General Introduction to the course “Introduction to Climate”

Definition of Geography
➢ It deals with the spatial variations and relationships of things on the earth’s surface.
➢ Is a discipline that is mainly concerned with the distribution of elements that occur on the
earth’s surface and with variations of distribution through time and space.
➢ Investigate the interrelationship which exists between people and their physical as well as
social environment.

In Geography, we study the relationship between human being and the environment. The subject
matter is generally divided in to two parts- Physical and Human (cultural) Geography. For Physical
geographer, the surface of the earth, as a whole, includes four spheres or parts.
The Lithosphere- the solid part of the earth that constitute different land forms
The Hydrosphere - the layer of the earth constituting all forms of water.
The Biosphere- the layer that hosts all forms of living organisms
- is the combination of the upper layer of the Lithosphere and Hydrosphere
The Atmosphere- is a gaseous envelope surrounding the solid earth

The place of Climatic Studies rests in the Atmosphere; due to this, the course “Introduction to
climate” is all about the interesting and amazing conditions operating in the atmosphere mainly the
concepts of climate and weather, composition and structure of the atmosphere, pressure, wind,
temperature, precipitation, climate classification, contemporary climatic issues etc.

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Chapter1 Introduction

Contents
E1.1 Concepts of weather and climate; Meteorology and climatology
1.2 Elements and controls of weather and climate

1.1 Concepts of weather &climate, Meteorology &Climatology

Weather
✓ is a word used to denote the state of the atmosphere (temperature, sunshine, rainfall, wind,
cloud, pressure etc) at a particular place for a short period of time.
✓ is constantly changing- hourly, daily, and seasonally
✓ is the instantaneous, quantitative and qualitative condition of the various elements of the
atmosphere for ashort period of time.
✓ is the condition we experience in the atmosphere in terms of temperature, atmospheric
pressure, wind direction & strength, sunshine, clouds, rainfall and humidity etc that varies
from day to day in specific area.
Climate
✓ Is described as an aggregate of weather conditions of an area over a long period of time.
✓ Is an aggregate of all the environmental conditions- heat, moisture, pressure and motion
✓ It considers the trends, fluctuation and variation of these conditions in time and space.
✓ The minimum period of time required to calculate the average weather (climate)is over 35
years.
The distinction between weather and climate is one of scale. Weather refers to the state of the
atmosphere at a local level usually on a time scale of minutes to months; while Climate is concerned
with the long-term behavior of the atmosphere in a specific area. In the study of climate and weather,
the same elements -temperature, moisture, pressure and wind are used.

What is the difference between weather and climate?

WEATHER describes conditions in the atmosphere at any time or short period of time. Weather conditions
can change suddenly. Today may be warm and sunny, tomorrow may be cool and cloudy. Weather conditions
include rain, snow, sleet, hail, fog, mist, sunshine, wind, temperature and thunderstorms.
CLIMATE describes surface and atmospheric conditions over a longer time period or over a large
geographical area. The climate of an area is concerned with the AVERAGE weather conditions which are
taken over a year or more. Climate changes slowly, usually over decades, centuries and thousands of years.

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Meteorology: - is a branch of physics, which concerned with weather. It deals with the whole physical
process that works in the atmosphere.
The science of meteorology is concerned with the following three areas: -
• Observation and measurement of atmospheric conditions.
• Measurement of chemical substances affecting climate.
• Analysis and prediction of weather and climate.
Climatology: - is a branch of geography that studies about climate. It describes and explains the
nature of climate, why it differs from place to place, how it is related to other elements of natural
environment and to human activity. It identifies the main laws and principles of atmospheric
conditions. Both meteorology and climatology are highly interrelated fields of studies that deal with
the atmosphere. In the study of both climate (climatology) and weather (the science of meteorology)
the study of atmosphere is used.
Branches of climatology:
Regional climatology- involves the study of the climate of part or whole continent and the classification of
climate.
Physical climatology - is the statistical data analysis of weather elements like temperature, wind, pressure etc.
Applied climatology- The application of knowledge of climate to the greatest advantage of human being,

The influence of climate on human life

The weather affects us in many different ways. For example, it affects our moods, what we wear, our
leisure activities and our mode of travel. Climate is an active factor in the physical environment of all
living things and influences humans in many ways:-
✓ Clothing – the type of clothes that people wear varies from season and season, and from
climate one region to another.
✓ Housing condition- People construct houses that suit the type of climate in which they are
living.
✓ Food crops- the kinds of food crops grown vary according to the variation in climate. Climate
affects the type of economic activity.
✓ Animal and plant life- the kinds of animals and plants that live in certain environment are the
result of climate.

1.2 Elements and controls of Weather and Climate

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1.2.1 Elements of weather and climate
Element indicates a component or a constituent of something. The main elements of weather and
climate includes:-
➢ temperature, sunshine duration in a day;
➢ Precipitation, rainfall, atmospheric humidity, cloud type;
➢ wind speed and direction;
➢ air pressure;
➢ visibility etc
Based on their measurability, elements can conveniently be divided into three types. Namely: -
measured elements, derived elements and proxy elements.
I. Measured elements – these are elements that can be measured directly by instruments either
through contact measurement or through remote sensing measurement. In the case of contact
measurement, instruments come in contact directly with the elements to be measured. In remote
sensing measurement, however, instruments are posted on a satellite or radar platform. Measured
elements include temperature, rainfall, wind speed and direction, air pressure etc.
Radiosonde- is an instrument used by meteorologists to take soundings (measurements) of the upper
air. It consists of devices that measure temperature, relative humidity and air pressure, combined
with a radio transmitter. The measuring instruments (thermometer, barometer and hydrometer) and the
transmitter are enclosed in a small, lightweight box carried aloft by a balloon filled with helium or
hydrogen. In Ethiopia Radiosondes are released from DebreZeit.

Preparing for a launch in Antarctica,

scientists plan to gather weather information
from a radiosonde transmitter attached to an
expandable balloon. The radiosonde will
continuously measure temperature, humidity,
and pressure, as well as signal its location.
The balloon is filled with a light gas such as
helium. As the balloon rises, the gas will
expand. At some point, the balloon will burst
and a parachute will bring the weather
instrument back down to earth.

Weather Balloon

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Rawinsanda- is a more sophisticated one which additionally measures wind speed and direction. The
transmitter automatically sends signals that indicate the condition of the atmosphere at various layers and
the received information is converted in to data.
Satellite observation – is also used to gather information about the atmosphere especially beyond 500
Km. Remote sensing instruments are used (no direct contact with the atmosphere).
II. Derived elements –these elements are obtained by certain kind of calculation from the measured
elements. Example- Evaporation- although it is possible to measure evaporation directly, it can also be
derived from other measured elements like rainfall, temperature, wind speed and radiation by using
mathematical formulae.

III. Proxy elements – are usually indicators of atmospheric condition, commonly used to infer past
climatic conditions. They include archeology evidences, historical records, tree rings. Example- the
width of a tree rings depends on conditions during the growing season. Therefore, by using the tree- ring
analysis, the variation of past climate can be determined.

1.2.2 Controls of Weather and climate

Both weather and climate differ from place to place and from time to time due to the variation in the
amount, intensity and areal distribution of various climate elements. The factors that cause for such
variation are termed as controls of climate and weather.
Some of the controls of climate and weather are: -
Latitude (angle of the sun) determines the length of day, the intensity and possible duration of
sunlight receive, the distance traveled by the sun’s rays through the atmosphere.
Altitude - has definite impact on temperature, pressure and precipitation,
The distribution of land and water, distance from major water bodies
Ocean currents-exercise cooling or warming effects on the margins/borders of the land masses.
The great semi-permeant, high- and low-pressure cells determine direction and speed of wind
flow.
The presence of deep valleys and basins.
The influence of vegetation and soils
Winds control the temperature and rainfall pattern of an area
Temperature controls the pressure pattern of an area.

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Chapter 2 Survey of the Atmosphere

Contents
2.1 The Origin, Evolution and Nature of the Atmosphere
2.2 Composition of the Atmosphere
2.3 Vertical Structure of the Atmosphere
2.4 Causes and Impacts of Ozone Depletion

2.1 The Origin, Evolution and Nature of the Atmosphere

2.1.1 The Origin and Evolution of the Atmosphere
The origin of our earth’s atmosphere is still subject to much speculation. The solar system is 4.6
billion years old. As there are no human then, any explanations about the solar system are simply
theories based on the observation we make now. The more plausible explanations for the creation of
atmosphere are based on the studies of the solar system, the planets and their atmosphere. The theory
which seems fairly certain is the one that proposes that solar system originated 4.6 billion years ago
formed from interstellar clouds and solar nebula. Such clouds are common between the stars in our
galaxy even today and astronomers now identified them and think all stars, including the sun have
formed from them. Evidence from these clouds, especially cosmic gas suggests that first atmosphere
probably consisted mainly of Hydrogen (71%), helium (27%) as well as trace amounts of ammonia
and methane. This is called primordial atmosphere.

However, the gaseous elements that comprised this original atmosphere of the earth under went much
evolution. In the early stage of planet formation from interstellar clouds, solar and gravitational
effects probably resulted in accretion of some gases and the subsequent escape of others. When the
earth was formed some 4.6 billion years ago, it was probably too hot to retain any of the atmosphere
it had to begin with. Hydrogen and helium escaped from the earth’s atmosphere. In addition, the
lower gravitational force of the earths is unable to retain light gases such as hydrogen and helium.
Continuous outgassing, a process that expelled gases and other materials form the earth’s interior,
took place 4.6 billion years ago by volcanism and plate tectonics. Volcanoes particularly emitted
water vapor and carbon dioxide with a little bit of nitrogen. It produced the earth’s secondary
atmosphere. The vast amounts of water vapor formed clouds, which in turn produced rain. At this
time, the surface temperature was cool enough for water vapor to condense in to water. Over a period
of thousands of years, the rain accumulated as rivers lakes, basins and oceans. These water reservoirs

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 acted as sinks for large amounts of carbon dioxide and through chemical process become locked up
in the sedimentary rocks such as limestone. The nitrogen, which is not chemically active continued to
accumulate in the atmosphere. The earth’s atmosphere is unique among the planets of the solar
system since 02 has been added in the atmosphere over time. Oxygen is the by product of
photosynthesis. Early plant life, for example, blue-green algae, 2 billion years ago began
photosynthesis, converting water molecules and carbon dioxide plus sunlight in to oxygen. Unlike

other living organisms, these were anaerobic that were able to respire with out o2. How do we arrive
at today’s atmosphere?
The gases of the present day atmosphere are not a direct residue of the earliest form of the planet;
rather they are the evolutionary product of
• Volcanic eruption
• Gravitational losses
• Contribution from biosphere, including human activities and industrial revolution
• Solar effects
• Chemical weathering (chemical breakdown of solid materials )
• Cooling down of the earth and condensation

These processes acting sequentially and simultaneously appear to have produced the delicate balance
of 78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen and other trace gases we observe today. It is called oxidizing because
of the chemical reaction produced by oxygen. Evidences points to the stabilization of atmospheric
composition since Cambrain period, nearly 600 million years ago, till industrial revolution.

2.1.2 Nature of the Atmosphere

The atmosphere is a mixture of gases, suspending solids or particulates (impurities) and liquids (water
Vapor) that surrounds the earth like a blanket.
Atmosphere has the following characteristics: -
❖ Atmosphere has no color, odor or taste; it can’t be touched except when it is in motion; so, we
cannot see, smell or test air:
❖ It is mobile and can be compressed or expanded
❖ It is transplant to short wave radiation but can absorb long wave (infra-red) radiation
❖ It has weight and exerts pressure, since it can be compressed its decreases with altitude
The functions of atmosphere
❖ Without atmosphere: -
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 ✓ Life would be impossible on earth and living things would be as helpless as fish without water
✓ We would not survive for more than a few minutes (oxygen)
✓ There could be no clouds, winds and rains
❖ Atmosphere acts as a great canopy /shelter/ to protect the earth’s surface from the strong sun
radiation and prevent excessive loss of heat by night.
❖ The components of atmosphere (like ozone and atomic oxygen) filter (absorb) the harmful ultra violet
radiation of the sun.
❖ Atmosphere is also important to transmit sound from its source to our ears
❖ It protects the earth’s surface from the direct strike of meteors that reach in the thermosphere and
mesosphere burn from the heat generated by air friction.

2.2 Composition of the atmosphere

Components of atmosphere
The components of atmosphere refer to the constituents of various gases, suspended solids and liquid
(water- vapor). The components of the lower atmosphere can be classified as Permanent & Variable.
Permanent (constant) gases are relatively found in the same proportion but the variable ones are present
in different quantities at different time and place in the lower atmosphere

Gas Name Chemical Formula Percent Volume

Nitrogen N2 78.08%
Oxygen O2 20.95%
*Water H2O 0 to 4%
Argon Ar 0.93%
*Carbon Dioxide CO2 0.0360%
Neon Ne 0.0018%
Helium He 0.0005%
*Methane CH4 0.00017%
Hydrogen H2 0.00005%
*Nitrous Oxide N2O 0.00003%
*Ozone O3 0.000004%

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 *Variable gases

Average Composition of the Atmosphere Up to an Altitude of 25 Km.

% By
Gas volume Importance for weather & Other function (Source)
Climate
Nitrogen 78.09 Needs for plant growth
Permanent Oxygen 20.95 Produced by photosynthesis,
reduced by deforestation.
Carbon dioxide 0.03 Absorbs long wave radiation Used by plants for photo
from earth, keeps temperature synthesis;
steady; has greenhouse effect Increased by burning fossil fuels
Variable and by deforestation
Gases Water Vapor 0.2-4 Source of cloud formation& Can reach 4 %, can be stored as
perception, reflects (absorbs) ice/snow
incoming radiation
Ozone 0.00006 Absorbs incoming UV- Reduced / destroyed by
radiation chlorofluorocarbon CFCs
Inert Argon 0.93
Gases Helium, Trace
(Inactive Neon, krypton
gases)
Non Dust particles Trace Absorbs/ reflects incoming Volcanic dust, meteoritic dust,
gaseous radiation, forms condensation soil erosion by wind
nuclei necessary for cloud
formation
Pollutants Sulfur dioxide, Trace Affects radiation, causes acid From industry, power stations
Nitrogen oxide, rain and car exhausts
Methane, etc.

Variation of atmospheric Composition with Altitude

Which component parts of the atmosphere do you think show variation with altitude?
Some ingredients of the atmosphere like dust, water vapor and ozone vary with height. Most of the dust
particles and water vapor occur near the earth’s surface and, their amount decreases with increasing
altitude. Ozone is found in minute amounts near the surface of the earth. It is mainly concentrated
between 15 and 50 km above the earth. The greatest concentrations of ozone are found between about 20
and 25 km, although this gas is usually formed at higher levels(30-60Km) and transported down wards.
Water vapor comprises up to 4 per cent of the atmosphere by volume near the surface, but only 3 to 6
ppmv (parts per million by volume) above 10 to 12 km.
Variation of atmospheric composition with latitude and season: -
Water vapor and ozone are the atmospheric components which vary most with latitude and season.

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Water Vapor: -the amount of water vapor in the atmosphere is closely related to air temperature and
supply of water from the surface. Water vapor is therefore greatest in summer and in low latitudes with
the exception of tropical deserts.
Ozone: - in spring, ozone content of the atmosphere is low over the equator and high in sub polar
latitudes. This is due to the movement of ozone from its area of production at higher levels of the
atmosphere (30-40 Km) in low latitude towards low level (20-25 Km) in high latitude (sub polar region)
during winter months. At this time the ozone is stored during the long polar night giving rise under
natural conditions to an ozone- rich layer in early spring.
Variation of atmospheric composition with time
Due to the impact of biological and technological activities of people, the quantity of some gases, like
carbon dioxide, ozone, carbon monoxide, nitrous oxide, sulfur dioxide, hydrocarbons and Methane varies
through time.
Causes of variation
❖ Increasing industrialization and associated burning of fossil fuels: - the burning of coal, natural oil
and petroleum release carbon dioxide (CO2), add nitrogen or nitrogen oxide (NO2_) sulfur, carbon
monoxide, (CO) and methane (CH4) in to the atmosphere.
❖ Automobiles, air craft, use of chemical fertilizers can produce nitrous oxide (N20), Methane
(CH4)
❖ Agricultural practices like land clearance, farming and cattle rearing can also contribute to
modifying the atmosphere composition.
Human induced changes in the concentration of atmosphere trace gases
Gas Concentration (1950) Concentration 1985)
Carbon dioxide 280ppmv 345ppmv
Methane 0.7 -1 ppmv 1.7ppmv
Nitrous oxide 280ppbv 305ppbv
CFC 11 0ppbv 0.24ppbv
CFC 12 0ppbv 0.4ppbv
Ozone ? 10 -50ppbv
Ppmv – Parts per millions by volume; Ppbv – Parts per billion by volume

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2.3. Vertical structure of the Atmosphere: -
The atmosphere is divided vertically into four major layers mainly on the basis of vertical temperature
variation as;
1. Troposphere 2.3.3. Mesosphere
2. Stratosphere 2.3.4. Thermosphere

Vertical Structure of the Atmosphere

2.3.1 Troposphere
The name is derived from the Greek word “tropos” meaning to turn or mix because it has a great deal
of vertical mixing due to solar heating at the surface (describes the layer’s convective and mixing
characteristics).
Major characteristics of the Troposphere: -
➢ The lowest layer which surrounds the earth like blanket
➢ Temperature decreases with an increase in altitude(6.4oc/1000m) or 1OCper 156m
➢ Contains 75% of the total gaseous mass of the atmosphere (weather sphere)
➢ Most of the water vapour, cloud, and dust particles or aerosols are found in this layer.
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 ➢ the layer is unstable
➢ All clouds and precipitation, as well as, violent storms, are formed in this layer.
➢ Its upper part is called the tropopause (there is no change of temperature with altitude-is
constant).
➢ Its altitude varies from 16 km at the equator to 8 km at the poles.
➢ The transfer of heat (thermal convection) is greater near the equator than the poles due to the
high receipt of temperature from the sun and terrestrial radiation from the earth’s surface.
➢ It is the thermal expansion of the atmosphere that causes the higher vertical extension of the
troposphere near the equator than the poles.
➢ At all latitudes the altitude of the troposphere is higher in summer than in winter due to the
atmospheric expansion of high temperature.
Why temperature decreases with increasing of altitude in the troposphere? The main reasons are: -
➢ The lower atmosphere in the troposphere is heated by terrestrial re-radiation that is heat rising
from the surface of the earth not directly from the sun.
➢ So, in the troposphere, the higher we go from the lower atmosphere, the further we go from the
source of(terrestrial) heat.
➢ The density of the atmosphere (air) decreases with altitude.
2.3.2 Stratosphere
• The name is derived from the Latin ‘stratum’ meaning a layer – this describes its state of
non -convective nature.
• It extends upward from the tropopause to about 50km and accounts for about 10 per cent
of the atmospheric mass
• Temperature increases with altitude up to stratopause.
• Its upper part is called stratopause.
• Ozone gas is largely concentrated at about 30 km- called Ozonosphere
Can you suggest the reason why temperature increases with altitude in the stratosphere?
❖ The reason for the increased temperature in the stratosphere is that the atmosphere’s ozone is
concentrated in this layer- which absorbs ultraviolet radiation from the sun which is quite
hazardous to life. Ozone serves as a heat source through absorption of ultraviolet rays.

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 2.3.3 Mesosphere
❖ The name is derived from the Greek word ‘meso’ meaning ‘middle’.
❖ Extends upwards from a mean altitude of about 50 km to 80/85 km.
❖ Temperature falls rapidly with increasing altitude as there is no (or little) water vapour, dust or
Ozone to absorb the incoming radiation
❖ The top part (mesopause) has the lowest temperature close to-100oc; this layer is the coldest
zone of the atmosphere.
❖ Has the strongest wind speed nearly 3000 km/hr.
❖ Pressure is very low due to the lower density of the atmospheric molecules.
❖ The darkest part of the atmosphere due to the scarcity of the air molecules to reflect or scatter
radiation.
❖ Most meteorites which enter the mesosphere from space burn and disintegrate as they
experience increasing friction. Therefore, this layer has meteoritic dust particles.

2.3.4 Thermosphere- (Ionosphere & exosphere)

Extends upward from the mesopause and having no well-defined upper limit and temperature
continuously rises with increasing altitude throughout this layer. The increase of temperature in the
thermosphere is due to the reaction between ultra-violet radiation with atomic oxygen (O) and
molecular nitrogen (N2). These gases are abundant in the lower part of thermosphere (the ionosphere).
Molecular nitrogen (N2) and atomic oxygen (O) have the capacity to absorb the incoming very short
ultra-violet radiation (below 0.2 micro meters in wave length). When these gases absorb the rays of
the sun, they lose their electrons and the ionosphere becomes full of electrically charged particles. The
loss of electrons from an atom is called the ionization process. As these electrons move in the
thermosphere, they cause an inversion of temperature. The electrons of the ionosphere are also used
for communication because they can reflect radio-waves back to the earth’s surface (known as
ionospheric reflection of radio waves).In the upper layer of the thermosphere (exosphere), negatively
charged electrons increasingly separated from neutron and proton atoms by high energy radiation
from the sun. In the magnetosphere (the outer most layer of the thermosphere) there are only
electrons(negative) and protons (positive) derived from solar wind-plasma of electrically conducting
gas.

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2.4 Depletion of stratospheric Ozone (O3)

Ozone is a poisonous gas and at the same time it is essential to life. This statement appears
to contradictory. How can a poisonous gas be essential to life?

Ozone is a noxious or poisonous gas which is produced naturally by the combing of atomic
oxygen(O) with molecular oxygen(O2) by photochemical oxidants(the action of solar radiation on
oxygen molecules). That means in the upper atmosphere ozone involves photo-dissociation of normal
oxygen. The molecules are spilt in to pairs of separate single atoms by the impact of UV. These single
atoms can subsequently collide and combine with other normal oxygenO2 molecules to create ozone
O3. It affects the respiratory system of animals and humans and also reduces plant growth. One of the
most important of these reactions involves formation of single (atomic) oxygen by splitting either
molecular oxygen (O2) or nitrogen dioxide (NO2). This single oxygen then reacts with another
molecule of oxygen (O2) to make ozone (O3). Most of the ozone is created (produced) over the
equator and the tropics because this is where solar radiation is strongest. However, winds within the
stratosphere transport the ozone towards the polar regions where it tends to concentrate.

O2+Uv O+O Photochemical dissociation

NO2+Uv NO+O
O2+O O3 Natural formation of Ozone.

Ozone in the upper atmosphere, however, is vital to life. This ozone forms by the action of ultraviolet
light from the Sun on molecules of ordinary oxygen. The ozone layer absorbs ultraviolet radiation so
that much of it never reaches the ground. Certain industrial compounds cause ozone to break down,
opening holes in the ozone layer and exposing life on the ground to dangerous levels of ultraviolet
radiation. A single atom of chlorine, for example, floating about in the upper atmosphere, can destroy
hundreds of thousands of molecules of ozone because the chlorine acts as a catalyst and is not itself
altered in the process

As Ozone is created at the higher level of the atmosphere, it sinks down to the stratosphere.
Stratospheric Ozone provides a protective layer that serves a vital function. It absorbs the wave length
of solar radiation known as ultraviolet-B (Uv-B).Uv-B damages deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), the
genetic molecule found in every living cell; increasing the risk of such problem as cancer in humans.
Without this shield, organisms on the earth’s surface would be subjected to life threatening radiation
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burns and genetic damage. A one percent loss of the ozone results in a two percent increase in Uv
reaching the earth’s surface and could result in about a million extra human skin cancers per year
worldwide if no protective measures are taken. Stratospheric ozone is destroyed in the following ways
(Anthropogenically influenced chemical reactions which result in ozone destruction)

1. O3 +O3 3O2
O3+O O2+O2 (Natural)
2. O3+NO O2+NO2
O+NO2O2+NO*
3. O3+H O2+HO
O+HO O2+H*
4. O3+Br O2+Bro
O+BrO O2+Br*
5. O3+Cl O2+ClO
O+ClO O2+Cl*

* Cl, H, NO and Br re-appear to act again O3 without changing themselves.

These substances or radicals (Cl, Br, NO,H) come from source gases. Source gases are gases which
carry the substance that actively destroy Ozone. The source gases include-CFCs, N2O, CH4 (methane),
CC14 (carbon tetra chloride), chloroform (CCl3H) Methyl chloroform (C2H3Cl3), chloromethane
(CH3Cl). The source gases are emitted from ground level naturally or/and anthropogenically. CFCs
are widely used in refrigeration and air conditioning (Freon), in foam and plastic manufacturing, in
aerosol sprays. CFCs are broken down by Ultraviolet radiation once they reach the ozonosphere. A
single Chlorine (Cl) atom can destroy tens of thousands of ozone molecules since they are unchanged
by the reaction and can repeat the process of attacking ozone.
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)
• are non-toxic, non-flammable, and non-carcinogenic
• contain fluorine atoms, carbon atoms, and chlorine atoms
• the five main CFCs are: -
CFC-11(trichloro fluromethane-CFCl3)
CFC-12 (dichloro difluromethane-CF2Cl2)
CFC-113 (trichloro-trifluoroethane-C2F3Cl3)
CFC-114 (dichloro-tetra fluoroethane-C2F4Cl2)
CFC-115 (chloropentafluoroethane-C2F5Cl)

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 Scientists developed the first CFCs during the late 1920s. The compounds subsequently became
used in a wide range of industrial products in the United States, Europe, and Japan.
Manufacturers used CFCs as refrigerants in refrigerators, freezers, air conditioners, and heat
pumps, and as propellants in aerosols and medical inhalers. CFCs also served as insulating
foams in packaging materials, furniture, bedding, and car seats. Cleaning agents for electronic
circuit boards, metal parts, and dry-cleaning processes also used CFCs.

The unit used to measure ozone amount is called Dobson Unit (DU), named after the atmospheric
ozone pioneer G.M.B Dobson who carried out the earliest studies on ozone in the atmosphere from
the 1920s to the 1970s, which is equivalent to 2.7x1016 molecules of O3/Cm2 and a station used to
observe amount of ozone is called Dobson station (The Halley Bay station in Antarctica is a good
example).TOMS-(Total ozone mapping spectrometer) helps to know the amount of ozone is a certain
area.

Ozone hole is severe within 12-24 km of altitude over Antarctica, south of 650S latitude, due to:-
1. Unique meteorology of Antarctica Stratosphere- starting from autumn (end of March)
temperature falls very much in the South Polar Region. This leads for the formation of Polar Vortex
(PV)-strong westerly wind that moves around the polar region extending up to 60OS. The polar Vortex
isolate the south polar air being mixed with ozone rich air from the lower latitudes. Therefore, the rate
of destruction is very high since there is no replacement from the area of production.
2.Unique Chemistry of the Antarctic Stratosphere-temperature of less than -80oC in Antarctic
Stratosphere creates ice particles called Polar Stratospheric Clouds (PSCs) that causes chemical
reaction which in turn results a decomposition of source gases in to active radicals like Cl, Br, H,No
that attack Ozone. PSCs provide an ideal catalytic surface on which the chlorine can react with the
ozone.

Concentration (1986) and atmospheric life time of the CFCs

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 Compound Cl atoms Concentration Lifetime Ozone
per (ppt) (years) depletion
molecule potential ODP
CFC-11 (CFCl3) 3 226 60 1
CFC-12 (CF2Cl2) 2 329 120 0.9-1
CFC-113 3 32 90 0.8-0.9
(C2F3Cl3)
CFC-114 2 5 200 0.6-0.8
(C2F4Cl2)
CFC-115 1 4 400 0.3-0.5
(C2F3Cl)
CCl4 4 129 50 1-1.2
C2H3Cl3 3 139 6.3 0.1-0.2
HCFC-22 1 9 15.3 0.05
N.B Ozone depletion potential of CFCs depends on its atoms of Cl.
Ozone hole is more serious problem in Antarctica than the Arctic due to:-
✓ Arctic is an ocean surrounded by mountains continents-means stratospheric circulations is
much more irregular; the temperature does not fall as low as it does in the Antarctica.
✓ Stratospheric clouds are less common in arctic

Consequences of Ozone Depletion

1. Climatic change
➢ Cooling of the stratosphere could result in change of the temperature structure of the
atmosphere- which in turn could change the global circulation.
➢ Re-distribution of ozone due to Uv- Radiation to the troposphere may result in enhancing global
warming.
➢ Depletion of ozone layer leads into further cooling of stratosphere and it might lead again to the
strengthening of polar vertex and polar stratospheric clouds which in turn leads into further depletion
of ozone.
2. Human Health.
➢ 1 % depletion of ozone can result for increase of UV-B radiation to reach the earth’s surface by 2%.
➢ An increase in the incidence of skin cancer (ultraviolet radiation can destroy acids in DNA). UV-B
causes two types of skin cancer called melanoma and non-melanoma that are mainly problem of white
skinned people. Dark -skinned people have a substance called Melanin (filter the UV-B).
➢ A large increase in eye-cataracts and Sun burning.
➢ Suppresses the natural human immune system (DNA) towards many diseases.
3. Terrestrial plants
➢ Reduced their rate of growth.
17
 ➢ Decrease photosynthesis efficiency
➢ Decrease their yield & productivity
➢ Change in the ecosystem balance.
➢ Cause a change of chemicals in plants.
4. Aquatics ecosystem

➢ Reduction in the growth of phytoplankton found in the Earth's oceans.

➢ Disrupts the aquatic food chain by killing micro-organisms and plankton on the water bodies
Ways to protect the ozone layer: -
❖ Minimizing the emission of Ozone Depleting Chemicals (ODCs)
❖ Using carbon dioxide, water or dry chemical extinguisher

18
 Chapter 3the Radiation Budget and Energy system of the Earth

3.1 Solar radiation/energy (insolation)

3.2 Mechanism of heat transfer
3.3 Global and surface radiation budget.
3.4 Factors affecting incoming solar radiation.
3.5 Greenhouse Gases and Global Warming.
3.6 Air temperature(Measurements, Factors, distribution etc)

3.1 Solar radiation: Source and Methods of transfer

The sun consists of mostly light gases-hydrogen & helium. The sun is a giant celestial furnace. Its
core is extremely hot, with a temperature estimated to be 15 million degree Celsius. The sun is
generating its heat through a process known as nuclear fusion by which two atoms ofhydrogen fuse
together to form one atom of helium. This thermonuclear process (reaction) releases a
tremendousamount of energy, which is continually transmitted into space in a wave form called
Electromagnetic waves- this is formed due to the disturbance of the magnetic field of the earth.The
earth receives less than 1/2,000,000,000 of the total out put of the solar energy. This smallfraction
amounts to about 6x1027 calories per minute. It is this radiant energy emitted from thesun, traveling at
the speed of 300,000 kms/sec (speed of light) and received by the earth whatwe call solar
radiation/insolation- incoming solar radiation/. Heat energy is commonly measured using a unit
called calorie (cal). One calorie is the amount of energy needed to raise the temperature of one gram
of water by one degree-Celsius.

To better appreciate how the sun’s radiant energy interacts with the earth’s atmosphere and surface,
we must have a general understanding of the basic laws governing radiation or Principlesof
radiation.
▪ All objects emit radiation as long as their temperature is above absolute zero (zero Kelvin
or273oc)
▪ Hotter objects radiate more total energy per unit area than colder objects.
▪ When the temperature of the body increases, its emission potential also increases.
▪ Objects that are good absorbers (black objects) of radiation are good emitters as well.
▪ As substances get hotter; the wave length at which radiation is emitted will become
shorter. (As the temperature of the body increase, the wave length decrease; the length of
waves emitted bya certain body is inversely related to the temperature of the body- the
higher the temperature of the body the shorter the wave length of the radiation emitted and
vice versa).
This is called Wien’s displacement law which can be represented as:-

19
 Km= a/T
Km= is the wave length at which the peak radiation occurs in the spectrum.
T= absolute temperature of the body in kelvin.
a= a constant with a value of 2898 if Km is expressed in micrometers (1µm =0.000001m or10-6m).
E.g. Temperature of sun = 6000oK
a 2898
Km= = = 0.48  0.5m(micrometer )
T 6000
Earth = 15oc+273= 288ok
a 2898
= = 10m( 20timeslongerthnathemax imumsizeorradiation
T 288
Km=

a 2898
Atmosphere 250ok = = 12 m
T 250

Wave length is the horizontal distance between two consecutive crests.

Crest wave crest

lengt

The whole range of possible wave length from the smallest to the largest is known as electromagnetic
spectrum that includes.
✓ Cosmic rays = very strong ( wave length less than gamma)
✓ Gamma rays = up to 0.0001 m
✓ X-rays = 0.0001 –slightly grater than 0.01 m
✓ UV-rays= 0.01 to >0.1 m
✓ Visible light =  0.4 – 0.7 m
✓ Infrared radiation= 0.7 to slightly greater than 100 m
✓ Micro wave= 100 m -100 mm
✓ Short radio wave =100mm-100m
✓ Standard Radio broad casts= 100 m-1000m
✓ Long radio wave = 1000 m-10,000m.
The visible radiation has seven different colors from the smallest violent (0.4) to largest red (0.7)
asVIBGYOR= Violet, Indigo, Blue, Green, yellow, Orange, Red
3.2 Mechanisms of heat transfer
Heat can be transferred either by radiation, conduction or convection.
20
1) Radiation
➢ The only mechanism in which heat can travel through the relative emptiness of space in a
wave form-without the aid of an intervening medium.
➢ The vast majority of energy coming to and leaving the earth is in this form.
➢ It plays an important role in transferring heat from the earth’s surface to the atmosphere
and vice versa.
2) Conduction
➢ is the transfer of heat through matter by molecular activity. The energy of
moleculesistransferred through collisions from one molecule to another, with the heat
flowingfrom the higher temperature to the lower temperature. The principle is that when
two molecules of unequal temperature are in contact with one another, heat passes from the
warmer to the cooler until they attain the same temperature.
➢ heat transmission through a medium by contact of the minute particles of which the
medium is composed.
➢ is more common in objects of solid state.
➢ It is only important between the earth’s surface and the air directly in contact with
thesurface.
➢ As a means of heat transfer for the atmosphere as a whole, it is the least significant.
3. Convection
➢ It is the transfer of heat by the movement of a mass or substance from one place to another
(heat transmission by the actual motion of the heated body or the transfer of heat by the
mass movement of a fluid like water and air).
➢ It can only take place in liquids and gases (because they can move freely).
➢ Convection motions in the atmosphere are responsible for the redistribution of heat from
equatorial regions to the poles and from the surface upwards.
❖ Advection- horizontal motions such as winds, ocean currents.
❖ Convection - vertical motion in the atmosphere.

One crude, but commonly used analogy summaries the mechanisms of heat transfer. Consider that an
object is give to the first person in the line:-.
❖ The first person may simply throw the object to the last person, with no one
involved that would be radiation.
21
 ❖ The first person may pass it along from one person to the next which would be
conduction, or
❖ The person may himself walk over and hand it to the last person, which would be
convection.

Mechanisms of Heat Transfer

Heat can be transferred by three processes: conduction, convection, and radiation. Conduction is the
transfer of heat along a solid object; it is this process that makes the handle of a poker hot, even if only the
tip is in the fireplace. Convection transfers heat through the exchange of hot and cold molecules; this is
the process through which water in a kettle becomes uniformly hot even though only the bottom of the
kettle contacts the flame. Radiation is the transfer of heat via electromagnetic (usually infrared) radiation;
this is the principal mechanism through which a fireplace warms a room. Radiation and convection are
important to the movement of energy through the Sun.

3.3 The Global and Surface radiation budget

Much of the incoming radiation does not reach on the earth’s surface. It is absorbed, reflected or
scattered as it passes through the atmosphere:-
Absorption - Absorption of insolation is manly by ozone, water vapour, carbon dioxide, particles of
ice and dust.
Reflection – clouds and to a lesser extent, the earth’s surfaces reflect considerable amounts of
radiation back in to space. The ratio between incoming radiation and the amount reflected, expressed
as a percentage, is known as the albedo (reflected radiation/incoming radiation x 100).
22
Scattering- occurs when the incoming radiation is diverted by molecules of gas. It takes place in all
direction and some will reach the earth’s surface as diffuse radiation.
Incoming solar
radiation 100%

Small amount absorbed in

Stratosphere (1%) clouds absorb 3% & reflect 23%

scattering 21% 24% absorb by the atmosphere

(reaches earth as diffuse
radiation, remainder scattered
back in to space).24% of incoming radiation
Directly reaches the
earth’s surface
Small amounts (4%)
reflected back into space from the
Earth’s surface.

45% of insolation reaches earth’s surface either directly (24%) or as diffuse radiation(21%).

The solar energy cascade

Source- Geography an integrated approach(P.169)

Global modification of incoming solar radiation by atmospheric and surface processes

3.4Factors affecting insolation /incoming solar radiation/

23
The sun is the earth’s prime source of energy. The earth receives energy as incoming short –wave
solar radiation (also referred to as insolation). It is this energy which controls our planet’s climate and
weather and which, when converted by photosynthesis in green plants, supports all forms of life.
The amount of incoming radiation received by the earth is determined by four astronomical factors
(assuming there is no atmosphere-because thicknesses of cloud covers, water vapour content, amount
of dust etc also affect the amount of incoming radiation) as:-
The solar constant (solar out put)
Distance from the sun (the sun-earth distance)
The altitude of the sun in the sky
The length of night time & day time

SUN

Prime source of energy on earth and through photosynthesis of life

Affects climate- atmospheric motion (winds), ocean currents, typeand amount of Precipitation,
temperature etc

Incoming short wave solar radiation

The amount of insolation received by the earthdepends upon:-

Solar constant Distance from the sun altitude of the sun length of day
in the sky & night
Incoming radiation received by the earth (assuming there is no atmosphere)
(Source: Geography an integrated approach P.169)
24
 1.the solar constant:- The energy released from the sunvaries from 1.95 Ca/Cm2/minute to 2
Ca/Cm2/minute due to sunspot activity (dark region in the outer part of the sun- they are dark only in
contrast to the photosphere surrounding), but itis relatively constant; affects long term climate rather
than short term weather.
Sunspots
The photosphere of the Sun appears here in
false colors. Sunspots and other solar activity
appear yellow, although they would normally
appear as dark spots. Sunspots are often
larger than 32,000 km (20,000 mi) and
appear in cycles of 11 years. Solar activity,
including the appearance of sunspots, is
associated with changing magnetic fields on
the Sun.

2.Distance from the sun: -the eccentric orbit of the earth around the sun can cause 6% difference in
solar energy

3. Altitude of the sun in the sky: -each bundle has twice the area to heat up at 60oN than on
Equator, therefore temperatures are lower. Also less atmosphere to pass through at Equator, there
fore less heat absorbed(reflected).

25
 4. Length of day and night:- due to earth being tilted at 23 ½0 ,pole ward of 66 ½ 0 N&S, there are
0
several months with no insolation. Between 23 ½ and 66 ½ 0N&S there is one radiation
maximum and one minimum. Between 23 ½ 0 N and S there are two radiation maxima (March
21stand September 23rd) and two minima (June 21st and December 22nd).

Example 1.Length of day time (Northern Hemisphere)

Latitude 00 100 200 400 600 900

Jan.15 12 11.35 11.02 9.37 6.38 0
June 15 12 12.42 13.20 15 18.49 >24

26
In the Northern Hemisphere, days become longer than nights starting from March 22nd up to
September 22nd; and nights are longer than days starting from September 24th to March 20th.In the
Southern hemisphere, days become longer starting from September 24th to March 20th; and nights are
longer than days starting from March 22nd to September 22nd.The North Pole and South Pole have six
months of sunshine and six months of darkness.
✓ North pole-sunshine-March 22nd- September 22nd
✓ South pole-sunshine-September 24th –March 20th.

3.5 Greenhouse effect, Global warming and climate change

The greenhouse effect is naturally occurring process that aids the heating of the earth’s surface and
atmosphere. It results from the fact that certain atmospheric gases, such as Carbon dioxide,
watervapor , and methane ,are capable of changing the energy balance of the planet by being able to
absorb long wave radiation from the earth’s surface.The gases act like the glass of a green house to
trap heat and maintain higher interior temperatures than would normally occur. Without the green
house effect, it is not possible to sustain life on this planet as the average temperature of the earth

27
would be -18OC rather than the present 15OC. In shortgreenhouse gases have a low capacity for
transmitting long-wave radiation, and as their concentrations in the atmosphere increase, more
terrestrial radiation is retained in the lower atmosphere, there by raising the temperature.
The heating of the ground by sunlight causes the earth’s surface to become a radiator of energy in the
long wave band (infrared radiation). The majority of the outgoing infrared radiation is absorbed by a
few naturally occurring atmospheric gases known as greenhouse gases. Absorption of this energy
causes additional heat energy to be added to the earth’s atmospheric system. The warmer atmospheric
greenhouse gas molecules begin radiating long wave energy in all directions. Over 90% of this
emission of long wave energy is directed back to the earth’s surface.

Reflected by earth’s some long wave is lost to space

surface to space

Green House Gases

Solar Energy converted into heat surface gains more heat surface gains more heat
Absorbed at causing the emision of and long wave raditaion and long wave
Surface long wave radiation is emmitted again radiation is emmited
again.
Green house effect
Global warming means an increase in atmospheric temperature due to the successive absorption and
emission of infrared radiation and it is direct result of an overall increasing of the concentration of
greenhouse gases in the earth’s atmosphere. Greenhouse gases easily allow shortwave radiation but
they protect the release of long wave radiation.
Green Concentration %cha Natural and anthropogenic sources
house % 1750 2003 nge
gas
Carbon 55 280ppm 376ppm 34 Organic decay, forest fires, volcanoes,
dioxide burning fossil fuels, deforestation,
land use change, cement production
Methane 15 0.71ppm 1.79ppm 152 Wet land, organic decay, termites,

28
 natural gas and oil extraction,
biomass burning, rice cultivation,
cattle refuse, landfills
Nitrous 6 270ppb 319ppb 18 Forests, grasslands, oceans,soils,soil
oxide cultivation, ,fertilizers,biomass
burning,burning of fossil fuels
CFCs 24 0 900ppt Refrigerators, aerosol spray
propellants, cleaning solvents, foam
and plastic production
Ozone Created naturally by the action of
sunlight on molecular oxygen and
artificially through photochemical
smog production
Source: Environmental studies (P.232)

• Global levels of ozone have generally decreased in the stratosphere and increased near the earth’s
surface in recent years.
• Methane trapping over 20 times, Nitrous oxide 300 times, Fluorinated compounds several
thousands times more heat than does the same amount of CO2
Major Greenhouse Gases
. water vapor, carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide
. CFCs, Hydrochloroflurocarbons (HCFCs), Hydro fluorocarbons (HFCs)
Water vapor - most common greenhouse gas which reaches the atmosphere through evaporation
from oceans, lakes, rivers etc. It accounts for about 60-70% of the natural greenhouse effect.
Carbon dioxide
- volcanic eruption, decay of plant and animal matter
- respiration (exhaled from animals in to the environment)
- burning of objects that contain carbon like fossil fuels, oil, coal, natural gas, wood & wood
products, solid wastes
Methane
- decomposition of carbon-containing substances found in oxygen-free environments ,such as
wastes in landfills release methane
- ruminating animals like cattle and sheep belch methane in to the air as a byproduct of digestion
- microorganisms that live in damp soils such as rice fields, produce methane when they break
down organic matter
- emitted during coal mining and the production &transport of other fossil fuels
- trap 20 times more heat than the same amount of CO2
29
 Nitrous Oxide
- released by the burning of fossil fuels
- automobile exhaust is a large source of this gas
- nitrogen containing fertilizers emit nitrous oxide when they break down in the soil
- plowing fields also release nitrous oxide
- trap 300 times more heat than the same amount of CO2
Fluorinated compounds
- aerosol sprays, foam &plastic packing materials
- solvents, refrigerants
- trap several thousand times more heat than the same amount of CO2
Effects of global warming
Some effects associated with the enhanced greenhouse effect and the associated global warmingare:-
Water resource
- the quality and quantity of drinking water, water availability for irrigation, industrial use and
electricity generation and aquatic life may be significantly affected by changes in precipitation
and increased evaporation.
- Increased rainfall may cause more frequent flooding
- Climate change would likely add stress to major river basins world wide
Coastal resources
- an estimated 50 cm rise in sea level by the year 2100 could inundate more than 5 000 miles of dry land
- sea level changes will complicate life in many coastal regions
Health
- heat stress mortality could increase due to higher temperatures over longer periods
- changing patterns of precipitation and temperature may produce new breeding sites for pests,
shifting the ranges of infections diseases

Energy and transportation

- warmer temperatures increase cooling demand (high rate of refrigerator usage-more CFCs) but
decrease heating requirements
- water transport may be affected by increases flooding or lowered river levels
weather
- weather patterns are expected to be less predictable and more extreme
- an increase of temperature by about 2OC
- changes in prevailing winds and precipitation
Vegetation

30
 - the rise of atmospheric carbon dioxide concentration should cause increase photosynthesis,
growth and productivity of the earth’s vegetation
- higher temperatures and precipitation changes could increase forest susceptibility to fire, disease
and insect damage
Clouds and water vapor
- global warming will lead to an increase in the amount of water vapor in the atmosphere and
because water vapor is a power full greenhouse gas, this will lead to an increase in the warming
Sea ice
- increased temperatures would tend to melt ice and result in increased absorption of solar energy by
the ocean

Efforts to Control Global Warming

Major approaches to slowing the buildup of greenhouse gases:-
▪ keeping carbon dioxide out of the atmosphere by storing the gas or its carbon component
somewhere else, a strategy called carbon sequestration such as by preserving and planting
more trees
▪ reducing the production of greenhouse gases like imposing heavy taxes on energy usage.
For example Norway taxes industries according to the amount of carbon dioxide they emit.
▪ creating awareness in the society

3.6 Air Temperature

Incoming solar radiation is converted in to heat energy when it reaches the earth’s surface. As the
ground warms, it radiates energy back into the atmosphere where 94 percent is absorbed (only 6% is
lost to space) mainly by water vapour and carbon dioxide ( the green house effect) .This out going
(terrestrial) radiation is long-wave or infra-red radiation.
Air temperature is referring to the motion of air molecules. The ultimate source of energy that sets the
air molecules into motion is the energy we get from the sun-the radiant energy. Most of the direct heat
that warms the atmosphere, especially the lowest layer of the atmosphere, comes not from the sun but
from the earth’s surface.
There is a positive heat balance with in the tropics (between 35oS and 40oN) and a negative heat
balance both at high latitudes and high altitudes, so two major transfers of take place to prevent the
tropical areas from overheating and polar areas from over cooling.
1. Horizontal heat transfers: - to prevent the equator from becoming increasingly hot and the poles
becoming colder,heat transferred away from the tropics.Winds (air movements including Jet streams,
31
hurricanes and depressions) are responsible for 80 percent of this heat transfer, and ocean currents for
20 percent.
2. Vertical heat transfers:-heat is transferred vertically through radiation, conduction, convection
and the transfer oflatent heat, so that the earth’s surface does not get hotter and the atmosphere colder.
3.6.1Global factors affecting air temperature distribution: Variations in the radiation (air
temperature) balance occur due to a number of long term & short term factors.
1. Long term factors:-
The effect of the atmosphere- while passing through the atmosphere a solar beam gets depleted
because of reflection, absorption and scattering
Height above sea level (Altitude) – the atmosphere is not warmed directly by the sun but by heat
radiated from the earth’s surface and distributed by conduction and convention. The denser
atmosphere at lower altitudes absorbs the heat as it is released from the ground. At higher altitudes the
air is thinner, so there is a rapid transfer of heat through the air. The rate at which the temperature
decreases with altitude is fairly constant at 6.5oc per 1000 meters, or 1oc per 156 meters. This is
known as the environmental lapse rate which refers to temperature conditions existing in astationary
column of air at a given place.
There are three essential causes for the decrease in air temperature with increase in elevation:-
➢ The major source of heat for the air, especially the lowest layer of the atmosphere, is the earth.
With increasing distance from the source of heat, the air temperature decrease.
➢ The density of water vapour, the most important component of the atmosphere thatabsorbs
much of the terrestrial radiation decreases with elevation so that less heat canbe held at higher
elevations.
➢ Temperature decreases result from expansion of air rising from the earth’s surface.
Latitude (Altitude of the sunand albedo)
As the angle of the sun in the sky decreases:-
➢ The land area to be heated by a given ray and the depth of atmosphere through whichthat ray
has to pass increases.
➢ The amount of insolations loss through absorption, scattering and reflection isincreased.
Placesin lower latitudes, therefore, have higher temperatures than those in higher latitudes.Where the
beam meets the surface at right angles, the light is concentrated but where ismeets the surface at an
oblique angle then the light is diffused.In addition, the albedo is higher in Polar Regions because snow
and ice are very reflective and low angle sunlight is easily reflected from water surfaces.
Land and sea (Distance from the sea)
32
Land and sea differ in their ability to absorb, transfer and radiate heat energy. The sea (water) is
capable of absorbing heat down to a depth of 10 m as it is more transparent than land, and can then
transfer this heat to greater depths through the movement of waves and currents.During summer, the
sea heats up more slowly than the land. On cooling in winter, the reverse takes place and land surfaces
lose heat energy more rapidly than water. So, temperature variations are considerably greater overland
than over water.The ocean act as efficient ‘thermal reservoirs’. Coastal environments have a lower
annual range of temperature than location at the centre of continents.

Water does not heat as rapidly as a land surface because:-

✓ The water surface reflects a lot of light
✓ Land surfaces are opaque, so heat is absorbed only at the surface. Water, being more
transparent, allows heat to penetrate to a depth of many meters- so that a large volume is
heated.
✓ The water is mobile with circulating currents which help to disperse the heat.
✓ Evaporation (a cooling process) from the water bodies is greater than that from land surfaces.
✓ The specific heat of water is greater than the specific heat of land surfaces. There fore it takes
more heat to warm it up. (The specific heat of a substance is the amount of heat required to
raise the temperature of 1 gram of the substance through 1Oc- expressed in kilo joules per kg
per Oc)
Eg- specific heat capacity of
Water = 4.2 KJ/Kg 1OC (1 kilo calories), Soil = 2.1 KJ/Kg 1OC (0.5 kilo calories),
Sand = 0.84 KJ/Kg 1OC (0.2 kilo calories

Prevailing Winds
The temperature of a wind is determined by the area where it originates and by characteristics of the
surface over which it subsequently blows. A wind blowing from the sea tends to be warmer in winter
but cooler in summer than the corresponding wind blowing from the land, winds blowing from polar
areas towards low latitudes have a cooling effect.
Ocean Currents
These are a major component in the process of horizontal transfer of heat energy. Warm currents carry
water pole wards and raise the air temperature of maritime environments to where they flow.Cold
currents carry water towards the equator and so lower the temperature of coastal areas.
2. Short term factors

33
Seasonal changes- at the spring and autumn equinoxes (21st March and 22nd September) when the sun
is directly over the equator, insolation is distributed equally between both hemispheres. At the
summer and winter solstices ( 21st June and 22nd December) when the sun is overhead at the tropics,
the hemisphere experiencing ‘summer’ will receive maximum insolation.
Length of day and night-insolation is only received during daylight hours and reaches its peak at
noon. A difference in the length of day light time causes a variation in the amount of temperature.
3. Local influences on insolation
Aspect- Hillsides alter the angle at which the sun’s rays hit the ground. North-facing slopes, being in
shadow for most or all of the year, are cooler in the Northern hemisphere than those facing South.
North and South facing slopes are referred to as the ad ret and ubac respectively. The steeper the
South facing slope, the higher the angle of the sun’s rays and the higher the temperature in the
Northern hemisphere.

Ubac (a Franch word): refers to a mountain slope that is shaded from the sun’s rays due to the fact
that it faces more or less pole wards; the contrast in light and warmth with a sunny slope is
therefore considerable.

Adret (a Franch word): a mountain slope that faces more or less equator wards and being largely
Cloud cover- the presence of cloud reduces both incoming and out going radiation. The thicker the
exposed to the sun’s rays, receives considerable light and warmth during the day.
cloud the greater the amount of absorption, reflection and scattering of insolation, and of terrestrial
radiation. Clouds may reduce day time temperatures, but they also act as an insulating blanket to
retain heat at night.
Nature of land surface-different land surfaces absorb varying amounts of incoming solar energy,
which in turn cause variations in the temperature of the air above it. These include soil types,
vegetation cover etc.
Temperature Inversions :- As the study of the lapse rates has shown, the temperature normally
decreases with height, but there are certain conditions when this doesn't occur and the temperature
rises with height. This is called a temperature inversion. Temperature inversions occur when warm air
overlies colder air.

Major Temperature Inversions:- temperatures increase with height in two levels of theatmosphere ,
the stratosphere and the thermosphere.
✓ The stratosphere contains the majority of the ozone in the atmosphere. As ozone absorbs
ultraviolet light from the solar radiation it becomes warm and so the temperatures in this
level rise with height.
34
 ✓ The rise in temperature in the thermosphere is due to the absorption of solar radiation by
molecular oxygen.
Minor Temperature Inversions: temperature inversions can also occur in the troposphere, near
the ground and at high levels.
✓ High level inversions are found in depressions where the warm air is forced up over the
cold air as the warm front is undercut by the cold front.
✓ Low level/ ground inversions are normally found in anticyclonic conditions when there is a
rapid heat loss at night due to radiation or when warm air passes over a cold surface. These
conditions often lead to fog and frost may form in valley and hollows.

✓ Advection inversion- when there is a horizontal inflow of cold air in to an area

✓ Cold-air-drainage inversion- when cooler air slides down a slope in to a valley,
thereby displacing slightly warmer air.

3.6.2 Air Temperature: Measurement and Recording

The temperature of the air may be recorded using a maximum and minimum thermometer. Mean
(daily, monthly & annual) temperature calculated based on the daily maximum & daily minimum
temperature. Mean daily temperature is the average of the maximum and minimum temperature for
one day. Mean monthly temperature is the average of the mean daily temperatures for all the days in a
month.Daily range of air temperature is the difference between the daily maximum and daily
minimum temperature. Annual range of air temperature is the difference between the highest and
lowest mean monthly temperatures.Large daily range is a typical feature of an arid region far from the
influence of water birdies. But it is small in coastal stations & polar areas because there is a
moderating effect of winds blowing from the adjacent ocean towards the coasts. As for polar areas the
temperature is uniformly low with minor fluctuations throughout the day. In the arid environments the
day time high temperature and the night time low temperature conditions result in the occurrence of
high daily range.

Air Temperature Scales: -The common systems of scales or units in measuring air temperature are:-
✓ Fahrenheit (after Gabzel Fahrenheit),
✓ Celsius (after Andres Celsius) and
✓ Kelvin
O
C= (OF-32) 5/9 O
F= 9/5 (OC+32)OK= OC+273
= OK-273 = 9/5 (OK-273) +32= 5/9 (OF-32) +273

35
 o o o
C K F
Boiling point 100 373 212
Freezing point 0 273 32

3.6.3 World Distribution of Temperature

Temperature distribution is shown on a map by using isotherms, which are lines that connect places of
equal temperature. Since temperature do not fluctuate as much over water as over land, the North –
South migration of isotherms is greater over the continents than over the oceans. In addition, it is clear
that the isotherms in the southern hemisphere, where there is little land and the oceans predominate,
are much more regular than in the Northern hemisphere.Isotherms also reveal the presence of ocean
currents-warm currents cause isotherms to be deflected toward the pole, where as cold currents cause
an equator ward bending.
Causes of isotherm irregularity:-
✓ Contrast in heating between land and ocean at the same latitude.
✓ Ocean currents with contrasting temperature.

36
Chapter 4.Atmospheric circulation
4.1 Atmospheric Pressure
Air pressure in short can be defined as forceof air per unit area (the force exerted by the weight of the
air per unit area as a result of gravity) .Pressure is measured in units known as millibars (mb) and the
pressure at sea level is 1013 mb or 760 mm(76 cm) or 29.9 inch. Pressure is proportional to density
(altitude) and temperature of air.
Measuring Atmospheric pressure
Air pressure is measured by an instrument called barometer. There are three types of barometers,
namely:Mercury barometer, Aneroid barometer and Barograph
Mercury barometer
It was developed by Evangelist Torricelli in 1643 (he was a student of the famous Italian scientist
Galileo). It comprises a column of mercury in a glass tube calibrated in to units. The air above the
tube exerts pressure on this mercury and its level varies accordingly.It is highly accurate and widely
used throughout the world.

37
 Mercury Barometer
A mercury barometer is an accurate and relatively simple way to measure changes in atmospheric
pressure. At sea level, the weight of the atmosphere forces mercury 760 mm (29.9 in) up a calibrated
or divided in to units glass tube.
Since air pressure is compressible and due to the action of gravity, gases is denser near the surface.
The lower layers of the atmosphere are the densest because the weight of the layers above rests on top
of them.

Alititude(m) Pressure(mb) Alititude(m) Pressure(mb)

0 1013.2 5000 540.4
1000 898.8 8000 356.5
2000 795 10 000 265
3000 701.2 50 000 0.78
4000 616.6 100 000 0.0003
Horizontal pressure distribution
There is a temporal /seasonal and spatial / geographical variation of air pressure due to the following
factors.
➢ Differential heating that produces density contrasts (temperature)
➢ Redistribution of mass by the atmospheric circulation
➢ Differences in water vapour content in the atmosphere
➢ Differences in the force of gravity from latitude to latitude ( force of gravity is maximum at the
poles and minimum at the equator)
➢ Solar radiation and the gravitational pull of the sun & moon induce atmospheric tides and
regular variations of pressure with time

Origins for pressure

Thermal origins:- Pressure differcence due to temprature contrasts. Areas of high air temprature are
regions of low atmospheric pressure and vice versa.
Dynamic origins:- Caused by gravity ( result of rising and descending of air)

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 Generalization
Warm/cold surface conditions often produce low/high pressure at the surface respectivly (thermal )
Rising /descending air often produces low/high pressure at the surface (dynamic).

Pressure system of the world

i.Sub tropical high (300 N and S) –
horselatitude iv. Polar high (900N and S)
Cause – dynamic Cause - thermal
semi- permanent Permanent
ii. Asiatic high and low v. equatorial low (duldrum)
cause - thermal cause - thermal
seasonal permanent
iii. Temperate low or sub polar low (600Nand S)
Semi- permanent
Cause – dynamic

Atmospheric distribution is represented by isobars – lines connecting places having the same atmospheric
pressure at a given elevation. Where the isobars curve round to totally enclose an area of low pressure,
this is called a low or depression or cyclone. An elongated low without total enclosure of the isobars is
called a trough. Where the isobars enclose an area of high pressure it is termed high or anticyclone. An
elongated area of high pressure without total enclosure of isobars is termed as a ridge or wedge.

39
 Air motion (wind) or atmospheric motion
Wind is defined as air motion with respect to the earth’s surface. Vertical movement ( air motion) is
called current ( up drafts when the movement is upwards and down drafts when it is down wards).
Wind is the result of horizontal differences in air pressure. Air flows from areas of higher pressure to
areas of lower pressure.
Causes of air motion
the direction and speed of wind is controlled by the following combination of forces: -
✓ The pressure gradient force-caused by unequal heating
✓ Corioles effect (force)- caused by rotation of the earth
✓ Frictional force- due to barriers
✓ Centripetal force-caused by circular pattern of isobars
Pressure gradient force.
The development of a horizontal pressure gradient is the primary driving force for all air motion. This
force results from a variation in pressure.Pressure gradient is defined as the rate of change in

40
atmospheric pressure between two points at the same elevation. Air always moves down along the
pressure gradient from higher to lower pressure ( or from high density to low density).

Coriolis force (the Earth’s rotational Deflective force)

Coriolis force is, therefore, defined as a force experienced by any object moving over the surface of a
rotating body like the Earth. The coriolis force (and other forces) are forces that alter either the
direction or speed of wind.Thus, because of the coriolis force, all wind flowing in the Northern
hemisphere are accompanied by deflection to the right from their path of motions and to the left in the
Southern hemisphere.Coriolis force is maximum at the poles and deceases as one moves towards the
equator and eventually becomes zero at the equator.

N. Pole

Actual Path

Equator (no deflection)

apparent (deflected)path
.

Ferrel’s law: the law that states that a body moving in any direction over the earth’s surface
tends to b deflected, due to the earth’s rotation, to the right in the northern hemisphere and to
the left in the southern hemisphere; so a wind that would blow from n to s, if the earth were
stationary becomes in the northern hemisphere NE.

Frictional / deceleration / force

Friction as a factor affecting wind is only important within the first few kilometres of the earth’s
surface. Most high wind speeds are most often observed over the oceans. This is because air moving
over land is subjected to a greater frictional drag, particularly if the surface is rough and irregular.
❖ Frictional force
✓ decelerate/ decreases / wind speed
✓ Alter wind direction
✓ Reduce the magnitude of coriolis force
41
The force of gravity or Centripetal force
Centripetal force affects wind flow particularly when the isobars are curved in their arrangement.The
term cyclone is used to refer an area of low pressure with inspiring (inward moving of wind) air. In the
northern hemisphere the inspiral will be counter clockwise, since the coriolis deflection is to the right,
but the reverse is true in the southern hemisphere.
The term anti-cyclone, on other hand, is used to refer to the out spiral(out ward movement) of air from
high pressure centres. In the northern hemisphere the outspiral will be clock wise while in the southern
it will be counter clock wise.In a cyclone, winds converge spiraling inward and upward; in anticyclone,
winds diverge spiraling downward and out ward. When air flows around the center of high or low
pressure system, centripetal force comes into effect. In other words, for a body to follow in a curved
path, there must be an inward acceleration towards the centre of rotation.

Circulation patterns of high and low pressure systems in the North and South Hemisphere
The magnitude of centripetal force is generally small, but it becomes important where high velocity
winds are moving in a very curved path. The effect of a centripetal acceleration is highly
pronounced near the equator. Wind system that is resulting from centripetal force is called
cyclostrophic wind. Example- Hurricanes, tornadoes, typhoons.
Gradient wind – is formed as result of the combined effect of pressure gradient force, coriolis force,
and centripetal force.

4.3 Air masses & fronts

42
4.3.1 Air mass:- an air mass can be defined as a large body of air whose physical properties especially
temperature, moisture content and lapes rate, are more or less uniform horizontally for hundreds of
kilometres at a given altitude.The prime characteristics of air masses (i.e., the thermal and moisture
content) depend up on their source region. The source region that determines the thermal behaviour of
an air mass is its latitudinal position. Hence based on the latitudinal position the air mass can be
generally divided in to tropical and polar air masses. The moisture content of an air mass is determined
by its underlying surface either by ocean or landmass. Thus based on the underlying surfaces air masses
are categorized either as maritime or continental respectively.

Air masses based on latitudinal positions ( locations)

Air mass symbol Source region Thermal
behaviour
Arctic A Arctic ocean&fringing lands Very cold
Antarctic AA Antarctic continent Very cold
Polar P Continents (50-600N),oceans (50-600N&S) Cold
Tropical T Continents and oceans (20-300N&S) Warm
Equatorial E Oceans close to equator Warm
N.BThe arctic and Antarctic air masses are sometimes regarded asthe extreme case of polar air
masses; while Equatorial air masses are the extreme case of tropical air masses.

Air masses based on underlying surfaces

Air mass Symbol Underlying surface Moisture content
Maritime M Ocean Moist
continental C Land mass (conintent) Dry

Classification:- using temperature ( latitudinal position ) and moisture conten(underlying surface) in

combination, air masses of the world can be classified as:-

maritime Equatorial- warm, moist

maritime Tropical-warm, moist
Continental Tropical-warm dry

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 maritime Polar-cold, moist winter
Continental Polar-cold, dry winter
Continental-very cold & dry
Continental Arctic-very cold & dry

A front is the transition zone between two air masses of different densities; fronts usually separate air
masses with contrasting temperatures and some times with different humidites. Depending upon the
behaviour of the advancing air mass, four different kinds of fronts are:-

Cold front : -forms when a cold air mass

invades a region of warm air mass. The
cold air forces the warm air to rise over it
along the steep gradient- that causes for
the formation of cumulus and
cumulonimbus clouds producing rain
showers and thunderstorms.

over the cold air.Commonly represents

stable atmospheric conditions

Warm front: Forms when warm air is

moving into a regain of colder air and rides up

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Occluded front
Results when two cool air masses merge, forcing the warmer air between them to rise. High
clouds and heavy precipitation usually are associated with a such type of front.

Stationary front: Results when either a warm front or a cold front stops moving
forward.Weather associated with a stationary front includes sluggish winds andPrecipitation
across the extire frontal region.

Chapter 5
Atmospheric Moisture or Humidity and precipitation
5.1 Evaporation process
Evaporation is the means through which moisture enters into the atmosphere.

Evaporation process is of three types (sources of evaporation)

45
 Evaporation from free water surface – from ocean, sea, lakes, rivers, ponds...
Evaporation from land surface – soil, ice
Evaporation from vegetation cover.

84% of the total evaporation is taking place from oceans, while the remaining 16% (including
transpiration) is from the land.

The rate of evapotranspiration at any instant from the Earth's surface is controlled by four factors:

✓ The availability of heatenergy to vaporize the water: the more energy available the greater
the rate of evapotranspiration.

➢ Meteorological factors;
Example Pressure, wind speed, temperature, humudity and the likePhysical Factors

➢ Soluble materials

➢ Nature and shape of evaporating surface

➢ Soil capillary characteristic and color-

➢ Vegetation cover

✓ Water availability: evapotranspiration cannot occur if water is not available.

✓ The ability atmosphere

Measurement of Evaporation from a free water surface

Evaporation is measured by a special type of instrument known as evaporimeter. The most
common & widely used one is the evaporation pan. Evaporation pans are dishes filled with
water designed so that a loss from such pans is taken as a direct measurement of evaporation
from a free water surface.
5.2Atmospheric Humidity
Humidity describes the amount of water vapor or moisture of the air
Atmospheric moisture is of vital significance as a means of transferring surplusenergy from
tropical areas either horizontally to polar latitudes or vertically into the atmosphere to balance
the heat budget(It redistributes heat energy on the Earth through latent heatenergy exchange).
46
Methods of expressing Atmospheric Humidity
the amount of water vapor (humidity) in the air can be expressed in the following ways
1 Relative Humidity
- Is the ratio of the amount of water vapor contained in the air compared to the maximum
capacity of that air at a particular temperature (is the ratio of the actual amount of water
vapour in the air to the potential of the air to hold moisture).
RH=actual amount of water vapor (gram)*100
Capacity of the air to hold moisture

* RH = 100% the air is saturated

= 80-90% the air is moist and the weather is humid or clammy
= <50% the air is dry.
- The potential of the air to hold moisture always changes with the change in air temperature.
An increase in temperature means an increase in the potential to hold moisture and vise
versa.
Large difference shows low humidity and a small difference indicates high humidity; when
there is no difference between the dry and wet bulb thermometers’ temperature it means the air
is saturated (full of vapor) with a relative humidity of 100%.The amount of cooling that takes
place is directly proportional to the dryness of the air, the drier the air, the more the cooling.
Therefore, the larger the difference between the thermometers, the lower the relative humidity;
and the smaller the difference, the higher the relative humidity. If the air is saturated, no
evaporation will occur and the two thermometers will have identical readings. To determine the
precise relative humidity from the thermometer readings, a standard table is used.
2 absolute humidity
absolute humidity
• Absolute humidity is a mass of water vapor in a given volume of air.
• Absolute humidity = mass of water vapor
volume of air
• But this is not commonly used in atmospheric studies.
• The rising and descending parcel of air will experience a change in its volume due to
changes in surrounding air pressure.
47
 • Absolute humidity = mass of water vapor
volume of air

- The potential of the air to hold moisture always changes with the change in air temperature.
An increase in temperature means an increase in the potential to hold moisture and vise
versa.
3.Mixing ratio
o Is comparing the mass of water vapor in the parcel the parcel to the mass the
mass of remaining dry air.
o Mixing ratio = mass of water vapor
mass of dry air
4.specific humidity
• Is the mass of the water vapor in the air parcel compared with the mass of all the air in the
parcel.
• Specific humidity = mass of water vapor
total mass of air
Both specific humidity and mixing ratio of an air parcel remain constant as long as water vapor
is not added to or removed from the parcel

Condensation
Condensation is the process by which water is changed from a vapor state to liquid or solid
state through the release of heat energy. It takes place both in the air and at the ground level.The
vaporized water exists at a gaseous state as long as it maintains (holds) the latent heat that
vaporized it. However, when this latent heat is released, due to atmospheric cooling, the water in
the vapor state condenses and changes into liquid state. This released heat from the water
vaporis called latent heat of condensation.Condensation is the process by which water vapor in
the atmosphere is changed into a liquid or if the temperature is below 0oC, a solid. It usually
results from air being cooled until it is saturated. Such cooling may be achieved in four ways:-
Radiation (contact) cooling: - This typically occurs on calm, clear evenings. The ground loses
heat rapidly through terrestrial radiation and the air in contact with the ground is then cooled by

48
conduction.If the air is moist, some vapor condenses forming radiation fog, dew, or if the
temperature is below freezing point, hoar frost
Advection cooling: - This results from warm, moist air move over a cooler land or sea
surface.Since both radiation and advection involve horizontal rather than vertical movements of
air, the amount of condensation created is limited.
Orographic and frontal uplift: - Warm, moist air is forced to rise either as it crosses a
mountain barrier (orographic or ascent)or when it meets a colder, denser mass of air at a front.
Convective or adiabatic cooling: - This is when air is warmed during the day time and rises.
As the air expands, it uses energy and so loses heat and the temperature drops. Because air is
cooled by the reduction of pressure with height rather than by a loss of heat to the surrounding
air, it is said to be adiabatically cooled. As Orographic, frontal and adiabatic cooling involves
vertical movements of air they are more effective mechanisms of condensation.

Conditions for the formation of condensation

Condensation occurs from either of the following two conditions:-
▪ Fall in the temperature of the air below dew point(atmospheric cooling)
▪ Increase in sufficient amount of moisture in to the air until it reaches to saturation
There must be a surface on which the water vapor may condense (tiny bits of particulate
matter known as condensation nuclei which serves as a surface for water condensation. These
particles are termed as hygroscopic nuclei or “water socking”.Hydroscopic nuclei are very
important for condensation process which includes:
o Volcanic dust (heavy rain always accompanies volcanic eruption)
o Dust from wind blown soil
o Smoke and sulphuric acid originating from urban and industrial areas.
o Salt from sea spray.
Cloud
A cloud may be defined as a dense concentration of very fine (microscopic invisible water
drops or ice-crystals) and it is formed when moist air rises and cools through convection,
Orographic lifting and frontal activity.Clouds have been named on the basis of their appearance
and structure in the atmosphere as:-
Strato

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 - a prefix used to indicate clouds with a sheet like or layer structure.
- are sheets or layers that cover much or all of the sky
- while there may be minor breaks, there are no distinct individual cloud units
Cumulo
- a pile or heap like structure
- consists of globular individual cloud masses
- exhibit a flat base and have the appearance of rising domes towers
- are frequently described as having a cauliflower like structure
Cirro
- a curl appearance
- are high, white and thin
- are separated or detached, and form delicate veil like patches or extended wispy fibers that
often have a feathery appearance.
Nimbus
- rain bearing clouds

Cloud Types and Characteristics

Cloud family Cloud type Characteristics
and height
High clouds- Cirrus Thin, delicate, fibrous ice-crystal clouds. Some times appear as hooked
above 6000m filaments called “mare’s tails”.
Cirrocumulus Thin, white ice-crystal clouds, in the form of ripples, waves, or globular
masses all in a row, may produce a “mackerel sky”.
Cirrostratus Thin sheet of white ice-crystal clouds that may give the sky a milky look.
Sometimes produce halos around the sun or moon.
Middle clouds Altocumulus White to gray clouds often composed of separate globules; “sheep back”
2000-6000m clouds.
Altostratus Stratified veil of clouds that are generally thin and may produce very light
precipitation. When thin the sun or moon may be visible as a “bright spot”
but no halos are produced.
Low clouds Stratocumulus Soft, gray clouds in globular patches or rolls. Rolls may join together to
Below 2000m make a continuous cloud.
Stratus Low uniform layer resembling fog but not resting on the ground. May
produce drizzle.

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 Nimbostratus Amorphous layer of dark gray clouds. One of the chief precipitation-
producing clouds.
Clouds of Cumulus Dense, billowy clouds often characterized by flat bases. May occur as
vertical isolated clouds or closely packed
development Cumulonimbus Towering cloud sometimes spreading out on top to form an “anvil head”.
500-1800m Associated with heavy rainfall, thunder, lightning, hail and tornadoes.
Source: Tarbuck and Lutgens (1976: 314)

Adiabatic lapse rate, air stability and air instability

Adiabatic Lapse Rate
✓ is the change in temperature due to expansion or compression as a parcel of air rises or falls.
✓ Adiabatic cooling occurs as a result of the rising of air, where there is no heat exchange
between the babbles of air and the surrounding atmosphere.
✓ Types of adiabatic lapse rate
▪ Dry Adiabatic Lapse Rate(DALR) (9.8OC/1000m)
▪ Saturated Adiabatic Lapse Rate (SALR) (4OC - 9OC/1000m).A loss in temperature
of saturated air with height is partly compensated by the release of latent heat
(saturated air cools at a slower rate than unsaturated air).

Adiabatic refers to the change in temperature of a mass of parcel of air that is undergoing
expansion (cooling) or compression (heating) without actual loss or gain of heat from outside.

Air stability and Instability

Stability of Air
The stability of air in the atmosphere depends on the temperature of rising air relative to the
temperature of the stationary surrounding air that it passes through. Air stability determines
whether clouds form when air is uplifted, and the type of cloud. When a packet of air near the
Earth’s surface is heated it rises, being lighter than the surrounding air. Whether or not this air
packet continues to rise will depend upon how the temperature in the surrounding air changes
with altitude. The rising packet of air will lose heat because it expands as atmospheric pressure

51
falls, and its temperature drops. If the temperature of the surrounding air does not fall as quickly
with increasing altitude, the air packet will quickly become colder than the surrounding air, lose
its buoyancy, and sink back to its original position. In this case the atmosphere is said to be
stable. If the temperature of the surrounding air falls more quickly with increasing altitude, the
packet of air will continue to rise. The atmosphere in this circumstance is said to be unstable. As
uplifted air cools, it condenses excess vapour out as cloud.

The more unstable the atmosphere, the more prolonged the uplift will be. Small cumulus clouds are
evidence of a fairly stable atmosphere while large cumulonimbus clouds are evidence of a highly
unstable atmosphere, conducive to the formation of thunderstorms. Low-pressure systems are
usually associated with an abundance of cloud and precipitation. In high-pressure systems or
anticyclones, air may be descending, compressing and gaining energy, such that temperature at
altitude rises, thereby increasing atmospheric stability. Anticyclones are often associated with
cloudless skies.

Stable atmospheric conditions prevail when the environmental lapse rate is less than the saturated
adiabatic rate; that means the temperature of rising parcel of air is less than the temperature of the
surrounding air. Stability occurs when the ELR is less than the DALR. This means that the air
parcel cools more rapidly than the surrounding air.

Air is unstable when the environmental lapse rate is greater than the dry adiabatic rate. Under these
conditions, a rising parcel of air is warmer and less dense than the air surrounding it at any given
elevation. This means that the parcel cools down more slowly with height from the ground than the
surrounding air. This means that as the air parcel rises it becomes warmer (and lighter) than its
surrounding air, encouraging it to rise further still.

Conditional instability occurs when the ELR is less than the DALR but more than the SALR. The
rising air is stable in the lower layers of the atmosphere. The weather found with this sort of
stability is usually fine and sunny in low lying areas (i.e. those below the condensation level) but
showery and cloudy in higher areas.

Summary

✓ Air stability depends upon the temperature/density balance between the rising parcel
and the surrounding air (the balance is the relationship between the environmental
lapse rate with that of the dry and the saturated adiabatic lapse rates). 52
✓ Stability is formed when a rising parcel of unsaturated air cools more rapidly than the
 5.2 Precipitation
Precipitation is defined as any form of water particle (liquid or solid) that falls from the atmosphere
and reaches the ground. It is mechanism through which water is transported from the atmosphere to
the earth. Its occurrence is always preceded by the condensation process and a decrease in the
temperature of the rising air.
Forms of precipitation
The common forms of precipitation are rain, snow, drizzle, hail and sleet which vary in size.
o Rain - is the commonest and widest spread form of precipitation.
- is the result of condensation in the rising air above the freezing point.
- consists of liquid water drops that an average diameter of 1-2 mm
o Drizzle - consists of fine, closely spaced liquid water drops, with a diameter less than 0.5 mm
o Snow – the most common form of solid precipitation
- is formed within a cloud during relatively calm conditions at a temperature below
freezing point (b/n -4oC and 0oC)
o Hailstone – a form of solid precipitation with a diameter of 5 to 50 mm. It is formed in
localized thunder storms.
o Dew: Condensation droplets on the ground surface or grass, deposited when the surface
temperature is below the air’s dew-point temperature.
o Hoar-frost is the frozen form, when ice crystals are deposited on a surface.
o Sleet – is part of frozen water droplets

53
 - is half frozen – snow or half-frozen rain.
* Sleet appears as a half frozen snow when falling snow starts melting before it reaches the
ground, or when a falling rain starts freezing before reaching the ground.
Types of precipitation
Types of precipitation are classified on the basis of the mode of the uplifting of air as convectional,
orographic (Relief)and cyclonic (frontal).
Convectional Precipitation
•Is associated with the rapid uplift of moist air from the ground.
•As the moist air rises into the atmosphere, it cools and condenses. Further uplifting
increases cooling and forms convectional precipitation.
• Is very common in tropical and equatorial regions.
Orographic precipitation (relief)
• Occurs where air rises and cools because of the topography of an area.
• As the air crosses the highlands it is forced up, causing condensation and cloud
formation on the upper slopes.
Cyclonic (frontal) Precipitation
• Is associated with the movement of two air masses with different temperatures.
• The warm air is forced to rise when it is undercut by cold air.
• Common type of rainfall in temperate latitudes

The world pattern of precipitation

It is highly affected by spatial distribution of air masses, water availability through evaporation, and
uplifting mechanisms of moist air. Globally, 79 per cent of total precipitation falls on the oceans
and 21 per cent on land. A glance at the maps of precipitation amount indicates that the distributions
are considerably more complex than those, for example, of mean temperature. The zonal pattern has
several significant features:
1 The ‘equatorial’ maximum, which is displaced into the northern hemisphere. This is related
primarily to the converging trade wind systems and monsoon regimes of the summer hemisphere,
particularly in South Asia and West Africa. Annual totals over large areas are of the order of 2000
to 2500 mm or more.
2 The west coast maxima of mid-latitudes associated with the storm tracks in the Westerilies. The
precipitation in these areas has a high degree of reliability.
3 The dry areas of the subtropical high-pressure cells, which include not only many of the
world’s major deserts but also vast oceanic expanses. In the northern hemisphere, the remoteness of

54
the continental interiors extends these dry conditions into mid-latitudes. In addition to very low
average annual totals (less than 150 mm), these regions have considerable year-to-year variability.
4 Low precipitations in high latitudes and in winter over the continental interiors of the northern
hemisphere. This reflects the low vapor content of the extremely cold air. Most of this precipitation
occurs in solid form.
In short, Equatorial areas have high annual rainfall totals due to the continuous uplift of air resulting
from the convergence of the trade winds and strong convectional currents. Temperate latitude
receives large amounts of rainfall, spread evenly throughout the year, due to cyclonic condition.
Rainfall is generally very low in the polar areas and sub-tropical latitude (areas of high pressure).

Rainfall variability is the deviation of rainfall amount from the average amount, which is computed
from observation made from about 35 years or more. Variability increases as the amount of
precipitation decreases and vise-versa. Dependability or reliability of precipitation refers the degree
of seasonal variability of rainfall that is defined in terms of precipitation amount, duration of rainy
season and the time that rainy season commences and stops. When rainfall variability is high,
dependability or reliability would be low and vise-versa. Rainfall intensity is the amount of rainfall
per unit of time.

Chapter 6
Climatic types of the World
6.1 Methods of Classification
Classification is important in any study to reduce the very huge and complex information into a
more simplified and manageable form. It simplifies and facilitates the close examination of each
group and systematic arrangement helps to map and describe the major types of climate.
Classification of climate is possible only when we have a climatic statistic of a long period of
time. No single method of classification incorporating (involving) all elements of climate is
developed so far.
Major classification methods: -
✓ Empirical classification
✓ Genetic classification
✓ Applied or functional classification
1. Empirical Classification: - this classification relates climatic limits to plant growth or
vegetation group. The scheme employs observable (measurable) features like temperature and
precipitation basically because:-

55
 • temperature and moisture data are widely available
• temperature and moisture determine the distribution of natural vegetation
Climate classification of R.Long (1915), W.Koppen (1864-1940), and Thorn Thwaite (1898-
1963) are empirical in nature. Koppen classification is the most widely used and also a base for
others.
Major temperature region
Letters Major type of climate Latitude
A Tropical rainy climate
Tropical
B Dry climate
C Warm temperate rainy climate
Temperate
D Cold boreal forest climate
E Tundra climate
Polar
F Perpetual frost climate
Small letters are used to represent the pattern of precipitation as: -
f- no dry season m- monsoonal w- dry winter s-dry summer
2. Genetic classification: - this classification takes in to account atmospheric circulation,
particularly pressure system, wind and air masses, as a basis for classification (causes of
climate). Hettner (1931), Alesov (1936) and Klohn (1950) made a good attempt to include wind
and air masses in their climatic classification. Strahler proposed a simple but extremely effective
genetic classification and divided the world into three groups on the basis of air masses as: -
➢ Low latitude climates –controlled by equatorial and tropical air masses
➢ Mid latitude climates- controlled by both tropical and polar air masses
➢ High latitude climates- controlled by polar and arctic air masses
Applied classification: - it is some time called technical or functional classification and
attempts to classify climate in terms of its influence on human beings and other phenomena like
water budget, housing and clothing, vegetation pattern, human health and comfort etc. This
classification helps to find solutions to specific problems that involve few climatic factors.

In seeking a sense of order, the geographer tries to group together those parts of the world
which have similar measurable climatic characteristics (temperature, rainfall, winds etc) to
identify, explain similarities and differences in spatial and temporal distributions patterns. The
geographer may then compare areas on a global scale by using the most convenient methods

56
 available which are easy to use and practicable to apply in order to help map and explain
distributions of soil, vegetation and crops.

Bases for classifications

Early Greeks- divided the world into three zones based upon a simple temperature description
by ignoring precipitation as: Torrid (tropical), Temperate and Frigid (polar).
Kop pen- in 1918 Koppen advanced the first modern classification. To support his claim that
natural vegetation boundaries were determined by climate, he selected as his basis appropriate
temperature and seasonal precipitation values. This remains today a useful classification even
though it makes no attempt to explain the causes of the climate.
Thorn Thrwaite- modified a classification with a more quantitative base. He introduced the
term “effectiveness of precipitation’’ (his P/E index) - the ratio of mean monthly precipitation
and mean monthly evaporation. Here, the difficulty was, and still is, in obtaining accurate
evaporation figures.
Miller- proposed a relatively simple classification bases upon five latitudinal temperature zones
subdivided longitudinally by seasonal precipitation distributions.
6.2 Types of climate (modification of Koppen definition)
A- Tropical (Mega thermal) Climate (hot climate) coldest month above 18OC
• Tropical rainforest climate(Af)
• Tropical monsoon climate(Am)
• Tropical wet and dry or Savanna climate (Aw)
B- Dry climate (desert climate)
Bs steppe or semiarid climate
Bw desert or arid climate
C- Mesothermal climate (warm temperate climate ) –rainy climates with mild winters
coldest month above 0OC, but below 18OC
warmest month above 10OC
• Mediterranean climate (Csa,Csb)
• Humid subtropical climate(Cfa,Cwa)
• Maritime temperate climate(Cfb, Cwb)
D- Micro thermal climate (cold temperate climate) –rainy climate with severe winters
Coldest month below 0OC
Warmest month above 10OC
E-Polar climates –warmest month below 10OC

57
 ET- Tundra climate –warmest month below 10OC but above 0OC
EF- perpetual frost –all months below 0OC
H- Mountain (High land climate)
Lower case letters (f,w,s&m) indicate the rainfall regions
• f- adequate precipitation throughout the year (no dry season)
• w- dry season in winter
• s- dry season in summer
• m- monsoon rain- short dry season, but total rainfall sufficient to support rain forest
h- hot& dry all months above 0OC
k- cold &dry- at least one month below 0OC
a- warmest month above 22OC
b- warmest month below 22OC
c- less than four months over 10OC
d- same as ‘c’ but coldest month below -38OC
n- frequent fog
n’ infrequent fog , but high humidity and low rainfall

6.3 Climate types of Ethiopia

Ethiopia is located between 30N – 150N latitudes and 330E – 480E longitudes in the horn of
Africa. Since Ethiopia is found between equator and tropic of cancer latitudinally, it has a
tropical location. Had it not been for its great variations in altitude, Ethiopia could have got pure
tropical climate. In addition to its tropical location and varied altitude, the location of Ethiopia
relative to the Indian Ocean, the Atlantic Ocean and both the African, Asian and Arabian land
masses as well as the pressure and wind system of the world have various effects on the climate
of Ethiopia.
6.3.1 Temperature
The tropical location of Ethiopia results in gaining of maximum solar radiation. The effect of
latitude on local temperature may be summarized as follows:
✓ Every part of the country experiences overhead sun’s rays twice in a year (first between
April and June and second between June and September).
✓ In Ethiopia the movement of sun in seasons brings only little difference between the
lengths of day and night. These collectively resulted in regular receipt of solar heat
throughout the country. Therefore, there is very high daily range of temperature and very
low annual range of temperature.

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 ✓ As it is the highland country, tropical temperature conditions are not experienced
everywhere.
Altitude: It is the most important control of climate. Rather than other controls of climate, the
climate of Ethiopia is highly controlled and modified by its altitude. Altitude, in general, has
domination over latitude on temperature distribution. The following table clearly shows how
altitudinal variation causes temperature difference on place with the same latitude.
Place Latitude Altitude (m) Mean annual temperature (0C)
Awash 90N 916 25
Ambo 90N 2130 18
Gore 90N 2002 18.3
Nekemte 90N 2005 18.3

Ethiopia is divided in to five temperature zones on the basis of the relationship between
temperature and altitude.

Temperature Zones of Ethiopia

Altitude (meters) Temperature zones Mean Annual
Global Name Local Name temperature (OC)
3 300 and above Alpine Kur or wurch Below 10
2 300 – 3 300 Temperate Dega 10 – 15
1 500 – 2 300 Sub-tropical Woina dega 15 – 20
500 – 1 500 Tropical Qolla 20 – 30
Below 500 Desert Bereha 30 - 40

6.3.2 Rain Fall Distribution in Ethiopia

Like temperature, rainfall distribution in Ethiopia is also affected by altitude. Ample amount of
rainfall is more frequent in the high lands than in the lowlands. The global situation of high
pressure systems (anticyclones) and low pressure system (cyclones) determines the nature of
winds that blows over Ethiopia at different seasons. The movement of Inter-Tropical
Convergence Zone (ITCZ) to the north and south of the equator causes a variation in the wind
flow pattern over Ethiopia. In its oscillation, the ITCZ passes over Ethiopia twice a year and
causes a periodical oscillation of winds which in turn results in variability and seasonal
distribution of rainfall in Ethiopia. In January a high pressure system develops in western Asia,
while it is a low pressure system in central Africa. As a result, the prevailing winds blow from

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northeast to southwest. Since they originate in the continent of Asia, they are relatively cold and
dry and have very little capacity for holding moisture. In July the prevailing winds over Ethiopia
are the Equatorial Westerilies which are maritime and equatorial in origin so are relatively warm
and moist. Originating from the Gulf of Guinea and blowing across the Congo basin towards the
Indo-Persian low, they encounter the Ethiopian highlands. Coming against the South-western
Plateau, the warm and moist air of the Equatorial Westerilies is forced to rise (Orographic
effect), thereby cooling and gives a good deal of rain fall. When the Equatorial Westerilies
progress towards east, north and South east, they dry gradually. In spring and autumn the
prevailing winds are generally from the Southeast and northeast. It is due to the convergence
between these two winds that causes rainfall in some parts of the country.

The most important weather systems that have greater impacts over Ethiopia are:-
➢ Sub-tropical jet air streams (North-Easterlies): they originated in the sub-tropics due to
temperature contrasts and prevail over Ethiopia in winter and bring no moisture.
➢ Equatorial jet streams (Equatorial Westerilies): they originate from south Atlantic due to
the attraction of low pressure cells over south western Asia and prevail over Ethiopia in
summers providing the ‘kiremt’ rains.
➢ The tropical easterlies (Equatorial Easterlies): they are air streams that originate from the
northern Indian Ocean and Arabian Sea. They blow over Ethiopian in spring and autumn
bringing rains to the south eastern lowlands and the adjacent highlands.
Major Rainfall Regions in Ethiopia
The division of rainfall regions in Ethiopia is based on the rainfall amount and distribution.
Therefore, three rainfall regions are identified.
1. All year round rainfall regions: South-western plateau is part of this region and it is wet in
most months of the year. The Guinea current or the Equatorial Westerlies and dense forest
coverage are factors for the availability of rain and being wet of these highlands. The average
rainfall varies from 1400 to over 2200 mm per year. However, rainfall amount decreases during
the winter months and increases during summer months.
2. Summer Rainfall regions: It is the largest rainfall regions of the country. It consists of the
western high lands and associated lowlands (with the exception of all year round rainfall
regions), the Awash valley and the Southern high lands.
3. Autumn and spring rainfall regions: When the north easterlies and equatorial Westerilies
are weak, the winds from Indian ocean (south easterlies) predominant over south eastern low
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lands during September to November (Autumn 60%) and March to May (Spring 40%). The
average rainfall varies from about 500 to 1000mm per year and it is double maxima region.
Generally speaking rainfall amount and reliability in Ethiopia decreases while variability
increases from South west to North, North east and South east direction.

Figure: Major Rain fall regions of Ethiopia

Legend
Region A:Single Maxima: The wet period decrease northward
A1- June/July to August/September
A2- April/May to October/November
A3- February/March to October/November

Region B:Double Maxima type 1: Small peak in April and Maximum peak in August

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Region C:Double Maxima type 2: Peaks in months of April and October

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Figure: Annual Rain fall Distribution of Ethiopia

Climatic Zones of Ethiopia

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Legend:
Bwh- Hot Arid Climate
Bsh- Hot Semi Arid Climate
Bsk- Cool Dry Climate
Aw- Tropical Climate (with distinct dry winter)
Am- Tropical Monsoon Rainy Climate (with short dry season)
Aws- Tropical Climate (criteria of both w & s are met)
Cwb- Warm Temperature Rainy Climate (with dry winter)
Cfb- Warm Temperature Rainy Climate (with out distinct dry season)
Cws- Warm Temperate climate (criteria of both w & s are met)
H- Cool Highland Climate

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 7. Major causes and Consequences of Climate change
7.1 Major types of climatic changes
7.2 Major causes of climatic changes
7.3 Consequences of climatic change

7. 1 Climate change
Essence of climate change
Climate Change is a shift in the average weather that a given region experiences. This is measured
by changes in all the features we associate with weather, such as temperature, wind patterns,
precipitation and storms. Global climate change means change in the climate of the earth as a
whole. The Earth’s natural climate has always been, and still is, constantly changing. The climate
change we are seeing today differs from previous climate change in both its rate and its magnitude.

7.2 Causes of climate change

7.3 Impacts of climate change
Around the world, climate change is projected to:
· Threaten the world’s boreal forests with an increased fire risk because of the drying climate;
· Cause water needs to outstrip supply;
· Cause severe water loss due to changes in evaporation and precipitation patterns;
· Cause flood damage to low-lying countries and islands states, including loss of coastal land
to rising sea levels;
Agriculture vs. Climate
Though there is no definite evidence to show any direct impact of changes in climatic parameters on
Indian agriculture, some trends would affect food production considerably. The recent IPCC report
indicates high probability of food losses with increase in temperature in the tropical regions. Studies
do confirm this trend, thoughthere is considerable disagreement on the magnitude of loss.
Among cereal crops important for food security, wheat is most sensitive to even small increases in
temperature.Relatively, rice has greater tolerance to temperature increases. It is, however, possible
for farmers to adapt to alimited extent and reduce the losses. Increasing climatic variability cloud,
nevertheless, result in considerableseasonal/annual fluctuation in food production. All agricultural
commodities are sensitive to such variability.
Glacier retreat

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Glaciers have been retreating world wide and average global temperatures are expected to rise
between 1.4 and 5.8°C by the end of 21st Century. Simulation projects that a 4°C rise in
temperature would cause nearly all the world_ s glaciers to melt. These glaciers are extremely
important because they are susceptible to climatic changes and their directly loss affects human
population and ecosystems. Continued and widespread melting of glaciers during this century will
lead to floods and water shortages for millions of people. As sea levels rise, coastal communities
and habitats will destroyed. It is projected that global warming will cause sea level to rise by as
much as 5mm per year over the next 100 years.This rise threatens entire notions on low-lying
islands in the Pacific and Indian Oceans. The rise in temperature will lead to more absorption of
heat from atmosphere by seas causing them to expand and rise. Glacier melting has accelerated in
Alaska, Northern Andes and in European Alps (loss of 10-20% ice in last two decades) and in India
too.
Coral Reefs Bleaching
Coral reefs are extremely important for biodiversity providing a home to 25% of all marine life.
They providenurseries for many species of commercially important fish and protect coastal area
from storm waves and aresignificantly important for tourism industry. However, they are very
fragile ecosystems that can tolerate only anarrow range of temperature.
Health
The most direct effect of climate change would be the impacts of hotter temperatures themselves.
The number ofdeaths under extreme temperature conditions increases due to many reasons. People
with heart problems arevulnerable because one’s cardiovascular system must work harder to keep
the body cool during hot weather heatexhaustion and some respiratory problems increase.
According to doctors the global warming could mean morecardiovascular diseases. Higher air
temperature also increases the concentration of ozone at ground level, which actsas a pollutant in
the lower atmosphere. Ozone damages lung tissue, and cause particular problems for people
withasthma and other lung diseases.

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