reported to attack the grubs.
 Vertebrates such as bats, and birds (owl) feed on grubs.
Biological Control
Conservation of Existing Parasites and Predators
 The use of resistant variety and augmentation and conservation of natural enemies such as scoliid
wasps, earwigs, and predatory beetles are compatible with cultural farm management and other
control tactics.
Use of Pathogenic Fungi
 Metarrhizum anisopliae – isolated from June beetle (L. irorata), M anisopliae cause 73% grub
mortality in the laboratory.
 Beauveria bassiana
Sugarcane Borers
The sugarcane borers (SCBs) are also highly destructive insect pests of sugarcane in the
Philippines. The two most dominant species of stem borers attacking sugarcane are the gray borer
(Tetramoera schistaceana Snellen) and the stripped stem borers ( Chilo infuscatellus Snellen).
Damage
Young canes that are 1.5- to 4-month old may be attacked, causing
‘dead heart’ damage (Fig. 3). When primary tillers are attacked, there is
uneven growth and delayed cane maturity. Immature canes have lower
sucrose content and consequently lower sugar yields. Larva borers in the buds or
‘eyes’ of old canes causing destruction of the surrounding tissues and
reduction of cane quality due to onset of fungal infection. Larva also attacks the
cane internodes that are ready for harvest. Cendana (1962) and Reyes (1962)
observed about 52% tiller damage. Fig. 3 Dead heart
Life Cycle and Description
Gray Borer
 Adults are about 12 mm long with grayish brown wings
and ahead. Female is larger and has lighter coloration
than the male.
Figs. 4a and b. Larva of
sugarcane stemborers
 The eggs are scale-like, opaque, cream-colored and measure about 0.13 cm in diameter. They are
laid singly or in batches of up to 13 on the under surface of the leaf or on leaf sheaths. Egg hatches
within 4-6 days.
 Larva is grayish with unproportionately big, black head. Body length of full-grown larva is about 20
mm. larval period ranges from 17 to 22 days (Fig. 4a).
 The pupa is about 10.40 mm long and 2.5 mm wide. Pupal stage is spent on the lower surface of
the stalk. The pupa is initially cream-colored, turning dark reddish brown later.
Striped stem borer
 Adult forewings are yellowish-brown to dark brown with wingspan of 20-26 mm long.
 Eggs are laid in mass without scale covering; turn black prior to hatching; and hatch in 4-6 days.
 Larva is pinkish with dark-orange head. It attacks plant immediately after germination (Fig. 4b).
 The reddish pupa remains on the lower portion of the stalks and lasts for 7-11 days.
Management Strategies
The use of Trichogramma chilonis Ishii, a paratasitoid against sugarcane borers, has already
gained tremendous acceptance by sugarcane planters since it achieves about 60-80% SCB egg
parasitization. The supply of good quality Trichogramma is the major bottleneck in the area-wide
utilization of this effective parasitoid. The Philippine Sugar Research Institute (PHILSURIN)
initiated the construction of seven Trichogramma – rearing laboratories in the Visayas and
Mindanao. Therefore, Trichogramma strips are being mass produce by PHILSURIN and are given
free to sugarcane growers of the Mill District Development Council (MDDC). Consequently,
releases of Trichogramma could be synchronized with the abundance of SCBs. Presently, the field
release of T. chilonis are the most practical and cheapest method of controlling SCBs.
How does Trichogramma control sugarcane borers?
Figure 5 shows how Trichogramma parasitizes th eggs of its host. Parasitization starts with the
adult female Trichogramma depositing its egg on the egg of the host insect (A). the egg of Trichogramma
hatches in about 23 hours into a small first instar larva (B). The small larva feeds on the contents of the
host egg about 3 hours, and then grows into the second instar larva (C). After 19.6 hours, the
Trichogramma larva grows into the third instar larva. In about 24 hours, the third instar larva almost totally
consumes the host egg (D) and develops into a pupa (E). After 99 hours, the pupa finally emerges as an
adult (F), which will later look for eggs of sugarcane borers so that the female can deposit her eggs.
Generally, Trichogramma prefers to lay egg on freshly laid hot eggs or day-old eggs.
The population/infestation of SCBs in the field can be established
through visual counts of eggs/egg masses, larval and adult counts, and
incidence of dead heart. The egg, which is still non-destructive, is the best
stage to stimulate the potential damage of SCBs to the cane plant. Likewise,
when planning to Trichogramma field release, and when evaluating the
effectiveness of Trichogramma, it is necessary to monitor borer egg
population.
Steps in monitoring eggs or egg masses of sugarcane borers

1. Define the sample area by dividing a hectare of sugarcane field into ten sampling rows (furrows).
Exclude plants from the outer 10 m periphery in sampling rows.
2. Randomly sample the hills (one plant per hill) per row of the presence of sugarcane borer egg or
egg masses starting at 1 month after planting. The distance between hills should be about 10-15
steps. Sample a total of 100 plants in a hectare of sugarcane field.
3. If there are less than 10 eggs or 1 egg mass per 100 sample plants, continue monitoring at weekly
interval until 3 months after planting. Release Trichogramma when there are ten eggs of gray borer
or one egg mass of striped stem borer per 100 sample plants. The density of egg masses per 100
plants can be converted to density per hectare depending on the total number of hills planted per
hectare.
Field Releases of T. chilonis against Sugarcane Borers
T. chilonis is released in the field when cane plants are about 1-3 months old. Releases are carried
out eight times at the rate of 64-80 cards per hectare (96,000-120,000 parasitoids). Trichogramma
parasitoids are released twice a week during the first four releases and at weekly interval during the last
four releases (Table 1). They are released either as pupae (6-day old Tricho cards) or as adults. Adults
emerge from the cards at about 7-8 days after parasitization. It is easier and more convenient to release
pupae but they are more prone to ant predation.
Table 1. Number and timing of field releases of Trichogramma against sugarcane borers.
Sequence of Time of Release/Days After No. of Tricho Cards Needed/ha
Release Planting (DAP) per release
First 30 8-10
Second 34 8-10
Third 37 8-10
Fourth 41 8-10
Fifth 48 8-10
Sixth 55 8-10
Seventh 62 8-10
Eight 69 8-10
TOTAL 64-80
(96,000-120,000 parasitoids
Steps in Field Releases of T. chilonis

1. From one corner of a hectare of sugarcane field, walk 30
paces (20 m) along the periphery. Make another 35 paces
(25 m) going inside the field along the furrow. This is the first
release point. From inside the field along the furrow, count
another 35-pace s for the second release point and another
35paces for the third release points, then to the last release points as indicated in Figure 8. There
are about 9 release points per hectare.
2. The Tricho cards (6 day-old) are clipped/stapled under the leaf surface with the parasitized portion
of the card placed face down. When Trichogramma are to be releases as adults, it is advisable to
transfer the Tricho cards in clear and clean bottles to observe adult emergence. Open the cover of
the bottle and allow the adults to fly out of the bottle while walking along the furrow as indicated in
Step number 1. Release T. chilonis early in the morning or late in the afternoon.
Presently, Trichogramma cards are available in rearing

laboratories of the PHILSURIN and given free to MDDC growers.
Other Predators
In addition to Trichogramma, two species of earwig
predators were abundantly monitored in sugarcane fields: Proreus
simulans and Euborellia annulata (Fig. 6). Although P. simulans is
one of the most dominant species in the field, E. annulata has
already been extensively studied and the mass rearing technique
is already developed. Earwigs are known as predators and
voracious feeders of eggs, small larvae, and pupae of borers.
Therefore, the earwigs could be integrated with the release of
Trichogramma to achieve efficient control of sugarcane borers.
LEARNING ACTIVITIES
LEARNING ASSESSMENT
This will be uploaded through testmoz.

After going through the learning content, you must be able to answer the following.
Choose the letter of the correct answer and write on the answer sheet provided for.
1. What are the two most destructive insect pest of sugarcane?
a. White grub
b. Sugarcane aphids
c. Sugarcane mealybug
2. What do you call the damage caused by sugarcane borers? ( please check).
a. Whitehead
b. Deadheart
c. Wilting
3. What is the stage of sugarcane borer being attacked by Trichogramma.

a. Egg
b. Larva
c. Pupa
d. Adult
4. How does Trichogramma control sugarcane borers?

a. By laying its eggs on small larvae of the pest and consuming the body contents
b. By laying its egg on the egg of the pest
c. By feeding on the adults of the pest
Answer Sheet
Name: _______________________________________ Subject: ____________________

Year/Sec.: ____________________________________ Rating: ______________________
References
Alba, M. C. Biology of Trichogramma spp. And their effectiveness as biological control for the sugarcane
stem borer, Tetramoera schistaceana Sn. Unpublished M. S. Thesis. College Laguna, Philippines:
University of the Philippines Los Baños, 1978. 54p.
Braza, R.D. Laboratory evaluation of Metarrhizium anisopliae (Metsch.) Sorokin against Leucopholis
irrorata, Chev. (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae). Philipp. Ent. 8(1): - 671-675, 1990.
Javier, P.A.; Gonzales, P.G. Monitoring of sugarcane borers. In: Sugarcane Pest Monitoring, a Field Guide
by E. A. Benigno, NCPC-PHILSURIN Publication, 1999. 33p.
Javier, P.A.; Gonzales, P.G. Integrated management of sugarcane borers. Terminal Report NCPC-
PHILSURIN Project, 2000. 16p. – (Available at the NCPC Library)
Javier, P.A.; Gonzales, P.G. Management of sugarcane borers using Trichogramma chiloris. PHILSURIN
Leaflet No. 6. 10p.
Lopez, A.W.; Pegenia, M.R. The white grub infestation in the Don Pedro mill district. Proc. Philippine Sugar
Technologists: 12:72-77, 1964.
Merrill, E.D.; Banks, C.S. Handbook on the sugar industry in the Philippines. Manila: Bureau of Printing.
1910. 139p.
Otanes, F.Q. The most important pest of sugarcane and suggestions for their control. Sugar News
26(9):453, 1950.
Quimio, G.M.; Ceballo, F.A. Monitoring protocol for beetles and white grubs in sugarcane. In: Sugarcane
Pest Monitoring, a Field Guide by E. A. Benigno. NCPC-PHILSURIN Publication, 1999. 33p.
Quimio, G.M.; Santiago, D.R.; Ceballo, F.A.; Benigno, E.A.; Bato, S.M. Monitoring and management of
white grubs in sugarcane. Makati City, Philippines: PHILSURIN, 2001. 39p.
Santiago, D.R. Fungal bio-pesticides for management of white grubs in sugarcane. Progress Report
(1999). PHILSURIN Project 3b, 1999. 12p.
Saplala, V.L. White grubs of sugarcane amd recommendations for its control. Proc. 7 th Annual Convention.
Phil. Sugar Tech. (1957): 134-138, 1957.
Uichanco, L.B. A report on an entomological survey of Negros sugarcane fields. Sugar News 11:243-254,
n.d.
Uichanco, L.B. Notes on the life history and habits of the white grub of sugarcane, Leocopholis irrorata
Chevr. Sugar News. 12:592-594, 1931.
DISEASE MANAGEMENT IN ORGANIC VEGETABLE PRODUCTION

This lesson explains the concepts and principles of plant disease management, diagnosis and
identification of common diseases, and management strategies for specific disease.

1. State the basic concepts of plant diseases and their causal factors;
2. Follow the techniques in diagnosing plant diseases;
3. Recognize/identify diseases of vegetables; and enhance their knowledge in preventing disease
problems and control strategies for specific vegetable disease.
LESON 4
LEARNING CONTENT
INTRODUCTION
Dealing with plant diseases can be one of the most challenging aspects of organic pest control.
Disease can cause serious losses by reducing yield and quality of plant products. Disease management in
organic production should be designed according to organic principles so as to minimize the occurrence of
disease problems. It should keep the infection below economically damaging level by using a range of
preventive techniques without excessive intervention. The curative measures are possibly used as a final
resort when facing diseases intensity. Their application will eliminate the disease but will also face risk of
resurgence. The competitor of the plant pathogens are also lost from production system.
The holistic approach of organic crop production aims towards producing well-nourished crop
plants within biologically diverse development. A healthy soil with good structure, high biological activity,
and containing nutrients, will promote vigorous plants that are, in turn resistant to pest and diseases. A
diverse production system favors the crop over diseases by reducing the area of monoculture or suitable
habitat of crop pathogens, increasing the presence of competitors of the pathogens, and decreasing the
chance of transfer of pathogens to susceptible crops.
This lesson discusses the concepts of plant disease and principles and techniques of disease
management. Detailed information about these and the common diseases likely to be encountered in
organic vegetable crops production and their prevention and control practices are mentioned.
What is plant disease?
Scientist who study plant diseases do not agree on single definition in disease. In this lesson, a
plant disease can be defined as any abnormal change in plant toward reduced vigor, growth, color of
foliage, fruit development and yield, and poor-quality produce. As a result, the plant usually produces
evidences in infected condition in the form of symptoms such as wilting, yellowing, stunting, spotting, and
death. Plant diseases are divided in two broad categories: infectious and non-infectious diseases.
Infectious diseases are those that can be transmitted from one plant to another. Non-infectious diseases,
which are called plant disorders, cannot be transmitted.
Causes of Plant Diseases
Plant disease are caused by living (biotic) agents called pathogens, fungi, bacteria, viruses, and
nematodes. This group cause most common and serious plant diseases. The diseases caused by these
organisms are recognized by symptoms and signs and can be managed by reducing and destroying the
pathogen population.
Plant disease are also caused by non-living (abiotic) agents, or physiological disorders. They are
caused by environmental factors, such as nutrient deficiencies, moisture excess of deficit, extreme high
and low temperature, improper cultural practices, and improper pH. The diseases caused by these factors
are recognized only by symptoms and can be prevented by avoiding the casual environmental condition or
by providing the factor that is lacking.
Pathogen Characteristics and Spread
Fungi
Fungi are simple plants commonly called molds. They obtain their food from plants that they attack
or from decaying organic matter in the soil. Most fungi have threadlike vegetative growths called
mycelium/hypha from which various types of structures that are seed-like bodies known as spores are
usually produced. They are capable of surviving adverse conditions through special structures (sclerotia)
and infect again when favorable conditions occur.
Fungi are responsible for majority of plant diseases. Fungal diseases fall into one of two general
categories: those caused by fungi that live in the soil and attack roots of plants and those caused by fungi
whose spores are dispersed in the air and attack aboveground parts of plants. Fungal disease symptoms
include damping off, root rots, wilts, leaf spots, blights, mildews, and rusts.
Wind, rain, drainage water, insects, seeds, planting materials, contaminated tools, and persons
working on plants spread the spores. They infect plants by entering wounds caused by pruning, careless
use of equipment, animal feeding, and rough handling by the grower. They also enter through natural
openings such as stomata and hydathodes or by direct penetration of the epidermis.
Bacteria
Bacteria are very small, one-cell organisms that can only be seen through a microscope. They
often multiply by cell division, splitting themselves into two. They need wounds on plants to incite disease
development. Bacteria do not form spores. The pathogenic bacterial cells are elongated or rod-like. Some
bacteria can survive for a long time by surrounding themselves with protective coating, which prevents their
drying. They occur on the surface of diseased plants either as exudates or as a result of the breaking open
of the diseased tissue. Bacterial disease symptoms include soft rots, wilts, scabs, canker, and leaf spots.
They usually affect the stem and roots of the plant.
When exposed, the bacteria readily spread to other plants by splashing rainwater, running water,
insects, animals, farm equipment and people. They gain entry into the host through natural openings or
wounds.
Viruses
Viruses are even smaller than fungi and bacteria. They are only visible under the electron
microscope (Fig.3). viruses need a host tissue for food and reproduction. The virus particle consists of only
nucleic acid (the infective part) enclosed in a protein coat. Viral diseases may take long time to be
recognized or identified, as often the only effect on the crops is a gradual loss of vigor. Symptoms often
depend on environmental conditions such as temperature. Viral disease symptoms include mosaic (light-
green yellow, or white mingled with normal green), resetting (short and bushy growth), ring spot, leaf
curling, and stunted growth.
The viral diseases are not spread by wind or water. Sucking insects such as aphids, planthoppers,
thrips, and whiteflies, commonly transmitted them from infected to healthy plants. Workers who smoke
while working among the plants unknowingly transmit virus particles also to other susceptible plants. Virus
can also infect new plants through infected seeds or seed tubers.
Nematodes
Nematodes are tiny, slender, and thread-like round worms (about 1 m long), which are usually
present in large numbers of the soil. Their mouth is equipped with a spear or stylet that punctures plant
cells to feed on the contents. Feeding habits of nematodes vary, depending on the species. Some feed on
the external part of the plant, while others burrow into plant. They have life cycle like insects; with eggs and
several larval stages.
Some nematodes can cause damage by sucking plant roots. The roots may form galls (root-knot
nematodes), excessive root branching, retardation of root elongation, and overall reduction in root mass.
Nematodes do not cause rotting of roots but facilitate the entry of root-rot organisms through puncture they
make. Others may transmit viruses. Nematodes are spread through movement of infested soil and plant
materials.
Development of Plant Diseases
A plant disease develops as product of the combined interactions between that causal pathogen,
the host plant, and their environment. These factors form what is called the “disease triangle” or the
pathosystem within the ecosystem. A fourth factor, time can be added to the disease in the population I
considered.
The degree of disease occurrence depends on the nature of these factors. A small amount of
causal pathogen may multiply rapidly and become established if the host is very susceptible and the
environment is favorable (e.g., humidity, temperature, moisture, and wind for dispersal of spores over
distances). On the other hand, a large amount of pathogen on a plant under unfavorable environment may
cause only minimal pathogenic effect or none at all.
The management is focused on manipulating one of the three factors of the triangle to prevent the
disease form infecting the crop plant. For example:
 Plant resistant variety (host)
 Removing infected plants (removing pathogen)
 Apply furrow irrigation rather than overhead irrigation because high humidity stimulates spore
formation and spread of the disease.
Diagnosing Plant Disease

In designing an effective and successful disease management strategy, growers must correctly
diagnose the cause of disease problems in the farm. Diagnosis is the identification of a plant disease
through its characteristics symptoms, signs, and other factors related to disease progress.
Symptoms are the manifestation of the diseased condition of the plant (e.g., wilt, spot, gall, mosaic)
signs are the visible structures produced by the pathogen in the host associated with the disease (e.g.,
spores, mycelium, bacterial cells).
Monitoring, using simple methods to come up with a realistic estimate of the disease intensity,
must be a regular activity in the farm. The information collected will provide the grower an idea which pests
and diseases will most likely to build-up. Thus, if the disease symptoms are recognized early, there may
still be time to prevent it from reaching a high level of infection and causing economic loss to the crop.
Diagnosing plant disease is difficult because we cannot see the causal organisms. Besides, the
plants can be infected with more than one disease. Symptoms look slightly different in wet and dry
seasons. Thus, there is a need for a grower to be trained in the identification of early symptoms of the plant
disease. Often, experiences and a thorough knowledge of field’s recent history are necessary to find the
cause for specific plant symptoms. During the field survey, asking questions can also help identify the
problem and understand more about the causal agents.
The following are suggested steps that can be used to diagnose problems in the field:
1. Examine the distribution of the disease in the field and identify the infected plants. Use reference
materials to determine symptoms and signs. Determine what plant is affected. Some control
products used, such as organic sprays and horticultural oil, might injure the foliage of certain plant
species.
2. Examine and observe the symptoms and signs. When making diagnosis, don’t be too quick to
assume that the problem is a disease. Examine the symptoms and signs in detail. For example, if
leaves are covered with yellow spots, they may be suffering from a bacterial or fungal infection.
However, if a closer look at the leaves may find webbing and tiny black specks as well, then the
plants are infested with spider mites.
3. If diseases very common in the area are known, then the symptoms and sign observed may be
typical of one of those problems. For example, the leaf spot in tomato and downy mildew on
cucurbit generally appear every year in the farm. Other diseases may appear only sporadically in
the farm.
4. If the problem is not one of those ever-present, common diseases, then research can be
conducted. Various reference materials such as disease guides published by agencies and
institutions are available or can be found in the Internet.
5. Once familiar with the symptoms caused by different pathogens, following the diagnosis process
may no longer be needed. Instead, apply the appropriate measures to make the environment less
favorable for build-up of the pathogens.
6. If a serious disease problem in the farm is observed and cannot be diagnosed, then private and
government technicians or contact specialist from state university near the area can be consulted
or given a diseased plant or plant part for identification.
Diseases Management Practices

Control measure to prevent the incidence of disease is to reduce the amount of inoculum that
initiates and spreads the disease, and to minimize the loss. The present trend is to apply a set of
management measures/practices.
Plant disease management practices that may be used by organic growers can be divided into two
general approaches: strategic and tactical. Strategic practices are primarily aimed at preventing disease
problems in the whole farm system. Basic practices that can be considered central to all disease
management in organic farms are: promoting soil fertility, using crop varieties resistant to disease,
promoting biodiversity, using crop rotations, and sanitizing to prevent the spread of pathogens). Tactical
practices can be curative and preventative and aimed at specific disease and crop combinations, usually to
anticipate serious crop loss that may occur. These include cultural, biological, and bio-fungal techniques.
Strategic or Preventive Practices
 Promote Soil Fertility
Plant suffering from nutrient deficiencies are weak and likely candidates for disease
infection. In some cases, nutrient excesses can encourage disease. The high levels of
nitrogen, for example, promote succulent plant growth, which increase susceptibility to
blight and incidence of rust and powdery mildew on some plants. The best approach is to
strive for balanced fertility. Maintain the abundant supply of organic matter, such as
compost, in the soil and apply additional fertilizers according to the need of the plants as
indicated by plant growth or soil tests. A plant grown in a balanced way in a soil that has
sufficient organic matter is less susceptible to disease.
 Use Resistant Varieties
Plant varieties differ in their susceptibility to pathogens. Several points to remember in
making the best use of resistant in avoiding disease problems:
- Select cultivars with resistance to the disease common in the farm.
- Collect seed only form the healthiest and most vigorous varieties that naturally resist or
tolerate disease infection.
- Check cultivars recommended for the area because plant resistance works better in
some localities than in others.
- As much as possible, refrain from using hybrid. Instead, use traditional indigenous breed
of plants that are genetically varied, and thus less susceptible to fungal infection.
 Promote Biodiversity
Biodiversity is the sum of species in a given area. It is reflected in the number of species
present and the variety of interactions that occur among them. Mixtures of varieties,
intercropping, or and companion planting (using different crop species and herbs) increase
the complexity and diversity that benefit disease management in the farm. Tolerating at
least some weeds can be important for promoting diversity within crops.
 Practice Crop Rotation
This is one of the effective ways to manage diseases in an organic farm. Rotation is done
by growing crops in different parts of the farm each year. A sound rotation can help
promote the health of plants and help them resist the attacks of plant pathogens. It is more
essential in reducing disease carry-over between crops such as soil-borne diseases. The
mechanism involves the pathogen’s simple starvation or lack of plant host. It also means
that the disease-causing organism loses when competing with other soil organisms. Crop
rotation also has a direct bio-fumigant effect on causal organisms. For example, when
brassicas decompose in soil, they release various compounds that affect the population of
microorganisms and can also eliminate plant pathogens in the soil such as those causing
bacterial wilt.
 Practice Hygiene and Sanitation
Good sanitation is a crucial step in keeping most pests under control. Thoroughly clean
shovels, tiller parts, digging forks, especially if soil-borne pathogens are present in sections
of the farm. Disinfect pruners between cuts when working among disease plants.
Removing crop debris and destruction of disease plants help prevent spread of disease.
Tactical Management or Intervention Against Diseases
 Cultural Practices
Various cultural practices can be adopted to manage specific pathogen. Some ways that
may be useful in organic-vegetable production systems are:
- Manipulating the time of sowing and crop density. Generally, more open canopies (wider
spacing between rows) will reduce spread of plant diseases as leaves dry more quickly,
the air can freely circulate, and humidity is reduced.
- Shallow sowing of seeds. This technique promotes rapid seedling emergence that can
help reduce occurrence of disease such as stem or root rot.
- Preparing raised beds and mulches. These are well known methods that indirectly
manipulate pathogen attack by modifying soil conditions, generally warming it up and
drying it out.
- Times of weeding can also be important. Weeds although having detrimental effects on
crop yield, can also provide alternative food for pathogens.
- Manual removal of diseased tissues of plants. This is usually a stop gap measure that will
reduce but not prevent spread of disease.
 Biological Control
Use of friendly microorganisms to control plant pathogens. The aim of biological control is
to shift the balance of competition between the pathogen and the crop in favor of the crop.
Beneficial fungi or antagonist could be used to attack or inhibit the growth of pathogens
that cause plant disease. The antagonist fungus, Trichoderma sp. Has become widely
available in many countries. It can suppress soil-borne plant pathogens in vegetables.
Other biocontrol agents that may be used to control some air-borne diseases include
Bacillus subtilis, and Streptomyces spp.
 Addition of compost to soil can help in competing against disease by raising the level of organic
matter. Compost encourages large populations of beneficial, disease suppressing organisms in the
soil.
 Chemical Control
It covers the application of a diverse range of products, normally in liquid form and
based on natural plant product (see procedures in making plants into biofungicides),
compost teas affect the pathogen either directly or indirectly by stimulating the plant to
resist the pathogen’s attack. The compost teas seem to rely on placing a diverse mixture
of microorganisms on the plant, which either directly work to exclude plant pathogens or
boost the plant’s reaction to invasion. These can be applied as seed treatments or sprays.
Simple inorganic chemicals such as bicarbonate of soda have been used against
plant diseases with some success. However, there are restrictions on the use of some of
these inorganic chemicals.
The use of organic sprays extracted from plants, horticultural oil, and soft soap are
used against the vector of viral diseases such as the aphids, whiteflies, and thrips. Soft
soap can be effective as long as the aphids are in direct contact with the solution.
Recognizing Diseases of Vegetables
CRUCIFERS AND LETTUCE
(Cabbage, Cauliflower, Pechay, Mustard, Brocolli)
Damping-off Disease
Causal fungi- Pythium debaryanum, Rhizoctonia solani, Sclerotium rolfsii
Other hosts: tomato, eggplant. Pepper, cucurbits, beans
Symptoms
Two types of damping off are observed: pre-emergence and post-emergence damping off.
 Pre- emergence damping off – seed decays from the time that is sown until the young shoot break
through the seed coat. The pathogen enters through the seed coat and cause rotting especially
after the seed has imbibed water.
 Post-emergence damping off – there are lesions on the seedlings mostly near the soil surface.
Then lesions consist of water or brown, sunken, shriveled area constricting the stem. The infected
portion becomes too weak to support the plant, resulting in its toppling over even if the leaves are
still green and turgid. The base of the stem disintegrates, root system decays, and the whole plant
dies.
Management
 The fungal pathogen favors wet weather. Therefore, sow the seeds when the soil is dry. If
seedlings are raised in seed trays, the medium must contain river sand (if available) so that
water will step down and not stay long at the base of seedling.
 Disinfect seedbed soil by heat treatment (soil sterilization) before sowing the seeds.
 Add more composts or other decomposed organic material on seedbed.
 Coat the seeds with antagonist microorganism such as Trichoderma sp. To prevent the
infection and control the pathogen.
 Spreads seeds uniformly on seedbeds. Do not sow too deep or too densely.
 Water the seedbed only in the morning so that the soil is dry at night.
 Provide proper ventilation to reduce dampness in the seedbed.
 Remove infected seedlings including the soil and burn them to destroy the fungus.
Downy Mildew
Causal fungus - Peronospora parasitica
Symptoms and Signs
 Most prevalent and humid condition, especially during rainy season.
 The distinct feature of the disease is the production of white growth directly below the area, mostly
on the underside of the spots.
 A yellow, irregularly shaped area appears on the upper side of the leaf where sporulation occurs.
 On the surface of cabbage heads, the pathogen causes numerous sunken, black spots ranging in
size from necrotic flecks to 2 cm in diameter, with little or no sporulation.
 Cauliflower and broccoli floral heads develop dark brown internal streaks.
Management
 Use resistant/tolerant cultivars of crucifers. They may vary in their reactions to downy mildew, but
those with high levels of resistance are not available.
 Practice crop rotation. Do not grow any type of crucifer for at least two years.
 Follow proper plant spacing. Close spacing will result in a high humidity and may stimulate
infection. There should be sufficient ventilation and adequate air movement during day and night to
avoid buildup of excess humidity, which may favor the development of the disease.
 Destroy plant debris and crucifers weeds. They will serve as source of pathogen.
 Prune leaves when they become too luxuriant and dense.
Alternaria Leaf Spot

Causal fungus – Alternaria brassicae
Symptoms
 Also known as black spot, gray or black mold.
 Symptoms usually appear on the older leaves.
 Typically, lesions begin as small, yellow areas that enlarge to about 1.5 cm in diameter and are
dark colored spots with concentric rings.
 The concentric rings contain spores that develop during moist periods.
 The brown discoloration of cauliflower and broccoli heads is caused by infection of the pathogen.
Management
 Plant resistant or tolerant varieties to reduce disease incidence.
 Use pathogen-free seeds in the management of this disease.
 Apply hot water and seed treatment that are effective against the pathogens.
 Avoid overhead irrigation particularly with cauliflower and broccoli, in which head rot may occur.
 Use plant spacing and planting pattern that expose plants to full sun throughout the day.
 Plow in plant debris as soon as possible after harvest to control the disease.
 Biofungicidal sprays of compost teas, plant extracts, and horticultural oil when cultivars are grown
under conditions favorable to disease development.
Web blight
Causal fungus – Rhizoctonia solani
Symptoms and Signs
 Early infections are seen as threads of microscopic, colorless hypae growing across the
undersides of leaves
 The threads increase in density and form clumps of white mycelium
 Olive-green areas appear on upper leaf surfaces and later become necrotic and merge causing
entire leaves to dry.
Management
 Practice solarization of soil by laying sheet of clear plastic over the moistened area for few weeks.
 Mulch with rice straws to prevent splashing of soil into the leaves, especially during rainy season.
 Avoid splashing some soil particles on the leaves.
 Maintain good soil structure through good drainage. Excessive moisture that will favor the survival
of the pathogen is avoided.
 Rotate crops to starve out or remove the host pathogen.
Clubroot
Causal fungus – Plasmodiophora brassicae
Symptoms
 Enlargement of fine roots, secondary roots, and the tap root, resulting in the formation of spindle
shaped club.
 The clubs are generally widest in the middle and taper toward the ends.
 Severely club root systems are impaired and cannot efficiently absorb water and nutrients.
Therefore, the plants are stunted and may wilt during slight water stress.
 Lower leaves frequency turn yellow in advance stages of disease development.
 The disease is often most severe in low-lying, poorly drained soils.
 Fungal infection occurs mostly in cool places such a Baguio and not in lowlands.
Management
 Use resistant/tolerant cultivars and adapted cultivars. They must be tested in each planting location
because of some differences in their susceptibility to the pathogen.
 Use disease-free seedlings. Do not transplant seedlings that have little clubs of swollen roots.
 Apply lime to soil to raise the pH to 7.2. this is very effective in reducing disease development, as
the spores do not germinate readily in alkaline soil.
 Crop rotation is impractical in most cases because the resting spores survive for such a long time
and weed host can maintain the inoculum.
 Conduct soil sterilization to kill the spores.
Sooty Mold
Causal fungus – Cladosporium sp.
Symptoms
 This fungus feeds on insect’s honeydew that drip on the surfaces of leaves and fruit. The pathogen
never penetrates the plant at all
 Fruiting structures consist of black clusters of spores on the leaf surface.
 Under severe infection, the plant turns yellow, wilt and dies.
 The presence of the disease is usually an indication of aphid and whitefly infestations.
Management
 Apply organic sprays and horticultural oil to reduce the population of aphids and whiteflies.
 Practice companion planting.
Black Rot
Causal fungus – Xanthomonas campestris pv. campestris
Symptoms
 Black rot is considered as one of the most important plant disease of crucifers.
 Leaves of affected seedlings turn yellow and drop off prematurely
 An older plants, lesions typically begin at the leaf margin and progress inward, forming V-shaped
chlorotic lesions.
 These lesions expand inwards to the center of the leaf.
 With time, lesions begin to dry and become necrotic.
 Infection normally occurs at the hydathodes, but it can occur at any place on the leaf lamina where
insect or mechanical wounds allow bacterial entry.
 Black rot infections can serve as avenues for soft rot entry.
Management
 Rotate with non-cruciferous crops to allow time for debris from the previous crucifer crop to
decompose.
 Use resistant cultivars when available; black rot-resistant cabbage cultivars have been developed.
 Plant pathogen-free seeds. Avoid overhead irrigation.
 Avoid working in the fields when the foliage is wet.
Soft Rot
Causal fungus – Pectobacterium carotovorum subsp. carotovorum
Symptoms
 Soft rot occurs on all crucifers crops, but it is particularly damaging to Chinese cabbage and
common cabbage.
 Infected plant tissue first develop a water-soaked lesion that enlarges rapidly in diameter and
depth.
 The affected area becomes soft and mushy and generally turns dark in advance stage of disease
development.
 Soft rot-infected plants almost always give off an offensive odor perhaps in part due to invasion by
secondary organisms.
 Diseases losses from soft tor may occur in the field and during transit or storage.
Management
 Remove debris and infected heads from the field.
 Practice crop rotation with cereals or other non-susceptible crop. However, this has a little value
because the bacteria can survive in the soil and dead plant tissues for many years.
 Avoid injury to the crop; the wound \s can be entry points of the bacteria.
 Choose fields that are well drained to reduce soil surface moisture. Plants should be spaced
sufficiently to allow ventilation for rapid drying of foliage.
 Place rain shelters to prevent soil splash and foliage wetting to reduce soft rot incidence.
 Avoid overhead irrigation during warm, humid weather.
Tip Burn
 Physiological disorder – Calcium deficiency, too much moisture followed by very hot, sunny days.
Symptoms
 Symptoms are characterized by yellow or brown leaf margins, especially at the tip of the leaf.
 Later. Leaves dry up and turn brown.
Management
 Provide uniform supply of moisture and augment soil with calcium phosphate or seaweed
fermented extract.
CUCURBITS
Cucumber, Watermelon, Muskmelon, Bitter Guard, Squash
Downy Mildew of Melon
Causal fungus – Pseudoperonospora cubensis
Symptoms and Signs
 Symptoms occur mainly on the leaves where they begin as yellow angular spots; these spots
eventually turn brown (Fig. 17).
 During periods of high moisture, a white gray fungal growth may be seen on the lower surface of
leaf lesions where the sporagiophores protrude through stomata and produced pigmented
sporangia abundantly.
 As infection progresses, the plants wilts and dies.
Management
 Use resistant cultivars when available.
 Promote dry condition through pruning and proper site selection.
 Remove and destroy severely infected leaves.
 Apply homemade sprays such as sunflower, egg yolk combined with coconut oil (EYCO), and
compost teas in the absence of resistant cultivars and when the crop is grown under conditions
favorable to disease development.
Powdery Mildew
(Causal fungi – Erysiphe sp)
Symptoms and Signs
 All cucurbits are susceptible to powdery mildew, but watermelon is the least affected.
 Symptoms appear first as pale yellow spots on leaves and stems (Fig. 18).
 Soon thereafter, sporulation becomes evident as white, powdery masses of conidia are produced
over the lesion surface.
 Leaves become chlorotic, then turn brown, and dry prematurely. Later the plant dies.
Management
 Plant resistant cultivars when available.
 Apply biofungicidal sprays of compost teas, plant extracts, and horticultural oil when plant cultivars
are grown under conditions favorable to disease development.
Anthracnose
Causal fungus – Colletotrichum lagenarium
Symptoms and Signs
 The disease is particularly damaging to watermelon, cucumber, and cantaloupe, but may also
occur on other cucurbits crops.
 On cucumber and cantaloupe, leaf lesions begin as yellowish and water-soaked areas, which
enlarge rapidly and turn brown and circular.
 Petiole and stem lesions are elliptical and sunken.
 Fruit lesion appear at or near maturity as water-soaked spots that develop into sunken, circular
lesions lined with dark, fungal-stroma bearing masses of pink spores.
Management
 Plant resistant cultivars when available.
 Remove and burn the infected leaves as early as possible.
 Apply biofungicidal sprays when susceptible cultivars are grown under conditions conducive for
disease development.
Fusarium Wilt
Causal fungi – Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. cucumerinium on cucumber
– Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. melonis on cantaloupe
– Fusarium oxysporum f.sp.niveum on watermelon
Symptoms
 Plants infected with this disease exhibit yellowing of the older leaves and later to younger leaves.
 Young seedlings are killed or severely stunted.
 Older plants begin to wilt and midday for a few days, then permanently wilt and die.
 Vascular bundles arte discolored and become yellow or brown.
Management
 Use resistant varieties when available.
 Practice sanitation to reduce the spread of pathogen in infested soil to farm tools and works.
 Minimized field-to-field movement.
 Rotate crops to limit the development of new races of this persistent soil-borne pathogen.
 Apply compost to increase beneficial fungi that will compete with the pathogen.
Cucumber Mosaic (Fig. 21)
Causal Virus- Cucumber Mosaic Virus (CMV)
Vector – Aphids (Fig. 22)
Other Hosts: cucumber, pepper, watermelon, eggplant, other cucurbits
Symptoms
 Mosaic- infected leaves mottled with yellow, white, and light and dark green spots or streaks.
 Foliage curls downwards and the leaves in the growing tip become distorted.
 Fruit is reduced in size and deformed (Fig. 23).
Management
 Adjust planting dates to avoid high vector population in young plants.
 Use virus-free propagation materials.
 Minimize external of insects if planted in protected structure.
 Rapidly eliminate virus-infected plants.
 Avoid overlapping or continuous planting of sensitive species in the cropping rotation scheme.
 Control vector of the disease by applying biopesticides such as plant extracts, oil, and soft soap.
Once the plant are infected, there are no available control measures.
SOLANACEOUS
Tomato, Pepper, Eggplant
Black Leaf Mold (Fig. 24)
Causal fungus- Pseudocercospora fuligena
Symptoms and Signs
 Symptoms begin on lower leaves. They first appear as yellow patches on the upper leaf surface,
which later turn brown. On the lower leaf surface, gray to black sporulation occurs. These spots
coalesce to cover most of the leaf surface.
 The leaves roll and begin to dry: many remain on the plants, which appear sooty covered.
 In severe infection, most of the plant foliage can be killed and eventually plant dies (Fig. 25).
Management
 Plant resistant or tolerant cultivar.
 Eliminate sources of infection by removing and destroying infected crop residues to prevent spread
of spores.
 Use healthy planting material. Do not use seedlings that show symptoms of the disease.
Otherwise, the disease may be introduced into the field.
 In greenhouse, provide good ventilation to reduce the high relative humidity, leaf wetness from
dew, and warm temperature that are favorable for disease development.
 Properly space, put stake, and prune the infected leaves/plants to reduce disease infection.
 Compost teas, antagonist organisms, and botanical plant extracts may be use to control the
disease.
Early Blight
Causal fungus – Altenaria solani
Symptoms
 Small, dark, circular to angular spots form that enlarge into circular lesions composed of concentric
rings. These spots eventually spread to cover the leaves (Fig. 26).
 Elliptical lesions also observed on stems and petioles, which are drastically weakened at the site of
the bean.
 In the late stage of infection, the green or ripe fruit has large dark lesions in its calyx area or on its
upper shoulder.
Management
 Treat seeds with hot water to help reduce disease incidence.
 Use disease-free transplants.
 Practice crop rotation.
 Avoid planting adjacent to overlapping crops.
 Prune infected leaves and spray compost teas to delay the disease infection.
Late Blight
Causal fungus – Phytopthora infestants
Symptoms and Signs
 Leaf lesions are irregular, water-soaked patches that may expand to encompass large areas of
leaf. A white fungal sporulation may be observed underneath the lesions. Later, the lesions dry and
turn brown until blighting of the entire foliage occurs (Fig. 27).
 Lesions are at first irregular and water-soaked, which may progress and kill sections of stems and
petioles or they may retain superficial and dry out to form dark brown lesions.
 On fruit, lesions are firm, olive to brown, irregular-shaped areas that cause its surface to have a
rough, leathery texture. Lesions may enlarge to encompass the entire fruit (Fig. 28).
Management
 Use resistant or tolerant cultivar to prevent the occurrence of the disease.
 Use disease-free transplants or planting materials.
 Avoid planting tomato near potato plants.
 Prune infected leaves and spray compost teas and plant extracts to delay the disease infection or
spread.
Cercospora Leaf Spot
Causal fungus – Cercospora capsici
Symptoms
 Leaf spots are circular with brown borders and light gray centers (frog eye). As the spots enlarge,
the centers crack, drop, and give a shot-hole appearance (Fig. 29).
 Infection is also noticed on stem, petioles, and fruit peduncle, as elliptical dark borders and gray
centers.
 Severe infection kills the plants.
Management
 Treat seeds with hot water since the fungus survives on seed.
 Use disease-free transplants.
 Provide water plant spacing.
 Prune infected leaves and spray compost teas to delay the disease infection.
Fusarium Wilt
Causal fungus – Fusarium Oxysporum f. sp. lycopersici (tomato)
Fusarium Oxysporum f. sp melongenae (eggplant)
Fusarium Oxysporum f. sp vasifectum (pepper)
Symptoms
 Initial symptoms are yellowing of the foliage. Yellowing progresses from the lower leaves upward,
followed by browning and drying of the older leaves. Plants begin to wilt at the top during the day
and recover it at night. But wilting progressively worsens until plants are permanently wilted.
 Vascular systems turn brown and can be detected by cutting the affected stems diagonally (Fig.
30).
Management
 Use resistant or tolerant cultivar, which is the best prevention of wilt disease.
 Treat seeds with hot water to reduce the disease incidence.
 Plant in well-drained soil.
 Apply lime to raise soil pH to 6.5-7.0. This may have effect on nutrient availability, boost the crop
vigor, and create a favorable effect on microclimate in the soil that stimulates the growth of
antagonist microorganisms.
 Long rotation with non-related crops that is not susceptible to wilt will control the wilt disease.
 Apply biocontrol products such as Trichoderma sp. in the seedbed before and after sowing of
seeds as preventive measure.
 Practice soil solarization and use plastic mulch to reduce population of pathogens in the soil.
 Remove the burn infected plants.
 Apply balanced fertilization. Deficiency of potassium and excess nitrogen easily foster Fusarium
wilt.
Anthracnose
(Causal fungus – Colletotrichum capsici)
Symptoms
 Circular and slightly sunken spots appear on ripe or overripe fruits. Under favorable condition, the
lesions with pink spore masses on green or ripe fruit (Fig. 31).
Management
 Use resistant or tolerant cultivar.
 Put up or place stakes to allow air circulation and drying of wet leaves.
 Preventive sprays of antagonist will help delay the infection.
Bacterial Wilt
(Causal Bacterium – Ralstonia solanacearum (Pseudomonas solanacearum)
Symptoms and Signs
 Bacterial wilt occurs in scattered or groups of plants.
 The initial symptoms of the leaves, followed in 2-3 days by sudden and permanent wilting.
Adventitious roots may develop on the main stems (Fig. 32).
 In later stages, vascular browning, water soaking of pith, followed by browning of cortex near the
soil line occur (Fig. 33).
 When infected stems or roots are cut crosswise and squeezed tightly, a gray to whitish fluid
appears (ooze), or a bacterial streaming from the stem sections is observed when suspended in
water (Fig. 34).
Management
 Use resistant or cultivars.
 Use disease-free transplants; sterilize soil medium to be used in seedling production.
 Practice rotation with non-susceptible crops. For example, rotation of tomato with flooded rice
reduces disease incidence because the wilt pathogen is unable to survive in the field that has been
flooded.
 Apply compost. High organic matter in the soil improves conditions for growth of microorganisms
including antagonist organism that may reduce bacterial wilt pathogen.
 Incorporation of Brassica species such as mustard and cabbage in the soil (biofumigation) will
suppress the bacterial wilt.
 Use grafted tomato if available. Tomato seedlings are grafted on resistant rootstocks (usually wild
eggplant cultivars).
Bacterial Spot
Causal bacterium – Xanthomonas campestris pv. Vesicatora
Symptoms
 Small, water-soaked spots on leaves later become brown and circular. These numerous lesions
may coalesce into necrotic areas; leaves generally turn yellow and drop.
 On stems and petioles, the lesions are elliptical (Fig. 35).
 Infected fruit shows small, raised, corky, and dark lesions.
Management
 Use pathogen-free seeds or transplant.
 Put up rain shelters to reduce water splash that may reduce severity during heavy rainfall.
Root Knot
Causal organisms: Nematode – Meloidogyne spp.
Symptoms
 Above ground, the plants are stunted with some yellowing. Severely affected plants may wilt.
 Galls are formed on primary and secondary roots, become large and are very obvious. Root galls
are typical symptoms of knot nematode infection (Fig. 36).
Management
 Use resistant cultivars, although some nematode populations may overcome resistance.
 Practice crop rotation. Flooding in rice production greatly reduces nematode populations.
 Use clean tools and other good sanitation practices to minimize the spread of nematodes.
 Plow area to expose the nematodes to drying conditions and eliminate potential host plants.
 Improve the organic matter in soil by adding compost to promote populations of beneficial
organisms that feed on nematodes.
 Solarized infected area by covering the wet soil with a clear plastic sheet.
 Plant marigold in infested soil.
 Drenching the soil with neem may also be effective.

Tomato Yellow Leaf Curl
Causal Virus – Tomato Yellow Leaf Curl Virus (Fig. 37)
Vector – white fly (Bemisia tabaci)
Symptoms
 Leaves turn yellow and mottled, curl, and become smaller.
 Flowers abort and fruits discolor.
 Leaf size is reduced.
Management
 Adjust planting dates to avoid high vector population in young plants.
 Use virus-free seedlings. Raise them under protective structure to prevent feeding of insect
vectors.
 Rapidly eliminate virus-infected plants.
 Avoid overlapping or continuous planting of sensitive species in the crop rotation scheme.
 Lay down reflective mulch to deter vector feeding.
 Apply organic sprays such as homemade plant extracts, oil, soft soap to control vector of the
disease such as aphids and whiteflies.
Blossom-end Rot
This is a physiological disorder caused by calcium deficiency and water imbalance. Any soil
condition affecting the uptake of calcium may result in this disorder. It occurs in acid soils with high salt
content.
Symptoms
 Usually appear on developing green fruits.
 Light tan lesions form which turn into brown, sunken areas at the blossom-end part of the fruit.
 Lesions become leathery and accompanied by dry rot.
 Internal black rot of tissue is observed at the center of the fruit.
Management
 Ensure balance nutrition for plants by supplying compost and refrain from adding extra nitrogen.
 Provide regular and even irrigation.
 Use compost. It favorably regulates the pH in soil.
 Apply lime (4kg calcium carbonate/m 3). In severe cases, spray with a solution of 7.5 g calcium
nitrate/L of water.
Sunscald
This is a physiological disorder due to sudden exposure of fruit to direct sunlight (Fig. 39).
Symptoms
 Light colored, papery lesions appear on the exposed fruit surface.
 Secondary infection may occur, with pathogens causing soft rot.
Management
 In every sunny season, the plant should have leaves to protect the fruits from sunburn.
 Practice good water management.
 Apply limestone to soils with low pH
 Apply gypsum (calcium sulfate) to soils with high pH and low calcium levels.
Fruit Bursting
This is a physiological disorder caused by fluctuating moisture and temperature.
Symptoms
 Bursting of tomato fruits is prevalent in protected areas such as inside screen house (Fig.40).
 Ripe fruit cracks at the stem and due to fluctuations in moisture and temperature.
 It occurs when varieties developed for hot climates are exposed to grown in humid, wet conditions.
Management
 Ensure uniform moisture levels in the soil by adding compost.
 Provide for good air circulation inside the screen house.
 Avoid pruning too many leaves at one time. During rainy season and when rains follow a longer dry
period, fruit cracking cannot be avoided.
Disorder Caused by Waterlogged Soil
This is a physiological disorder that occurs after heavy rains and flooding.
Symptoms
 Infected plants show wilting and dark discoloration on affected stem usually at the soil ine (Fig. 41).
 Plants wilt due to waterlogged condition wherein all the cavities are filled with water, depriving roots
of oxygen.
Management
 Improved drainage systems to remove excess water.
 Incorporate more compost or even river soil to improve drainage.
 Prepare raised beds in tomato production.
Anthracnose/Twister (Fig. 42)
Causal fungus – Colletochrichum gloeospoiroides
Symptoms and Signs

 White, oval, sunken lesions may occur on leaf sheathes and blades.
 As disease progresses, cluster of orange acervuli form in concentric rings in the shallow, sunken
area, which later harden, and turn black.
 Leaves curl, twist, and develop chlorosis.
 The neck elongates (false stem). Roots are reduced and infected plants may die.
 Bulbs are slender and may rot before harvest or during storage.
Management
 Destroy crop residue to decrease initial inoculum.
 Use resistant or tolerant cultivar and plant in well-drained soil.
 Apply compost. High organic matter in the soil improves conditions for growth of microorganisms,
including antagonistic organism that may reduce the pathogen.
 Use antagonist such as Trichoderma as seed treatment and soil drenching.
Purple Bloch
Causal Fungus – Alternaria porri
Symptoms
 Symptoms start as water-soaked area lesions on leaves that turn brown with purplish center.
 As lesions enlarge, they become zonate and brown to purple.
 In moist weather, the surface of the lesion may be covered with brown to gray fruiting structures of
the fungus (Fig. 43).
Management
 Destroy infected crop residues to decrease initial inoculum.
 Compost teas, antagonist organisms, and botanical plant extracts may help prevent and control the
disease.
LEGUMES
Stringbean, Cowpea
Powdery Mildew
(Fungus – Erysiphe poligoni)
Symptoms
 There are white, powdery spots on the upper surface of the leaf. Later, these spots appear on both
leaf surfaces (Fig.44).
 The disease progresses from the older to the younger leaves.
 When the leaf becomes heavily infected, it shrivels and falls from the plant.
Management
 Follow the recommended planting distances. Closer planting creates microclimate that favors
 Compost teas, antagonistic, organisms, botanical plant extracts and oil may help prevent and
control the disease.
Cercospora Leaf Spot (Fig.45)
Causal fungus – Cercospora canescens
Symptoms and Signs
 Leaf spot are brown or rust, irregular in size and shape, angular, and form a checkerboard pattern.
 Dark, fuzzy growth of fungus appears on the undersurface of the leaf under favorable condition.
 Tissue at the center of leaf spots often drops, producing a shot-hole effect.
Management
 Use disease-free seeds. The use of resistant/tolerant cultivars is a must.
 Plant seeds at recommended planting distances. Closer planting creates a microclimate that favors
 Avoid working when plants are wet.
 Compost teas, antagonistic organisms, and botanical plant extracts may help prevent and control
the disease.
LEARNING ACTIVITIES
1. In your garden, identify the disease infecting the sample plant parts and capture them. Put in a
A4 coupon band.
2. State measures to control these diseases.
LEARNING ASSESSMENT
This will be uploaded through testmoz
After going through the learning content, you must be able to answer the following question. Write your
answer in the answer sheet provided for. Use other sheets if necessary.
1. What is plant disease?
2. What are the causes of plant disease?
3. What are the different pathogen types and their characteristics?
4. What are some steps that can be followed to diagnose plant disease occurrence in the farm?
5. List some strategic or preventive disease management practices in organic vegetable production.
Discuss each briefly.
6. Enumerate some tactical disease management practices in organic vegetable production. Discuss
each briefly.
7. What are the four important diseases of crucifers? Describe symptoms and control strategies for
each disease.
8. What are the four important disease of cucurbits? Describe symptoms and control strategies for
each disease.
9. List some physiological disorders in vegetable and describe their symptoms and control measures.
10. What is an important disease in legumes? Describe symptoms and control strategies of the
diseases.
Answer Sheet
Name: _______________________________________ Subject: ____________________

Year/Sec.: ____________________________________ Rating: ______________________
References
AVRDC. Identification of diseases in tomato. Tainan, Taiwan: Asian Vegetable Research and Development
Center. Training Office, International Cooperation Program, 1992.
Burgess, L.W.; Knight, T.E.; Tesoriero, L.; Phan, H.T. Diagnostic manual for plant diseases in Vietnam.
Research Monograph No. 1-9, 210p. Canberra, Australia: Australian Center for International
Agricultural Research (ACIAR), 2008.
Ellis, B.W.; Bradley, F.M. The organic gardener’s handbook of natural insect and disease control: A
complete problem-solving guide to keeping your garden and yard healthy without chemicals.
Pennsylvania: Rodale Press Inc., 1996.
Davies, G.; Lennarsson, M. Organic vegetable production: A complete guide. Trowbridge, Wilshire,
England: The Cromwell Press Ltd., 2005.
Department of Agriculture-Bureau of Agricultural research (DA-BAR). Package of Technology of different
vegetable crops. Technology generation and dissemination for the growth and development of
vegetables industry. TGDGDVI-DAR FU. Quezon City: DA-BAR, 2005
Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO). Tomato integrated pest management: An ecological guide,
2000.
Ilag, L.L.; Ilag, L.L. Learning the principles of plant pathology. 2 nd ed. College, laguna, Philippines:
University of the Philippines Los Baños, 2002.
International Institute of Rural Reconstruction (IRR. The bio-intensive approach to small-scale household
food production: Module on pest management. Silang Cavite, Philippines, IIRR, 1993.
Macnab, A.A.; Sherf, A.F.; Springer, J.K. Identifying diseases of vegetables. The Pennsylvanian State
University, 1994.
Mikkelson, K.O. A natural farming system for sustainable agriculture in the tropics. Puerto Princesa City,
Palawan: Aloha house, Inc.
Nagpala, A.L.; Lando, L.D.; Bacbac, J.D. Diseases of vegetable crops with economic importance in
Cordillera: A compendium. Baguio City, Philippines: Cordillera Highland Agricultural Resource
Management (CHARM) Project, 2002.
PhilRice. Integrated pest management in rice-vegetable cropping systems. Muñoz, Nueva Ecija: PhilRice,
IPM_CRSP, 2007.
Quebral, F.C. 1981. Assay on the fungicidal properties of some medicinal plants. Nat. Crop. Prot. Center
Ann. Rep. 1981. The Bio-intensive Approach to small-scale Household Food Production. Silang
Cavite, Philippines: International Institute of Rural Reconstruction (IIRR), 1993. – (as cited in IIRR).
Schwartz, H.F.; Mohan, S.K. Compendium of onion and garlic diseases. American Pythopathological
Society. Minnesota, USA: APS Press, 1995.
Van Haute, J.; Van Haute, L.Q. 2008. Let nature handle our pest and disease problems. In: Growing Rich,
Tasty Veggies in Harmony with Nature, Vol. 2. Ecological Gardening with Focus on the Philippines.
D’ Wheelbarrow aFarm. Las Piñas City, Metro Manila: My Backyard Garden Pub.
Table 1. Plants that can be prepared into crude extracts as biofungicides.
Mode of
Part(s) Target
Plant Name Preparation and Diseases Controlled
Used Pest(s)/Pathogen
Application
‘Acapulco’ leaves Extract juice and Alternaria Fruit rot, early blight, purple
(Cassia alata) spray a rate of 1 blotch, leaf spot, leaf mold,
cup juice/liter Cercospora leaf spot, early blight, frog
water. eye,
Colletrichum leaf spot, anthracnose, fruit
Diplodia rot, smudge fruit and stem
Fusarium rot,
damping-off, stem and root
Helminthosporium rot, early blight,
Pestalotia wilt,
leaf blight,
leaf spot
Amaranth leaves Extract juice of Alternaria Fruit rot, early blight, purple
(Amaranth 1kg leaves, then Cercospora blotch, leaf spot, leaf mold,
gracitis) mix juice with 3 Colletrichum early blight, frog-eye
liters of water Culvularia leaf spot, anthracnose, fruit
and spray. Helminthosporium rot, smudge leaf spot, leaf
Pestalotia blight,
leaf blight
leaf spot
Damong Maria Leaves Extract juice and Alternaria Fruit rot, early blight, purple
(Artemisia use as spray at blotch, leaf spot
vulgaris) the rate of 2-5
tablespoon
juice/liter water.
Garlic (Allium Leaves Chop finely to Alternaria Fruit rot, early blight, purple
sativum) extract the pure Cercospora blotch, leaf spot, leaf mold,
juice. Mix 1 part Colletrichum early blight, frog-eye
of juice with 100 Culvularia leaf spot, anthracnose, fruit
parts of water to Diplodia rot, smudge
form stock Fusarium leaf spot, leaf blight
solution ready Helminthosporium fruit and stem rot
for spraying. Pestalotia damping-off, stem and root
rot, early blight, wilt
leaf blight
Leaf spot
Mildew on solanaceous
plants
Ginger Leaves Extract juice and Cercospora Leaf mold, leaf spot, early
(Zingiber use as spray. blight, frog-eye
offcinale)
Horseradish or Leaves Extract juice of Alternaria Fruit rot, early blight, purple
drumstick 1kg leaves, then Colletrichum blotch, leaf spot,
(Moringa mix juice with 3 Diplodia Leaf spot, anthracnose, fruit
oleifera) liters of water, Pestalotia rot, smudge
and use as Fruit and stem rot
spray. Leaf spot
Ipil - ipil Leaves Extract juice of Alternaria Fruit rot, early blight, puple
(Leucaena 1kg leaves, mix Cercospora bloth, leaf spot
leucocephala) with 1 liter of Colletrichum Leaf mold, leaf spot, early
water and use Culvularia blight, frog-eye
infusion as Helminthosporium Leaf spot, anthracnose, fruit
spray. Pestalotia rot, smudge
Leaf spot, leaf blight
Leaf bligh
Leaf spot
Kakawate Leaves Extract juice of 1 Cercospora Leaf mold, leaf spot, early
(Gliricidia kg leaves, then blight, frog-eye
sepium) mix with 3 liters
of water, and
use as spray.
Kamantigue Leaves Extract juice of 1 Alternaria Fruit rot, early blight, purple
(Impatiens kg leaves, then Cercospora blotch, leaf spot,
balsamina) mix juice with 3 Helminthosporium Leaf mold, leaf spot, early
liters of water, blight, frog-eye
and use as Leaf blight
spray.
Lagundi (Vitex leaves Extract juice of 1 Cercospora Leaf mold, leaf spot, early
negundo) kg leaves, then blight, frog eye
mix juice with 3
liters of water,
and use as
spray.
Makahiya Whole Pound 2 kg of Diplodia Fruit and stem rot
(Mimosa plant the plant, soak in Pestalotia Leaf spot
pudica) 1 liter of water
for 1 day and
use as spray.
Mana (jatropa Leaves Extract juice of 1 Diplodia Fruit and stem rot
multifida) kg leaves, then Fusarium Damping-off, stem and root
mix juice with 3 rot, early blight,
liters of water, Wilt
and use as
spray.
Mayana Leaves Extract juice of 1 Cercospora Leaf mold, leaf spot, early
(Coleus kg leaves, then blight, frog-eye
scutellariodes) mix juice with 3
liters of water,
and use as
spray.
Onion (red) Bulb Chop finely to Alternaria Fruit rot, early blight,purple
(Allium cepa) extract the pure Colletrichum blotch, leaf spot
juice, mix 2 Culvularia Leaf spot, amthracnose, fruit
teaspoons of Fusarium rot, smudge
pure juice with Helminthosporium Leaf spot, leaf blight
liter of water to Pestalotia Damping-off, stem and root
form your stock rot, early blight
solution. Wilt
To use as spray, Leaf blight
mix 1 part of Leaf spot
solution with 20
parts of water.
Papaya (Carica Leaves Pound 2 kg of Cercospora Leaf mold, leaf spot,early
papaya) leaves, soak in Diplodia blight, frog-eye
liter of water for Fruit and stem rot
2 days and use
as spray
Sambong Leaves Extract juice and Cercospora Leaf mold, leaf spot,early
(Blumea spray at a blight, frog-eye
blsamifera) proportion of 1
part juice and 1
part water.
Takip-kuhol leaves Extract juice of 1 Fusarium Dampig-off, stem and root
(Centella kg leaves, then Helminthosporium rot, early blight
asiatica) mix juice with 3 Wilt
liters of water, Leaf blight
and use as
spray.
CHAPTER 5
ORGANIC LIVESTOCK AND POULTRY PRODUCTION
PRINCIPLES AND CONSIDERATIONS IN ORGANIC LIVESTOCK PRODUCTION
This lesson presents the basic principles of organic livestock production as an introduction to the
different production lessons specific to the different livestock and poultry to develop the understanding of
organic livestock in relation to the principles of organic agriculture and organic crop production. It should be
studied and understood by anybody who wants to be acquainted with organic farming. Organic livestock
producers should use this knowledge as a basis in raising organic livestock or poultry.

1. Understand the principles or organic livestock for use in livestock and poultry production as well as
in relation to organic crop production;
2. Use this knowledge as a basis to develop organic livestock and poultry production units and
improve organic crop production systems; and
3. Be aware on how to convert from conventional to organic operations.
LESON 1
LEARNING CONTENT
GENERAL PRINCIPLE OF ORGANIC LIVESTOCK PRODUCTION

One of the fundamental principles of organic farming is that organic production system shall benefit
the quality of ecosystems. Organic livestock production aims to be an integral part of organic farming in
order to achieve this goal as well as to assure the welfare and promote the health and meet behavioral
needs of animals in organic production. This is in stark contrast to conventional livestock production
systems, which are designed to be linear, independent production system with inputs taken from outside
the production units and rarely designed to fit into existing ecosystem, much less to enhance and/or
improve them. Conventional systems are often designed with no or little connection to the land, but organic
farming system recognized the importance of the links between the health of the soil, the crops and the
health of the animals. Organic farming promotes systems that are based on biological synergies in order to
develop into sustainable forms of agricultural production.
Role of Livestock in Organic Production

Animals are essential to a truly sustainable organic production system. As early as 1924, original
proponent of biodynamic agriculture, Rudolf Steiner defined a “healthy farm” as a farm that had animals
embedded in the system: “Within our farms, we should attempt to have everything we need for agricultural
production, including, of course, the appropriate amount of livestock. . . “
It is widely accepted that livestock plays an important role in nutrient cycling as nutrients are
returned to the soil via manure and compost, even if there are many other techniques of “nitrogen fixing” for
agricultural production purposes. Nevertheless, animals continue to play a major role in organic agricultural
systems aiming for biological synergies, as versus energy- and water- intensive industrial types of
agricultural production system, in an era that must restore the ecological health of the natural resources
destroyed by conventional, exploitive and fuel-based farming systems. The following are three examples of
the synergetic effect of livestock and crop production in organic farming systems:
 The development of rice, duck, fish, azolla production systems based on traditional rice farming
systems in Asia.
 Free-ranging poultry, which can fertilize the fields of crops such as grapes and other fruit trees and
at the same time keep insects in check, and feed on the emerging weeds.
 Rice husk and hull that are used for organic hog farming as source of feeds and bedding will
eventually fertilize the soil.
Animal Welfare in Organic Production
Organic livestock production systems have developed, and are further improving towards
production systems that put strong emphasis on ecological synergies, animal welfare and health for crops
and animals.
Organic livestock production is based on fundamental respect for animals and their requirements
and recognizer animals as “sentient” beings. Organic production aims to protect the animals right to the
“five freedoms” which are: freedom from hunger, thirst and malnutrition; freedom from fear and distress;
freedom from physical and thermal discomfort; freedom from pain, injury and disease; and freedom to
express normal patterns of behavior.
Animals thus should have:
 Readily accessible clean water;
 A nutritionally complete and balanced diet;
 Appropriate shelter and comfort;
 Freedom of movement with regular access to pasture and/or free-range, open-air runways; and
 Humane handling, transportation and slaughter.
To comply with the principles above, the organic producers will have to undertake a different approach
towards the following:
 Farm landscape to consider biodiversity, crops which can be used for feeds, medicinal
plants, trees and shrubs for shade and as windbreaks
 Design of housing, which can be permanent and/or portable shelters
 Appropriate stocking rates, not only to satisfy organic standards, but to reach optimal, not
maximum numbers
 Becoming knowledgeable in formulation of feeds from readily available materials; to either
plant them or coordinated their production with other organic farmers;
 Reduction of animal stress through the adoption of different management techniques that
will achieve optimum productivity and health of the animals
Animal Health in Organic Production
Organic livestock production is growing rapidly throughout the world. Though very different in
details due to varied cultural, climatic and economic conditions, organic standards prohibit the use of
chemically synthesized veterinary medicinal products and antibiotics for prevention of diseases. They
emphasize on health maintenance through prevention, while sick and injured animals are to be treated
using natural medicines, feed additives and probiotics.
Organic livestock production has improved over the past years with regards to animal health and
productivity. But in most countries worldwide, it is still challenging to replace the synthetic medicines and
feed additives to achieve optimum animal health and productivity. This is particularly true in the Philippines,
where organic livestock production is in infant stage and where conventional livestock production systems
are not easy to convert into organic production systems because they are practically reduced to factory
faring with high stocking in poultry and hog production with all its ill effects on animal health and the
environment.
Both use breeds which require high protein diets, synthetic feed additives and synthesized
medicines as well as antibiotics for preventive treatments.
Health Products
Increase research on the use of herbs, which may have been used traditionally either as feed
supplements or medicines, has led companies to produce herbal products for prevention and treatment of
various ailments as well as to augment production performance, both in conventional and organic livestock
production. They are not readily available in all countries, which forces organic farmers to use farmstead
production of these products. This can be considered as a blessing because it improves the skills and
performance of the farming system or as an additional burden to the farmer. Ideally, the products should be
available to give the producers the choice if they want to buy the ready-made or produce their own.
Ethnic Veterinary Medicine Practices
Ethnic veterinary medicine practice has been known in Asia for thousands of years. It would be
specifically valuable in the Philippines to make this knowledge available to organic farmers, particularly in
the absence of standardized commercial herbal medicines.
Fermented Plant Juice Products
In the Philippines, farmstead production of fermented plant juices has proven to be efficient. Some
can be bought readymade. (refer to separate module on production plant)
IMO- Indigenous Microorganism

 Made from microorganism present in the bamboo and the first grounds.
 Cultivated in steamed rice as medium; fermented with raw sugar (muscovado) or molasses
 Serves as decomposers; controls non-beneficial microorganism
FPJ – Fermented Plant Juice

 Fermented plant juice is fermented extracts of the plants’ liquid and chlorophyll content. Crude
sugar (muscovado) or molasses is used to extract the essence through osmosis.
 Use green leafy plants young leaves with shoots such as in ‘kangkong’, pumpkin leaves or
“Kalabasa” leaves, young (3ft long) banana trunk bamboo shoots or labong.
FFJ – Fermented Fruit Juice
 FFJ increase plant nutrition because it contains high percent of potassium.
 It helps digestion of animals.
 The nutrients from the fruits increase resistance of crops against disease and protect plants from
insects.
 It acts as hormone and promotes and hastens growth.
FAA – Fish Amino Acid
 Fish amino acids is liquid made fish entrails, gut, and gills and may not include golden apple snails
(kuhol) as additional source of nitrogen.
 FAA contains abundant amount of nutrients and various types of amino acids.
OHN – Oriental Herbal Nutrient
 OHN is made from ppular oriental crops such as garlic (antibiotic and for control parasites), ginger
(for upper respiratory system), chili (for blood circulation), and neem seeds (pest control).
 OHN is a very important input to develop the immune system of plants and animals and control
crawling pest (ginger).
Calcium/Calcium Phosphate
 It is made of bones and meat boiled to remove out dried, and broiled until charcoal black.
 It is mixed with coconut vinegar and fermented.
 Calcium Phosphate (Calphos) is easily absorbed and applied when plants are about to flower.
LAS/LABS – Lactic Acid Bacteria Serum
 It is a mixture of rice washing, brown sugar, fresh milk.
 It is used as soil amendment and foliar spray, and applied to beddings in livestock production.
Animal Nutrition in Organic Production
Animals should be fed in a way suited to their physiology. Ruminants should receive a balanced
diet according to their specific nutritional needs and should be fed in a diet that consists entirely of
concentrates. They need adequate amounts of roughage since they have the unique availability to digest
cellulose and other plant materials, provided that too high concentrates do not affect the pH in the rumen.
Out of this concern, certain standards indicate specific minimum amounts of roughage in the dry matter of
the ruminants’ diet.
An organic farmer should know that a balanced diet for animals means rations that are not too high
nor too low in protein content. A balance diet also means the production of plants in healthy soil to
supplement the macro- and micro nutrients as well as trace elements in feeds.
It is important to research, develop, and grown alternative fodder and forage to corn and soy bean,
which are currently predominantly used in conventional livestock production.
The list below presents some examples. This is to be completed through further research and from
farmers; experience, as of organic livestock production develops.
 Root crops: Turnips (singkamas), sweet potato (kamote), cassava (kamoteng kahoy)
 Nitrogen fixing crops: Flemingia, Indigofera, Desmodium rensonii, Trichantera gigantean
 From the sea: seaweeds, algae, etc. there is a lot to be research on these.
 Minerals, vitamins and trace elements: alugbati, kangkong, kamote, tops, talinum, malunggay
 Medicinal crops: banaba, bayabas, kaimoto, lagundi, lemon grass, oregano, sambong
Breeds and Breeding
For optimum productivity in an organic livestock farm, it is important to choose animal breeds that
are proven high producers. In organic farming however, the criteria of “high producers: may be judged
differently from conventional farms. Production charts are important. Other characteristics are equally
important to an organic environment such as mothering ability, hardiness and thriftiness, resistance to
disease and parasites, ability to forage and adapt to local crops available in the ecosystem of the farm.
An organic farmer in the Philippines might like to consider looking for pure native breeds and
improve them through breeding and selection, or practice cross-breeding of native and high breeds.
Converting to Organic Livestock Production
The establishment of organic animal husbandry requires a conversion period for land and animals.
Organic farming, being a holistic approach, will be designed in such a way as not exhaust the land. Using
the biological synergies, it should maintain a healthy ecosystem, or in cases of conversion from
conventional farming, often improve the ecosystem. Organic production systems aims to be a self-sufficient
as possible. Therefore, after the conversion period, the animal husbandry shall not be dependent on
conventional raising systems. It shall produce livestock in the farm organically from birth.
Producers who convert to organic livestock production should:
 Understand the principles of organic agriculture, the interdependency of all its aspects;
 Be knowledgeable of the applicable organic standards as well as government policies;
 Visit existing organic operations, state universities that are involved in the promotion of organic
farming, training centers, websites, and the likes;
 Develop a farm development plan with short medium-, and long-term goals;
 Study the market: demand, prices, competitors, consumer preferences, packaging, and existing
distribution systems;
 Ideally convert the land first in order to have a certifiable source of feeds and/or source of organic
feeds from other organic farmers;
 Assess the farm: is it suitable for the management system you want to adopt?
What changes are needed to make the farm set up usable, efficient as well as organically certified
(housing, stocking, free ranging)?;
 Study available management, nutrition, and approved health care programs;
 Develop livestock record keeping system for sound management, profitability, and organic
certification compliance; and
 Develop and implement an action plan.
LEARNING ACTIVITIES
LEARNING ASSESSMENT
After going through the learning content, you must be able to answer the following questions. Write
your answer in the answer sheet provided for. Use other sheets if necessary.
1. What is the role of livestock in organic production?
2. Based on the principles of organic livestock production, animals should have:
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
3. What is the standard in keeping organic livestock healthy?
4. What can be used to prevent or treat various ailments?
5. Give examples of alternative fodder and forage for organic livestock?
6. The establishment of organic animal husbandry requires a conversion period for animals and land.
What should a producer know or do to convert to organic livestock production?
Answer Sheet
Name: _______________________________________ Subject: ____________________

Year/Sec.: ____________________________________ Rating: ______________________
ORGANIC POULTRY PRODUCTION

This lesson explains aspects of organic poultry production systems as currently practiced by the
existing organic poultry producers.

1. Identify and describe the basic management practices in the production of organic poultry (layers
and broilers) and
2. Compare the advantages and disadvantages of organically produced eggs and meat with those
produced following the conventional method.
LESON 2
LEARNING CONTENT
Organic Farming and its Implications to Poultry Production

Organic farming refers to the principles of sustained and cyclic use of natural resources through a
management system that prohibits the use of synthetic chemical substances and focuses on soil resources
protection and ecological balance to produce natural and safe agricultural products.
Organic food is produced based on a set of standards and principles on the use of chemical
pesticides/herbicides/insecticides, food additives, animal welfare, and sustainability. Organic growers aim
to produce food as naturally as possible, free from trans-fats, genetically modified organisms (GMOs), and
most additives.
Organic food is produced in an organic farming system without the use of synthetic chemicals or
GMO. Emphasis is placed on a holistic farm management approach using crop rotations and ruminant
animals as an integral part of the system. Organic system recognize that our health is directly connected to
the food we eat and ultimately the health of the soil. In the production of animal products, animal welfare is
an important issue with a free-range system of rearing.
The Organic Chicken Production
To be organic, chickens must be fed organic grain-containing diet. This grain has been grown
organically without artificial fertilizers or sprays (Fig. 1). Such feed is expensive; therefore, we have to offer
our customers a choice of either fully organic or “additive-free” chickens. Additive-free birds are reared in
the same way and conditions as the organic chickens. But the grain in additive-free feed is not organically
grown and is therefore cheaper. This means that the additive-free chickens can be sold at a lower price.
To achieve the objectives of animal welfare, environment protection, and sustainable use of
resources, certain principles are adhered to:
 Management of livestock as land-based systems so that stocking rates are based on the carrying
capacity of the land and not inflated by reliance on purchased hectares from outside farm system.
Thus, the potential for nutrient concentration, excess manure production, and pollution is avoided.
 Reliance on farm or locally derived renewable resources, such as homegrown poultry feeds in
order to reduce the need for non-renewable resources as direct inputs or for transport.
 Reliance on fed sources produced organically which are suited to the animals’ evolutionary
adaptation and minimize competition for food suitable for human consumption.
 Maintenance of health through preventive management and good husbandry to reduce the
development of animals resistant to therapeutic medicines as well as contamination of workers,
food products, and the environment.
 Use of housing systems, which allow natural behavior patterns to give priority to animal welfare
considerations.
 Use of breeds and rearing systems suited to the production systems employed in terms of disease
resistance, productivity, hardiness, and suitability of ranging.
Preliminary Considerations in Organic Chicken Production
The availability of capital alone is not enough assurance of a successful business operation. In
organic poultry, a raiser must consider the following:
1. Technical know-how. Technical knowledge and training in both egg and meat type production is an
important requisite in the business.
2. Market assurance. Profit depends on the timely disposal of products.
3. Availability of stock, feeds, and other supplies for a continuing operation. A systematic production
program for the production of feed resources and stocks must be considered to have an assured
supply for a sustainable production.
Benefits from Organic Chicken
Benefits derived from organic chicken:
1. Organic food taste better.
2. Organic food production helps protect future generations. Food choices in the family and
community determine children’s health.
3. Organic food has higher levels of nutrients. Some research findings show that organic foods have
higher nutrient levels.
4. The use of antibiotics, antimicrobials, hormones and others that promote growth are prohibited in
organic production. Selling animals treated with veterinary drugs or chemicals is prohibited.
5. Chemicals residues are missing or at very low levels in organically produced food. Organic growers
have pest and disease management strategies that do not use artificial and toxic chemicals.
6. Organic farming could be one of the ways family farms can survive.
Stocking
The main problems on breeds, sourcing and rearing are as follows:
 Availability of appropriate breeds
 Transportation cost
 Minimum quantities of birds that the large producers will supply
Breeds of Chicken
Breeds for Egg and Meat Production
Most organic producers use intensively bred hybrids for egg laying. Breeders have started
developing lines specifically for free-range production such as Kabir from Israel and Sasso from France
with performance comparable to the purebred.
Breeds for Broiler Production
Stocks for broiler production are derived by crossing heavy and medium breeds of chicken.
Cornish in the most popular breed used for the male line. They are bred to females of White Rock, New
Hampshire, Rhode Island Red, and other medium breeds to produce F, crosses that constitute the broiler
chickens.
Stocking Rate
Free-range system is suitable for a general farm although it may require a bit of labor to feed the
birds, shut them in their houses at night, and let them out in the morning. Small houses are provided
accommodating from 50 to 150 birds. In slatted-floored houses, 0.069-0.093 m 2 (0.75-1 ft2 of floor area is
allowed per bird while in solid-floored houses, 0.14 m 2 (1.5 ft2) floor area is sufficient. The houses should be
raised 0.31 m (1ft) above the ground and should be protected from damage by other farm animals grazing
in the vicinity. The birds are allowed to run freely over a field, and 125 birds per ha (50 birds per acre) can
be run on grass without reducing its capacity for carrying other stock. If other animals are running in the
field, a stocking rate of 375 birds per ha (150 birds per acre) is allowed. It is an advantage to move the
houses every 1 or 2 years to prevent the area from becoming “fowl-sick”. On arable farms, it is customary
to move the birds on to stubble fields so that they can consume any shed corn or other feed sources in the
field.
The Farm Structures
The poultry house ensures minimum interference from the natural elements during the growth and
reproduction of birds. They are constructed according to the needs of the birds.
Organic standards aim to provide an environment for poultry in which all normal behavior patterns
can occur, as this will minimize the stress to the birds. Low stress levels are likely to have a positive effect
on both the health and production capacity of the flock. There are two approaches on housing used by
organic producers:
 Mobile systems with houses that can be moved so that chicken can utilize grasses in an arable
rotation.
Advantages:
- birds can be moved to fresh grass so that the risk of soil-borne parasites is minimized.
- the size of the huts ensures that they are remain movable.
 Static housing systems where the birds have access to an outside area covered with vegetation
(Fig. 2).
Disadvantages:
- other production inputs (feed, straw or other litter material and water) need to be transported to and from
the houses, which increases the labor requirements.
- it carries the risk of freezing on cold weather. Electric supply to the housing will have the danger of trailing
cables.
- the cost of mobile housing per bird is likely to be higher than fixed systems.
- for layers, it is advisable to use well-designed equipment inside, with the collection of droppings, nests
and perches separate from feeding and drinking facilities.
- egg collection needs to be carried out manually.
At an early stage of their lives, birds are restricted within the housing with a low circular partition an
incandescent bulb or heater. The partition can be removed at around two weeks and be allowed access to
a fenced area outside for feeding, which prevents older birds getting access to the feed. An additional
housing will be needed to meet maximum stocking density. Litter materials straw can be used for
scratching to avoid breastbone blistering.
Intensive vs. Extensive Production
Intensive system vs. extensive system is an important distinction in range poultry production.
 Intensive range poultry production can be an enterprise and requires only a small land. However,
careful manure management is needed to prevent excessive soil fertility.
 Extensive range poultry production requires land and is usually part of a diversified operation with
ruminants (Fig.3). Mixed husbandry can be very important in range poultry production. Buying land
just for extensively raising poultry is unlikely to be profitable. In addition, grazing ruminants shorten
the grass for the poultry, eliminating the need for mowing. Increase farm diversity can enhance
biological diversity environmental quality.
Soil fertility is a major motivation for range poultry production. Many producers want to take advantage of
range poultry manure to improve their pastures for ruminants. Range poultry, according to Oregon producer
Robert Plamondon, is “almost essential in reviving a played-out farm on a shoestring budget.” Some
vegetable growers insist that in order to build a sustainable system, livestock must be incorporated into the
farm for fertility. However, excessive soil fertility can also be an issue, especially in intensive systems.
Much of the fertility in poultry manure us derived from concentrate feed, an important input in
poultry production. Layer manure has 1.5% nitrogen (N), 1.3% phosphorus (P), and 0.5% potassium (K).
Broiler manure is usually mixed with litter. Birds deposit a lot of their manure in the house at night. These
“night-droppings” can be removed and spread directly on pastures, or composted first.
Litter is a large-scale problem in the conventional poultry industry. When too much litter is applied
to the ground, pollution occurs. However, in a small-scale production, litter is usually an asset rather than a
problem, because the volume is much smaller. Excessive fertility on poultry range can be managed by
grazing with ruminants, by making hay, or by rotating crops, since these activities remove nutrients.
Many producers believe that birds are healthier and happier when raised in pasture. Raising small
outdoor flocks can reduce the concentration of disease-causing pathogens, and UV light from the sum is a
good sanitizer. Still, birds will be exposed to pathogens from wildlife, and pathogens can build up in
intensively used areas. Also, exposure to the elements and stress from the predation may have negative
impacts on bird health.
The guidelines for raising organic chickens are more stringent than free range and vary slightly
from country to country. For international certification, they must comply with the international standards.
From birth, the chickens must be raised following the standards. Their feed must be 95% organic and
cannot contain antibiotics or vitamins and minerals in supplement form. The chickens are allocated a larger
area to range than other methods. Removal of beak is not carried out.
Nutrient Requirement and Feeding Management
Birds require essential nutrients for body growth and maintenance. From birth, the chickens must
be given feeds that do not contain antibiotics in supplement form. Instead, probiotics must be given. These
nutrients are supplied through the feeds as energy, protein, vitamins, minerals, and certain unidentified
factors. For maximum efficiency, these nutrients have to be supplied at the right quantity, quality and
balance depending upon the type of bird and its production stage. Malnutrition can cause stunting,
decreased fertility, susceptibility to diseases and other problems. The nutrient requirements of poultry at
different stages of production are given in Table 1.
One of the primary objectives of an animal nutritionist is to develop a successful feeding program
that will be translated into a defined economic return for the business. Precision nutrition is defined as
providing the animal with the feed that precisely meets its nutritional requirements.
Table 1. Nutrient requirement of meat-type and egg-type chickens at different stages of growth and
production.
Broiler Production Egg Production
Nutrient
Starter (0-5 Finisher (5- Starter (0-6 Grower (6- Pullet Layer (20-
weeks) 7 weeks) weeks) 12 weeks) developer 40+ weeks)
Protein(%) 20-22 18-20 20 18 14.5 18
ME (Kcal) 3000 3200 2600-2670 2850-3050 2850-3200 2950-3000
Calcium(%) 1-1.1 0.7-0.9 1-1.2 0.8-1.0 0.8-1.0 2.6-2.8
P(%) 0.45 0.40 0.40 0.35 0.45 0.45
Before developing a feeding program, the nutritionist should have a comprehensive knowledge about the
animal in question. Table 2 is an example of a typical feed formulation.
Two types of grit are provided for poultry: soluble and insoluble. Soluble grit, usually limestone or
oyster shell, is a source of calcium for laying birds to balance their requirements for eggshell production.
Insoluble grit, usually granite or flint, is supplied to aid the gizzard in the performance of its natural function
of food grinding. Generally, the digestibility of whole grains is increase by 10 and of mashes by about 3% if
access to insoluble grit is allowed, and it should be supplied to all types of poultry.
Table 2. A typical feed formulation (all-mash).

Ingredients Parts (kg)
Yellow corn (ground) 47.49
Soybean meal 24.56
Rice bran D1 10.00
Copra meal 8.00
Fish meal 6.00
Molasses 2.00
Lactobacillus sp. 0.20
Limestone 1.00
Salt 0.25
Vitamin/Mineral premix 0.50
Total 100
Calculated Nutrients
Crude Protein (%) 21
Metabolizable energy (Kcal/kg) 2,801
Calcium (%) 1.02
Phosphorus (%) 0.34
Brooding Management
Brooding is probably the most critical stage in the life cycle of a chicken. At this stage, chicken is
most vulnerable to many environmental influences because of inborn physiological deficiencies. Up to
about 4th week of age, the ability of the chicken to regulate its own body temperature does not become fully
developed. For this reason, it has to be provided with outside sources of heat (Fig.4).
Under the present system of poultry raising where chicks cannot avail of the natural brooding by
the mother hen, heat must be provided by artificial means. In the farm, this is done by using artificial
brooders provided with electric bulbs or by using litter materials as beddings such as rice hulls and rice
straw. A deep litter is a form of dry compost, which is used as flooring for both meat- and egg-type chicken.
It is made of agricultural wastes. It is laid on the floor where bacteria work on the dry compost. During
decomposition, methane gas and carbon dioxide are emitted. The compost becomes sterilized or purified
as the action progress. Upon consuming the wastes, the bacteria are killed in the litter including the harmful
ones. The deep litter, it properly maintained, has a sterilizing effect where all bacteria are killed at once. It is
therefore safer for the birds especially day-old and growing chicks to live in this special surroundings than
in an ordinary soil. Since manure is a part of a deep litter, it is not necessary to clean it regularly as with
other kinds of flooring, thereby generating savings from decreased labor. The litter also becomes a source
of fertilizer to agricultural crops.
Protein-rich feed is indicated for brood chicks to give them a good start. Fresh drinking water
should be provided.
Two kinds of brooding:
1. Artificial – brooding with the use of electric bulb
2. Natural – a mother hen sits on the eggs
Essential factors for successful brooding:
1. Good quality chicks to start with
2. Proper temperature
3. Adequate floor space
4. Proper ventilation
5. Adequate lighting facilities
6. Proper sanitation
Disease Prevention and Control
Recommended Program of Activities for Disease Prevention and Control
Objective Activity
Maintain relatively clean flock  Minimize undesirable stresses
 Provide good nutrition according to age and purpose
 Provide appropriate space, facilities, equipment and
housing
 Keep accurate record and evaluate them regularly
Preventing the entrance of  Purchase healthy chickens
disease agents  Strictly regulate and control the entry of visitors
 Require disinfection of footwear
 Provide separate areas for feed delivery and sale of
manure
 Regularly assess disease control performance and
activities of personnel
Eliminating disease agents  Dispose immediately and appropriately the dead chickens
 Isolate and properly treat sick animals
 Observe hygiene and sanitation in the farm
Over-all disease control  Periodically evaluate production performance
Vaccination of Poultry for Common Infectious Diseases

Vaccinate chickens at early age against a certain disease, which are prevalent in the locality only.
Record Keeping
Records, if properly kept will enable one to have a more accurate evaluation of the overall
operations of the poultry farm. The costs of production can be computed, which help in figuring out the
price at which products can be sold. The previous record will further give guidance on which management
practices to apply as a way to improve future operational and non-operational expenses and other systems.
Consider the following record for flock management control:
1. Brooding/rearing records
2. Medication
3. Flock performance record
Record keeping
Form A. Brooding/Rearing Records
Chick Received: _____________________ Date: __________ Batch No: ____________
Chicks Loaded: ______________________ Strain: ________ House No: ___________
Wk Days Total
# ITEM 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Death Bags
1 Mortality
FC
2 Mortality
FC
3 Mortality
FC
4 Mortality
FC
5 Mortality
FC
6 Mortality
FC
7 Mortality
FC
Form B. Medication Records

Date Kind Quantity Remarks Mortality
Form C. Sales
Quantity Sold Unit Price Total Value (P)
Date
Eggs # Culls Wt Eggs Culls Eggs Culls
Form D. Flock Performance Record

Month: _____________ Strain: __________
Batch No: __________________
Date No. of Eggs laid FC Mortality Culled Transferred Remarks
layer
Total
Hen-day eggs/bird/month_______________________
Hen-day eggs/bird to date________________________
Amount of feed to produce a dozen eggs_____________
Percent protein in the ration________________
LEARNING ACTIVITIES
LEARNING ASSESSMENT
After going through the learning content, you must be able to answer the following questions. Write
your answer in the answer sheet provided for. Use other sheets if needed.
1. To achieve the objectives of organic agriculture, the following must be considered:
2. In organic poultry, a raiser must consider the following:

a.
b.
c.
3. Benefits derived from organic chicken:

a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
4. Three main problems on breeds, sourcing and rearing:

a.
b.
c.
5. Two approaches of housing used by organic producers:

a.
b.
6. The differences between intensive and extensive range of producing organic materials chicken are:
7. What are some of the most important nutrients needed by both meat- and egg-type chicken?
8. List some recommended activities for disease prevention and control.
9. Explain the importance of record keeping.
Answer Sheet
Name: _______________________________________ Subject: ____________________

Year/Sec.: ____________________________________ Rating: ______________________

Organic Pest Management in Sugarcane

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Organic Pest Management in Sugarcane

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Introduction to Organic Agriculture

PEST MANAGEMENT IN ORGANIC SUGARCANE PRODUCTION

INTENDED LEARNING OUTCOMES

After completing this module, you must be able to:

Estimated Time Frame: 2 hours

White Grub (June or Toy Beetle), Leucopholis irrota Chevrolat

Fig. 2. Adults of white grubs.

The opaque- white eggs are laid singly at

Introduction to Organic Agriculture

Steps in monitoring eggs or egg masses of sugarcane borers

Steps in Field Releases of T. chilonis

Presently, Trichogramma cards are available in rearing

This will be uploaded through testmoz.

3. What is the stage of sugarcane borer being attacked by Trichogramma.

4. How does Trichogramma control sugarcane borers?

Name: _______________________________________ Subject: ____________________

DISEASE MANAGEMENT IN ORGANIC VEGETABLE PRODUCTION

INTENDED LEARNING OUTCOMES

After completing this module, you must be able to:

Estimated Time Frame: 2 hours

Diagnosing Plant Disease

Diseases Management Practices

Alternaria Leaf Spot

 Drenching the soil with neem may also be effective.

Symptoms and Signs

Name: _______________________________________ Subject: ____________________

INTENDED LEARNING OUTCOMES

After completing this module, you must be able to:

Estimated Time Frame: 2 hours

GENERAL PRINCIPLE OF ORGANIC LIVESTOCK PRODUCTION

Role of Livestock in Organic Production

IMO- Indigenous Microorganism

FPJ – Fermented Plant Juice

Name: _______________________________________ Subject: ____________________

ORGANIC POULTRY PRODUCTION

INTENDED LEARNING OUTCOMES

After completing this module, you must be able to:

Estimated Time Frame: 2 hours

Organic Farming and its Implications to Poultry Production

Table 2. A typical feed formulation (all-mash).

Vaccination of Poultry for Common Infectious Diseases

Form B. Medication Records

Form D. Flock Performance Record

2. In organic poultry, a raiser must consider the following:

3. Benefits derived from organic chicken:

4. Three main problems on breeds, sourcing and rearing:

5. Two approaches of housing used by organic producers:

Name: _______________________________________ Subject: ____________________

You might also like

Name: ___________________ Subject:

Name: ___________________ Subject:

Name: ___________________ Subject:

Name: ___________________ Subject: