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EC 8094 – SATELLITE
COMMUNICATION
Department: Electronics and Communication Engineering

Batch/Year: 2017-21 / IV &

2018-22 / III

Created by:
Ms. B.JEYA POORNIMA Assistant Professor /ECE,RMKEC
Dr.S.MAHBOOB BASHA Assistant Professor /ECE,RMKEC
Mrs.P.LATHA Associate Professor /ECE,RMKEC
Mr.A.SIVAKUMAR Assistant Professor/ECE,RMKEC

Date:07.03.2022
 Table of Contents
S.No Contents Page
No
1 COURSE OBJECTIVES 7

2 PRE REQUISITES 8

3 SYLLABUS 9

4 COURSE OUTCOMES 10

5 CO- PO/PSO MAPPING 11

6 UNIT III - LECTURE PLAN 12

6.1 - LECTURE PLAN 13

6.2 - ACTIVITY BASED LEARNING 14

6.3 - LECTURE NOTES 15

Satellite Link Analysis 18

Link power Budget equation 25

Radio wave Propagation 34
Atmospheric Losses 36
Ionospheric Characteristics 37
Rain Attenuation and Interference 38
Satellite Uplink and downlink design 47
Uplink and downlink design with and without
Frequency reuse 49
S.No Contents Page
No

7 55
VIDEO LECTURE LINKS

8 56
E-BOOK REFERENCE & LECTURE PPT LINKS

9 57
ASSIGNMENTS

10 59
PART A QUESTIONS & ANSWERS

11 PART B QUESTIONS 66

12 70
SUPPORTIVE ONLINE CERTIFICATION COURSES

13 72
REAL-TIME APPLICATIONS

14 74
CONTENTS BEYOND THE SYLLABUS

15 76
ASSESSMENT SCHEDULE

16 78
TEXT BOOKS & REFERENCE BOOKS

17 80
MINI PROJECT
 1. COURSE OBJECTIVES

The student should be made to:

Analyze and design satellite communication link.
 2. PRE REQUISITES

Subject Name : Communication theory

Subject Code : EC 8491
Semester : 04
Reason : Students should be familiar with various modulation
schemes and analysis of noise distribution.

Subject Name : Digital communication

Subject Code : EC 8501
Semester : 05
Reason : Students should be familiar with Digital modulation
technology and various multiple access schemes

Subject Name : : Antenna and Microwave Engineering

Subject Code : EC 8701
Semester : 07
Reason : Students should be familiar with Antenna design and
microwave technology used for satellite communication.
 SYLLABUS LTPC

EC8094 SATELLITE COMMUNICATION 3003

UNIT I SATELLITE ORBITS 9

Kepler's Laws, Newton's law, orbital parameters, orbital perturbations, station

keeping, geo stationary and non Geo-stationary orbits – Look Angle Determination-
Limits of visibility – eclipse-Sub satellite point –Sun transit outage-Launching
Procedures - launch vehicles and propulsion.

UNIT II SPACE SEGMENT 9

Spacecraft Technology- Structure, Primary power, Attitude and Orbit control,

Thermal control and Propulsion, communication Payload and supporting
subsystems, Telemetry, Tracking and command-Transponders-The Antenna
Subsystem.

UNIT III SATELLITE LINK DESIGN 9

Basic link analysis, Interference analysis, Rain induced attenuation and

interference, Ionospheric characteristics, Link Design with and without frequency
reuse.

UNIT IV SATELLITE ACCESS AND CODING METHODS 9

Modulation and Multiplexing: Voice, Data, Video, Analog – digital transmission

system, Digital video Broadcast, multiple access: FDMA, TDMA, CDMA, DAMA
Assignment Methods, compression – encryption, Coding Schemes.

UNIT V SATELLITE APPLICATIONS 9

INTELSAT Series, INSAT, VSAT, Mobile satellite services: GSM, GPS, INMARSAT,
LEO, MEO, Satellite Navigational System. GPS Position Location Principles,
Differential GPS, Direct Broadcast satellites (DBS/DTH).

TOTAL:45 PERIODS
 4. COURSE OUTCOMES

After successful completion of the course, the students should be able to

Level in
Course
Description Bloom’s
Outcomes
Taxonomy

Understand the satellite orbits and its trajectories with

K1,K2
the definitions of parameters associated with it.
C401.1

Understand principle, working and operation of various

K2
sub systems of satellite as well as the earth stations
C401.2

C401.3 Analyze and design satellite communication link K2,K3

Apply various communication techniques for satellite

K2,K3
applications
C401.4

Learn advanced techniques and regulatory aspects of

K1,K2
satellite communication
C401.5

C401.6 Understand role of satellite in various applications K2

 5. CO – PO/PSO MAPPING
Course outcome

Program
Specific
Level of CO

PROGRAM OUTCOMES Outcomes

PO1 PO2 PO3 PO4 PO5 PO6 PO7 PO8 PO9 PO10 PO11 PO12 PSO1 PSO2 PSO3

C401.1 K1,K2 2- 1- - 1- - 1- - - 1- -

C401.2 K2 2 1 1- - - - - 1- - - - - -

C401.3 K2,K3 3 2 1- - - - - - - 1- 1 - -

C401.4 K3 2 1 2- - - - - - - - - - - -

C401.5 K1,K2 2 2- - - - - - 1- 1- - 1 -

C401.6 K2 3 1 2- - - - - - - 12 1 - 1

C401 3 2 3 - - 1 - - 1 - 1 2 1 1 1
6:UNIT III - LECTURE PLAN
 6.1 LECTURE PLAN
UNIT 3 –SATELLITE LINK DESIGN

Taxonomy Level
Proposed Date
No. of periods

Pertaining CO
Actual Date

Reason for
Deviation
Delivery
Mode
S.No Topic

of
1 1 PPT
Basic link
CO3 K2 through
analysis
Online
2 1 PPT
Interference
CO3 K2 through
analysis
Online
3 1 PPT
Rain induced
CO3 K2 through
attenuation
Online
4 1 PPT
Rain induced CO3 K2 through
interference
Online

5 1 PPT
Ionospheric
CO3 K2 through
characteristics
Online
6 Link Design with 1 PPT
frequency reuse. CO3 K2 through
Online

7 Link Design 1 PPT

without CO3 K2 through
frequency reuse. Online

8 Up Link and 1 PPT

Downlink Design CO3 K2 through
with and without
Online
frequency reuse.
9 Problem Solving 1 K3 PPT
CO3 through
Online
Total No. of Periods : 09
6.2 - ACTIVITY BASED LEARNING
 6.2 ACTIVITY BASED LEARNING

UNIT 3

1.Crossword Puzzle

2.Group Discussion on Case Study

Topic : High speed data link consisting of National Knowledge
Network in India used for exchange of meteorological data between
ISRO (Indian Space Research Organization) and NOAA (National
Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (USA) )
6.2.1.Crossword Puzzle
 6.3. LECTURE NOTES

UNIT – 3
INTRODUCTION
3.1 SATELLITTE LINK ANALYSIS:

A satellite link consists of an uplink (transmit earth station to satellite) and a downlink
(satellite to the receive earth station); see Figure 3.1. Signal quality over the uplink
depends on how strong the signal is when it leaves the source earth station and how the
satellite receives it. Also, on the downlink side, the signal quality depends on how strongly
the satellite can retransmit the signal and how the receiving earth station receives the
signal. Satellite link design involves a mathematical approach to the selection of link
subsystem variables in such a way that the overall system performance criteria are met.
The most important performance criterion is the signal quality; that is, the energy per bit
noise density ratio (Eb/N0) in the information channel, which carries the signal in the form
in which it is delivered to the user(s). As such, in designing a satellite communication
system, the designer must attempt to ensure a minimum Eb/N0 in the receiver’s baseband
channels, which also meets constraints on satellite transmitter power and RF bandwidth.

The Earth station design consists of the Transmission Link Design, or Link Budget, and the
Transmission System Design. • The Link Budget establishes the resources needed for a
given service to achieve the performance objectives.

Figure 3.1: General Representation Of Satellite Link

 This unit is concerned mainly with the design and analysis of satellite communication
links in terms of the carrier-to-noise ratio plus interference. As a consequence, a logical
step is to calculate the carrier (received) power in an earth station receiver, as well as
the noise plus interference power in the receiver, to establish the combined C/N. The
following figure 3.2 represents space link.

Figure 3.2: Space Link Representation

3.1.1. Link Equations:

The link equations deal with the calculation of the available carrier-to-noise ratio over a
satellite link. The calculation of the power an earth terminal receives from a satellite
transmitter is fundamental to understanding satellite communications and the
development of the link equations. Link-budget calculations are usually made using
decibel or decilog quantities.
3.1.2.Link Parameters’ Impact on Service Quality:

The four factors related to satellite system design:

1.The weight of satellite
2.The choice frequency band
3.Atmospheric propagation effects
4.Multiple access technique
The major frequency bands are 6/4 GHz, 14/11 GHz and 30/20 GHz
(Uplink/Downlink)
At geostationary orbit there is already satellites using both 6/4 and 14/11 GHz
every 2˚(minimum space to avoid interference from uplink earth stations)
The Link Budget parameters are termed as follows,
 Transmitter power at the antenna
 Antenna gain compared to isotropic radiator
 EIRP
 Free space path loss
 System noise temperature
 Figure of merit for receiving system
 Carrier to thermal noise ratio
 Carrier to noise density ratio
 Carrier to noise ratio

3.1.3. Equivalent Isotropic Radiated Power:

A key parameter in link-budget calculations is the equivalent isotropic radiated power,

conventionally denoted as EIRP. Generally the maximum power flux density at some distance r
from a transmitting antenna of gain G is

An isotropic radiator with an input power equal to GPs would produce the same flux density.
Hence, this product is referred to as the EIRP, or

EIRP = GPs

EIRP is often eXpressed in decibels relative to 1 W, or dBW. Let PS be in watts; then

[EIRP] = [PS] + [G] dBW

where [PS] is also in dBW and [G] is in dB.

3.1.4. Transmission Losses:

The [EIRP] may be thought of as the power input to one end of the transmission link, and
the problem is to find the power received at the other end. Losses will occur along the way,
some of which are constant. Other losses can only be estimated from statistical data, and
some of these are dependent on weather conditions, especially on rainfall. The first step in
the calculations is to determine the losses for clear weather or clear-sky conditions. These
calculations take into account the losses, including those calculated on a statistical basis,
which do not vary significantly with time. Losses which are weather-related, and other
losses which fluctuate with time, are then allowed for by introducing appropriate fade
margins into the transmission equation.
3.1.5. Free-space transmission:
As a first step in the loss calculations, the power loss resulting from the spreading of the
signal in space must be determined. This calculation is similar for the uplink and the
downlink of a satellite circuit. The power-flux density at the receiving antenna as

The power delivered to a matched receiver is this power-flux density multiplied by the
effective aperture of the receiving antenna, given by Equation. The received power is
therefore

Recall that r is the distance, or range, between the transmit and receive antennas and GR
is the isotropic power gain of the receiving antenna. The subscript R is used to identify the
receiving antenna. The right-hand side of Equation is separated into three terms associated
with the transmitter, receiver, and free space, respectively. In decibel notation, the equation
becomes

The received power in dBW is therefore given as the sum of the transmitted EIRP in dBW
plus the receiver antenna gain in dB minus a third term, which represents the free-space
loss in decibels. The free-space loss component in decibels is given by
Normally, the frequency rather than wavelength will be known, and the substitution λ = c /f
can be made, where c = 108 m/s. With frequency in megahertz and distance in kilometers, it
is left as an exercise for the student to show that the free-space loss is given by
[FSL] = 32.4 + 20 log r + 20 log f

The Equation can then be written as

[PR] = [EIRP] + [GR] — [FSL]

The received power [PR] will be in dBW when the [EIRP] is in dBW, and [FSL] in dB. This
Equation is applicable to both the uplink and the downlink of a satellite circuit.

Equation shows that the received power is increased by increasing antenna gain as
expected, and from gain equation it shows that antenna gain is inversely proportional to the
square of the wavelength. Hence, it might be thought that increasing the frequency of
operation (and therefore decreasing wavelength) would increase the received power.
However, the equation shows that the free-space loss is also inversely proportional to the
square of the wavelength, so these two effects cancel.

It follows, therefore, that for a constant EIRP, the received power is independent of
frequency of operation.

If the transmit power is a specified constant, rather than the EIRP, then the received power
will increase with increasing frequency for given antenna dish sizes at the transmitter and
receiver.

3.1.6.Feeder losses:

Losses will occur in the connection between the receive antenna and the receiver proper.
Such losses will occur in the connecting waveguides, filters, and couplers. These will be
denoted by RFL, or [RFL] dB, for receiver feeder losses. The [RFL] values are added to [FSL]
in received power equation. Similar losses will occur in the filters, couplers, and waveguides
connecting the transmit antenna to the high-power amplifier (HPA) output. However,
provided that the EIRP is stated, in received power equation can be used without knowing
the transmitter feeder losses. These are needed only when it is desired to relate EIRP to the
HPA output.
3.1.7.Antenna misalignment losses:

When a satellite link is established, the ideal situation is to have the earth station and
satellite antennas aligned for maximum gain, as shown in Figure.3.3.a. There are two
possible sources of off-axis loss, on eat the satellite and one at the earth station, as shown
in Figure.3.3.b.The off-axis loss at the satellite is taken into account by designing the link for
operation on the actual satellite antenna contour; this is described in more detail in later
sections. The off-axis loss at the earth station is referred to as the antenna pointing loss.
Antenna pointing losses are usually only a few tenths of a decibel; In addition to pointing
losses, losses may result at the antenna from misalignment of the polarization direction .The
polarization misalignment losses are usually small, and it will be assumed that the antenna
misalignment losses, denoted by [AML], include both pointing and polarization losses
resulting from antenna misalignment. It should be noted that the antenna misalignment
losses have to be estimated from statistical data, based on the errors actually observed for a
large number of earth stations, and of course, the separate antenna misalignment losses for
the uplink and the downlink must be taken into account.

Figure: 3.3 (A) Satellite And Earth-station Antennas Aligned For Maximum Gain;
(B) Earth Station Situated On A Given Satellite “Footprint,” And
Earth-station Antenna Misaligned.
3.1.8.Fixed atmospheric and ionospheric losses:

Atmospheric gases result in losses by absorption, These losses usually amount to a fraction
of a decibel, and in subsequent calculations, the decibel value will be denoted by[AA]. The
ionosphere introduces a depolarization loss given and in subsequent calculations, the decibel
value for this will be denoted by [PL].

3.2.THE LINK-POWER BUDGET EQUATION:

As mentioned at the beginning of this chapter the [EIRP] can be considered as the input
power to a transmission link. Now that the losses for the link have been identified, the
power at the receiver, which is the power output of the link, may be calculated simply as
[EIRP] -[LOSSES] +[GR], where the last quantity is the receiver antenna gain. Note carefully
that decibel addition must be used. The major source of loss in any ground-satellite link is
the free-space spreading loss [FSL],
However, the other losses also must be taken into account, and these are
simply added to [FSL]. The losses for clear-sky conditions are
[LOSSES] = [FSL] + [RFL] + [AML] +[AA] +[PL]
The decibel equation for the received power is then
[PR] = [EIRP] + [GR] — [LOSSES]
where [PR] = received power, dBW
[EIRP] = equivalent isotropic radiated power, dBW
[FSL] = free-space spreading loss, dB
[RFL] = receiver feeder loss, dB
[AML] = antenna misalignment loss, dB
[AA] = atmospheric absorption loss, dB
[PL] = polarization mismatch loss, dB

3.2.1.System Noise:

It is identified that the receiver power in a satellite link is very small, on the order of Pico
watts. This by itself would be no problem because amplification could be used to bring the
signal strength up to an acceptable level. However, electrical noise is always present at the
input, and unless the signal is significantly greater than the noise, amplification will be of no
help because it will amplify signal and noise to the same eXtent. In fact, the situation will be
worsened by the noise added by the amplifier.
 The major source of electrical noise in equipment is that which arises from the random
thermal motion of electrons in various resistive and active devices in the receiver. Thermal
noise is also generated in the lossy components of antennas, and thermal-like noise is
picked up by the antennas as radiation.

The available noise power from a thermal noise source is given by

PN = k TN BN
Here, TN is known as the equivalent noise temperature, BN is the equivalent noise
bandwidth, and k = 1.38 × 10—23 J/K is Boltzmann’s constant. With the temperature in
kelvins and bandwidth in hertz, the noise power will be in watts. The noise power
bandwidth is always wider than the —3-dB bandwidth determined from the amplitude-
frequency response curve, and a useful rule of thumb is that the noise bandwidth is equal
to 1.12 times the —3-dB bandwidth, or BN ≈ 1.12 × B—3dB. The bandwidths here are in hertz
(or a multiple such as MHz).

The main characteristic of thermal noise is that it has a flat frequency spectrum; that is, the
noise power per unit bandwidth is a constant. The noise power per unit bandwidth is
termed the noise power spectral density. Denoting this by N0, then,

The noise temperature is directly related to the physical temperature of the noise source
but is not always equal to it. The noise temperatures of various sources which are
connected together can be added directly to give the total noise.

3.2.2.Antenna noise:

Antennas operating in the receiving mode introduce noise into the satellite circuit. Noise
therefore will be introduced by the satellite receive antenna and the ground station receive
antenna. Although the physical origins of the noise in either case are similar, the
magnitudes of the effects differ significantly.

The antenna noise can be broadly classified into two groups: noise originating from antenna
losses and sky noise. Sky noise is a term used to describe the microwave radiation which is
present throughout the universe and which appears to originate from matter in any form at
finite temperatures. Such radiation in fact covers a wider spectrum than just the microwave
spectrum.
 Satellite antennas are generally pointed toward the earth, and therefore, they receive the
full thermal radiation from it. In this case the equivalent noise temperature of the antenna,
excluding antenna losses, is approximately 290 K.

Antenna losses add to the noise received as radiation, and the total antenna noise
temperature is the sum of the equivalent noise temperatures of all these sources. For large
ground-based C-band antennas, the total antenna noise temperature is typically about 60 K,
and for the Ku band, about 80 K under clear-sky conditions.

3.2.3.Amplifier noise temperature:

Consider first the noise representation of the antenna and the low noise amplifier (LNA)
shown in Figure 3.4a. The available power gain of the amplifier is denoted as G, and the
noise power output, as Pno. For the moment we will work with the noise power per unit
bandwidth, which is simply noise energy in joules as shown by Equation. The input noise
energy coming from the antenna is

N0,ant = kTant

Figure 3.4 Circuit Used In Finding Equivalent Noise Temperature Of (A) An

Amplifier And (B) Two Amplifiers In Cascade.

The output noise energy N0,out will be GN0,ant plus the contribution made by the amplifier. Now
all the amplifier noise, wherever it occurs in the amplifier, may be referred to the input in
terms of an equivalent input noise temperature for the amplifier Te.
This allows the output noise to be written as

N0,out = Gk(Tant + Te)

The total noise referred to the input is simply N0,out /G, or

N0,in = k(Tant + Te)

Te can be obtained by measurement, a typical value being in the range 35 to 100 K.

3.2.4. Amplifiers in cascade:

The cascade connection is shown in Fig. 12.4b. For this arrangement, the overall gain is

G = G 1 G2

The noise energy of amplifier 2 referred to its own input is simply kTe2. The noise input to
amplifier 2 from the preceding stages is G1k(Tant + Te1), and thus the total noise energy
referred to amplifier 2 input is

N0,2 = G1k(Tant + Te1) + kTe2

This noise energy may be referred to amplifier 1 input by dividing by the available power
gain of amplifier 1:

A system noise temperature may now be defined as TS by

N0,1 = kTS
and hence it will be seen that TS is given by

This is a very important result. It shows that the noise temperature of the second stage is
divided by the power gain of the first stage when referred to the input. Therefore, in order to
keep the overall system noise as low as possible, the first stage (usually an LNA) should have
high power gain as well as low noise temperature. This result may be generalized to any
number of stages in cascade, giving
3.2.5.Noise factor:

An alternative way of representing amplifier noise is by means of its noise factor, F. In

defining the noise factor of an amplifier, the source is taken to be at room temperature,
denoted by T0, usually taken as 290 K. The input noise from such a source is kT0, and the
output noise from the amplifier is

N0,out = FGkT0

Here, G is the available power gain of the amplifier as before, and F is its noise factor.

A simple relationship between noise temperature and noise factor can be derived. Let Te be
the noise temperature of the amplifier, and let the source be at room temperature as
required by the definition of F. This means that Tant = T0. Since the same noise output
must be avail- able whatever the representation, it follows that

Gk(T0 + Te) = FGkT0

or

Te = (F — 1) T0

This shows the direct equivalence between noise factor and noise temperature. As a matter
of convenience, in a practical satellite receiving system, noise temperature is specified for
low-noise amplifiers and converters, while noise factor is specified for the main receiver unit.

The noise figure is simply F eXpressed in decibels:

Noise figure = [F] = 10 log F

3.2.6.Noise temperature of absorptive networks:

An absorptive network is one which contains resistive elements. These introduce losses by
absorbing energy from the signal and converting it to heat. Resistive attenuators,
transmission lines, and waveguides are all examples of absorptive networks, and even rainfall,
which absorbs energy from radio signals passing through it, can be considered a form of
absorptive network. Because an absorptive network contains resistance, it generates thermal
noise. Consider an absorptive network, which has a power loss L. The power loss is simply
the ratio of input power to output power and will always be greater than unity.
 Let the network be matched at both ends, to a terminating resistor, RT, at one end and an
antenna at the other, as shown in Figure 3.5, and let the system be at some ambient
temperature Tx. The noise energy transferred from RT into the network is kTx.

Figure 3.5 Network Matched At Both Ends, To A Terminating Resistor Rt At One End
And An Antenna At The Other.

Let the net- work noise be represented at the output terminals (the terminals connected to
the antenna in this instance) by an equivalent noise temperature TNW,0. Then the noise
energy radiated by the antenna is

Because the antenna is matched to a resistive source at temperature Tx, the available noise
energy which is fed into the antenna and radiate dis Nrad = kTx. Keep in mind that the
antenna resistance to which the network is matched is fictitious, in the sense that it represents
radiated power, but it does not generate noise power. This expression for Nrad can be
substituted and the equation becomes

This is the equivalent noise temperature of the network referred to the output terminals of the
network. The equivalent noise at the output can be transferred to the input on dividing by the
network power gain, which by definition is 1/L. Thus, the equivalent noise temperature of the
network referred to the network input is

If the lossy network should happen to be at room temperature, that is, Tx = T0 ,

then F = L .This shows that at room temperature the noise factor of a lossy network is equal
to its power loss.
3.2.7.Overall system noise temperature:

Figure 12.6a shows a typical receiving system. Applying the results of the previous
sections yields, for the system noise temperature referred to the input,

3.2.8.Carrier-to-Noise Ratio:

A measure of the performance of a satellite link is the ratio of carrier power to noise
power at the receiver input, and link-budget calculations are often concerned with
determining this ratio. Conventionally, the ratio is denoted by C /N (or CNR), which is
equivalent to PR /PN. In terms of decibels,

Substituting [PR] and [PN], then the equation becomes,

The G /T ratio is a key parameter in specifying the receiving system performance.

The antenna gain GR and the system noise temperature TS can be combined in Eq. (12.34)
as

[G /T ] = [GR] — [TS] dB K—1

Therefore, the link equation becomes

The ratio of carrier power to noise power density PR/N0 may be the quantity
actually required. Since PN = k TN BN = N0BN, then
and therefore

[C/N] is a true power ratio in units of decibels, and [BN] is in decibels relative to 1 Hz, or
dBHz. Thus, the units for [C/N0 ] are dBHz.

Substituting for [C/N] gives

For uplink :

For Downlink:

Uplink Downlink
Parameter

Frequency 1.6 GHz 30 GHz Difference 2.0 GHz 20 GHz Difference

Bit Rate 9.6 kbps 2 Mbps 9.6 kbps 2 Mbps

Free Space Loss 188.38 214.66 26.38 190.11 211.14 21.03

Noise Power(dB) 158.34 141.73 22.61 157.11 140.96 22.15

Weather 0.1 26.08 25.98 0.1 13.79 13.69

Attenuation(dB)
Total Major attenu- 30.14 105.01 74.87 33.1 89.97 56.87

ation factor(dB)

Table 3.6.Uplink and downlink performance Comparison: Ka band system Vs L

band system.
3.2.9.Link budget for Downlink:

3.2.10.Link budget for uplink:

3.3.RADIO WAVE PROPAGATION:

A signal traveling between an earth station and a satellite must pass through the
earth’s atmosphere, including the ionosphere, as shown in Figure 3.7. and this can
introduce certain impairments, which are summarized in Table 3.8.

Figure 3.7 Layers In Earth Atmosphere

PROPAGATION
IMPAIRMENT
Attenuation and sky noise
increases
Signal depolarization
Refraction, atmospheric
multipath
Signal scintillations
Reflection multipath,
blockage
Propagation delays variations
Intersystem interference;
TABLE 3.8- Propagation Concernes For Satellite Communications System
PHYSICAL CAUSE PRIME IMPORTANCE
ATTENUATION AND SKY
Atmospheric gases Frequencies above
cloud, rain about 10 GHz
Rain, ice crystals Dual-polarization systems
at C and Ku bands
(depends on system
configuration)
Atmospheric gases Communication and tracking at
low elevation angles
Tropospheric and Tropospheric at frequencies
ionospheric above 10 GHz and
refractivity low-elevation angles;
fluctuations ionospheric at frequencies
below 10 GHz
Earth’s surface Mobile satellite services
objects
on surface
Troposphere, Precise timing and location
ionosphere systems; time division
multiple access (TDMA)
systems
Ducting, scatter, Mainly C band at present:
diffraction rain scatter may be
significant at higher
frequencies
 3.4. ATMOSPHERIC LOSSES:

Losses occur in the earth’s atmosphere as a result of energy absorption by the atmospheric
gases. These losses are treated quite separately from those which result from adverse
weather conditions, which of course are also atmospheric losses. To distinguish between
these, the weather-related losses are referred to as atmospheric attenuation and the
absorption losses simply as atmospheric absorption.

Figure 3.9. Total Zenith Attenuation At Ground Level: pressure 1 atm,

temperature 20°C, and water vapor 7.5 g/m3. (Adapted from CCIR Report 719-2, with
permission from International Telecommunication Union.)

The atmospheric absorption loss varies with frequency, as shown in Figure 3.9. The figure
is based on statistical data (CCIR Report 719-1, 1982).
Two absorption peaks will be observed, the first one at a frequency of 22.3GHz, resulting from
resonance absorption in water vapor (H2O), and the second one at 60 GHz, resulting from
resonance absorption in oxygen(O2). However, at frequencies well clear of these peaks, the
absorption is quite low.
The graph in Figure 3.9 is for vertical incidence, that is, for an elevation angle of 90° at the
earth-station antenna. Denoting this value of absorption loss as [AA]90 decibels, then for
elevation angles down to 10°, an approximate formula for the absorption loss in decibels is
given as

where El is the angle of elevation. An effect known as atmospheric scintillation can also occur.
This is a fading phenomenon, the fading period being several tens of seconds (Miya, 1981). It
is caused by differences in the atmospheric refractive index, which in turn results in focusing
and defocusing of the radio waves, which follow different ray paths through
the atmosphere. It may be necessary to make an allowance for atmospheric scintillation,
through the introduction of a fade margin in the link power-budget calculations.

3.5.IONOSPHERIC EFFECTS:

Radio waves traveling between satellites and earth stations must pass through the
ionosphere. The ionosphere is the upper region of the earth’s atmosphere, which has been
ionized, mainly by solar radiation. The free electrons in the ionosphere are not uniformly
distributed but form in layers. Furthermore, clouds of electrons (known as traveling
ionospheric disturbances) may travel through the ionosphere and give rise to fluctuations in
the signal that can only be determined on a statistical basis. The effects include scintillation,
absorption, variation in the direction of arrival, propagation delay, dispersion, frequency
change, and polarization rotation (CCIR Report 263-5, 1982). All these effects decrease as
frequency increases, most in inverse proportion to the frequency squared, and only the
polarization rotation and scintillation effects are of major concern for satellite communications
Ionospheric scintillations are variations in the amplitude, phase, polarization, or angle of
arrival of radio waves. They are caused by irregularities in the ionosphere which change with
time. The main effect of scintillations is fading of the signal. The fades can be quite severe,
and they may last up to several minutes. As with fading caused by atmospheric scintillations,
it may be necessary to include a fade margin in the link power-budget calculations to allow for
ionospheric scintillation.
3.6.RAIN ATTENUATION & INTERFERNCE :

The attenuation is caused by the scattering and absorption of electromagnetic waves by

drops of liquid water. The scattering diffuses the signal, while absorption involves the
resonance of the waves with individual molecules of water. Absorption increases the
molecular energy, corresponding to a slight increase in temperature [8], and results in an
equivalent loss of signal energy. Attenuation is negligible for snow or ice crystals, in which
the molecules are tightly bound and do not interact with the waves [7]. The attenuation
increases as the wavelength approaches the size of a typical raindrop (water particles),
which is about 1.5 millimeters. Wavelength and frequency are related by the relation c =
λ. f, where λ is the wavelength, f is the frequency, and c is the speed of light
(approximately 3 x 108 m/s). For example, at the C-band downlink frequency of 4 GHz,
the wavelength is 75 millimeters. The wavelength is thus 50 times larger than a raindrop
and the signal passes through the rain with relatively small attenuation. At the Ku-band
downlink frequency of 12 GHz, the wavelength is 25 millimeters. Again, the wavelength is
much greater than the size of a raindrop, although not as much as at C-band. At Ka-band,
with a downlink frequency of 20 GHz, the wavelength is 15 millimeters and at V-band, at a
downlink frequency of 40 GHz, it is only 7.5 millimeters. At these frequencies, the
wavelength and raindrop size are comparable and the attenuation is quite large.
Considerable research has been carried out to model rain attenuation mathematically and
to characterize rainfall throughout the world. The standard method of representing rain
attenuation is through an equation of the form

Where, Lr is the rain attenuation in decibels (dB), R is the rain rate in millimeters per hour,
L is an equivalent path length (km), and α and β are empirical coefficients that depend on
frequency and to some extent on the polarization. The factor γ is called the specific rain
attenuation, which is expressed in dB/km. The equivalent path length depends on the
angle of elevation to the satellite, the height of the rain layer, and the latitude of the earth
station. The rain rate enters into this equation because it is a measure of the average size
of the raindrops.
When the rain rate increases, i.e. it rains harder, the rain drops are larger and thus there is
more attenuation. Rain models differ principally in the way the effective path length L is
calculated. Two authoritative rain models that are widely used are the Crane model and the
ITU-R (CCIR) model. The original Crane model is the global model which we have taken for
our analysis for Indian region. A revision of this model that accounts for both the dense
center and fringe area of a rain cell is the so-called two component model.

In the design of any engineering system, it is impossible to guarantee the performance

under every conceivable condition. One sets reasonable limits based on the conditions that
are expected to occur at a given level of probability. In the design of a satellite
communications link one includes margin to compensate for the effects of rain at a given
level of availability, details in chapter 4. The statistical characterization of rain begins by
dividing the world into rain climate zones . Within each zone, the maximum rain rate for a
given probability is determined from actual meteorological data accumulated over many
years.

3.6.1.Major Propagation Impairments on Ka-band Earth-Space Links:

One major problem of using Ka-band on Earth-space links is that the propagation
impairments become more severe at such high frequencies [18][19]. Free space loss is the
dominant component of the propagation attenuation. It can be calculated by using the
equation

Where, L is the path loss, d is the distance between the satellite and the earth station, λ
is the wavelength of the signal in use. Attenuation by atmospheric gases depends on
frequency, elevation angle, and altitude above sea level and water vapour density. It is
relatively small compared to rain attenuation. Rain affects the transmission of an
electromagnetic signal in three ways

It attenuates the signal;

It increases the system noise temperature;

It changes the polarization.

All three of these mechanisms cause degradation in the received signal quality and
become increasingly significant as the carrier frequency increases. Frequency below
10GHz it may normally be neglected, however it is significant above 10GHz, especially for
low elevation angles. Water vapour is the main contributor compared to gaseous
attenuation in the frequency range below 30GHz with a maximum occurring at
22.275GHz, which is the resonance frequency of water particles with RF [8]. The
attenuation due to oxygen absorption exhibits an almost constant behaviour for different
climatic conditions, whereas the attenuation due to water vapour varies with temperature
and absolute humidity. Rain fade is the signal degradation due to interference of rainfall
or clouds with radio waves (RF). Attenuation due to rain is a dominant factor for
determining link availability at frequencies above 10 GHz. It depends on temperature,
drop size distribution, terminal velocity and the shape of the raindrops. Also Ka-band is
affected by cloud in the path [45]

Gas attenuation is caused by gas molecules (oxygen and water vapour) absorbing energy
from the radio waves passing through them. Gas attenuation increases with increasing
frequency, and is dependent on temperature, pressure, and humidity. ITU-R P.676-6
includes and approximate model of calculating the gaseous attenuation. Clouds and fog
consist of water droplets (less than 0.1 mm in diameter), which absorb and scatter
energy and causes reduction in signal amplitude. Although cloud attenuation is not
severe, it usually presents for large percentage of the time. The method of obtaining
cloud and fog attenuation is described in ITU-R 840 [26].

Raindrops absorb and scatter radio wave energy, resulting in rain attenuation, which is
the major impairment for frequency bands above 10 GHz. Because of the smaller
wavelength, transmission at Ka-band is more susceptive to rain attenuation, which could
reach 40 dB at 30 GHz. Rain attenuation severely impairs the link performance, and
therefore, fade mitigation techniques (FMT), such as power control and site diversity, are
implemented to predict or compensate the rain fading [3].
 This is true for both linear and circular polarizations, and the effect seems to be much
worse for circular polarization. Where only a single polarization is involved, the effect is not
serious, but where frequency reuse is achieved through the use of orthogonal polarization,
depolarizing devices, which compensate for the rain depolarization, may have to be
installed. Where the earth-station antenna is operated under cover of a radome,the effect
of the rain on the radome must be taken into account. Rain falling on a hemispherical
radome forms a water layer of constant thickness. Such a layer introduces losses, both by
absorption and by reflection. Results presented by Hogg and Chu (1975) show an
attenuation of about 14 dB for a 1-mm-thick water layer. It is desirable, therefore, that
earth station antennas be operated without radomes where possible. Without a radome,
water will gather on the antenna reflector, but the attenuation produced by this is much
less serious than that produced by the wet radome.

3.6.2.Uplink rain-fade margin:

Rainfall results in attenuation of the signal and an increase in noise temperature, degrading
the [C/N0] at the satellite in two ways. The increase in noise, however, is not usually a
major factor for the uplink. This is so because the satellite antenna is pointed toward a
“hot” earth, and this added to the satellite receiver noise temperature tends to mask any
additional noise induced by rain attenuation. What is important is that the uplink carrier
power at the satellite must be held within close limits for certain modes of operation, and
some form of uplink power control is necessary to compensate for rain fades. The power
output from the satellite may be monitored by a central control station or in some cases by
each earth station, and the power output from any given earth station may be increased if
required to compensate for fading. Thus the earth-station HPA must have sufficient reserve
power to meet the fade margin requirement.

3.6.3.Downlink rain-fade margin:

Rainfall introduces attenuation by absorption and scattering of signal energy, and the
absorptive attenuation introduces noise Let [A] dB represent the rain attenuation caused
by absorption. The corresponding power loss ratio is A = 10[A]/10, and substituting this for
L in Equation gives the effective noise temperature of the rain as
 Here, Ta, which takes the place of Tx , is known as the apparent absorber temperature. It
is a measured parameter which is a function of many factors including the physical
temperature of the rain and the scattering effect of the rain cell on the thermal noise
incident upon it . The value of the apparent absorber temperature lies between 270 and
290 K, with measured values for North America lying close to or just below freezing (273
K). For example, the measured value is 272 K.

The total sky-noise temperature is the clear-sky temperature TCS plus the rain
temperature:

Tsky = TCS + Train

Rainfall therefore degrades the received [C /N0] in two ways:

by attenuating the carrier wave and by increasing the sky-noise temperature.

3.6.4.Rain and temperature:

The downlink system noise temperature increases due to rain. The figure of merit of the
earth station receive antenna is the ratio of the antenna gain to the system temperature G
/T. The effect of rain is to increase the system temperature and thus reduce the figure of
merit. The antenna temperature is the integrated sky temperature weighted by the antenna
gain. At a high angle of elevation, the clear sky temperature is typically about 25 K since the
antenna looks at cold space. However, the temperature of liquid water is about 300 K. Thus
the rain increases the sky temperature noteworthy. Therefore, the noise admitted to the
earth station receiving antenna increases and causes further signal degradation. However,
rain does not affect the system noise temperature of the satellite and uplink chain more,
because its antenna looks at the warm earth. The rain layer acts very much like a lossy
waveguide
3.6.9.Rain and Polarization:

Rain changes the polarization of the signal somewhat. Due to the resistance of air, a falling
raindrop assumes the shape of an oblate spheroid. Wind and other dynamic force can cause
the rain drop to be rotated at statistical distribution of angles. Consequently, the transmission
path length through the rain drop is different for different signal polarizations and the
polarization of the received is altered. For a satellite communication system with dual linear
polarizations, the change in polarization has two effects. First, there is loss in signal strength
because of misalignment of the antenna relative to the clear sky orientation. Given by
20log(cosτ), where τ is the tilt angle relative to the polarization direction induced by the rain.
Second, there is additional interference noise due to the admission of a portion of the signal in
opposite polarization.

3.6.10.Rain rate and BER:

For a digital signal, the required signal power is determined by the bit rate, the bit error rate,
the method of coding, and the method of modulation. The performance objective is specified
by the bit error rate. If the rain rate is exceeded a certain threshold, the bit error rate would
increase at the nominal bit rate, or else the bit rate would have to decrease to maintain the
required bit error rate within limit [48]. The acceptable availability defined by communication
system design specifications, is 99.5% for a BER of 5E-7 or better for desirable quality signal
with and without rain fade compensation.
3.6.11.Rain Attenuation Effects:

Rain attenuation is a function of rain rate. By rain rate is meant the rate at which rainwater
would accumulate in a rain gauge situated at the ground in the region of interest (e.g., at an
earth station). In calculations relating to radio wave attenuation, the rain rate is measured in
millimeters per hour. Of interest is the percentage of time that specified values are exceeded.
The time percentage is usually that of a year. In general the percentage time is denoted by p
and the rain rate by Rp. The specific attenuation α is

where a and b depend on frequency and polarization. The subscripts h and v refer to
horizontal and vertical polarizations respectively. Once the specific attenuation is found, the
total attenuation is determined as A = αL dB

where L is the effective path length of the signal through the rain. Because the rain density
is unlikely to be uniform over the actual path length, an effective path length must be used
rather than the actual(geometric) length. Figure 3.11 shows the geometry of the situation.
The geometric, or slant, path length is shown as LS. This depends on the antenna angle of
elevation and the rain height hR, which is the height at which freezing occurs. Figure 3.12
shows curves for hR for different climatic zones. In this figure, three methods are labeled:
Method 1—maritime climates; Method 2—tropical climates; Method 3—continental climates.
For the last, curves are shown for p values of 0.001, 0.01, 0.1,and 1 percent.

Table 3.10. Specific Attenuation Coefficients

 Figure3.11 :Path Length Through Rain

Figure 3.12. Rain Height As A Function Of Earth-station Latitude For

Different Climatic Zones.
 For small angles of elevation the determination of LS is complicated by earth
curvature (see CCIR Report 564-2, 1982). However, a flat earth approximation
may be used, and from Fig. 3.11 it is seen that

The effective path length is given in terms of the slant length by

L = LS rp

where rp is a reduction factor which is a function of the percentage time p and LG, the
horizontal projection of LS. From Fig. 4.3 the horizontal projection is seen to be

LG = LS cos El

The reduction factors are given in Table 3.10. With all these factors together into one
equation, the rain attenuation in decibels is given by

Interpolation formulas which depend on the climatic zone being considered are available for
values of p.
3.7.SATELLITE UPLINK AND DOWNLINK C/N RATIO:

The complete satellite circuit includes an uplink and a downlink, as sketched in Figure
3.13.(a). Noise will be introduced on the uplink at the satellite receiver input. Denoting the
noise power per unit bandwidth by PNU and the average carrier at the same point by PRU,
the carrier-to- noise ratio on the uplink is (C /N0)U = (PRU /PNU).

It is important to note that power levels, and not decibels, are being used here.

The carrier power at the end of the space link is shown as PR, which of course is also the
received carrier power for the downlink. This is equal to γ times the carrier power input at
the satellite, where γ is the system power gain from satellite input to earth-station input,
as shown in Figure.

Figure 3.13.(A) Combined Uplink And Downlink;

(B) Power Flow Diagram
 It includes the satellite transponder and transmit antenna gains, the downlink losses, and
the earth-station receive antenna gain and feeder losses.

The noise at the satellite input also appears at the earth station input multiplied by γ ,
and in addition, the earth station introduces its own noise, denoted by PND. Thus the
end-of-link noise is γ PNU + PND.

The C / N0 ratio for the downlink alone, not counting the γ PNU contribution, is PR /PND,
and the combined C /N0 ratio at the ground receiver is

The combined carrier-to-noise ratio can be determined in terms of the individual link
values. To show this, it is more convenient to work with the noise-to-carrier ratios rather
than the carrier-to-noise ratios, and again, these must be eXpressed as power ratios, not
decibels. Denoting the combined noise-to-carrier ratio value by N0/C, the uplink
value by (N0/C)U, and the downlink value by (N0/C)D then,

Equation shows that to obtain the combined value of C /N0, the reciprocals of the
individual values must be added to obtain the N0 /C ratio and then the reciprocal
of this taken to get C /N0. Looked at in another way, the reason for this reciprocal of
the sum of the reciprocals method is that a single signal power is being transferred through
the system, while the various noise powers, which are present are additive. Similar
reasoning applies to the carrier-to-noise ratio, C /N.
3.8.FREQUENCY REUSE :

 Frequency reuse is employed to reduce the cross polarization caused by ionosphere,

ice crystals in the upper atmosphere and rain, when the wave being transmitted from
satellite to earth station.

 Frequency reuse achieved with spot-beam antennas, and these may be combined
with polarization reuse to provide an effective bandwidth.

Figure 3.14: Frequency Reuse Representation

 Due to bandwidth limitations the same bandwidth is allocated to beams which are
isolated spatially. This is known as frequency reuse, and the beams operating at the
same frequency are referred as co-channel beams. While this approach allows a large
coverage area with limited bandwidth, the co-channel beams have the potential to
interfere with each other. This is known as co-channel interference and its nature and
how it could be reduced is the focus of this chapter. Since satellite systems are
bandwidth limited, the sub-division of beams into smaller portions allow for frequency
reuse to increase capacity.
The bandwidth allocated for C band service is 500 MHz, and this is divided into sub
bands, one for each transponder. A typical transponder bandwidth is 36 MHz, and
allowing for a 4-MHz guard band between transponders, 12 such transponders can
be accommodated in the 500-MHz bandwidth. • By making use of polarization
isolation, this number can be doubled. Polarization isolation refers to the fact that
carriers, which may be on the same frequency but with opposite senses of
polarization, can be isolated from one another by receiving antennas matched to the
incoming polarization. • With linear polarization, vertically and horizontally polarized
carriers can be separated in this way, and with circular polarization, left-hand circular
and right-hand circular polarizations can be separated. Because the carriers with
opposite senses of polarization may overlap in frequency, this technique is referred
to as frequency reuse

Figure 3.15: Frequency reuse specification

3.8.1.Coverage on Earth :

Achieving a contiguous coverage is important so that there are no regions without

service in the coverage area. Since the beams are defined by the projection of
antenna patterns on earth at a certain contour value, they tend to be close to circular
shape. These circles on earth need to be structured so that they overlap with each
other to avoid any gaps in the coverage area. In order to have a systematic
approach, these can be represented by various geometric lattices that tessellate. It is
often the hexagon that is used in the system design as it closely represents a circle,
i.e. for the same distance from the center to the edge, the hexagon area is closest to
that of the circle that circumscribes it. Therefore the hexagon represents the beam
which assures that there are no gaps between beams.

Figure 3.16.Hexagonal Coverage on Earth

3.8.2.Frequency Reuse:

Since the satellite systems typically serve large areas such as countries or continents, a large
number of beams need to share the available bandwidth. Therefore, the available bandwidth
within a beam becomes a very limited resource. To circumvent this, a frequency reuse
scheme is often utilized. This is based on reusing the same frequencies in spatially isolated
beams. Therefore, the available bandwidth is divided into a smaller number of beams than
the total number of beams in the coverage area. The set of contiguous beams that share the
total available bandwidth is known as a cluster. The clusters are then repeated in the
coverage area relying on the fact that the beams operating at the same bandwidth will be
separated from each other sufficiently so that they do not interfere with each other. There
are only a discrete set of possible cluster sizes, N, to accommodate a contiguous coverage for
a hexagonal geometry. The possible number of beams in a cluster which would form a
tessellating shape is given by:

where N, is the number of beams in the cluster; i.e. the number of beams that share the
total bandwidth, and i, j are non-negative integer numbers. This results in possible cluster
sizes of 3, 4, 7, 9, etc.

Figure 3.17. Different cluster options for hexagonal lattice

 3.8.3.Co-channel Interference:

The energy leak from a beam into other beams operating at the same frequency causes
co-channel interference. Figure 3.18 shows a simplistic diagram of the co-channel
interferers in both the uplink and the downlink. The downlink interference is primarily a
function of the reuse number and of the aggregate power due to the power in the side
lobes of the interfering co-channel spot beams that is received in an earth station receiver.
On the other hand, the uplink co-channel carrier-to-interference ratio is dependent upon
the reuse number and the number of co-channel users transmitting simultaneously and
received at the side lobes of the interfered beam. This section will focus solely on the
downlink interference. The farther the co-channel beams are separated from each other,
the lower is the expected interference levels as the antenna pattern gradually tapers off
with increasing angles away from the peak point. However, this gradual taper in the
antenna pattern is oscillatory due to the side lobes.

Figure 3.18.Co-channel interference concept in multi-beam satellite communication

systems
 Therefore, the co-channel interference in a multiple beam system depends on the
antenna pattern as well as the cluster configuration.

A parameter for the system performance is the carrier to interference ratio, which
defines how much better the intended signal is compared to the interfering
signals:

where the interference term is the sum of powers received from all co-channel
beams. We can express equation (6) equivalently in dB as:

For an azimuthally symmetric antenna pattern, the co-channel beams lying on

the same tier would result in equal interference levels as they are equidistant
from the reference point. Therefore, categorizing all co-channel beams by their
tier number helps simplify the interference calculations.

Thus the reduction in the antenna aperture translates into significant reductions in
number of array elements, RF components, and A/D and D/A converters. These
savings are obtained at the expense of more complex digital beam forming and
traffic routing algorithms. Analysis has shown that in spite of the smaller aperture
and the broader beams of the sub-beams, the co-channel interference between sub-
beams using the same frequency segment is not adversely affected.
 7- VIDEO LECTURE LINKS

YouTube Channel :

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FTHt-c8hWKw

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kVVbWYllcd8

https://nptel.ac.in/courses/117/105/117105131/

TOPIC WISE ONLINE LINKS

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mCE7eQCJcl0

https://slideplayer.com/slide/5721035/
 8- E-BOOK REFERENCE & LECTURE PPT LINKS
E BOOK

Text Book :

https://www.srecwarangal.ac.in/ece-
downloads/IV_II%20satellite_communications_by_dennis_roddy4thedition.pdf

Reference Book 1:

http://sedighy.ir/wp-
content/uploads/2014/10/ebooksclub.org__Introduction_to_Satellite_Communication__Artech
_House_Space_Applications_.pdf

Slide Share Link:

 https://www.slideshare.net/chappidi_saritha/satellite-communications-15862346

 https://slideplayer.com/slide/5144285/

Topic wise PPT’S:

https://ec409.weebly.com/uploads/1/2/9/8/12983968/_satellite_up_or_down__link_design.
pptx

http://web.uettaxila.edu.pk/cms/aut2011/tescms/notes%5C4.%20Satellite%20Communicat
ion%20-%203.ppt

https://www.slideshare.net/RAVIKIRANANANDE/satellite-link-design-107964430
9- ASSIGNMENTS
 9 ASSIGNMENTS

UNIT 3

Q.No Questions CO BT
Level Level

A mobile is located 5 km away from a base station and use

a vertical (λ / 4) monopole antenna with a gain of 2.55 db
1 CO 3 K3
to receive a cellular radio signal. The E Field at 1km from
the transmitter is measured to be 10-3 V/m. The carrier
frequency used for this system is 900Mhz
a. Find the length and the effective aperture of the receiving
antenna
b. Find the received power at the mobile using the 2 ray
ground reflection model.
Assuming the height of the transmitting antenna is 50m and
the receiving antenna is 1.5m above ground.

(a)If a transmitter produces 50 watts of power, express the

transmit power in units of (i) dBm, and (ii) dBW. If 50 watts
is applied to a unity gain antenna with a 900 MHz carrier CO3 K3
2
frequency, find the received power in dBm at a free space
distance of 100 m from the antenna, What is P (10 km) 2
Assume unity gain for the receiver antenna.
(b)Assume a receiver is located 10 km from a 50 W
transmitter. The carrier frequency is 900 MHz, free space
propagation is assumed, G1 = 1, and Gr = 2,
find
(a) the power at the receiver,
(b) the magnitude of the E-field at the receiver antenna
(c) the voltage applied to the receiver input assuming that
the receiver antenna has a purely real impedance of 50 U
and is matched to the receiver.
10.PART A Q & A
 10 PART A Q & A

UNIT 3

Q.No QUESTIONS & ANSWERS BT Level CO

Level
1 Give the expression for link power budget. K1 CO3
[PR] = [EIRP] + [GR] – [LOSSES]
[PR] = received power dBW
[EIRP] = equivalent isotropic
radiated power, dBW.

2 Calculate the gain in decibels of a 3-m paraboloidal antenna K2 CO3

operating at a frequency of 12GHz.
Assume an aperture efficiency of 0.55.
G = 0.55 X(10.472 X 12 X 32) = 78168
hence [G] = 10log 78168
= 48.9 dB.

3 A satellite link operating at 14 GHz has receiver feeder K2 CO3

losses of 1.5 dB and a free space loss of 207 dB.
The atmospheric absorption loss is 0.5 dB, and the antenna
pointing loss is 0.5 dB. Depolarization losses may be
neglected. Calculate the total link loss for clear sky
conditions. The total link loss is the sum of all the losses
[LOSSES] = [FSL] + [RFL] + [AA] + [AML]
= 207+1.5+0.5+0.5= 209.5 dB

4 An antenna has a noise temperature of 35 K and is matched K2 CO3

into a receiver which has a noise
temperature of 100 k. Calculate a). the noise power density
and b). The noise power for a
bandwidth of 36 MHz.
a.)N0 = (35+100) X1.38 X 10-23 = 1.86 X10-21 J
b).PN = 1.86 X10-21 X36 X106 = 0.067pW
5 Define noise factor. K1 CO3
An alternate way of representing amplifier noise is ‘Noise Factor’ and it
is defined as the ratio of the
signal to noise power ratio at the input to the output. The noise factor
expressed in dB is called ‘Noise Figure’ from the definition noise factor
is given by:

6 What is carrier to noise ratio? CO3

A measure of the performance of a satellite link is the ratio of the
carrier power to the noise power at the receiver input. The ratio is
denoted by C/N (or CNR) which is equal to received power divided by
noise power. K1
In terms of decibels,
C/N = [Received power] – [Noise power]
Using the relations explained above it can be written
[C/N]= [EIRP] + [GR] – [LOSSES] – [k] – [TS] – [B]

7 Define down link rain fade margin. K2 CO3

Rain fall introduces attenuation by absorption and scattering of signal
energy, and the absorbed to attenuation introduces noise. Effective
noise temperature of rain is, T = Ta (1-1/A).
This attenuation is given by
(N/C)rain = (N/C)CS (A+(A-1) Ta/TS,CS )

8 Define the term EIRP. K1 CO3

[EIRP] = Equivalent Isotropic Radiated Power, dBW
A key parameter in link budget calculations is the equivalent isotropic
radiated power, conventionally
denoted as EIRP.it is the product transmitter output power and gain of
the lossless antenna. The EIRP describe
the combination of transmitter and antenna in terms of
an equivalent isotropic source with power PtGt W.
9 What is meant by frequency reuse? K1 CO3
The satellite as a whole to be accessed by earth stations
widely separated geographically but transmitting on the same
frequency i.e. known as frequency reuse.

10 Define antenna Gain. K1 CO3

The gain of the antenna is ratio of maximum power flux
density from a real antenna to the maximum
flux density of an isotropic radiator. G = Ψ M / Ψ i

11 A satellite downlink at 12 GHz operates with a transmit power K2 CO3

of 6 W and an antenna gain of 48.2 dB. Calculate the EIRP in
dBW.
EIRP = 10 log 6 + 48.2 = 56 dBW

12 The range between a ground station and a satellite is 42000 K2 CO3

km. Calculate the free space loss

a frequency of 6 GHz.
[Free space loss] = 32.4 + 20 log 42000 + 20 log 6000 =
200.4 dB

13 An antenna has a noise temperature of 35 K and it is K2 CO3

matched into a receiver which has a noise temperature of

100 K. Calculate the noise power density and the noise
power for a BW of 36 MHz.
No = ( 35 + 100 ) * 1.38 * 10-23 = 1.86 * 10 -21 J
P N = 1.86 * 10-21* 36 * 106= 0.067 PW
14 What is an antenna loss? K1 CO3
It is added to noise received as radiation and the total
antenna noise
temperature is the sum of the equivalent noise temperature
of all these sources.

15 Define sky noise K1 CO3

It is a term used to describe the microwave radiation which
is present
throughout universe and which appears to originate from
matter in any form, at
finite temperature.

16 Define noise factor. K1 CO3

An alternative way of representing amplifier noise is by
means of its noise
factor. In
defining the noise factor of an amplifiers, usually taken as
290 k. The output noise power in terms of noise factor is
given by
No = FGkT0

17 What is processing gain? K1 CO3

The jamming or interference signal energy is reduced by a
factor known as
the processing gain.

18 What is system noise? K1 CO3

Noise temperature is very important concept in receivers. By
using this, thermal noise which is generated by active and
passive devices in the receiver can be calculated.
The noise power is given by,
Pn=KTnB
19 What are atmospheric losses? K1 CO3
Multiple losses occur due to the Earth's atmosphere. Losses maybe
because of the adverse weather conditions or because of the
energy absorption done by the various gases present in the
atmosphere. Weather related losses are called “atmospheric
attenuation”. Absorption losses are called “atmospheric
absorption”.
At various frequencies, different components of atmosphere cause
impairments to the radio wave signals.

20 Define satellite downlink. K1 CO3

The link through which the satellite transmits the signal and the
earth station receives it,
Subscript D is used to indicate the downlink in the following
equation.
[C/No]D = [EIRP]D + [G/T]D – [L]D – [K].

21 Define Carrier to Noise Ratio. K1 CO3

The performance of satellite link is measured by carrier to noise
ratio, it is given as CNR or C/N.
C/N in db is given as [C/N]
[C/N] = [PR]-[PN]
[C/N0]= [EIRP]+[G/T]-[L]-[K] dB. Hz.

22 Define Satellite uplink. K1 CO3

The link through which the earth station transmits the signal and
the satellite receives the same is known as uplink. [C/No] equation
in the last title carrier to noise ratio can be applied to uplink.
[C/No]U = [EIRP]U + [G/T]U – [L]U– [K]
Here, the subscript u is used to denote the uplink.
23 What is meant by intermodulation distortion? K1 CO3
When multiple carriers are passed through the device with the
non-linear transfer characteristic, more serious form of distortion is
introduced known as intermodulation distortion.

24 A transponder require a saturation flux density of -110 d Bw/m2, K1 CO3

operating frequency of 14 GHz. Total loss =200dB Find [EIRP].

Solution:
Here, [Ψs]=-110dB F=14GHz [L]=200dB
[A]=-(21.45+20logf)=-44.37
[EIRP] =[ Ψs]+[A]+[L] [EIRP]=-110-44.37+200 [EIRP]=45.63 dB.

25 What is polarization interleaving? K1 CO3

Overlap occurs between channels, but these are alternatively
polarized left hand circular and right hand circular to reduce
interference to acceptable levels. This is referred to as polarization
interleaving.

.
11 - PART B Qs
 11- PART B Qs

Q.No QUESTIONS & ANSWERS BT CO

Level Level

1 Formulate general link equation using basic transmission theory. K2 CO3

2 State how the system noise temperature affects the performance. K2 CO3
Derive the expression for overall system noise temperature at the
receiving earth station.

3 Elucidate in detail satellite communication link design procedure K2 CO3

4 Find out an expression for C/N and G/T ratios. Explain the K2 CO3
importance of these ratios on satellite link design

5 Discuss the propagation effects like atmospheric absorption, cloud K2 CO3

attenuation and troposphere scintillation
6 Suppose we have a 4GHz receiver with the following gains and noise K2 CO3
temperatures, Tin=25K , TRF =50K , TIF =1000K , Tm= 500K , GRF= 23
dB, GIF= 30dB , Calculate the system noise temperature assuming that
the mixer has a gain Gm = 0dB.

7 An earth station transmits at 5.62 GHz from an antenna of 6m. The K3 CO3
transmitter generates an output of 8KW. The satellite is 39920 km from
the earth station. The efficiency of transmitting antenna being 0.7.
Calculate path loss, transmitting antenna gain, transmitter power in dBW,
EIRP and received power at the satellite.

8 In a satellite receiving system, the input equivalent noise temperature to K3 CO3

RF antenna is 20K. The receiving system has following characteristics
TRF =150 K, GRF= 20dB, Tm= 400K, Gm= -2dB, TIF= 1500 K, GIF=
100dB, Calculate the system noise temperature and noise power
produced by this receiver, if receiver BW is 10MHz.

9 A satellite at geo stationary orbit from a point on the earth’s surface K3 CO3
operates at a frequency of 14GHz. The receiving antenna has a gain of
44 dB, find the received power.
10 Describe in detail about rain induced attenuation and interference. K2 CO3

11 Explain what is meant by K3 CO3

(a) antenna noise temperature,
(b) (b) amplifier
noise temperature, and
(c) system noise temperature referred to input. A system
operates with an antenna noise temperature of 40 K and an input
amplifier noise temperature of 120 K.
Calculate the available noise power density of the system referred
to the amplifier input.

12 The following parameters apply to a satellite downlink: K3 CO3

saturation [EIRP] 22.5 dBW, free-space loss 195 dB, other losses
and margins 1.5 dB, earth station [G/T] 37.5 dB/K. Calculate the
[C/N0] at the earth station. Assuming an output BO of 6 dB is
applied, what is the new value of [C/N0]?
12- SUPPORTIVE ONLINE
CERTIFICATION COURSES
 12- SUPPORTIVE ONLINE CERTIFICATION COURSES

UNIT 3
NPTEL SWAYAM

Supportive online Certification Course :

NPTEL / Swayam :(Common to all Units)

Course Name: Satellite Communication Systems

https://nptel.ac.in/courses/117/105/117105131/

Course abstract :

Satellite communication is a form of wireless communication that covers large

area and long distance using satellites as repeaters. Course prerequisite is digital
communication. In this course the participants will get the basic technical knowledge
of orbital dynamics, subsystems used in space segment and ground segment, power
and bandwidth requirement, effect of the transmission medium, other impairments
and techniques to mitigate them, regulatory aspect and standards, and some value
added examples.
13- REAL TIME APPLICATIONS
 13 - REAL-TIME APPLICATIONS

UNIT 3

Real time applications in day to day life and industry

Understanding of interference and attenuations in radio propagation modes

environment.

Understanding of future challenges on Satellite communication system

interference, and planning to augment with the suitable interference and carrier
monitoring system to ensure safety of transponders,

To identify interferences and unauthorized carriers for the growth of VSAT

networks in India employing equipment's/systems from different vendors.

Understanding Cell Coverage Area and Link Budget Calculations in LTE System
14- CONTENTS BEYOND
THE SYLLABUS
 14 - CONTENTS BEYOND THE SYLLABUS

UNIT 3

Contents beyond the syllabus (CoE related Value Added Courses)

a. Coursera:

Course Name :Microwave Engineering

https://nptel.ac.in/courses/108/103/108103141/

About this Course

This course intends to provide a foundation for microwave engineering to

the undergraduate

students. Rigorous treatment of the fundamentals of microwave

engineering will be provided.

Design of different passive and some active microwave

circuits/subsystems will be covered in

detail. This course will also provide an overview of application of

microwave in communication

and other areas

SKILLS YOU WILL GAIN

To gain knowledge about Terrestrial Communication

15 - ASSESSMENT SCHEDULE
 15. ASSESSMENT SCHEDULE

Assessment Proposed Date Actual Date

Unit 1 Assignment
Assessment
Unit Test 1

Unit 2 Assignment
Assessment
Internal Assessment 1

Retest for IA 1

Unit 3 Assignment
Assessment
Unit Test 2

Unit 4 Assignment
Assessment
Internal Assessment 2

Retest for IA 2

Unit 5 Assignment
Assessment
Revision Test 1

Revision Test 2

Model Exam

Remodel Exam

University Exam
16 - TEXT BOOKS &
REFERENCE BOOKS
 16- TEXT BOOKS & REFERENCE BOOKS
TEXT BOOKS:
1. Dennis Roddy, ―Satellite Communication‖, 4th Edition, Mc Graw Hill International,
2006.
2. Timothy,Pratt,Charles,W.Bostain,JeremyE.Allnutt,"SatelliteCommunication‖,2nd Edition,
Wiley Publications,2002

REFERENCES:
1. Wilbur L.Pritchard, Hendri G. Suyderhoud, Robert A. Nelson, ―Satellite Communication
Systems Engineering‖, Prentice Hall/Pearson, 2007.
2. N.Agarwal, ―Design of Geosynchronous Space Craft‖, Prentice Hall, 1986.
3. Bruce R. Elbert, ―The Satellite Communication Applications‖, Hand Book, Artech House
Bostan London, 1997.
4. Tri T. Ha, ―Digital Satellite Communication‖, II nd edition, 1990.
5. Emanuel Fthenakis, ―Manual of Satellite Communications‖, Mc Graw Hill Book Co., 1984.
6. Robert G. Winch, ―Telecommunication Trans Mission Systems‖, Mc Graw-Hill Book Co.,
1983.
7. G.B.Bleazard, ―Introducing Satellite communications―, NCC Publication, 1985.
8. M.Richharia, ―Satellite Communication Systems-Design Principles‖, Macmillan 2003.

E BOOK
Text Book :
https://www.srecwarangal.ac.in/ece-
downloads/IV_II%20satellite_communications_by_dennis_roddy4thedition.pdf
Reference Book 1:
http://sedighy.ir/wp-
content/uploads/2014/10/ebooksclub.org__Introduction_to_Satellite_Communication__Artec
h_House_Space_Applications_.pdf
17 - MINI PROJECT

Mini Project Suggestions

1. Advanced optical developments for inter-satellite communication

2. Amateur satellite tracking communication system

3. An adaptive nulling antenna for military satellite communications

4. Link margin for wireless radio communication link

5. Link budget analysis for satellite-based narrowband IoT systems

6. RF propagation and Visualization using Mat lab

6. RF propagation and Visualization using Mat lab

Objective :
To compute and visualize the outdoor wireless coverage between a transmitter
and receiver.
This includes:
 Transmitter and receiver site creation using Antenna Toolbox antenna
library.
 Distance and angle calculation between the transmitter and the receiver.
 Signal strength computation using free space propagation or other propagation
models.
 Communication link visualization.
 Transmitter coverage area calculation.
 Signal-to-interference plus noise ratio (SINR) calculation at the receiver.

https://www.mathworks.com/help/antenna/gs/rf-propagation-and-
visualization.html
 Thank you

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