PHILOSOPHY

 ALL MEN DESIRE TO KNOW PHILOSOPHY

 LOVE IS WISDOM - Is the study of general and fundamental problems,
 Philosophy start by wonder such those connected with existence, knowledge,
 Philosophy is a science that by NATURAL LIGHT OF values, reason, mind and language.
REASON studies the first cause or highest principles - Is the rational attempt to formulate, understand,
of all things and answer fundamental questions.
 Chire means to know
 You should not only seek for KNOWLEDGE pursue SOCRATES
WISDOM “ an unexamined life is not worth living”
 Philos – love “the more you know, the more you do not know”
 Sophia – wisdom
MILESIANS
ST. THOMAS AQUINAS – Italian Dominican priest Their interests in measuring and explaining celestial and
theologian and philosopher born in 1224 and died in terrestrial phenomena were as strong as their concern
1274, eventually becomes a saint and a doctor. with the more abstract inquiries into the causes and
principles of substance and change attributed to them
5 ways: by Aristotle.
1. argument from motion
2. argument from cause 1. THALES OF MILETUS (C. 624-546 BCE)
3. argument from perfection  Everything is made of water
4. argument from contingency  He was the 1st known thinker to seek
5. teleological argument naturalistic, rational answers to fundamental
questions, rather than to ascribe objects and
HIGHEST PRINCIPLE OF ALL THINGS events to the whims of capricious Gods.
1. The principle of non - contradiction a thing cannot
be and not be at the same time but the same 2. ANAXIMANDER
respect  Apeiron is the limitless and boundless
2. The excluded middle in between  Anaximander claims that the APEIRON
3. The identity everything have own identity somehow generates the opposites hot and cold.
4. The sufficient reason everything happens for a Hot and cold are themselves stuffs with powers
reason, nothing happens by accident and it is the action of these stuffs/powers that
produce the things that come to be in our world
NATURE OF PHILOSOPHY
1. Human person desires to know that leads him to 3. ANAXIMENES (d. 528 BCE)
seek the ultimate causes of everything.  seems to have held that at one time everything
2. His search for knowledge is induced by theoretical was air
considerations, as well as practical reason.  Air can be thought of as a kind of neutral stuff
3. He needs to find an answer to many questions that is found everywhere, and is available to
about existing realities around him. participate in physical processes.
 Air is associated with the soul (the breath of
KNOWLEDGE VS. WISDOM life)
Knowledge is composed of Wisdom is composed of  Rarefaction process of air to produce gas and
facts, information and knowledge, experience, have fire
skills. and good judgment.  Condensation forms of solid
Gives you the ability to Gives you the ability to
identify whether some discern whether some 4. HERACLITUS OF MILETUS (C.624-546 BCE)
facts is truth or false. idea is right or wrong.  All things are changing
Acquisition of information Application of the  “The only consistent in the world is changes”
and facts. acquired knowledge.  The confidence of opposites, the flux doctrine,
Can be simply acquired Cannot be simply acquired and his view that fire is the source and nature
through education. through learning’s. of all things
 “You cannot step in the same river twice”
  Everything is in motion
THE PYTHAGOREAN TRADITION
5. PYTHAGORAS (C.570-495 BCE)
 Lonian philosopher
 Pythagoreans conceived of nature as a
structured system ordered by number
 The details of Pythagoras but he seems to have
advocated the reincarnation of the soul and the
possibility of the transmigration of the human
soul after death into other animal forms
 Metempsychosis
ELEATICS (monists)
6. PARMENIDES (C.515-445 BCE)
 All is ONE
 Known as a founder of the Eleatic school of
philosophy which taught a strict monistic view
of reality.
 Philosophical monism is the beliefs that all of
the sensible world is of one, basic, substance
and being, un created and indestructible
 Being and not being
 Something cannot come from nothing then
something must have always existed in order to
produce the sensible world
 The person is born from nowhere or that one
dies and goes somewhere else
 Which is now can never have been not nor can
it ever not be.
BEING IS ….
Rational – only what can be thought can exist
 “Nothing” cannot be thought without thinking of
it as something
 There is no “nothing” there is only being
Uncreated, indestructible, eternal, indivisible
 Clark page 26-27
SPHERICAL MATTER
 Being is equally real in all direction
 There is no place where being is not
7. ZENO (490 BC-?)
- A disciple of Parmenides
- wrote a series of famous paradoxes "proving" that
motion is impossible
- Is motion really impossible? Are all things One and
thus are motion and change simply illusions?
- One could never move from point A to B
- In order to get to point B you must go half way, but
before you can go halfway you must go halfway of
the remaining halfway, but first you must go
halfway of halfway. Thus, motion is impossible even
if it were possible.
- Paradox of Achilles and tortoise
THE PLURALISTS
- Sense experience tells us that we can get from A to
B.
- The Greeks who immediately followed Parmenides
and Zeno decided to reject corporeal monism
(reality is one).
- Why?
- Because differences exist and they must be
accounted for
- Thus, ultimate reality is composed of a plurality of
things rather than of only One kind of thing
8. EMPEDOCLES (?-440 BC)
- Everything is composed of the simplest part of the
four elements or "roots": Fire, Air, Earth, and
Water
- Similar to nineteenth century chemistry
- The world is to be explained in terms of a finite
number of differences, i.e. elements or atoms
- How can the Pluralist explain life? And motion?
- If the four roots cannot move of themselves, there
must be some other reality to cause the motion for
mixings and separations of the atoms
- He called these forces Love and Hate
- Love - The force of unity bringing together
unrelated items to produce new creations
- Hate - The force of destruction, breaking down old
unities into fragments (Clark pg 31-32)
9. ANAXAGORAS (500-428 BC)
- Empedocles, too simplistic
- How can the amazing variety of qualities in the
world be derived from so few elements?
- The world of appearances requires many bodies
(elements) that move, mix, and separate.
- These elements are unchangeable "infinite seeds"
- The existence of inanimate particles of matter
demands the existence of a principle of motion
- How do these seeds move?
- Not Love & Hate but, Mind or Nous
- The universal Mind is omniscient and omnipotent
- All bodies are mixtures of elements, but the moving
principle (Mind) is unmixed.
- It exists alone by itself, for if it were not by itself its
complete power over everything would be
diminished
10. DEMOCRITUS (460-370 BC) GORGIAS (483-375BC)
- Known as an "atomist" - No truth at all
- All is atom - There is nothing
- The world is composed of material bodies - If there were anything, no one could know it
composed of atoms (a term meaning "indivisible") - If anyone did know it, no one could communicate it
- Each atom is a little peace of Permenidean Being:
uncreated, indestructible, eternal, indivisible THRASYMACHUS (LATE 5TH CENTURY BC)
- Atoms- Solid indivisible bodies that have no - "The sound conclusion is that what is right is the
qualities not even weight. (Clark pg 36-37) same everywhere: the interest of the stronger
- What about motion? How do these atoms move? party"
Motion has always existed - More powerful more power to decide who is true
and right
CONCLUSION
Pre-Socratic philosophers: SOCRATES (469-399 BC)
- Made obvious the dichotomy between reason and - Socratic Discourse
senses - Two directions
- Attempted to explain reality without religion  Inward- to discover the inner person, the
(mythos) soul
- Attempted to understand how mathematical  Outward-to objective definitions
numbers were related to the flux of reality- - "The unexamined life is not worth living"
- Attempted to explain the problems of the One and - He asked specific questions: plato’s work
the Many describe Socrates
 What is Piety? - Euthyphro
 What is Justice? - Republic
 What is Virtue? - Meno
 What is Meaning? - Sophist
 What is Love? – Symposium
- Socratice Dialogue Three Divisions
 Pose a question
 Find flaws with answers
 Agree with student about not knowing

PLATO (427-347 BC)

- The Cave- Imagine prisoners chained in such a
way that they face the back wall of a cave.
There they have been for life and can see
nothing of themselves or of each other: They
see only shadows on the wall of the cave.
The sophists and Socrates - FOR PLATO EVERYTHING IS SHADOW
- Steep and rugged ascent (education)
PROTAGORAS (490-422BC) - First must look at the shadows of the trees
- Customs, truth, morality, everything because the sun is too bright and he is used to
 Not absolute/relative to human subjectivity shadows
- Primary Assumption - Finally he is able to see the sun-
 Universal Flux (Enlightenment)
 Knowledge = Perception - The reality is the word of forms not in material
- If changing perception = knowledge then change world
- Man is the measure of all things
 Substance
- Essences, can only change in limited things
Features of a substance essential to it
- Accidents
Features of a substance not essential to it

Example:
Substance = Human
Essence- Rationality
Accident- Baldness

Plato
- Reality composed of upper bier Eternal Forms
- The Good - Lower tier matter (that unsuccessfully attempt
 The Good is a super form, or the Form to imitate the Forms)
of all Forms. - Anamnesis (remembering)
 The whole of reality is founded upon
the Good, which reality's source of Aristotle
being. - Reality composed of plurality of substances
 All knowledge is knowledge of the - Sensible reality
Good. - Everything have ending
 The sun represents the Good in the
myth of the Cave Potentiality and Actuality
- Good = god Acorn Oak Tree
- sun = son - The acorns matter contains the potentiality of
becoming an oak tree, which is the acorns
ARISTOTLE 384-322 BC actuality.
- student of plato
 Each individual substance is a self-contained
A Break from Plato teleological system.
Aristotle asked:
 If Forms are essences of things, how can they  Everything is striving unconsciously toward its
exist separated from things? end-perfection or the Good
 If they are the cause of things, how can they
exist in a different world? The Process of Change
The Four Causes
Aristotle thought not: - Cause= Explanation
 He argued that a distinction must be drawn
between form and matter, but that these two 1. Formal Cause-the form explains what a thing is.
features of reality can be distinguished on in "What is it?" e.g. Statue (idea)
thought, not in fact.
2. Material Cause -the matter out of which a thing is
Matter and Form made. What is it made of? e.g. marble
Matter = What is unique to an object "Thisness"
3. Efficient Cause -The actual force that brings about
Form = What something is change. By what is it made? e.g. sculptor
"Whatness"
4. Final Cause -The end or ultimate purpose for which
Matter + Form = Substance a thing was made. For what end is it made? e.g. in
order to decorate
Moral Philosophy
- The notion of goal or purpose is the overriding
one
- Meaningless = Meaningful
- Circular series = ultimate good
- Wasted life = happiness
- Golden mean (balance)
What is good for Aristotle
- Good is performing the intended function
What is the good person? The good person is the
person who is fulfilling his/her function as a human
being.
What is human function? To engage in activity of the
soul which is in accordance with virtue and which is in
conformity with reason- happiness is the end
What is ultimate end?
- Happiness is the end that alone meets all the
requirements for the ultimate end of human
action
- Happiness = Good (the fulfillment of our
function)
SAINT AUGUSTINE OF HIPPO
 Bishop of Hippus region of North Africa
 Combined Christian doctrine with Platonic
ideology
 Believed that everything is connected with God
SAINT THOMAS AQUINAS
 "Believed that truth is to be accepted no matter
where it is found"
 Followed Aristotelian philosophy
 Reaffirmed the three types of soul (first written
by Aristotle)
3 types of soul
a) Nutritive soul - plant
b) Sensible soul - animals
c) Rational soul - human
 Truth is always reveal itself
RENE DESCARTES
 Father of Modern Western Philosophy
 Father of Analytical Geometry
 Cogito ergo sum ("I think therefore I am")
 Believed that the mind and body is distinct but
closely joined
 If you are Able to think you are existing
BARUCH SPINOZA
 One of the pioneers of the Dutch Golden Age
 Opposed Descartes' mind-body dualism
 Substance vs. Accidence
 No one is intrinsically good or evil
John Locke everyone is born albularasa
Truth and opinion
Quid est veritas? “what is truth?”
Correspondence Theory
The oldest model of truth.
 It can be traced back to Aristotle and Plato
 According to this theory, true propositions
(statements) are those that correspond with
reality
(baruch, Bernard)
Every man has a right to be wrong in his opinions
But no man has a right to be wrong in his facts
FACT and OPINION
 Facts something that truly exist or happens:
something that has actual existence. A true
piece of information.
 Opinions a belief, judgment, or way of thinking
about something
There is a difference between FACT and OPINION.
 Facts are statements that can be proven.
 Opinions cannot be proven. They are based on
someone's thoughts, their feelings and their
understanding.
 Though you may be able to use facts to add
credibility to an opinion, it is still an opinion
 Though an opinion may be widely accepted,
that does not make it a fact.
Separating Fact from Opinion
Know the traits of facts and opinions.
Fact: Spinach is a source of iron.
Opinion: Spinach tastes awful.
Some facts change over time.
For example:
It was once considered to be a fact that the world was
flat.
We believed that those traveling too far in either
direction could literally fall off!
Because new things are being discovered every day,
reliable authority are sometimes forced to alter what
we all once considered to be facts.
There are Several Types of Opinions:
 Hypothesis Statements
 Theory Statements
 Assumptive Statements
 Value Statements
 Exaggerated Statements
TYPES OF OPINIONS:
Statements of Hypothesis
A Hypothesis is an assumption made in an attempt to
explain an observation. Though an Observation is a Fact,
a Hypothesis is an Opinion.
For Example, if I were to elaborate on a previous
observation and say:
Some flowers are larger than others because they are in
more fertile soil.
This hypothesis would have to be further investigated
and scientifically proven to be considered a fact.
Statements of Theory
A theory is an opinion that is a widely believed
explanation for a group of observations. Here are two
well-known examples:
 The Theory of Relativity.
 The Evolutionary Theory.
Though many scientists believe that these theories are
true, we still consider them to be opinions rather than
facts because they have not been proven.
Statements of Assumption
An assumptive statement is an opinion that is an
improbable prediction. Here are three examples
 If Hillary Clinton ran for President she would
definitely win.
 The war in Iraq will eventually cost the US all of
its allies.
 When that new movie comes out it will
definitely be at the top of the charts!
Though these are stated as though they are true, they
are only assumptive opinions.
Statements of Value
A value statement is any claim that is based on
someone's beliefs. Here are three examples
 Colin Powell is an excellent candidate for
president.
 The use of animals in lab testing is cruel and
must be stopped.
 The Bahamas is the most beautiful place on
Earth.
Value Statements are often opinions attempting to
sway the reader to a certain belief.
Statements of Exaggeration
An exaggerated statement is one that embellishes the
facts, often to sway the reader, here are 2 example:
 There were millions of people rioting on the
streets of down town Cincinnati.
 The president has not made one good decision
since he has been in office!
Writers often use exaggeration to make their point
more clear. They are still opinions.
Note Biased Words qualifiers to Identify Opinions
 Look for biased words or qualifier. They express
absolute, unwavering opinions, value
judgments and interpretations and are often
loaded with emotion.
Note: A sentence can include both facts and opinions.
Beware of false facts, or statements presented as facts
that are actually untrue.
OPION ARE STILL OPINION UNTIL THEY DIDN’T PROVEN
  A fact is a specific detail that is true based on
objective proof.
 An opinion is an interpretation, value judgment,
or belief that cannot be proved or disproved.
 An informed opinion is developed by gathering
and analyzing evidence.
 An expert opinion is developed through much
training and extensive knowledge in a given
field.
 A fact states reality.
 An opinion interprets reality.
 A fact uses unbiased words.
 An opinion uses biased words.
HUMAN PERSON: LIMITATIONS AND TRANSCENDENCE
The Human Person as an Embodied Spirit
- Human existence is embodied existence.
- Many things related to our existence as persons
are related to bodies - age, sex, race,
relationships, etc.
Consciousness
- is the state or quality of awareness, or, of being
aware of an external object or something within
oneself.
- Gabrielle marcel
EMBODIMENT
- refers to the biological and physical presence of
our bodies, which are a necessary precondition
for subjectivity, emotion, language, thought and
social interaction
- We have body that’s why we are subjective
LIMITATIONS OF THE HUMAN PERSON AS AN
EMBODIED SPIRIT
1. FACTICITY
- Refers to the things in our life that are already
given
- Refers to all the details that surround us in the
present: our environment, our language, our
past decisions, our past and present
relationships, and even our future death.
2. SPATIAL-TEMPORAL BEING
- As temporal beings, our most obvious
limitation is our finitude - our finite quality or
state.
- As spatial beings, we are limited by our bodies
to be present in two or more places at the same
time.
- We have beginning and ending
- We are limited by space (spatial) and time
(temporal).
- Our spatial-temporal situation sets our
preconditions of understanding.
3. INTERMEDIARY
- Intermediary means acting as a mediator
(Merriam-Webster).
- Our body serves as an intermediary between us
and the physical world.
- Our body limits our experience of the world to
our world.
- This imposes limitations concerning
communication and expression.
To make something special, you just have to believe it is
special.
We have power to change the situation
We often appreciate the value of things when it is no
longer present
TRANSCENDENCE
is the ability to change, be dynamic, and continually
redefining oneself which works with our facticity to
create change.
1. Facticity
- At times, we use our facticity as an excuse for
our difficulties and failures.
2. Spatial-temporal Being
- We are more concerned with the past and/or
future that is why we never appreciate the
present.
3. The Body as Intermediary
- Having a body may prevent us from disclosing
what we really want to express.
The Human Person
HUMAN ACT - an act which proceeds from the
deliberate freewill of man
» Man, by nature, is intelligent and free.
» Man is capable of guiding himself to his destiny under
divine providence.
» Man must seek his end in the way set for him by his
nature (intelligently and freely).
ACT OF MAN -act that man performs UN deliberately,
without advertence and exercise of free choice.
The Three Essential Elements for an ACT to be HUMAN
1. FREEDOM -Every human act is a free act since it is
under the control of the will.
2. Knowledge-Knowledge is advertence of what the
moral agent is doing, thinking or willing. It means
awareness or consciousness.
3. Voluntariness (Will) -A formal quality of human acts
whereby there is an action or omission of an act which
the agent possesses.
Characteristics of Man as a Moral Person
1. The Human Persons are Rational Beings
a) Conscious being
b) We possess this self-awareness through our
knowing and free willing
c) Think decide act
d) We image in our small way the Creator’s
infinite knowing and loving
e) Human beings can think over a situation
before making a decision and choose their
action.
2. The Human Person is Relational
a. Social beings
b. In the context of others we come to the full
realization of who we are as individuals
c. Influence the way we think, act and feel
d. This relatedness implies togetherness.
e. The human person looks for someone of
his/her likeness. The person is involved in
concrete relationships with his / her family,
friends, co-workers and God.
b. This historical person is a pilgrim on-the-way
who, gradually, through time, becomes full self.
5. The Human Persons are Unique
a. Human persons are equal, BUT
FUNDAMENTALLY UNIQUE.
b. When God creates the human couple, male and
female, in the divine image, no such
discrimination is made.
Theories of Human Person
1. Somatic- Aspect which refers to the body,
material composition, or substance of the
human person.
2. Behavioral- Aspect refers to the human
person’s mode of acting. Behavior may be
predicted; it can be controlled or manipulated
in accordance to culture, race, and religion.
3. Attitudinal
a. Aspect refers to the human person’s
inclination, feelings, ideas, conviction,
and prejudices or biases.
b. An attitude is a person’s mental
reaction to stimuli or a person’s
tendency to act.

3. The Human Person is Embodied Spirit

a. Human with body – soul
b. Soul – animates human Body
c. Human Body – essential part of being human;
not merely an instrument we use according to
our whims d. By the virtue of creation, the
human body is good and honorable.
d. Jesus, the son of God, dignified his body through
his incarnation.
e. “And the Word was made flesh and
f. Dwelt among us.”

4. The Human Person is Historical

a. The historicity of the human person is the
conglomeration of his/her past, present, and
future dimension.