Metaphysic- nature of

reality.
MATAPHYSICSTraditional metaphysical
issues include:
• Existence of God.
• Nature of human free will
(assuming we have any).
Definition
Metaphysics, metaphusika (Gr.)
• Meta = above, beyond, after
• Phusika = the scientific study of the world
(phusis = nature)
• Metaphysics deals with existence of ”Being” (God,
Universe and Human being)
• Aristotle calls it "first philosophy" (or sometimes
just "wisdom"), and says it is the subject that deals
with "first causes and the principles of things".
 Metaphysical Questions
• What is the nature of reality?
• How does the world exist?
• What is its origin or source of creation?
• Does the world exist outside the mind?
• How can the incorporeal mind affect the
physical body?
• If things exist, what is their objective nature?
• Is there a God (or many gods, or no god at
all)?
Branches of Metaphysical Philosophy-THREE
Aristotle originally split his metaphysics philosophy into three branches:
• Ontology is the study (-ology) of being (onto-), and its name derives from the
Greek word for being, ont-.The branch of metaphysics dealing with the
“Nature” of being.
• Teleology: the explanation of phenomena in terms of the “Purpose” they serve
rather than of the cause by which they arise.
• Natural theology or Philosophical Theology is the study of and nature of
religion, including examination of creation
• Cosmology or Universal science refers to the study of Origin and development
of universe.

There are further divisions of metaphysics, among them cosmology, philosophy of

religion.
Greek Mythology
• Greek Mythology believes in Olympian
Gods other than370 Gods.(Master of
Gods “ZEUS”).
• Gods become powerful through
worships.
• Human fights occur because of conflict
of Gods.
• Earth quicks occurs when Gods are
angry.
• Man is mortal and cannot escape
destiny called Fatalism belief. What will
be shall be.
 • Initial old philosophers tried to answer
natural and supernatural questions through
natural laws later on with ideal and real
world(Plato), substance and forms(Aristotle)
Philosophy concepts
answer • Monism- All things are explained in terms of
single substance or reality. (Milesian School-
metaphysical Natural Philosopher-First school of
questions through philosophy)
Nature. • Thales-All things are full of God because
everything is full of life. Every living thing or
being has spirit. Humans, animals, birds and
insects.
• Einstein theory of matter and relativity
based on monism.
Pre-Socratic Philosophy about metaphysics

Thales-Origin is one and

This Apeiron results two
that is water-Theory of Anaximander-Students of
opposites of light and
evolution-Man originated Thales: Origin of life is one
darkness, men and
from water and mud later but that is not water but
women, life and death and
on came out of belly of Apeiron
day and night.”
fish. (Galaxy).

Anaximenes-Students of
All things in this world are Contradicting Thales
Anaximander gives one
originated and define by philosophy earth is
substance idea that is air
their opposites called law floating on water with
reason living being dies
“Unity of opposites” air.
without breathing air.
 Pre-Socratic philosophy about metaphysics.

Heraclitus believed that

Pythagoras saw his the world is not to be
religious and scientific identified with
views as any substance, but
inseparably interconnec rather consists of a law-
Empedocles opinion is
ted. He believed like interchange of
everything origin is four
in transmigration of the elements, an ongoing
elements water, fire, air,
soul and process governed by a
and mud result of two
its reincarnation again law of perpetual change,
powers of love and
and again after death or Logos, which he
strive.
into the bodies of symbolized by fire. God
humans, animals or is day and night both.
vegetables until it Every death is new life,
became moral. fire death is life of air
and air into water.
 Fatalism versus Naturalism

Pre-Socratic philosophy resulted Naturalism against mythology of Greek fatalism.

Naturalism raised questioned fatalism by seeking natural reasons for every

phenomenon.

Naturalism defined change as result of natural laws. Earth quick occurs because of
change in water or air where earth is standing.

Disease according to mythology resulted by anger of God. Influenzas caused by

movement of stars.

Naturalists like Hypocrites (first doctor in history) diagnosed that disease is result of
imbalance. Solution is moderation and healthy lifestyle.
Sophist’s Philosophy about
metaphysics
• Subjectivism-Man is the measure of all things as true
and false, there is no absolute truth or reason. It is the
theory that perception (or consciousness) is reality…
true reality that exists independent of perception. It
does not, however, claim that "all is illusion" or that
"there is no such thing as reality", merely that the
nature of reality is dependent on the consciousness of
the individual. It is possible to accept or deny anything
of anything. (Pythagoras).
• What is true for you is true and what is true for me is
true.
• Founded theory of subjectivism and relativism.
 Socratic Philosophy
• Doubt is the origin of truth- “Unexamined life is not
worth living”.
• “KNOW THYSELF” -is to know your aim of life and good
or bad. Virtue is knowledge.
• Socrates believed in the immortality of the soul,
claimed as he receives divine knowledge.
• What I do not know I do not think I know. I know one
thing that I know nothing.
• Plato-Ideal world theory- Our soul existed in this world
of ideas before our birth. Human soul is yearning to go
back the world of ideas. Knowledge is virtue.
 Plato idea of dualism
• Plato gave the “Idea of Universals” with common
properties e.g horse, cat, chair, man, table defined
reality with Socratic process of dialogue.
• Dualism theory defines reality in two different
worlds.
• ONE is Ideal world which is Parmenidean world
where things are not changing.
• ON the basis of ideal world, we see material world
which is Heraclitan world where things are
changing but they remain almost around the Ideal
world.
• First is called world of form which is mind. And
second is world of matter which is body.
 Aristotle and metaphysics
• Aristotle denies the innate knowledge of Plato and says that
man has no innate knowledge. we make idea through
perceptron of knowledge in material world.
• Substance is the origin of everything … formless matter…of
which all things are made or take form e.g marble, stone, wood,
plastic.
• Form is the idea and shape that substance take. Substance take
form through material cause through which the thing is made
e.g chair, hammer, house, pen, table, statue.
• Aristotle four cause theory, ,material, formal, efficient and
purpose cause forces. e.g seed-plant.
• There is a purpose behind everything in nature and its purpose
and mission can be identified through its destination.(seed-
tree).
• In human beings soul is the form of body…soul is what makes
body one thing, having unity of purpose and characteristics that
we associate with the word “organism”.
 Aristotle’s Theology
According to Aristotle there are three kinds of Substances.

Those that are sensible and perishable.(Include plants and

animals)

Those that are sensible and not perishable.(Includes heavenly

bodies)

Those that are neither sensible nor perishable.(God).

 Cause and effect Theory
Everything has its cause and effect…cause must be more powerful than effect. The main
argument for God is First cause and unmoved mover as God must be eternal substance,
unmoved and the one originated motion.

God produces motion by being loved, whereas every other cause of motion works by
being itself in motion. Cause movement in this way ,without themselves being in motion.

God is pure thought : for thought is what is best.

Life is also belonging to God….God’s self dependent actuality is life best and eternal. God
is living being as eternal.

God as substance is eternal, unmovable and separate from sensible things.This substance
cannot have magnitude but is without parts and indivisible….but also is impassive and
unalterable; for all other changes are posterior to change of place.
 Aristotle Idea of heavens
The treatise on the Heavens set forth a pleasant and simple theory.

Things below moon are subjected to generation and decay but from
moon upwards, everything is ingenerated and indestructible.

Earth as spherical is center of the universe.

In a sublunary sphere everything is composed of four elements: earth,

water, air and fire.

But there is a fifth element ,of which heavenly bodies are composed.

Heavens are perfectly spherical and upper reigns are more divine than
lower. Stars and planets are not composed of fire but of fifth element.
 • Plato’s idea of universals and Dualism
Classical theory.
philosophers • Ideal man substance and form.

on Naturalism • Aristotle cause and effect theory-Unmoved

mover.
and • Four causes from substance to form.
materialism • Three kinds of substance-Below and above
moon substances and their division.(Sub
lunar and Lunar substance).
• Aristotle teleology and idea of Heavens.
Post Socratic/classical philosophy
Stoics-Naturalism or Materialism (Hellenistic Era)
• Nature is everything-man is nature-nature is man-One in all-All in one. One
soul is working in all human, animal, living and dead.
• Nature is two types: Active Passive
• Active nature is Mind….Spirit, Soul.
• Passive nature is Matter….Body.
• Man has will power-Nature also has will power.
• Man has reason-Nature has reason.
• Everything which man has can be found in Nature
 Stoics-Substance theory

• Substance. Primary formless matter…ready for any use.

• Quality: Substance can be change if it has a quality which is called form by
Aristotle. Organization of matter. fate, reason, logos acts on passive matter.
• Disposition: Particular characteristics present in object size, shape, color, action
and posture.
• Relative disposition: Characteristics related to other things like that. Position
within time and space relative to other objects.
• Everything is working on fate or laws of nature which they name it as fire. Every
soul will join this fate of fire
 Epicures combined the theory Aristopus and
Democritus before him, Epicurus was
an Atomist, believing that all matter, souls and
gods are all comprised of atoms, and even
thoughts are merely atoms.
Epicureans
-Atoms Challenged plat’s theory of Idea and forms and
gave Democritus theory of materialism and
theory proved wrong all superstitious beliefs. All
natural things are material even gods and have
no interest in human life and their affairs.
 Problem of evil
Famous argument against the existence of an all-powerful and
providential God or gods. It can be stated:

If God is willing to prevent evil, but is not able to, then He is not
omnipotent (Al-Power full)

If He is able, but not willing, then He is malevolent (Mean)

If He is both able and willing, then why is there such a thing as evil.

and if He is neither able nor willing, then why call Him God at all?
 • The one is matter and concept together means
everywhere and nowhere. They called it spirit.
• Everything on the basis of a single cause that they
considered divine, and indiscriminately referred to as
Neo- “the First”, “the One”, or “the God”. Universe
Platonism- emerged from “the First One” in coherent stages, in
THE ONE- such a way that one stage functions as creative
principle of the next. This one is unchangeable, pure
potentiality, unmoved mover, neither matter not idea
but combines both.
• Pantheism, Polytheism, transmigration of soul
philosophy in Indo European Philosophy.
 Muslim Philosophy- Naturalism and Materialism

• People of Abrahamic religion were disagree on eternity (Its limited to the time set by
God) of Universe and Nature of soul.
• Theology believes that matter can not eternal or transmigrate. And soul will be
resurrected.
• But Ibn-e-Rushd was agree with Aristotle that Universe is eternal he says “There is
always a moment in time before any moment”
• “Only motion can be the cause of change from rest to motion” So universe is eternal.
• God’s will does not change and never starts a new.(Ibn-e-Sina).
• Subject of Metaphysics is “Being” as “Being”(Ibn-e-Sina).
• Distinction between essence(Mahyia) and existence (Wajud). (Ibne Sina)
• God existence is his essence as one and first cause,(Aristotle+Neoplatonist)
• God is unmoved mover ,everything emanates from God. Motion in universe
has been created by God in Nature.
• “Essence and existence of things are present in our mind. Soul dies with the
body as body and soul are one ”.(Aristotle)
• Ibn-e-Sina and Ibn-e-Rushd have the opinion that individual soul does not
exist but that is an active intellect in cosmological intelligence. When a man
dies individual soul does not die but that active intelligence which can be
named as Human soul. This same human soul of all humanity will be
resurrected on the Day of Judgment. Same active intelligent works behind the
movement of life.
• Human active intellect makes perception of things around through sharing
each other which is called “Unity Thesis”
• One cannot what is God but can know what is not God (Al-Kindi)
• Universe is Eternal (Farabi).
• First Cause is uncaused (Farabi).
• Idea of Universal is same given by Plato but it can be of two:
• 1. Higher immaterial is eternal and spirt.
• 2. Lower material world is finite things are perishable here.
• Knowledge of God is Universals similar to Plato’s idea of Universal (Al-
Ghazali).
• Soul is not perishable and will be resurrected.
Classical and post classical philosophy on metaphysics

Epicureanism, which sought

The earliest Pre-Socratic philosophers,
Thales, Anaximander,
Anaximenes especially Democritus,
were labelled "natural
philosophers" because they sought to
explain everything by reference
to natural causes alone, excluding any
role for gods, spirits or magic in the
creation or operation of the world.
to explain everything that
exists as the product
of atoms moving in a void
(Atomism), or the
advanced Aristotelianism
who explained outcome
of uncreated natural
forces or tendencies .
 Modern philosophy-metaphysics
• During Middle age due to rise of Christianity and the decline of secular
philosophy(Saint Ambro, Saint Augustine),All Christians are son of Church.
Metaphysical Naturalism became eventually illegal. But Muslim philosophy
contributed through philosophy of essence and Existence. Age of
Enlightenment made genuine free speech possible again that a few intellectuals
(like Barond ‘Holbach in the 18th Century) publicly renewed the case for
Metaphysical Naturalism, under the label of Materialism.
• Marxism in the 19th Century and Objectivism in the 20th Century, have embraced
Naturalism for their causes, as have the more moderate political ideals of Secular
Humanism. Currently, Metaphysical Naturalism is more widely embraced than ever
before, especially (but not exclusively) in the scientific community
 Being in Philosophy
“Being is; not-being is not” [Parmenides];

“Existence in reality is greater than existence in the understanding alone” [St Anselm,];

“Existence is a perfection” [Descartes];

“Being is a logical, not a real establish” [Kant];

“Being is the most barren and abstract of all categories” [Hegel];

“Universals do not exist but rather subsist or have being” [Russell];

 Summary of Philosophy on metaphysics
• Ancient Greek philosophers Thales, Anaximenes, Anaximander,
Parmenides, Democritus, and then, later, Epicurus and Lucretius (99 - 55 B.C.) all
prefigure later materialists, and contributed towards the classic formulation of
Materialism.
• Muslim Philosophy contributed through philosophy of giving idea of active
intellect.
• During the long reign of Christianity, denial of spirit as the basic reality
was condemned by the Church so materialism was declined till 17th Century.
• During 17th Century Materialism was revived by the scientist Pierre
Gassendi (1592 - 1655) and the political philosopher Thomas Hobbes, as well as
other French Enlightenment thinkers Denis Diderot (1713 - 1784).
• With the triumphs of science in the 19th and 20th Century, (not least Charles
Darwin's works on the evolution and advances in atomic theory, neuroscience
and computer technology), a majority of philosophers today would probably
identify themselves as materialists of one kind or another.