Theories of Planning by: Dr. Eusebio F. Miclat Jr.

Development Planning &

Budgeting, PSU (2004)
1. 1. 3.Theories, Concepts, & Rationale of Strategic Planning a. Theories of Planning b.
Concepts of Strategic Planning c. Rationale of Strategic Planning
2. 2. At the end of the lecture, the students will be able to: 1. Describe the different theories of
strategic planning and the crisis it had undergone; 2. Compare and contrast the different
concepts of strategic planning in the context of the business world, administrative leadership
and behavior, and socio-economic development; and 3. State the various purposes and
rationale of strategic planning
3. 3. • Planning as a human and professional activity and an area of academic inquiry lacks
disciplinary focus • Planning, just like her mother PA, has no intellectual turf of its own. Each
is like a moon which borrows its light from the sun and stars • Thus, its heavy reliance from
multiple disciplines makes planning an easy target for question and debate
4. 4. H. Simon (1969) describes it as an “artificial” science Wildavsky (1973) observes: “If
planning is everything, maybe it is nothing” S.J. Klees (1986) argues that “it is technocratic
cultism and political curtailment of individual freedom”
5. 5. D. Adams (1991) – “Planning is a quasi- science that incorporates the latest developments
in the information technology and administrative sciences, the insights of the social science
disciplines, and the design capabilities of engineering profession
6. 6. Planning is a process for accomplishing purpose. • It is blue print of business growth and a
road map of development. • It helps in deciding objectives both in quantitative and qualitative
terms. • It is setting of goals on the basis of objectives and keeping in view the resources
(wikipedia)
7. 7. In spite of new and powerful technology capable of analyzing vast amounts of data,
determining trends, and modeling alternative futures, planning suffers from identity, theory
and utility
8. 8. According to Adams (1991) these are: 1. Philosophical synthesis 2. Rationalism 3.
Organizational Development (OD) 4. Empericism
9. 9. PHILOSOPHICAL SYNTHESIS – tends to emphasize a broad aspect to planning which
seek insights into social, economic, and ethical conditions as well as environmental context
of the institution or sector for which planning is being undertaken
10. 10. RATIONALISM models of planning assume a sequential, observable, cycle that includes
setting of goals, determining objectives, making plans, implementing the plans, and
reviewing the results
11. 11. ORGANIZATIONAL DEVELOPMENT – focuses primarily on ways to achieve
organizational change. It includes a human relations approach to innovation and change in
management style, employee satisfaction, decision-making process. And the general health
of the organization
12. 12. EMPERICISM – recognizes the significance of system behavior studies by public
administrators, economists and other social scientists concerned with planning theory
13. 13. SOCIO-ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT: The concept of DEVELOPMENT PLANNING
planning came about as the more legitimate, appropriate and culturally-oriented framework
in the formulation of social, economic, and political national plans and policies
14. 14. DEVELOPMENT PLANNING – is basically the act of choosing. It is deciding in advance
the WHAT, the HOW, the WHEN, and the WHO of determining goals, policies and plans and
conscious setting of alternative courses of action, procedures and strategies needed to
achieve the purposes of government (NEDA, 1982)
 15. 15. BUSINESS PLANNING • 1922 – Harvard Dean Wallace Donham made the argument
that unless businesses systematized decision-making practices, they were not much from
gambling efforts • 1960s-’70s – Harvard Business Review had indicated its interest articles
on long- range strategic planning (N. Capon et al., 1987)
16. 16. • 1976 Lorange and Vancil viewed strategic planning (SP) as a single process whereby
managers must agree on a detailed integrated plan of action for the coming year starting
with the delineation of corporate objectives and concluding with one-or two-year profit plan •
Further, they identified six processes that top management has to deal with: a)
communicating corporate goals, b) developing the goal setting process, c) scanning the
environment, d) understanding the subordinate-manager focus e) developing the planner’s
role, and f) developing the link between planning and budgeting
17. 17. • 1974 defines SP as the continuous process of making entrepreneurial decisions
systematically and with the greatest knowledge of their futurity, organizing systematically the
efforts needed to carry out these decisions and measuring the results of these decisions
against expectations through organized feedback (Peter Drucker). • 1981 in the perspective
of education and social development, SP is perceived as a set of purposeful actions
influencing and organization or some part therein to effect change (K.C. Tanner and E.J.
Williams)
18. 18. • 1984 SP is viewed as the effective application of the best alternative information to
decisions that have to be made now to ensure a secure future (G.S. Day) • 1994 SP is
viewed as a long-term planning to achieve a preferred vision for an organization, school or
school district. It defines the WHATS to be achieved
19. 19. • SP as a dynamic process which scans current realities and opportunities in order to
yield useful strategies and tactics for arriving a better tomorrow. • It is not a linear, lock-step
process derived or implemented in an authoritarian manner. Nor it is intuitive or built on
hunches and raw feelings. • It involves the educational partners in defining and supporting
the purposes and missions and its provides blueprints for result-oriented program ( R.A.
Kaufman, 1972, 1988 R.A. Kaufman and J. Herman, 1991, R.A. Kaufman, J. Herman and K.
Watters, 1996)
20. 20. • It appears that no single definition has been able to capture all facets of contemporary
SP practices despite the array of disciplinary perspective. Six common distinguishing
features, however, shape the acceptable meaning: 1. external orientation, 2. a holistic or
systematic approach, 3. a process of formulating plan, objectives, strategies and programs,
4. use of systematic methods in the analysis of strategic situation and alternatives, 5.
commitment to actions, and 6. a knowledge of results
21. 21. • To reorient the organization to the needs of the community in order to foster relevant
and quality service • As we plan for expansion, a certain level of minimum standard to be
observed to guarantee a certain level of minimum quality performance
22. 22. • Effective SP efforts make the organization become more viable instrument of socio-
economic development of the nation • Since resources for sectoral services are irreversibly
becoming less, priorities have to be established • The galloping inundation and explosion of
a new knowledge and the emergence of new technologies as brought about by advances in
science and ICT.
23. 23. • SP means realistic forecasting of events and in exercise “futurology”
24. 24. Reference: Miclat, Jr. Eusebio F. Development Planning & Budgeting, PSU, 2004

Rational planning model

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Rational planning model - Wikipedia
The rational planning model is a model of the planning process involving a number of rational
actions or steps. Taylor (1998) outlines five steps, as follows: [1]

 Definition of the problems and/or goals;

 Identification of alternative plans/policies;
 Evaluation of alternative plans/policies;
 Implementation of plans/policies;
 Monitoring of effects of plans/policies.
The rational planning model is used in planning and designing neighborhoods, cities, and regions. It
has been central in the development of modern urban planning and transportation planning. The
model has many limitations, particularly the lack of guidance on involving stakeholders and the
community affected by planning, and other models of planning, such as collaborative planning, are
now also widely used.
The very similar rational decision-making model, as it is called in organizational behavior, is a
process for making logically sound decisions.[2] This multi-step model and aims to be logical and
follow the orderly path from problem identification through solution. Rational decision making is a
multi-step process for making logically sound decisions that aims to follow the orderly path from
problem identification through solution.

Rational decision-making or planning follows a series of steps detailed below:

Verify, define, detail the problem, give solution or alternative to the

problem[edit]
Verifying, defining & detailing the problem (problem definition, goal definition, information gathering).
This step includes recognizing the problem, defining an initial solution, and starting primary analysis.
Examples of this are creative devising, creative ideas, inspirations, breakthroughs, and brainstorms.
The very first step which is normally overlooked by the top level management is defining the exact
problem. Though we think that the problem identification is obvious, many times it is not. When
defining the problem situation, framing is essential part of the process. With correct framing, the
situation is identified and possible previous experience with same kind of situation can be utilized.
The rational decision making model is a group-based decision making process. If the problem is not
identified properly then we may face a problem as each and every member of the group might have
a different definition of the problem.

Generate all possible solutions[edit]

This step encloses two to three final solutions to the problem and preliminary implementation to the
site. In planning, examples of this are Planned Units of Development and downtown revitalizations.
This activity is best done in groups, as different people may contribute different ideas or alternative
solutions to the problem. Without alternative solutions, there is a chance of arriving at a non-optimal
or a rational decision. For exploring the alternatives it is necessary to gather information. Technology
may help with gathering this information.

Generate objective assessment criteria[edit]

Evaluative criteria are measurements to determine success and failure of alternatives. This step
contains secondary and final analysis along with secondary solutions to the problem. Examples of
this are site suitability and site sensitivity analysis. After going thoroughly through the process of
defining the problem, exploring for all the possible alternatives for that problem and gathering
information this step says evaluate the information and the possible options to anticipate the
consequences of each and every possible alternative that is thought of. At this point optional criteria
for measuring the success or failure of the decision taken needs to be considered. The rational
model of planning rest largely on objective assessment.

Choose the best solution generated[edit]

This step comprises a final solution and secondary implementation to the site. At this point the
process has developed into different strategies of how to apply the solutions to the site.
Based on the criteria of assessment and the analysis done in previous steps, choose the best
solution generated. These four steps form the core of the Rational Decision Making Model.

Implement the preferred alternative[edit]

This step includes final implementation to the site and preliminary monitoring of the outcome and
results of the site. This step is the building/renovations part of the process.

Monitor and evaluate outcomes and results[edit]

This step contains the secondary and final monitoring of the outcomes and results of the site. This
step takes place over a long period of time.

Feedback[edit]
Modify future decisions and actions taken based on the above evaluation of outcomes. [3]

Discourse of rational planning model used in policy making [edit]

The rational model of decision-making is a process for making sound decisions in policy making in
the public sector. Rationality is defined as “a style of behavior that is appropriate to the achievement
of given goals, within the limits imposed by given conditions and constraints”. [4] It is important to note
the model makes a series of assumptions in order for it to work, such as:

 The model must be applied in a system that is stable,

 The government is a rational and unitary actor and that its actions are perceived as rational
choices,
 The policy problem is unambiguous,
 There are no limitations of time or cost.
Indeed, some of the assumptions identified above are also pin pointed out in a study written by the
historian H.A. Drake, as he states:
In its purest form, the Rational Actor approach presumes that such a figure [as Constantine] has
complete freedom of action to achieve goals that he or she has articulated through a careful process
of rational analysis involving full and objective study of all pertinent information and alternatives. At
the same time, it presumes that this central actor is so fully in control of the apparatus of government
that a decision once made is as good as implemented. There are no staffs on which to rely, no
constituencies to placate, no generals or governors to cajole. By attributing all decision making to
one central figure who is always fully in control and who acts only after carefully weighing all options,
the Rational Actor method allows scholars to filter out extraneous details and focus attention on
central issues.[5]
Furthermore, as we have seen, in the context of policy rational models are intended to achieve
maximum social gain. For this purpose, Simon identifies an outline of a step by step mode of
analysis to achieve rational decisions. Ian Thomas describes Simon's steps as follows:
 1. Intelligence gathering— data and potential problems and opportunities are identified,
collected and analyzed.
2. Identifying problems
3. Assessing the consequences of all options
4. Relating consequences to values— with all decisions and policies there will be a set of
values which will be more relevant (for example, economic feasibility and environmental
protection) and which can be expressed as a set of criteria, against which performance (or
consequences) of each option can be judged.
5. Choosing the preferred option— given the full understanding of all the problems and
opportunities, all the consequences and the criteria for judging options. [6]
In similar lines, Wiktorowicz and Deber describe through their study on ‘Regulating biotechnology: a
rational-political model of policy development’ the rational approach to policy development. The main
steps involved in making a rational decision for these authors are the following:

1. The comprehensive organization and analysis of the information

2. The potential consequences of each option
3. The probability that each potential outcome would materialize
4. The value (or utility) placed on each potential outcome. [7]
The approach of Wiktorowicz and Deber is similar to Simon and they assert that the rational model
tends to deal with “the facts” (data, probabilities) in steps 1 to 3, leaving the issue of assessing
values to the final step. According to Wiktorowicz and Deber values are introduced in the final step
of the rational model, where the utility of each policy option is assessed.
Many authors have attempted to interpret the above-mentioned steps, amongst others, Patton and
Sawicki [8] who summarize the model as presented in the following figure (missing):

1. Defining the problem by analyzing the data and the information gathered.
2. Identifying the decision criteria that will be important in solving the problem. The decision
maker must determine the relevant factors to take into account when making the decision.
3. A brief list of the possible alternatives must be generated; these could succeed to resolve the
problem.
4. A critical analyses and evaluation of each criterion is brought through. For example, strength
and weakness tables of each alternative are drawn and used for comparative basis. The
decision maker then weights the previously identified criteria in order to give the alternative
policies a correct priority in the decision.
5. The decision-maker evaluates each alternative against the criteria and selects the preferred
alternative.
6. The policy is brought through.
The model of rational decision-making has also proven to be very useful to several decision making
processes in industries outside the public sphere. Nonetheless, many criticisms of the model arise
due to claim of the model being impractical and lying on unrealistic assumptions. For instance, it is a
difficult model to apply in the public sector because social problems can be very complex, ill-defined
and interdependent. The problem lies in the thinking procedure implied by the model which is linear
and can face difficulties in extra ordinary problems or social problems which have no sequences of
happenings. This latter argument can be best illustrated by the words of Thomas R. Dye, the
president of the Lincoln Center for Public Service, who wrote in his book `Understanding Public
Policy´ the following passage:
There is no better illustration of the dilemmas of rational policy making in America than in the field of
health…the first obstacle to rationalism is defining the problem. Is our goal to have good health —
that is, whether we live at all (infant mortality), how well we live (days lost to sickness), and how long
we live (life spans and adult mortality)? Or is our goal to have good medical care — frequent visits to
the doctor, wellequipped and accessible hospitals, and equal access to medical care by rich and
poor alike?[9]
The problems faced when using the rational model arise in practice because social and
environmental values can be difficult to quantify and forge consensus around. [10] Furthermore, the
assumptions stated by Simon are never fully valid in a real world context.
However, as Thomas states the rational model provides a good perspective since in modern society
rationality plays a central role and everything that is rational tends to be prized. Thus, it does not
seem strange that “we ought to be trying for rational decision-making”. [6]

Decision criteria for policy analysis — Step 2[edit]

As illustrated in Figure 1, rational policy analysis can be broken into 6 distinct stages of analysis.
Step 2 highlights the need to understand which factors should be considered as part of the decision
making process. At this part of the process, all the economic, social, and environmental factors that
are important to the policy decision need to be identified and then expressed as policy decision
criteria. For example, the decision criteria used in the analysis of environmental policy is often a mix
of —

 Ecological impacts — such as biodiversity, water quality, air quality, habitat quality,

species population, etc.
 Economic efficiency — commonly expressed as benefits and costs.
 Distributional equity — how policy impacts are distributed amongst different demographics.
Factors that can affect the distribution of impacts include location, ethnicity, income, and
occupation.
 Social/Cultural acceptability — the extent to which the policy action may be opposed by
current social norms or cultural values.
 Operational practicality — the capacity required to actually operationalize the policy.
 Legality — the potential for the policy to be implemented under current legislation versus the
need to pass new legislation that accommodates the policy.
 Uncertainty — the degree to which the level of policy impacts can be known. [11]
Some criteria, such as economic benefit, will be more easily measurable or definable, while others
such as environmental quality will be harder to measure or express quantitatively. Ultimately though,
the set of decision criteria needs to embody all of the policy goals, and overemphasising the more
easily definable or measurable criteria, will have the undesirable impact of biasing the analysis
towards a subset of the policy goals.[12]
The process of identifying a suitably comprehensive decision criteria set is also vulnerable to being
skewed by pressures arising at the political interface. For example, decision makers may tend to
give "more weight to policy impacts that are concentrated, tangible, certain, and immediate than to
impacts that are diffuse, intangible, uncertain, and delayed."^8. For example, with a cap-and-trade
system for carbon emissions the net financial cost in the first five years of policy implementation is a
far easier impact to conceptualise than the more diffuse and uncertain impact of a country's
improved position to influence global negotiations on climate change action.

Decision methods for policy analysis — Step 5[edit]

Displaying the impacts of policy alternatives can be done using a policy analysis matrix (PAM) such
that shown in Table 1. As shown, a PAM provides a summary of the policy impacts for the various
alternatives and examination of the matrix can reveal the tradeoffs associated with the different
alternatives.
Table 1. Policy analysis matrix (PAM) for SO2 emissions control.
Once policy alternatives have been evaluated, the next step is to decide which policy alternative
should be implemented. This is shown as step 5 in Figure 1. At one extreme, comparing the policy
alternatives can be relatively simple if all the policy goals can be measured using a single metric and
given equal weighting. In this case, the decision method is an exercise in benefit cost analysis
(BCA).
At the other extreme, the numerous goals will require the policy impacts to be expressed using a
variety of metrics that are not readily comparable. In such cases, the policy analyst may draw on the
concept of utility to aggregate the various goals into a single score. With the utility concept, each
impact is given a weighting such that 1 unit of each weighted impact is considered to be equally
valuable (or desirable) with regards to the collective well-being.
Weimer and Vining also suggest that the "go, no go" rule can be a useful method for deciding
amongst policy alternatives^8. Under this decision making regime, some or all policy impacts can be
assigned thresholds which are used to eliminate at least some of the policy alternatives. In their
example, one criterion "is to minimize SO2 emissions" and so a threshold might be a reduction SO2
emissions "of at least 8.0 million tons per year". As such, any policy alternative that does not meet
this threshold can be removed from consideration. If only a single policy alternative satisfies all the
impact thresholds then it is the one that is considered a "go" for each impact. Otherwise it might be
that all but a few policy alternatives are eliminated and those that remain need to be more closely
examined in terms of their trade-offs so that a decision can be made.

Case study of rational policy analysis[edit]

To demonstrate the rational analysis process as described above, let’s examine the policy paper
“Stimulating the use of biofuels in the European Union: Implications for climate change policy” by
Lisa Ryan where the substitution of fossil fuels with biofuels has been proposed in the European
Union (EU) between 2005–2010 as part of a strategy to mitigate greenhouse gas emissions from
road transport, increase security of energy supply and support development of rural communities.
Considering the steps of Patton and Sawicki model as in Figure 1 above, this paper only follows
components 1 to 5 of the rationalist policy analysis model:

1. Defining The Problem – the report identifies transportation fuels pose two important
challenges for the European Union (EU). First, under the provisions of the Kyoto Protocol to
the Climate Change Convention, the EU has agreed to an absolute cap on greenhouse gas
emissions; while, at the same time increased consumption of transportation fuels has
resulted in a trend of increasing greenhouse gas emissions from this source. Second, the
dependence upon oil imports from the politically volatile Middle East generates concern over
price fluctuations and possible interruptions in supply. Alternative fuel sources need to be
used & substituted in place of fossil fuels to mitigate GHG emissions in the EU.
2. Determine the Evaluation Criteria – this policy sets Environmental impacts/benefits
(reduction of GHG’s as a measure to reducing climate change effects) and Economical
efficiency (the costs of converting to biofuels as alternative to fossil fuels & the costs of
production of biofuels from its different potential sources) as its decision criteria. However,
this paper does not exactly talk about the social impacts, this policy may have. It also does
not compare the operational challenges involved between the different categories of biofuels
considered.
3. Identifying Alternative Policies – The European Commission foresees that three alternative
transport fuels: hydrogen, natural gas, and biofuels, will replace transport fossil fuels, each
by 5% by 2020.
4. Evaluating Alternative Policies – Biofuels are an alternative motor vehicle fuel produced from
biological material and are promoted as a transitional step until more advanced technologies
have matured. By modelling the efficiency of the biofuel options the authors compute the
 economic and environmental costs of each biofuel option as per the evaluation criteria
mentioned above.
5. Select The Preferred Policy – The authors suggest that the overall best biofuel comes from
the sugarcane in Brazil after comparing the economic & the environmental costs. The
current cost of subsidising the price difference between European biofuels and fossil fuels
per tonne of CO2 emissions saved is calculated to be €229–2000. If the production of
European biofuels for transport is to be encouraged, exemption from excise duties is the
instrument that incurs the least transactions costs, as no separate administrative or
collection system needs to be established. A number of entrepreneurs are producing
biofuels at the lower margin of the costs specified here profitably, once an excise duty
rebate is given. It is likely that growth in the volume of the business will engender both
economies of scale and innovation that will reduce costs substantially. [13]

Requirements and limitations[edit]

However, there are a lot of assumptions, requirements without which the rational decision model is a
failure. Therefore, they all have to be considered. The model assumes that we have or should or can
obtain adequate information, both in terms of quality, quantity and accuracy. This applies to the
situation as well as the alternative technical situations. It further assumes that you have or should or
can obtain substantive knowledge of the cause and effect relationships relevant to the evaluation of
the alternatives. In other words, it assumes that you have a thorough knowledge of all the
alternatives and the consequences of the alternatives chosen. It further assumes that you can rank
the alternatives and choose the best of it. The following are the limitations for the Rational Decision
Making Model:

 requires a great deal of time

 requires great deal of information
 assumes rational, measurable criteria are available and agreed upon
 assumes accurate, stable and complete knowledge of all the alternatives, preferences, goals
and consequences
 assumes a rational, reasonable, non – political world

Current status[edit]
While the rational planning model was innovative at its conception, the concepts are controversial
and questionable processes today. The rational planning model has fallen out of mass use as of
the last decade. Rather than conceptualising human agents as rational planners, Lucy
Suchman argues, agents can better be understood as engaging in situated action.[14] Going
further, Guy Benveniste argued that the rational model could not be implemented without taking the
political context into account. [15]

A brief history of Rational Planning Model

Rational Planning Model | Planning Tank

The rational planning model is the process of understanding a problem by

establishing and evaluating planning criteria, formulation of alternatives and
implementing them and finally monitoring  the progress of the chosen
alternatives. The rational planning model is central in the development of
transport planning & modern planning. Similarly, rational decision-making
model is a process of making decisions which are logically sound. This multi-
step model and aims to be logical and follow the orderly path from problem
identification through solution.

Empiricism
philosophy

Definition, History, Criticism, & Facts | Britannica

Empiricism, in philosophy, the view that all concepts originate in

experience, that all concepts are about or applicable to things that can be
experienced, or that all rationally acceptable beliefs or propositions are
justifiable or knowable only through experience. This broad definition accords
with the derivation of the term empiricism from the ancient Greek
word empeiria, “experience.”

Empiricism
John Locke's Theory of Empiricism - Philosophy Class (Video) | Study.com

One of Locke's main goals in the text is to determine what can be claimed legitimately and what
cannot. How do we develop our knowledge?
A simple way to express his view is: Knowledge comes from experience. This is the perspective
of empiricism, a major school of thought within epistemology. It may help to remember what the
term empirical means based on how it starts with the same letter as experimental, an approach that
values experiencing and testing.
So in his view, actually experiencing the world through our senses is the only way to arrive at a
conclusion and to know the truth about something. A person testing a key in a lock would be a
legitimate way to come to the conclusion, 'My key opens the door.'

Tabula Rasa
Locke saw a human being as a blank slate or blank tablet at birth. The Latin phrase often used to
describe this concept is tabula rasa. To Locke, this means that we come into the world without any
understanding inside of us, like a blank piece of paper where nothing has been written yet. We can
only reason based on what happens to us and what we learn.
So if a human being is a tabula rasa from day one, they can only know things based on interactions
with the world. It may help to remember the views of John Locke by thinking of how we might test a
key in the lock of a door as a way to develop knowledge.
Empiricism
Empiricism: Examples and Definition | Philosophy Terms

Empiricism is the philosophy of knowledge by observation. It holds that the best way to gain
knowledge is to see, hear, touch, or otherwise sense things directly. In stronger versions, it
holds that this is the only kind of knowledge that really counts. Empiricism has been
extremely important to the history of science, as various thinkers over the centuries have
proposed that all knowledge should be tested empirically rather than just through thought-
experiments or rational calculation.
Empiricism is an idea about how we know things, which means it belongs to the field
of epistemology.
 

II. Empiricism vs. Rationalism vs. Constructivism

Empiricism is often contrasted with rationalism, a rival school which holds that knowledge is
based primarily on logic and intuition, or innate ideas that we can understand through
contemplation, not observation.
Example
Rationalists hold that you don’t have to make any observations to know that 1+1=2; any
person who understands the concepts of “one” and “addition” can work it out for themselves.
Empiricists argue the opposite: that we can only understand 1+1=2 because we’ve seen it in
action throughout our lives. As children, empiricists say, we learn by observing adults, and
that’s how we gain abstract knowledge about things like math and logic.
Of course, ideally, knowledge consists of both observation and logic; you don’t have to choose
between the two. It’s more a matter of which one you emphasize.
There is a combined philosophy, called constructivism, which represents one way to get the
best of both worlds. Constructivists, like empiricists, argue that knowledge is based, first and
foremost, on observing the world around us. But we can’t understand what we see unless we
fit it into some broader rational structure, so reason also plays an essential role. Constructivism
is a high-profile idea in the philosophy of education, and many teachers use it to design their
lessons: the idea is to present information in an order that builds on previous information, so
that over time students “construct” a picture of the subject at hand, and at each step they are
able to “place” the new information in the context of old information.
Organization Development & Planning

By: Chris Amisano

Updated September 26, 2017
Organization Development & Planning (bizfluent.com)

Organizational development and planning is the process of looking at an

organization’s current state, where it wants to go, and determining how it
will get to that point. This process takes some hard analysis of the
organization and its culture, plus the possibility of major change always
exists. Components of organizational development and planning may
include goals, organizational structure, training, the development of a
leadership pool, and performance measurement.

Analysis

When an organizational development and planning cycle begins, the first step is to
analyze the organization as it exists today. Take a look at how the organization is
structured, who reports to whom, and look for any redundancies. Also, check out the
organization’s current culture. Is management accessible? Is morale high or low? Are
employees following an overall mission, are they driven by customer satisfaction, or by
their own desire to earn money? Finally, executive management should be able to tell
you where it wants the organization to go: better customer service, higher profit, more
satisfied employees, or a combination of factors.

Goals and Mission

If there is no overall goal and mission for the organization, this will be part of the
development and planning process. From the organization’s culture and the
determination of where management wants to go, create goals and an overall mission.
The goals, which should be based on measurable outcomes, will help you in
evaluating performance. The mission should serve as an overall goal that reminds
everyone what the organization’s purpose is.

Planning

In the planning stage, decide how the organization will reach its new goals and
mission. Do you need to change the structure? Are there inefficiencies in management
and reporting that could be eliminated? Based on what you know about the
organization’s current culture, how are its members going to respond to change? Are
there training programs that you can implement, such as operations, leadership, or
managing change that will help the organization move forward?
Creating Leadership

When it comes to creating leadership, examine management to see if it knows the

difference between “leading” and “managing.” If not, this may be a training opportunity.
Does the organization have a leadership training program, one that will identify high-
potential leaders for the organization’s future growth? This is also a good area to add
to the training list. Also, it is a great idea to create a succession plan; that is, a plan
that tells management who is ready to “step into their shoes” if an organizational
leader is no longer present.

Measuring Performance

One of the final steps of organizational development and planning is to measure both
individual and organizational performance after the change. To do this, look at the
goals set during the planning process. How does each business unit, and therefore
each individual, contribute to the achievement of the goals? On the overall level,
analyze how close the organization came to meeting its new goals. Once you
determine this, the development cycle starts over again, with new ideas, new
changes, and possibly new goals.

What is Organizational Development Theory?

What is Organizational Development Theory? - Best Colleges Online

Organizational development theory is dedicated to expanding the working knowledge of

individuals to enhance and to make more effective organizational performance and
change. In order to command a clear understanding of this theory, it is vital to
understand its essential elements. These include the objectives and core values of org
development theory. It also means understanding the essentials of an organization’s
cultural elements.

Five Essential Cultural Elements of an Organization

The theory of organizational developed recognizes five essential cultural elements that
exist in an organization, according to the University of Pennsylvania. These are deeply
seeded norms that members of a particular organization accept and share. These five
essential cultural organizational elements are:

 Assumptions
 Values
 Behavioral Norms
 Behavioral Patterns
 Artifacts
One way to look at this is through anthropology or its daughter discipline, sociology.
Assumptions carry the weight of fact and help shape the recognition of the known world
as humans relate to it. The reason this is important in Organizational Development
Theory is that nothing is static. If changes need to be made in order to reflect the known
world, this is the place to begin. Commonly held assumptions, when uninformed, can
lead to gross displays of disenfranchisement, inequality, and ableism. Therefore, it’s
important to keep a finger to the pulse of any organizational culture, and introduce new
information as needed.

The values are shared standards outlined in a mission statement. Usually, the values
are clearly delineated, but even when they are assumed, there are strong markers of
what they are in practice. By investigating this area, in which values are espoused and
then acted upon, one can see dislocations if there are any. Values are continuously
molded by actions, from both the bottom up and from the top down, making it a fruitful
area in which to find discrepancies between the two. For example, if a value is one of
inclusion, but the hiring practices unilaterally offer candidates from one subsection of
society, there may be room for changes in practice.

That leads to the combined areas of behavioral norms and patterns. By looking here,
one sees the repetition of larger cultural norms and patterns iterated within the
company. It is here that change-making does its largest work. By adhering to a value
system and ensuring that it is followed, one may act as a change within the larger
culture.

Artifacts are, whether digital or tangible, created within a company. They are iterated
through language, used to symbolize other, larger areas of discourse. For example, the
theme of cubicles became so entrenched in the corporate sphere that it could be
understood by others not within a particular company. This led to a movement,
somewhat less than effective, of removing those barriers, and creating an open space
workplace. But the artifacts go beyond this—they are the common-use items associated
with any company, and the means by which these companies convey their purpose,
their values, and their branding.

Core Values of Organizational Development Theory

Six core values are associated with organizational development theory. These are
defined as being humanistic values. This means these core values of this theory focus
on humans or individuals as opposed to mechanical processes and procedures. The
core values of org com development are:

 Provide opportunities for individuals to function as individual human beings.

 Provide opportunities for an individual to develop his or her full potential.
 Seek an increase in the overall effectiveness of an organization.
 Provide an opportunity for individuals to influence the manner in which they relate
to an organization.
  Create an environment in which individuals have challenging work.
 Treat each individual in an organization as having important, complex needs.

These core values are essential to understand. By providing opportunities for individuals
to make choices and take initiative in his or her own development, they are allowing
room for novel innovations. It may seem counter to an efficiently run organization, but it
is vital to imbue each individual, irrespective of rank in the company, a sense of
purpose. It allows them to take ownership and pride in their job, and to work for the
benefit of the organization as a whole.

Their needs are treated as important, and they feel pride in what they do, however
small. It also creates an environment in which people don’t feel replaceable, as if
anyone could do their job. This encourages them to seek challenges, to press against
their understood boundaries, and to be a truly great employee. Ultimately, this serves
one of the key values—to increase the overall effectiveness of the organization,
because one does not have a horde of mindless individuals just marking time, not
questioning the status quo. They want to make their job more effective because they
feel like they have a place in the company. However minimal, that feeling can be
leveraged to create actual change.

Objectives of Organizational Development Theory

In addition to the six core values, there are seven identified objectives commonly
associated with org development theory. These can be modified, at least to some
degree, to meet the unique structure and composition of an organization. These basic
objectives of org development theory are:

 Increase the level of interpersonal trust among employees.

 Increase the level of satisfaction and commitment of employees.
 Confront problems.
 Manage conflict effectively.
 Increase employee collaboration and cooperation.
 Increase organizational problem-solving.
 Implement processes that will improve ongoing organizational operations.

What Sort of Careers Use Organizational Development Theory?

There are a number of individuals who use O/D Theory in their everyday work. It’s
important to know how Organizational Development and Change Management differ as
theories, since many companies may use them interchangeably, but truly want one or
the other. Both realms are credited to the same individual, Kurt Lewin. However, they do
diverge in several important ways.

Organizational Development Specialist

These individuals are responsible for planning and coordinating employee development
programs. Their focus is on leadership skills and other areas of growth for individual
employees that encourage retention, and they may be responsible for developing
surveys and administering them, interviews, and focused leadership training sessions.
They may also be responsible for keeping a record and reviewing the progress of
individuals, and as such must understand performance standards, organizational
policies, expectations and other types of standards.

Often, they are expected to participate in meetings with current staff and to implement
orientations for new employees. While many of these individuals conduct research in
order to find performance gaps and best practices, their roles also usually encompass
creating pamphlets, handouts, workbooks and other materials that employees will use in
the course of their daily tasks.

HR Specialists
Ordinarily, this position supports HR standards and strategies to improve performance
at all levels, from the individual to the entire company. They implement tools and
recommend strategies to improve effectiveness or efficiency, as well, they also study
the usefulness of policies and recommend changes. Because they are non-localized,
they manage projects over several locations and may also work in tandem with HR
managers to implement updated policies, analyze results, or implement new programs.

Since these individuals work with new hires, they also know pedagogical principals and
curriculum methods. However, because they are generalists, they must be able to make
decisions and independent judgments. Occasionally, they will work with other HR
practitioners to discover the best way to solve issues that arise.
Statistical Researcher

Every O/D professional needs data that has been assessed and expertly assembled to
make recommended changes. Researchers gather data and apply statistical models or
software designed for the field, evaluating projections for projects such as cohesion,
employee engagement, and operational schemas. They then produce reports based on
their findings so executives can make better decisions.

Without their input, a company might be mystified as to why seasonal turnover is high in
some areas but not in others. Researchers look for factors, such as unfair leave policies
or those that indicate a disconnect with the values put forth by the company, in
conjunction with cultural and demographic factors.

Organizational Development Psychologist

Usually trained as Industrial/Organizational psychologists or occupational psychologists

whose specialties are in analytical assessments, consulting, and business psychology,
these professionals identify underlying rationales of behavior, and principals of reason
which influence the processes of business and people who engage in that business.
They investigate areas such as how employees engage shareholders or communicate
with one another.

But their insights go beyond that. One of the biggest issues within companies is the
development of skill silos. For instance, advertising, sales, and marketing departments
may be uncooperative and competitive with each other, when they should all work
together. They lack common ground and boundary objects—also known as common
points of reference—in their day to day communication. Rather than permit them to
remain antagonistic towards each other, this individual may suggest that the department
heads develop a plan with common goals and procedures to change the tune of their
departments.

Organizational Effectiveness Manager

These individuals must be proficient in leading large group meetings and making
persuasive presentations. Using a systems-thinking, high-level approach, they also
must work with human resources and business leaders to combat system-wide
organizational challenges with approaches that lead to high-value, positive impacts.
This might include structural redesign and helping others to understand the benefits of
cross-functional team or department integration. They must also be great
communicators and teachers.

Not only must they know what they know, but they should be able to impart that
knowledge to business leaders. This is because they will be partners in data gathering,
with business heads gathering and communicating information about work climate,
employee satisfaction, workforce capacity, management sustainability, and other
issues.
Learning Specialist

Corporations employ learning specialists to study and create solutions to issues or

disseminate a more standardized approach to improve employee experiences,
employee effectiveness, and even streamline the training processes in a positive way
for all. They look at learning gaps or skill gaps, deliver positive experiences that align
with a company’s values, and address challenges. As well, they will work with business
leaders, management, and human resources to get a sense of the current situation and
the people in play to understand the root causes of performance gaps, so they can craft
a specialized plan to address them.

They may also host a large range of development and compliance training programs in
various departments. Because they work primarily as consultants, corporations may
higher them to implement training solutions that acknowledge differing cultural
dynamics, multifaceted situations, and global variances. They may also assist in
applying change management processes to a culture across an organization’s reach.

Succession Planner

These individuals help companies prepare for both expected and unexpected changes
in the future. Implementing metric tracking is one of their primary goals because it
creates benchmarks for the impact of operational standards, leadership goals, and
specific policies. Succession planners also invest time in knowledge sharing, to see that
senior employees who may be retiring soon pass on their wealth of tips, understanding
of systems, and advice for newer employees. These could be in the form of technical
guides, informal workshops in which the elder employee coaches the newer cadre of
workers, or webinars.

They also consult with stakeholders on how best to prepare managers who are rising to
executive positions. While similar positions may accord different powers to act in
various locations as well as differing responsibilities, it is sometimes necessary to
standardize the role descriptions. However, succession planners strive for smooth
transitions with all employees, regardless of rank.

History of Organizational Development Theory

urt Lewin established what is known as the Research Center for Group Dynamics at
MIT. Through this and other efforts, Lewin is considered to be the “founding father” of
org development theory. Because of many similarities, he’s also credited as the founder
of Change Management Theory. However, there are some differences that developed
later on in this particular theory, and it should be treated as another discipline in its own
right.
Lewin would die before he really saw his theory take root and become widely utilized
and accepted. Not only has this occurred but a person is able to a doctorate degree in
org development at many major universities today.

Over the course of the past decade, businesses and organizations of different types
have taken to applying org development theory in regard to their own enterprises. They
do so not only to benefit the organization itself but the lives of those individuals within it.
This utilization of organizational development theory is expected to continue apace into
the future.