An essay

On

corrosion

submitted to
Chemistry Department
Faculty of Science
Minia University

By
Esraa Ashraf Ibrahim

For
The B.sc. Degree in Chemistry
1
 Acknowledgment

I want to express my thanks to my

supervisor professor Mohamed I. zaki,
professor of physical chemistry, faulty of
science, Minia university, for his precious
guidance, help and for being an
inspirational figure in the field of scientific
research, which led me to do my best in
this essay.

Esraa A. Ibrahim

2
 Contents

page

1. Introduction…………………………………………………..………5

2. Corrosion……………………………………………………………..6

3. Classification of corrosion…………………………………………...6

3.1. According to humidity………………………………………...6

3.1.1. Dry Corrosion……………………………………………….6

3.1.2. Wet Corrosion……………………………………………….7

3.2. According to the mechanism of corrosion…………………….7

3.2.1. Chemical corrosion…………………………………………..7

3.2.2. Electrochemical Corrosion…………………………………..9

3.3. According to type of corrosion……………………………….10

3.3.1. Uniform(general) Corrosion………………………………..10

3.3.2. Crevice Corrosion……………………………………………11

3.3.3. Pitting corrosion…………………………………………….11

3.3.4. Intergranular Corrosion……………………………………..12

3.3.5. Erosion corrosion……………………………………………12

3.3.6. Atmospheric corrosion……………………………………..13

3.3.7. Galvanic corrosion………………………………………..13

3
4. Corrosion Prevention……………………………………………..14

4.1. Environmental Modification…………………………………14

4.2. Metal Selection and Surface Conditions……………………..14

4.3. Coatings……………………………………………………..15

4.3.1. Metallic coatings…………………………………………15

4.3.2. Non- metallic coatings…………………………………….17

4.4. Inhibitors……………………………………………………..17

4.4.1. Classification of corrosion inhibitors……………………….18

4.5. Cathodic Protection……………………………………………..19

4.5.1. The Galvanic Method………………………………………20
4.5.2. The Impressed current method……………………………..21

5. References………………………………………………………….22

4
1. Introduction

We Live in a Metals-Based Society

Residents of industrialized nations live in metal-based societies. Various types

of steel are used in residential and commercial structures, in bridges and trusses,
in automobiles, passenger trains, railroad cars, ships, piers, docks, bulkheads, in
pipelines and storage tanks, and in the construction of motors. Aluminum alloys
find a variety of uses ranging from aircraft frames to canned food containers to
electronic applications. Copper is used in water pipes, in electrical connectors,
and in decorative roofs. Chromium and nickel, to name just two more metals,
are used in the production of stainless steels and other corrosion-resistant alloys.

In addition, metals are also used in various electronic applications, such as

computer discs, printed circuits, connectors, and switches. Metals are even used
in the human body as hip or knee replacements, as arterial stents, and as surgical
plates, screws, and wires. Metals also find use as coins of daily commerce, in
jewelry, in historical landmarks (such as statues), and in objects of art.

There are 85 metals in the Periodic Table. Whatever be their end use, all
common metals tend to react with their environments to different extents and at
different rates. Thus, corrosion is a natural phenomenon and is the destructive
attack of a metal by its environment so as to cause a deterioration of the
properties of the metal.

Why Study Corrosion?

There are four main reasons to study corrosion. Three of these reasons are based
on societal issues regarding (i) human life and safety, (ii) the cost of corrosion,
and (iii) conservation of materials. The fourth reason is that corrosion is
inherently a difficult phenomenon to understand, and its study is in itself a
challenging and interesting pursuit.[1]

5
2. Corrosion
Materials exposed to aggressive environments may undergo chemical
and physical degradation. This degradation is called “corrosion”
when the material concerned is a metal. Corrosion is often defined as
“destruction or degradation of a material caused by a reaction to its
environment” and also “the spontaneous tendency of a metallic
component to return to its original state as found in nature”. For this
reason, corrosion is also called metallurgy in reverse, because the
corrosion process returns metals to their more thermodynamically
stable natural state as oxides or sulphides or other compounds It is the
gradual destruction of materials by chemical or electrochemical
reaction. A broader, but widely accepted alternative definition, from
the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC),
encompasses the degradation of non-metals as well as metallic
materials, as follows: “ Corrosion is an irreversible interfacial reaction
of a material with its environment which results in consumption of the
material or in dissolution into the material of a component of the
environment.[2]

3. Classification of corrosion

3.1. According to humidity

3.1.1.Dry corrosion: is a form of corrosion, that occurs at

elevated temperature without a liquid phase. It’s a high
temperature oxidation reaction
 corrosion takes place in dry state.

6
  It occurs due to the direct chemical attack of the metal by
the environment.
 corrosion products accumulate on the same spot, where
corrosion occurs.
 Dry corrosion is self controlled.
 It follows absorption mechanism.
 Homogenous metal surface undergoes corrosion observed.
 Uniform corrosions are observed example Formation of
mild iron oxide on its surface.

3.1.2.Wet corrosion: means that there is a liquid phase, for

example condensed humidity, in contact with metal. It’s
the most common form of corrosion.

 Corrosion takes place in the presence of moisture.

 It occurs due to the setting up of large numbers of galvanic
cells.
 Corrosion products accumulate on cathode.
 Wet corrosion is continuous process.
 It follows electrochemical mechanism.
 Heterogeneous metals bimetallic surface is the condition
for corrosion.
 Pitting corrosions are observed. Example: Formation of
rust on iron under moist atmosphere.[4]

3.2. According to the mechanism of corrosion

3.2.1.Chemical corrosion: It is due to the direct chemical attack

on metals by atmospheric gases such as oxygen, carbon-di-
oxide, hydrogen sulphide, etc.

7
 There are three main types of chemical corrosion:
a) Oxidation corrosion
b) Corrosion by hydrogen
c) Liquid–Metal corrosion

(a) Oxidation corrosion

Oxygen present in atmosphere attacks metal surface resulting in the
formation of metallic oxide which is a corrosion product and this is
known as oxidation corrosion.
Alkali metals (Li, Na, K, etc.) and alkaline earth metals (Mg, Ca,
etc.) are rapidly oxidised at low temperature. At high temperature
almost all metals (except Ag, Au and Pt) are oxidised.
(b) Corrosion by hydrogen
Atomic hydrogen (H) can more easily penetrate steel and other
metals than molecular hydrogen (H2), which is chemically more
active.
(c) Liquid–Metal corrosion
This is brought about by chemical action of flowing liquid metals
at high temperatures over solid metal or alloy. The corrosion
involves either:
(i) Dissolution of a solid metal by a liquid metal or
(ii) Internal penetration of the liquid metal into the solid
metal.[5]

8
3.2.2.Electrochemical corrosion
Corrosion is primarily an electrochemical process. All
electrochemical corrosion cells must have four components:
a) an anode (the corroding metal)
b) a cathode (metal, graphite, or semiconducting electron
conductor)
c) an electrolyte containing a reducible species
d) an electron-conducting connection between the
electrodes.
If any component is missing in the cell, then electrochemical
corrosion will not occur. Corrosion reactions can be split into
anode and cathode half-cell reactions for better understanding of
the process. The anode reaction is simple: The anode metal
corrodes and goes into solution as positive metal ions:
M→Mn++ne−
The electrons produced remain on the corroding metal where
they would quickly halt corrosion if no cathode reaction were
available to remove them.
In electrochemical corrosion, the electrons produced at the
anode are consumed by reaction of the electrolyte on the
cathode surface. Since a wide variety of corrosives can attack
metals, several cathode reactions can exist. The most common is
the one occurring in nature and in neutral or basic solutions, the
reduction of dissolved oxygen:
O2+2H2O+4e−→4OH−

9
 In acids, the cathode reaction is the reduction of hydrogen ions:

2H++2e−→H2 ↑

Not so common, but very corrosive, is the cathode process for oxidizing
acids or aerated acids:
+
O2+4H +4e−→2H2O

In some chemical processes, the solutions contain oxidizing agents that

3+
can be reduced in valence; for example, ferric ions (Fe ) can be
2+
reduced to ferrous ions (Fe ), or cupric ions can be reduced to metallic
copper: [6]

Cu2+ + 2e−→Cu

3.3. According to type of corrosion

3.3.1. General Corrosion

General corrosion, or uniform attack, is the most common form of

corrosion. General corrosion occurs uniformly over the entire surface that
is exposed. The metalgets thinner evenly over the entire surface, leading
this form of corrosion to account for the largest tonnage of metal loss.
This form of corrosion is generally the cheapest formof corrosion to deal
with in industry. It is fairly consistent and rates can quickly be found by
exposing a sample to the environment. Making the material thicker than
necessary to accommodate the corrosion throughout the life of the
product, or applying a coating tothe surface, such as paint, are the
standard methods of prevention for this form of corrosion.[7]

Figure 1 Depicts
3.3.2. general, or uniform, corrosion on a steel fitting.[7]

10
 3.3.2. Crevice corrosion

Crevice corrosion is another destructive form of localized corrosion. It

usually occurs in the areas under deposits where free access to the
surrounding environment is restricted. Crevice corrosion is caused on
contact of metals with metals or metals with nonmetals, for example,
gaskets, couplings, and joints. It may occur also at washers, under
barnacles, at sand grains, under applied protective films, and at pockets
formed by threaded joints.[8]

Figure 2 Schematic representation of crevice corrosion.[8]

3.3.3. Pitting corrosion

Is a form of extremely localized attack that results in holes in the metal. A

highly localized corrosion attack that results in holes is referred to as
pitting. Pits may be isolated or localized and of virtually any
configuration. They occur at defects or imperfections in a protective or
passive film. It is a form of corrosion difficult ot predict by laboratory
test.[9]

Figure 3 pitting corrosion [10]

11
 3.3.4. Intergranular corrosion

Intercrystalline corrosion is a special form of localized corrosion, where

the corrosive attack takes place in a quite narrow path preferentially along
the grain boundaries in the metal structure. The most common effect of
this form of corrosion is a rapid mechanical disintegration (loss of
ductility) of the material. Usually it can be prevented by using the right
material and production process.[11]

Microscope view of a polished cross section of a

Figure 4
material attacked by intergranular corrosion [12]

3.3.5. Erosion Corrosion

is defined as the conjoint action of erosion and corrosion and consists of

the progressive loss of material from a solid surface due to corrosion and
to the mechanical interaction between the surface and a flowing, single or
multiphase fluid. It includes erosion of protective films in a turbulent
fluid, solid and liquid particles impingement corrosion, and cavitation
corrosion. Otherwise, flow-induced corrosion is defined as the increased
corrosion resulting from increased fluid turbulence intensity and mass
transfer because of the flow of a fluid over a surface, without mechanical
interaction.[13]

12
 Figure 5 Corrosion-erosion on a choke valve.[13]

3.3.6. Atmospheric corrosion

is the degradation of materials caused by air and the pollutants contained

in the air. It can be precisely defined as an electrochemical process which
depends upon the presence of electrolyte which may be rain, dew,
humidity or melting snow. The usual electrolyte is water which is a
universal solvent.[14]

3.3.7. Galvanic corrosion

Galvanic corrosion occurs when two different metals have physical or

electric contact with each other and are immersed in a common
electrolyte or when the same metal is exposed to an electrolyte with
different concentrations. In a galvanic couple, the more active metal
(anode) corrodes at an accelerated rate and the more noble metal (the
cathode) corrodes at a slow rate. Factors such as relative size of anode,
types of metal, and operating conditions (temperature, humidity, salinity,
etc.) affect galvanic corrosion. The surface area ratio of the anode and
cathode directly affects the corrosion rates of the material.[15]

[16]
Figure 6 Galvanic corrosion of an aluminium plate

13
4. Corrosion Prevention

In virtually all situations, metal corrosion can be managed, slowed, or even

stopped by using the proper techniques. Corrosion prevention can take a number
of forms depending on the circumstances of the metal being corroded.
Corrosion prevention techniques can be generally classified into:

4.3. Environmental Modification

Corrosion is caused by chemical interactions between metal and

gasses in the surrounding environment. By removing the metal from,
or changing, the type of environment, metal deterioration can be
immediately reduced. This may be as simple as limiting contact with
rain or seawater by storing metal materials indoors or could be in the
form of direct manipulation of the environment affecting the metal.

Methods to reduce the sulfur, chloride, or oxygen content in the

surrounding environment can limit the speed of metal corrosion. For
example, feed water for water boilers can be treated with softeners or
other chemical media to adjust the hardness, alkalinity or oxygen
content in order to reduce corrosion on the interior of the unit.

4.4. Metal Selection and Surface Conditions

No metal is immune to corrosion in all environments, but through

monitoring and understanding the environmental conditions that are
the cause of corrosion, changes to the type of metal being used can
also lead to significant reductions in corrosion.

Metal corrosion resistance data can be used in combination with

information on the environmental conditions to make decisions
regarding the suitability of each metal. The development of new
alloys, designed to protect against corrosion in specific environments,
is constantly under production. Hastelloy nickel alloys, Nirosta steels,
and Timetal titanium alloys are all examples of alloys designed for
corrosion prevention.

Proper monitoring and the elimination of unnecessarily vulnerable

surface conditions, along with taking steps to ensure that systems are

14
 designed to avoid reactive metal combinations and that corrosive
agents are not used in the cleaning or maintenance of metal parts are
all also part of effective corrosion reduction program.[17]

4.5. Coatings

Coatings are used to isolate the anode and cathode regions. Coatings
also prevent diffusion of oxygen or water vapor that initiates corrosion
or oxidation.

Examples for protective coatings:

a. Metallic coatings include tin-plated and hot-dip galvanized

(zinc-plated) steel.
b. Non- metallic coatings such as painting

4.5.2. Metallic coatings

a) Galvanizing Process
Hot dip galvanizing is a very effective method to protect steel
against corrosion. The initial costs for galvanizing is low, and
protection life is very high.

 Hot-dip Galvanizing:

In the process of hot dip galvanizing, steel (or aluminum)

undergoes to physical and chemical treatment to remove
impurities before finally dipping into a kettle of molten zinc at a
temperature of around 450°C, a thin zinc coating layer is
formed.

15
 When exposed to the atmosphere, pure zinc reacts with oxygen to
form zinc oxide, which further reacts with carbon dioxide to form
zinc carbonate, a dull grey, fairly strong material that stops further
corrosion in many circumstances.

b) Electro-Galvanizing
It is an electrolytic process for galvanizing, where a thinner,
tighter bonding coat of zinc is applied to a metal through
“electroplating/electro-deposition”.
 Electroplating involves the formation of an electrolytic cell
consisting of the cathode (the object to be plated) and the anode
(the metal used for plating), immersed in an electrolytic solution
(aqueous solution containing the metal ions).

When direct current is applied, the metal of the anode begins to

dissolve, these free metal ions reach the cathode and deposited
(reduced) forming a thin layer of coating on the object.[18]

16
 4.5.3. Non- metallic coatings
The use of paint coatings is the most common method for
corrosion prevention. An anticorrosive paint is composed of a
binder pigments, a solvent/diluent, extenders and a variable
number of other additives such as antioxidants, surface-active
agents, driers, thickeners and antisettling agents. A paint is
primarily characterized by its pigment or by its binder. We
distinguish between primers, which usually contain pigments
causing some inhibition or cathodic protection of the substrate,
and paints for finishing coats, which contain colour pigments
and extenders, which may improve the barrier effect of the
coating system.[19]

Characteristics of a good Paint:

 It should not crack on drying

 It should adhere well to the surface.
 It should be a corrosion and water resistant.
 It should give a smooth and pleasing appearance.
 It should have high covering power
 It should dry quickly.[20]

4.6. Inhibitors
An inhibitor is a substance which when added to an environment in
small concentration minimizes the loss of metal, reduces the extent of
hydrogen embrittlement, protects the metal against pitting, reduces
over pickling and acid fumes resulting from excessive reaction
between the acid and basic metals and reduces acid consumption.
They reduce corrosion by either acting as a barrier by forming an
adsorbed layer or retarding the cathodic, the anodic or both
processes.[21]

17
 [21]
Schematic representation of inhibition process

4.4.1.Classification of corrosion inhibitors

a) Anodic inhibitors

An anodic inhibitor increases the anodic polarization and

hence moves the corrosion potential to the cathodic direction
and hence also called as passivating inhibitors. Anodic
inhibitors such as chromates, phosphates, tungstates and
other ions of transition elements with high oxygen content
are those that stifle the corrosion reaction occurring at the
anode by forming a sparingly soluble compound with a
newly produced metal ion. They are adsorbed on the metal
surface forming a protective film or barrier, thereby reducing
the corrosion rate. Anodic inhibitors build a thin protective
film along the anode and increasing their potential and thus
slow down the corrosion reaction.[22]

b) Cathodic inhibitors

Cathodic inhibitors reduce corrosion by slowing the

reduction reaction rate of the electrochemical corrosion cell.
This is done by blocking the cathodic sites by precipitation.
Cathodic inhibitors are effective when they slow down the
cathodic reaction. Elements As, Bi and Sb are referred to as
cathodic poisons which reduce the hydrogen reduction
reaction rate and lower the overall corrosion rate. Removal
of oxygen from the corrosive environment will significantly
decrease the corrosion rate. This can be done through:

18
 i. The use of oxygen scavengers such as sodium sulfite and
hydrazine which react with the oxygen and remove it from
the solution
ii. Vacuum de-aeration or
iii. Boiling to lower the dissolved oxygen concentrations.

Cathodic inhibitors shift the corrosion potential to the anodic

direction. [23]

4.7. Cathodic Protection

Cathodic protection is a system for reducing corrosion by turning the

entire structure into the cathode of a corrosion cell. The basic idea of
cathodic protection is very simple. In the corrosion process, there are
anodic and cathodic areas. The anodic areas, where the conventional
(positive) current leaves the metal, are the areas where corrosion takes
place. At the cathodic areas, where the conventional current enters the
surface from the electrolyte, no corrosion takes place. Therefore, if the
entire area could be made cathodic, then the structure would not
corrode. This is exactly what cathodic protection does. Direct
conventional current is forced to flow from an external source onto the
structure. If the amount of current is correctly adjusted, it will
overpower the corrosion current discharging from the anodic areas and
there will be a net current flow onto the structure. The entire surface
will be cathodic (often referred to as polarised), the corrosion reaction
will be halted and protection will be complete.

There are two ways this change of potential can be achieved for an
underground structure:

c) connect the structure to a metal which is more active, (the

galvanic or sacrificial anode method) or
d) connect the structure to a source of direct current, (the
impressed current method).

19
 [24]
Cathodic protection by (a) galvanic anode (b) impressed current

A brief description of each of these methods follows:

4.7.2. The Galvanic Method

In this method, the metallic structure is made the cathode by

connecting it with galvanic anodes more electronegative than the
metal structure to be protected. Inspection of the galvanic series
shows that metals such as magnesium, zinc and aluminium would
be suitable. Thus, the anode corrodes, sacrificing itself to protect
the structure.

Advantages of the galvanic method are:

 No external power source is required so it can be used

remotely.
 It has a lower installation cost.
 Minimum maintenance is required.
 Systems seldom cause adverse effects (interference) on other
structures.

Limitations of the galvanic method are:

 There is limited driving potential and current output.

 It can be ineffective in high resistivity environments.
 It is not generally applicable for poorly coated structures.
 The life of the anodes tends to be relatively short, depending
on load.
 Its existence is easily forgotten by maintenance personnel.

20
 4.7.3. The Impressed current method

In this method, the metallic structure is made the cathode by

connecting the negative terminal of an external direct current
power supply to the metallic structure and the positive terminal to
an inert anode. The anodic reaction is not the dissolution of the
metal but rather some other reaction such as liberation of chloride

gas in salty environments or oxidation of water to liberate oxygen

gas when the water or soil has a very low chloride concentration.
These anodic reactions create acidity and anodic materials must be
resistant to acid attack.

Advantages of the impressed current method are:

 There is a larger driving voltage.

 There is more flexible control of voltage and current.
 It is applicable to uncoated parts, high resistivity
environments, large objects, etc.

Limitations of impressed current are:

 It has a higher installation cost for small systems.

 It has higher maintenance costs for small systems.
 It can cause adverse effects (interference) on nearby
structures.[24]

21
References:

1) McCafferty, E. (2010). Introduction to corrosion science. In Introduction

toCorrosion Science. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4419-0455-3

2) Evans UR (1948) An introduction to metallic corrosion. Edward Arnold,

London, UK

3) Birks, N.; Meier, Gerald H.; Pettit, F. S. (2006). Introduction to the high-
temperature oxidation of metals (2nd ed.). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge
University Press. ISBN 0-511-16162-X. OCLC 77562951.

4) Https://hindawi.academia.edu/LoutfyMadkour. “Classification of Corrosion

Based on the Mechanism of Corrosion , It Is Classified into Two Types.”

5) Chemistry, O F Applied. “Dept.of Applied Chemistry/Svce.” : 1–39.

6) Samuel A. Bradford, in Encyclopedia of Physical Science and Technology

(Third Edition), 2003

7) Anderson, Brett A. 2001. “The 8 Forms of Corrosion.” : 1–21.

8) Abdel Salam Hamdy Makhlouf, in Intelligent Coatings for Corrosion

Control, 2015

9) Editorial Submission, Haworth. 1984. “Module 2.” Occupational Therapy in

Mental Health 4(1): 32–34.

10) "Pitting corrosion". substech.com. 21 July 2015. Retrieved 4 December

2020.

22
11) “Corrosion Handbook, Chapter 1 Introduction, Pages 1 - 9.” 2015.
(October).

12) ASTM A923 Intergranular Corrosion Testing of Duplex Stainless Steel

13) Shreir LL, Jarman RA, Burstein GT (1994) Corrosion. Butterworth-
Heinemann, London
14) Zaki Ahmad, in Principles of Corrosion Engineering and Corrosion
Control, 2006
15) Sukanchan Palit, in Direct Synthesis of Metal Complexes, 2018
16) [Fundamentals of corrosion – Mechanisms, Causes and Preventative
Methods]. Philip A. Schweitzer, Taylor and Francis Group, LLC (2010)
ISBN 978-1-4200-6770-5, p. 25.

17) Bell, Terence. (2021, August 13). Corrosion Prevention for Metals.
Retrieved from https://www.thoughtco.com/corrosion-prevention-2340000

18) Reda, Reham. 2017. Corrosion & Protection of Metals- Dr. R. R.

DOI:10.13140/RG.2.2.19807.97447

19) ISO-Standard 12944 – 2, 1988. Paint and varnishes. Corrosion protection

of steel structures by protective paint systems. Part 2, 1998.

20) Coatings, Protective. “3.6 Protective Coatings.” (c): 1–15.

21) Bentiss F, Traisnel M, Lagrenee M. Corrosion Science. 2000;42:127

22) Al-Mayouf AM, Al-Suhybani AA, Al-Ameery AK. Desalination.

1998;116:25

23) Touham F, Aouniti A, Abed Y, Hammouti B, Kertit S, Ramdani A.

Bulletin of Electrochemistry. 2000;16:245

24) Series, Technical Publication. 1954. 174 Nature Corrosion

Technology.Doi: 10.1038/174342a0 , ISBN 9780987530998

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