1. Explain the concept of fuel cells.

A fuel cell is an electrochemical device that produces electricity without

combustion by combining hydrogen and oxygen to produce water and heat.
Discovered German Scientist G H Shoenbein. First developed by William Grove.
In 1839, Grove was experimenting on electrolysis (the process by which water is
split into hydrogen and oxygen by an electric current), when he observed that
combining the same elements could also produce an electric current.
Advantages over conventional energy sources

● They produce zero or very low emissions, especially GreenHouse Gases

(GHGs) depending on the fuel used.
● Have few moving parts and thus require minimal maintenance, reducing
life cycle costs of energy production.
● Modular in design, offering flexibility in size and efficiencies in
manufacturing
● Can be utilized for combined heat and power purposes, further increasing
the efficiency of energy production

Working Principle

● A fuel cell is a device that uses hydrogen (or hydrogen-rich fuel) and
oxygen to create electricity by an electrochemical process.
● A single fuel cell consists of an electrolyte sandwiched between two thin
electrodes (a porous anode and cathode)
 ● Hydrogen, or a hydrogen-rich fuel, is fed to the anode where a catalyst
separates hydrogen's negatively charged electrons from positively charged
ions (protons)
● At the cathode, oxygen combines with electrons and, in some cases, with
species such as protons or water, resulting in water or hydroxide ions,
respectively
● The electrons from the anode side of the cell cannot pass through the
membrane to the positively charged cathode; they must travel around it via
an electrical circuit to reach the other side of the cell. This movement of
electrons is an electrical current.
● The amount of power produced by a fuel cell depends upon several
factors, such as fuel cell type, cell size, the temperature at which it
operates, and the pressure at which the gasses are supplied to the cell
● Still, a single fuel cell produces enough electricity for only the smallest
applications. Therefore, individual fuel cells are typically combined in series
into a fuel cell stack. A typical fuel cell stack may consist of hundreds of
fuel cells.
● Fuel cells are classified primarily by the kind of electrolyte they employ.
This determines the kind of chemical reactions that take place in the cell,
the kind of catalysts required, the temperature range in which the cell
operates, the fuel required, and other factors.

2. Explain the basics, types and components of Fuel cells.

Based on the type of Electrolyte
1. Alkaline Fuel cell (AFC)
2. Phosphoric Acid Fuel cell (PAFC)
3. Polymer Electrolytic Membrane Fuel Cell (PEMFC)
Solid Polymer Fuel Cell (SPFC) and
Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel cell (PEMFC)
4. Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell (MCFC)
5. Solid Oxide Fuel Cell (SOFC)

Based on Types of Fuel and oxidant

1. Hydrogen (pure)-Oxygen (pure) fuel cell
2. Hydrogen rich gas-air fuel cell
3. Ammonia –air fuel cell
4. Synthesis gas- air fuel cell
5. Hydrocarbon (gas)- air fuel cell

The Polymer Electrolyte Membrane (PEM) Fuel Cell

● These cells are also known as proton exchange membrane fuel cells (or PEMFCs).
● The temperature range that these cells operate in is between 50oC to 100oC
● The electrolyte used in PEMFCs is a polymer which has the ability to conduct protons.
● A typical PEM fuel cell consists of bipolar plates, a catalyst, electrodes, and the polymer
membrane.
● Despite having eco-friendly applications in transportation, PEMFCs can also be used for the
stationary and portable generation of power.

Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cell

● These fuel cells involve the use of phosphoric acid as an electrolyte in order to channel the
H+
● The working temperatures of these cells lie in the range of 150oC – 200oC
● Electrons are forced to travel to the cathode via an external circuit because of the
non-conductive nature of phosphoric acid.
● Due to the acidic nature of the electrolyte, the components of these cells tend to corrode or
oxidize over time.

Solid Acid Fuel Cell

● A solid acid material is used as the electrolyte in these fuel cells.
● The molecular structures of these solid acids are ordered at low temperatures.
● At higher temperatures, a phase transition can occur which leads to a huge increase in
conductivity.
● Examples of solid acids include CsHSO4 and CsH2PO4 (cesium hydrogen sulfate and
cesium dihydrogen phosphate respectively)

Alkaline Fuel Cell

● This was the fuel cell which was used as the primary source of electricity in the Apollo
space program.
● In these cells, an aqueous alkaline solution is used to saturate a porous matrix, which is in
turn used to separate the electrodes.
● The operating temperatures of these cells are quite low (approximately 90oC).
● These cells are highly efficient. They also produce heat and water along with electricity.

Solid Oxide Fuel Cell

 ● These cells involve the use of a solid oxide or a ceramic electrolyte (such as
yttria-stabilized zirconia).
● These fuel cells are highly efficient and have a relatively low cost (theoretical efficiency can
even approach 85%).
● The operating temperatures of these cells are very high (lower limit of 600oC, standard
operating temperatures lie between 800 and 1000oC).
● Solid oxide fuel cells are limited to stationary applications due to their high operating
temperatures.

Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell

● The electrolyte used in these cells is lithium potassium carbonate salt. This salt becomes
liquid at high temperatures, enabling the movement of carbonate ions.
● Similar to SOFCs, these fuel cells also have a relatively high operating temperature of
650oC
● The anode and the cathode of this cell are vulnerable to corrosion due to the high operating
temperature and the presence of the carbonate electrolyte.
● These cells can be powered by carbon-based fuels such as natural gas and biogas.

3. Describe the difference between batteries and fuel cells.

https://www.differencebetween.com/difference-between-fuel-cell-
and-battery/

4. Explain fuel cell power plant and Storage methods for fuel
cells.
The carbonate fuel cell power plant is an emerging high-efficiency, ultraclean
electric power generation system utilizing a variety of gaseous, liquid, and
gasified solid carbonaceous fuels such as coal for commercial and industrial
applications. The power-producing component of this system is the carbonate
fuel cell, which uses alkali metal carbonate mixtures as the electrolyte
immobilized in a porous ceramic matrix. The fuel cell operates at 550–650 °C.
The fundamental understanding and the state-of-the-art material and electrolyte
choices are based on extensive research carried out in Japan, Europe, and the
United States in the 1960s and the early 1970s. Present-day carbonate fuel cell
construction employs commonly available stainless steels. The electrodes are
based on nickel and fabricated using well-established manufacturing processes
including sheet metal forming, tape casting, and low-temperature sintering.
Commercial product development efforts began in the late 1990s, leading to
prototype field tests and commercial customer applications beginning in the
current decade. Cost reduction has been an integral part of the product
development effort.
Hydrogen Storage Technologies

Gaseous Hydrogen
The most traditional way of storing hydrogen is in the gaseous form in pressure
vessels. Since hydrogen behaves very much like an ideal gas in the ambient
temperature (and the temperatures below) it satisfies the ideal gas law PV = nRT,

where n is the amount of hydrogen in moles and R is the gas

constant
Gaseous hydrogen can be stored either in aboveground portable or
stationary containers or in different kinds of earth caves.

For a given volume and temperature the energy density of storage is

increased when increasing the pressure of the storage vessel. The only
problem of this is the safety features and regulations that limit the
allowable pressure.

One of the best properties of pressure vessels is that they do not leak. The
losses of the storage capacity are thus virtually non-existent . Some leaks may
occur through connectors but with proper fittings and regulators these leaks can
be minimized.

The most common hydrogen storage systems can withstand the pressure of 20
MPa, while lightweight composite cylinders can withstand the pressure up to 80
MPa . When hydrogen is stored at such high pressures, a very thick wall tank
has to be used.
Compressed- Volumetrically and Gravimetrically inefficient, but
the technology is simple, so by far the most common in
small to medium sized applications.
Metal Hydrides-
•Technically a chemical reaction, but acts like a physical storage method
•Hydrogen is absorbed like in a sponge.
•Operates at 3-30 atm, much lower than for compressed gas tanks
•Comparatively very heavy, but with good volumetric efficiency, good for small
storage, or where weight doesn’t matter

5. Write a note on efficiency and applications of fuel cells.

Since fuel cells use materials that are typically burnt to release their energy, the
fuel cell efficiency is described as the ratio of the electrical energy produced to
the heat that is produced by burning the fuel.
From the basic definition of efficiency: η = W / Qin
Hydrogen fuel cell:

Oxidation half reaction 2H2 4H+ + 4e- Energy formation (KJ/mole)

Reduction half reaction O2 + 4H+ + 4e- 2H2O -ΔHo = 286 -ΔGo = 237

The maximum efficiency of the fuel cell would be 83%.

Fuel cells can operate at higher efficiencies than combustion engines

and can convert the chemical energy in the fuel directly to electrical
energy with efficiencies capable of exceeding 60%. Fuel cells have
lower or zero emissions compared to combustion engines.

Applications of fuel cell

Fuel cell technology has a wide range of applications. Currently, heavy research is
being conducted in order to manufacture a cost-efficient automobile which is
powered by a fuel cell. A few applications of this technology are listed below.
● Fuel cell electric vehicles, or FCEVs, use clean fuels and are therefore more
eco-friendly than internal combustion engine-based vehicles.
● They have been used to power many space expeditions including the
Appolo space program.
● Generally, the byproducts produced from these cells are heat and water.
● The portability of some fuel cells is extremely useful in some military
applications.
 ● These electrochemical cells can also be used to power several electronic
devices.
● Fuel cells are also used as primary or backup sources of electricity in many
remote areas.

6. Describe the technique for measuring the energy conversion

efficiency of a fuel cell.
Basic energy conversion of a fuel cell can be described as:
Chemical energy of fuel = Electrical energy + Heat energy
The input energy is that produced during reactions at the electrodes.

Performance
One measure of the energy conversion efficiency of a fuel cell is the ratio of the
actual voltage at a given current density to the maximum voltage obtained under
no load (open circuit) conditions.

Ƞ = On load voltage / theoretical open circuit voltage

Thermodynamic Analysis: 1st Law
It is usually formulated by stating that the change in the internal energy (∆H) of a
closed system is equal to the amount of heat supplied (Q) to the system, minus
the amount of work (W) performed by the system on its surroundings.
The First Law then becomes: ΔH = Q - NFE
Thermodynamic Analysis: 2nd Law
If no changes take place in the cell except during the passage of
current, and all changes which accompany the current can be reversed by
reversing the current, the cell may be called a perfect electrochemical
Apparatus.
Physical Interpretation of dG = dH - TdS

dH represents the total energy of the system.

TdS represents the “unavailable” energy (that which cannot be converted to

useful work).
Therefore G represents the “free” energy or the energy available to do useful
work.
7. Classify fuel cells based on the electrolyte, fuel, and oxidant
used.
Same answer as that of question 2.

8. Explain what green hydrogen is and what contribution it can

make in mobility, especially in the Indian context.
Green hydrogen is made by splitting hydrogen and oxygen in water with the help
of electrolyzers, powered by renewable electricity. The product can replace the
use of hydrogen derived from some fossil fuels, in refineries and fertilizer plants.
Green hydrogen, made using renewable energy, has the potential to decarbonise major
greenhouse gas emitting sectors, such as steel.
Hydrogen is a key input in fertilizers and refineries, so green hydrogen would help
these industries cut aggregate emissions. It could also be used in steel manufacturing
to reduce emissions by replacing the use of coal as the energy source and as a
reducing agent.
Green hydrogen can help decarbonise sectors such as shipping and transportation,
where it can be used as a fuel, as well as in manufacturing industries such as steel and
chemicals, where it can constitute an important raw material as well as a fuel. It could
replace fossil fuels in power generation and be used to store renewable energy.
Further, green hydrogen could be used in gas turbines, along with ammonia, to
manage fluctuations in the demand and supply of power.

9. Describe the basic principle of tidal power. unit-4notes

10. Explain the single basin and double basin arrangements used
for operational utilization of tidal energy. unit-4notes
11. Using an appropriate schematic diagram, explain Open Cycle
OTEC. unit-4notes
12. Using an appropriate schematic diagram, explain Closed
Cycle OTEC. unit-4notes
13. Describe various technical issues and problems associated
with the design of turbines in OTEC. unit-4notes
14. Explain different wave energy converters using proper
schematic diagrams. unit-4notes
15. Write a note on the lambert law of absorption? unit-4notes