FULL NAME

OVIE PRECIOUS FREDERICK-SIMON

MATRIC NUMBER:

2436280
TITLE OF PAPER:

Consumer Adoption of Circular Economy

Practices to Mitigate the Impacts of Fast
Fashion and its Over-consumption on the
Environment.

1
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

1.0 INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................................... 3

1.1 Background of the Study ....................................................................................... 3
1.2 Statement of the Problem ...................................................................................... 3
1.3 Aim of the Study ..................................................................................................... 3
1.4 Scope of the Study ................................................................................................. 3

2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW ............................................................................................. 4

2.1 Background History of Fast Fashion ...................................................................... 4
2.2 Environmental Impacts of fast fashion ................................................................... 4
2.2.1 Microfibre Pollution as a result of Increased Fast Fashion ............................ 5
2.3 Environmental Impacts of Fast Fashion on A Country Wide Scale ........................ 6
2.3.1 Case Study 1: United States of America ....................................................... 6
2.3.2 Case Study 2: United Kingdom ..................................................................... 8
2.4 The Rise of Circular Economy as a tool for Sustainable Development in the Textile
Industry ........................................................................................................................... 9
2.4.1 Role of the Consumer in Practising Circular Economy to achieve Sustainable
Fashion ........................................................................................................................... 9

3.0 CONCLUSION ........................................................................................................ 10

4.0 REFERENCE .......................................................................................................... 10

TABLE OF FIGURES
Figure 1: Microplastics from clothing items polluting the ocean,………… ……..……..…..5
Figure 2: The drought situation in California………………..………………………..…… …7
Figure 3: The Cotton Production trend since 2000………………..…………………………8
Figure 4: UK Land Fill with fast fashion disposed clothes ………………..…………………9
Figure 5: The Circular Pathway of Fibre Products in a Circular Economy Model………10

2
 1.0 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background of the Study
The increase in the global population has continued to increase the demand for textile
products rapidly as they are an integral part of everyday life. In 2019, (Islam and Bhat,
2019) reported that the average person purchases 60 percent more clothing items, using
only about half of them compared to the 2000s. The rise of the fast-fashion industry is
responsible for this high textile production and consumption (Choudhury, 2017). This
demand for cheap, fast fashion has resulted in a high environmental footprint, as 73
percent of clothing ends in landfills, making the fast fashion industry the second-largest
polluting industry after oil (Niinimaki, et al., 2020).

The Circular Economy (CE) as a concept can be explained as a closed-loop economic

system that seeks to eliminate waste through reuse and restoration of products, thereby
creating an effective relationship that improves environmental protection and economic
development (Ashby, 2018). It has potential usefulness for achieving sustainable
development because it is not limited to decreasing landfill residuals or hindering cradle-
to-cradle grave material flow. It is also very much concerned with designing approaches
to self-sustainable manufacturing, with resources being used and reused (Franco, 2017).

1.2 Statement of Problem

It is estimated that about half of all fast-fashion garments are discarded within a year after
their production (Hu et al., 2014). Our planet's finite ecosystem has resulted in the
economic and ecological tussle for the sparsely available space and few available
resources (Siderius & Poldner, 2021). This scarcity has driven an economic system that
operates without considering the environmental degradation, pollution and social
instability its activities induce (Ellen MacArthur Foundation, 2018). (Pandey, 2018)
predicted that if adequate mitigating actions are not implemented, almost 25 percent of
the global carbon budget will be used by the fashion and textile sector by 2050.
1.3 Aim of the Study
This report seeks to review the current state of textile waste generation and its effects on
the environment with respect to fast fashion. Furthermore, the report also aims to identify
innovative ways consumers and brands can use CE to reduce waste, improve recycling,
and encourage upcycling, thereby promoting sustainable fashion
1.4 Scope of the Study
Firstly, this report begins by describing the origins of fast fashion. Secondly, this report
reviews how the increased demand for fast fashion products has negatively impacted the
environment. Furthermore, the impact of fast fashion is discussed on a nationwide scale
using the United States of America (USA) and The United Kingdom (UK) as case studies.
Lastly, we review the rise of the circular economy in the textile industry and the role of
consumers in adopting circular economy practices towards achieving sustainability in
fashion.

3
 2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Background History of Fast Fashion
Fast fashion is the term used to describe a business model that involves speed. As a
business model, Fast fashion is reliant on cheap production and continuing consumption
of garments (Gazzola et al., 2020). In the 1970s, many fashion brands adopted this fast
fashion business model of duplicating high-priced fashion garments at a much-reduced
cost. These low priced and rapidly produced garments encouraged over-consumption as
cheap fashion products were supplied to retail markets within months of production
(Simpson, 2019). This business model increasingly became popular in the 1980s as
clothing items that were once considered luxurious and exclusive were now readily
accessible to the public. It was not until the 1990s that the fast fashion industry became
mainstream, with many established global brands such as Zara, H&M and GAP
establishing themselves as leading players (Barnes and Lea‐Greenwood, 2010).

In 2005, the World Trade Organisation removed the quota system of outsourcing abroad
(Mi-Ah, 2011). This policy led to another efflux in fast fashion as brands could now exploit
the use of cheap labour and materials globally. This labour exploitation led to excessive
waste as the demand for garments was based on a linear economy (Brydges, 2021). It
meant fashion brands could develop products from the ideation stage to the product stage
in two to three weeks, which negated the conventional practice of high-end luxury brands
that released collections once every six months (Bick, Halsey and Ekenga, 2018).

2.2 Environmental Impacts of fast fashion

The fast fashion industry produces enormous waste that the environment cannot
sustainably handle (Brewer, 2019). About 63 percent of textile fibres are made from
petrochemicals whose production and disposal emit carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions.
Furthermore, the remaining 37 percent is dominated by Cotton, a plant associated with
water depletion due to its water intensiveness (Sandin and Peters, 2018). From the
extraction of raw materials to the production, distribution, wear and disposal. The wastes
generated during these stages, such as textiles, chemicals, and dyes, impose
environmental damages and increase the global carbon footprint, thereby negatively
impacting the climate (Khattab, Abdelrahman and Rehan, 2019).
Presently, textile and clothing production has increased substantially in countries with
lower labour and environmental standards (Nayak and Padhye, 2015). This is because
garment production and processing activities are very energy-intensive, as large amounts
of water and chemicals are used (Šajn, 2019a). It is reported that the fast fashion industry
creates more greenhouse gases than the aviation industry. After these garments are
manufactured, they are shipped in large quantities to central retail distribution centres,
followed by smaller retail shops, often in the UK, USA and EU, where they are purchased
(Niinimäki et al., 2020).
Fast fashion has witnessed an increased rate of consumption and efficiency in production,
which has considerably lowered the price of clothing items. This increased consumption
rate can be attributed to many American and European retailer companies who in the
4
1990s jumped at the opportunity to outsource manufacturing to low-waged and poor
labour law countries in Asia as this separated consumer countries from producer
countries (Peters, Li and Lenzen, 2021). (Šajn, 2019) reported that the average per-
person spending on clothes in Europe decreased from 30 to 12 percent between the
1950s to 2009. A further 5 percent decrease was experienced in 2020. However, this
reduced spending due to the low retail price of clothing items resulted in an increased
consumption rate.
2.2.1 Microfibre Pollution as a result of Increased Fast Fashion
The production of synthetic organic PET has witnessed exponential growth since the
1950s. Synthetic fibres have served as supplements to Cotton, linen and wool for the last
50 years, and their increased use has posed a severe threat to the environment because
they release fibres when washed with washing machines (Browne et al., 2011). Most
textile garments made from PET consist of a carbon backbone that can take over half a
century to decompose (Webb et al., 2012) and their chemical structure which contains
aromatic groups means they cannot be readily decomposed by aerobic or anaerobic
bacteria and are therefore non-degradable under freshwater conditions (Napper and
Thompson, 2016).

The concern for environmental impacts caused by a large amount of fibre shedding from
clothes has been growing. Freshwater bodies are frequently on the receiving end of waste
generated during textile production (Talvitie et al., 2015). Microfibres from the textile
industry are responsible for significant portions of plastic pollution (Henry, Laitala and
Klepp, 2019). This problem of continuously increasing microfibre waste in water bodies
due to the increased fast fashion production and consumption has made them casualties
of pollutants.

Figure 1 showing microplastics from clothing items polluting the ocean

https://bit.ly/2RG8eSN
5
Many of these shed fibres that flow into water bodies pose a danger to wildlife because
they are often ingested by biodata distributed along the freshwater food chain (Napper
and Thompson, 2016). These microfibres usually originate from washing textiles that are
too small for washing machines and wastewater treatment plants to filter and capture
(Pirc et al., 2016).

2.3 Environmental Impacts of Fast Fashion on A Country Wide Scale

For this section of the report, we will look at the impacts of fast fashion on the environment
due to its increased demand using the USA and UK as case studies.

2.3.1 Case Study 1: United States of America

The average American consumer now purchases a clothing item approximately every six
days (Ellen MacArthur Foundation, 2018). Moreover, most Cotton cultivated in the United
States is exported to low labour costs countries like China, where they are processed into
garments (Claudio, 2007). As a result of the increased consumption of fast fashion, there
has been an increased demand for Cotton, of which the USA is the world's leading
exporter (OECD, 2020). Therefore, the environmental impact of fast fashion in the US for
this report would be evaluated in this production stage by investigating this increased
cotton production.
Firstly, Cotton, the most important natural fibre used in the textile industry, is water-
intensive (Chapagain et al., 2006). Unfortunately, there has also been ineffective
irrigation, which has led to a lot of wasted water. Due to these factors, their cultivation
increases the water footprint where they are planted (Hossain and Khan, 2020).

A famous example can be seen in the drying up of the Aral Sea (Wæhler and Dietrichs,
2017). According to the LCA full report by (Barnes et al., 2018), a total of 2,740 litres of
water is used to produce 1,000 kg of cotton fibre. This water usage is considered direct
and indirect, out of which only 630 Litres are returned to the source. Furthermore, Cotton
in the USA, is grown in its most water-stressed regions that could no longer
environmentally and economically sustain their growth (Kehl, 2020).

Secondly, the overstress of water as a resource due to increased cotton crop production
has had an economically negative effect in the current USA agricultural landscape as a
decrease in food supply and high food price is experienced. (United States Department
of Agriculture (USDA), 2020) reported that the USA has experienced a forty percent
increase in the price of staple crops every five years since 2008. Additionally, severe
droughts of a more extreme nature have occurred more frequently. For instance, two of
the USA's largest food producers, i.e., California and Texas, experienced "500-year
scale" droughts as water used for food production in those regions were already deemed
inefficient (Spinoni et al., 2019). Coincidentally, California and Texas are the largest
producers of cotton in the USA.

6
 Figure 2 showing the drought situation in California
Source: https://bit.ly/3cihaVE

Lastly, Cotton, as an undefined inflorescence crop, uses fertiliser. Consequently, its

increased production has resulted in the increased fertiliser application to maximise crop
yield. (Dai and Dong, 2014) reported that cotton plants require vast quantities of fertilisers
and pesticides to grow continuously and bear more fruits, making it especially problematic
as this creates significant adverse environmental impacts. As a result, large inputs of
fertiliser, especially nitrogen fertiliser, destroy the Soil's granular structure and compact
nature (Chen et al., 2009).

Cotton Production in the USA from 2000 to 2020 in 1,000

Bales
30,000.00
Production in thousand bales

25,000.00
20,000.00
15,000.00
10,000.00
5,000.00
0.00
1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020 2025
Years

Figure 3 showing the Cotton Production trend since 2000.

Source: (Shahbandeh, 2021)
7
2.3.2 Case Study 2: United Kingdom
The fashion industry in the UK employed about 890,000 people in 2018 (Zhang, et al.,
2021). The (Environmental Audit Committee, 2019) reported that more clothes per person
are purchased in the UK (26.7 Kg) than any other European country. In 2018, it was
estimated that 5.6 percent of household expenditure in the UK was spent on clothing and
footwear, which accounted for approximately £60.4 billion (European Environment
Agency, 2014). This section will investigate the impacts of fast fashion on the UK
environment by reviewing what happens to clothe stocks that do not get sold.
Firstly, fast fashion production and consumption have been increasing year on year,
resulting in increased textile waste volumes. According to (Thorisdottir and Johannsdottir,
2019), UK consumers purchase over a billion tons of clothing items yearly, of which about
half ends up in landfills.

Figure 4 showing UK Land Fill with fast fashion disposed clothes

Source: (Spring, 2017)
Lastly, the overproduction of clothing items due to fast fashion resulted in large volumes
of unsold stocks in the UK. These unsold clothing items further impacted the climate due
to increased incineration by brands to protect their brand image. According to
(Department for Business, Energy & Industrial Strategy, 2021), in 2019, emissions from
waste disposed of to landfill sites and waste incineration accounted for around four
percent of greenhouse gas emissions in the UK.

8
2.4 The Rise of Circular Economy as a tool for Sustainable Development in the
Textile Industry

The practice of CE in the textile industry has become more acceptable because it
integrates environmental issues into business practices while driving sustainability (Jia et
al., 2020). Many enterprises are now adopting more CE practices to reconcile industrial
production with ecological and human resource protection. CE, at its core, is concerned
with value recovery and restoration of products by keeping them in continuous use on a
cradle-to-cradle basis, thereby reducing its damaging effect on ecosystems (Coste-
Maniere et al., 2019). Additionally, CE also involves creating awareness on the different
innovative approaches to which products can be recycled, upcycled and redesigned to
generate revenue, thereby building a link between economic development and
environmental protection (Nayak, Akbari and Maleki Far, 2019).

Raw Materials Design

Residual
Waste

Recycling, Production
Upcycle

Collection Distribution

Use, Re-use
and Repair

Figure 5 showing the Circular Pathway of Fibre Products in a Circular Economy Model
Source: https://bit.ly/3oi4xyN

2.4.1 Role of the Consumer in Practising Circular Economy to achieve Sustainable

Fashion

Firstly, Consumers must be encouraged to adopt slow fashion. Slow fashion, unlike fast
fashion, attempts to convince consumers to buy fewer clothes of better quality and keep
them longer while simultaneously getting more wears out of their previously owned
clothes (also known as reuse). (Deloitte-Christiansen, Hvidsteen and Haghshenas, 2013)
reported that producing a pair of jeans would take 3625 litres of water, 3 Kg of chemicals,
400 MJ of energy and 16 m 2 of land, all of which could be saved and put to more
sustainable use if fewer clothes were produced and purchased. This argument is
supported in the (Environmental Audit Committee, 2019), which reported that adopting

9
slow fashion by extending the lifetime of clothing items for an extra nine months can
reduce carbon, waste and water footprints by approximately 20 to 30 percent per annum.

Secondly, Consumers must encourage the purchase of fibres made from eco-friendly
materials. Additionally, consumers should be encouraged to not dispose of their no longer
used clothes but instead resell and donate them to keep them in constant use and
circulation. This practice would, in turn, increase the life span of those clothing items. The
(Centre for Sustainable Fashion , 2019) argued that water demand and carbon footprint
could be reduced if consumers developed a maintenance culture that prioritised existing
quality materials over new ones.

Thirdly, Consumers must make small behavioural changes in maintaining and discarding
clothes. Some of the encouraging behavioural changes include reducing their washing
frequency and washing at full load, reducing washing at high temperatures, encouraging
sun drying.

Lastly, consumers must perceive "greenwashing" by companies and be critically aware

of how fashion garments are produced to checkmate companies that make vague, broad
claims about their sustainability practices (Lyon and Montgomery, 2015).

3.0 CONCLUSION
To conclude, I believe that the fashion industry can operate in a way that does not put the
environment at risk as long as consumers demand a more ethical and sustainable
approach towards producing and supplying these fashion products. Our study has shown
that consumers play an active and influencing role in achieving sustainability in fashion.

Lastly, this report acknowledges that no single player, policy or innovative technology can
sufficiently solve these environmental and social challenges in the fashion industry.
However, the rise of the circular economy as a mainstream fashion practice is a viable
solution to the over-consumption resulting from fast fashion.

4.0 BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Ajwani-Ramchandani, R., Figueira, S., Torres de Oliveira, R. and Jha, S. (2021).
Enhancing the circular and modified linear economy: The importance of blockchain
for developing economies. Resources, Conservation and Recycling, 168, p.105468.
2. Ashby, A. (2018). Developing closed loop supply chains for environmental
sustainability. Journal of Manufacturing Technology Management, 29(4), pp.699–722.
3. Barnes, E., Hake, K., O'Leary, P., O'Regan, J., Reed, J., Ankeny, M.A., Clapp, D.,
Grow, J., Tyndall, M., Wallace, M., Bastos, M., Keyes, N., Peterson, M., Norman, B.,
Jewell, J., Morrison, L., Rehl, T. and Deimling, S. (2018). Life Cycle Assessment of
Cotton Fiber & Fabric Full Report Prepared for VISION 21 A Project of The Cotton
Foundation. [online] . Available at: https://cottoncultivated.cottoninc.com/wp-
content/uploads/2015/06/2012-LCA-Full-Report.pdf.

10
4. Barnes, L. and Lea‐Greenwood, G. (2010). Fast fashion in the retail store
environment. International Journal of Retail & Distribution Management, 38(10),
pp.760–772.
5. Berg, A., Magnus, K.-H., Kappelmark, S., Granskog, A., Lee, L., Sawers, C.,
Polgampola, P., Lehmann, M., Syrett, H., Arici, G., Wigan, D., Blankschøn, T. and
Siim, D. (2020). FASHION ON CLIMATE HOW THE FASHION INDUSTRY CAN
URGENTLY ACT TO REDUCE ITS GREENHOUSE GAS EMISSIONS. [online]
McKinsey & Company. Available at:
https://www.mckinsey.com/~/media/McKinsey/Industries/Retail/Our%20Insights/Fas
hion%20on%20climate/Fashion-on-climate-Full-report.pdf.
6. Bick, R., Halsey, E. and Ekenga, C.C. (2018). The global environmental injustice of
fast fashion. Environmental Health, [online] 17(1).
7. Bird, J. (2018). Fashion's Dirty Little Secret and How It's Coming Clean. [online]
Forbes. Available at: https://www.forbes.com/sites/jonbird1/2018/09/09/fashions-
dirty-little-secret-and-how-its-coming-clean/?sh=674a606a1771 [Accessed 28 May
2021].
8. Bocken, N.M.P. and Short, S.W. (2016). Towards a sufficiency-driven business model:
Experiences and opportunities. Environmental Innovation and Societal Transitions,
18, pp.41–61.
9. Brewer, M.K. (2019). Slow Fashion in a Fast Fashion World: Promoting Sustainability
and Responsibility. Laws, [online] 8(4), p.24. Available at:
https://www.mdpi.com/2075-471X/8/4/24/htm.
10. British Fashion Council, 2018. London Fashion Week September 2018 Facts and
Figures, London: British Fashion Council.
11. Brooks, A. (2015). Clothing poverty: the hidden world of fast fashion and second-hand
clothes. Choice Reviews Online, 52(12), pp.52–661152–6611.
12. Browne, M.A., Crump, P., Niven, S.J., Teuten, E., Tonkin, A., Galloway, T. and
Thompson, R. (2011). Accumulation of Microplastic on Shorelines Woldwide: Sources
and Sinks. Environmental Science & Technology, 45(21), pp.9175–9179.
13. Brydges, T. (2021). Closing the loop on take, make, waste: Investigating circular
economy practices in the Swedish fashion industry. Journal of Cleaner Production,
293, p.126245.
14. Cao, H., Chang, R., Kallal, J., Manalo, G., McCord, J., Shaw, J. and Starner, H. (2014).
Adaptable apparel: a sustainable design solution for excess apparel consumption
problem. Journal of Fashion Marketing and Management: An International Journal,
18(1), pp.52–69.
15. Capstick, S., Lorenzoni, I., Corner, A. and Whitmarsh, L. (2014). Prospects for radical
emissions reduction through behavior and lifestyle change. Carbon Management,
5(4), pp.429–445.
16. Centre for Sustainable Fashion , 2019. Fashion and Environment: An Overview of
Fashion's Environmental Impact and Opportunities for Action, London: British Fashion
Council.

11
17. Chapagain, A.K., Hoekstra, A.Y., Savenije, H.H.G. and Gautam, R. (2006). The water
footprint of cotton consumption: An assessment of the impact of worldwide
consumption of cotton products on the water resources in the cotton producing
countries. Ecological Economics, [online] 60(1), pp.186–203. Available at:
https://research.utwente.nl/en/publications/the-water-footprint-of-cotton-
consumption-an-assessment-of-the-im.
18. Chen, W., Hou, Z., Wu, L., Liang, Y. and Wei, C. (2009). Effects of salinity and nitrogen
on cotton growth in arid environment. Plant and Soil, 326(1-2), pp.61–73.
19. Choudhury, A.K.R. (2017). Sustainable chemical technologies for textile production.
Sustainable Fibres and Textiles, [online] pp.267–322. Available at:
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B978008102041800010X
[Accessed 28 Apr. 2021].
20. Claudio, L. (2007). Waste Couture: Environmental Impact of the Clothing Industry.
Environmental Health Perspectives, [online] 115(9). Available at:
https://ehp.niehs.nih.gov/doi/full/10.1289/ehp.115-a449.
21. Coste-Maniere, I., Croizet, K., Sette, E., Fanien, A., Guezguez, H. and Lafforgue, H.
(2019). Circular economy. Circular Economy in Textiles and Apparel, pp.123–148.
22. Dai, J. and Dong, H. (2014). Intensive cotton farming technologies in China:
Achievements, challenges and countermeasures. Field Crops Research, 155, pp.99–
110.
23. Deloitte-Christiansen, A.M., Hvidsteen, K. and Haghshenas, B. (2013). Deloitte
Fashioning Sustainability 2013 | Sustainability | Supply Chain. [online] Scribd.
Available at: https://www.scribd.com/document/369575645/Deloitte-Fashioning-
Sustainability-2013 [Accessed 28 May 2021].
24. Department for Business, Energy & Industrial Strategy (2021). 2019 UK Greenhouse
Gas Emissions, Final Figures national statistics. [online] GOV.UK. Available at:
https://www.gov.uk/government/collections/final-uk-greenhouse-gas-emissions-
national-statistics [Accessed 9 May 2021].
25. Elia, A. (2020). Fashion's Destruction of Unsold Goods: Responsible Solutions for
Fashion's Destruction of Unsold Goods: Responsible Solutions for an Environmentally
Conscious Future an Environmentally Conscious Future. Fordham Intellectual
Property, Media and Entertainment Law Fordham Intellectual Property, Media and
Entertainment Law Journal Journal, [online] 30(2), p.2020. Available at:
https://ir.lawnet.fordham.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1746&context=iplj
[Accessed 8 Dec. 2020].
26. Ellen MacArthur Foundation (2018). Circular Fashion - A New Textiles Economy:
Redesigning fashion's future. [online] Ellenmacarthurfoundation.org. Available at:
https://www.ellenmacarthurfoundation.org/publications/a-new-textiles-economy-
redesigning-fashions-future [Accessed 9 May 2021].
27. Ellen MacArthur Foundation (2019). Fashion and the circular economy. [online]
Ellenmacarthurfoundation.org. Available at:
https://www.ellenmacarthurfoundation.org/explore/fashion-and-the-circular-economy
[Accessed 3 May 2021].

12
28. Environmental Audit Committee (2019). House of Commons House of Commons
Environmental Audit Committee Fixing fashion: clothing consumption and
sustainability FIXING FASHION: clothing consumption and sustainability Sixteenth
Report of Session 2017-19. [online] , pp.1–73. Available at:
https://publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm201719/cmselect/cmenvaud/1952/1952.pdf
[Accessed 9 May 2021].
29. European Environment Agency (2014). Environmental Indicator Report. [online]
www.eea.europa.eu. Available at: https://www.eea.europa.eu/publications/
[Accessed 9 May 2021].
30. Franco, MA (2017). Circular economy at the micro-level: A dynamic view of
incumbents' struggles and challenges in the textile industry. Journal of Cleaner
Production, 168, pp.833–845.
31. Gazzola, P., Pavione, E., Pezzetti, R. and Grechi, D. (2020). Trends in the Fashion
Industry. The Perception of Sustainability and Circular Economy: A
Gender/Generation Quantitative Approach. Sustainability, [online] 12(7), p.2809.
Available at: https://www.mdpi.com/2071-1050/12/7/2809.
32. Geyer, R., Jambeck, J.R. and Law, K.L. (2017). Production, use, and the fate of all
plastics ever made—science Advances, [online] 3(7), p. Available at:
https://plasticoceans.org/wp-
content/uploads/2018/05/Production_use_and_fate_of_all_plastics_ever_made.pdf.
33. Gupta, S. and Gentry, J.W. (2018). Evaluating fast fashion. Eco-friendly and Fair,
pp.15–23.
34. Han, J., Seo, Y. and Ko, E. (2017). Staging luxury experiences for understanding
sustainable fashion consumption: A balance theory application. Journal of Business
Research, 74, pp.162–167.
35. Henry, B., Laitala, K. and Klepp, I.G. (2019). Microfibres from apparel and home
textiles: Prospects for including microplastics in environmental sustainability
assessment. Science of The Total Environment, 652, pp.483–494.
36. Hossain, L. and Khan, M.S. (2020). Water Footprint Management for Sustainable
Growth in the Bangladesh Apparel Sector. Water, [online] 12(10), p.2760. Available
at: https://www.mdpi.com/2073-4441/12/10/2760 [Accessed 28 May 2021].
37. Hu, Z.-H., Li, Q., Chen, X.-J. and Wang, Y.-F. (2014). Sustainable Rent-Based
Closed-Loop Supply Chain for Fashion Products. Sustainability, 6(10), pp.7063–7088.
38. Hur, E. (2020). Rebirth Fashion: Second-hand clothing consumption values and
perceived risks. Journal of Cleaner Production, 273, p.122951.
39. Hwang, C., Lee, Y., Diddi, S. and Karpova, E. (2016). "Don't buy this jacket." Journal
of Fashion Marketing and Management: An International Journal, 20(4), pp.435–452.
40. Islam, S. and Bhat, G. (2019). Environmentally-friendly thermal and acoustic insulation
materials from recycled textiles. Journal of Environmental Management, 251,
p.109536.
41. Jia, F., Yin, S., Chen, L. and Chen, X. (2020). The circular economy in the textile and
apparel industry: A systematic literature review. Journal of Cleaner Production, 259,
p.120728.

13
42. Joanes, T., Gwozdz, W. and Klöckner, C.A. (2020). Reducing personal clothing
consumption: A cross-cultural validation of the comprehensive action determination
model. Journal of Environmental Psychology, [online] 71, p.101396. Available at:
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0272494418307114#bib13
[Accessed 3 Jun. 2021].
43. Jørgensen, S. and Pedersen, L.J.T. (2018). The Circular Rather than the Linear
Economy. RESTART Sustainable Business Model Innovation, pp.103–120.
44. Joy, A., Sherry, J.F., Venkatesh, A., Wang, J. and Chan, R. (2015). Fast Fashion,
Sustainability, and the Ethical Appeal of Luxury Brands. Fashion Theory, 16(3),
pp.273–295.
45. Kehl, J. (2020). Moving beyond the Mirage: Water Scarcity and Agricultural Use
Inefficiency in USA. Water, 12(8), p.2290.
46. Khattab, T.A., Abdelrahman, M.S. and Rehan, M. (2019). Textile dyeing industry:
environmental impacts and remediation. Environmental Science and Pollution
Research, 27(4), pp.3803–3818.
47. Kong, H.M., Witmaier, A. and Ko, E. (2020). Sustainability and social media
communication: How consumers respond to marketing efforts of luxury and non-luxury
fashion brands. Journal of Business Research.
48. Kozlowski, A., Searcy, C. and Bardecki, M. (2018). The reDesign canvas: Fashion
design as a tool for sustainability. Journal of Cleaner Production, [online] 183, pp.194–
207. Available at:
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0959652618303184 [Accessed 13
May 2021].
49. Laitala, K., Boks, C. and Klepp, I.G. (2011). Potential for environmental improvements
in laundering. International Journal of Consumer Studies, 35(2), pp.254–264.
50. Laitala, K., Klepp, I. and Henry, B. (2018). Does Use Matter? Comparison of
Environmental Impacts of Clothing Based on Fiber Type. Sustainability, [online] 10(7),
p.2524. Available at: https://www.mdpi.com/2071-1050/10/7/2524.
51. Lang, C., Li, M. and Zhao, L. (2020). Understanding consumers' online fashion renting
experiences: A text-mining approach. Sustainable Production and Consumption, 21,
pp.132–144.
52. Lyon, T.P. and Montgomery, A.W. (2015). The Means and End of Greenwash.
Organization & Environment, [online] 28(2), pp.223–249. Available at:
https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/1086026615575332 [Accessed 5 May
2021].
53. Mi-Ah, K. (2011). Impact of the Textile Quotas Removal of the US on the Korea's
Textile Exports. The Journal of International Trade & Commerce, 7(1), pp.245–267.
54. Michel, G., Feori, M., Damhorst, M.L., Lee, Y. and Niehm, L. (2017). THE STORIES
WE WEAR MENDING AND BLOGGING PATAGONIA BRAND APPAREL. Global
Fashion Management Conference, 2017, pp.163–164.
55. Michelini, G., Moraes, R.N., Cunha, R.N., Costa, J.M.H. and Ometto, A.R. (2017).
From Linear to Circular Economy: PSS Conducting the Transition. Procedia CIRP,

14
 [online] 64, pp.2–6. Available at:
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2212827117301567.
56. Mochalova, L. (2021). Circular economy in the context of implementing the concept of
sustainable development. Journal of New Economy, 21(4), pp.5–27.
57. Moorhouse, D. (2020). Making Fashion Sustainable: Waste and Collective
Responsibility. One Earth, [online] 3(1), pp.17–19. Available at:
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7380204/ [Accessed 28 Apr. 2021].
58. Napper, I.E., and Thompson, R.C. (2016). Release of synthetic microplastic plastic
fibres from domestic washing machines: Effects of fabric type and washing conditions.
Marine Pollution Bulletin, 112(1-2), pp.39–45.
59. Nayak, R., Akbari, M. and Maleki Far, S. (2019). Recent sustainable trends in
Vietnam's fashion supply chain. Journal of Cleaner Production, 225, pp.291–303.
60. Nayak, R. and Padhye, R. (2015). Garment Manufacturing Technology. Elsevier.
61. Niinimäki, K., Peters, G., Dahlbo, H., Perry, P., Rissanen, T. and Gwilt, A. (2020). The
environmental price of fast fashion. Nature Reviews Earth & Environment, [online]
1(4), pp.189–200. Available at: https://www.nature.com/articles/s43017-020-0039-9.
62. O'Rourke, D. and Strand, R. (2017). Patagonia: Driving Sustainable Innovation by
Embracing Tensions. California Management Review, 60(1), pp.102–125.
63. OECD (2020). OECD-FAO Agricultural Outlook 2020-2029. OECD-FAO Agricultural
Outlook. OECD.
64. Pandey, K. (2018). Fashion industry may use quarter of world's carbon budget by
2050. [online] Downtoearth.org.in. Available at:
https://www.downtoearth.org.in/news/environment/fashion-industry-may-use-quarter-
of-world-s-carbon-budget-by-2050-61183 [Accessed 2 Jun. 2021].
65. Patagonia (2006). Patagonia's Common Threads Garment Recycling Program: A
Detailed Analysis. [online] , pp.1–11. Available at:
https://www.patagonia.com/on/demandware.static/Sites-patagonia-us-Site/Library-
Sites-PatagoniaShared/en_US/PDF-US/common_threads_whitepaper.pdf
[Accessed 1 Jun. 2021].
66. Patagonia (2012). Worn Wear - Better Than New. [online] Patagonia.com. Available
at: https://wornwear.patagonia.com/ [Accessed 13 May 2021].
67. Patagonia (2021a). Climate Crisis - Patagonia. [online] www.patagonia.com. Available
at: https://www.patagonia.com/climate-crisis/ [Accessed 13 May 2021].
68. Patagonia (2021b). Repairs & DIY Tutorials - Patagonia. [online] www.patagonia.com.
Available at: https://www.patagonia.com/repairs/.
69. Peters, G., Li, M. and Lenzen, M. (2021). The need to decelerate fast fashion in a hot
climate - a global sustainability perspective on the garment industry. Journal of
Cleaner Production, 295, p.126390.
70. Pirc, U., Vidmar, M., Mozer, A. and Kržan, A. (2016). Emissions of microplastic fibers
from microfiber fleece during domestic washing. Environmental Science and Pollution
Research, [online] 23(21), pp.22206–22211. Available at:
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5099352/.

15
71. Rent the Runway (2017). The Real Sustainable Fashion Movement
#RentReduceReuse | Rent the Runway. [online] Rent the Runway. Available at:
https://www.renttherunway.com/sustainable-fashion [Accessed 13 May 2021].
72. Roos, S., Sandin, G., Zamani, B., Peters, G. and Svanström, M. (2016). Will Clothing
Be Sustainable? Clarifying Sustainable Fashion. Textile Science and Clothing
Technology, pp.1–45.
73. Safdar, K. and Kapner, S. (2017). Rent the Runway Chases the Fast-Fashion
Shopper. Wall Street Journal. [online] 14 Oct. Available at:
https://www.wsj.com/articles/rent-the-runway-chases-the-fast-fashion-shopper-
1507982400 [Accessed 15 May 2021].
74. Šajn, N. (2019a). Environmental impact of the textile and clothing industry What
consumers need to know. [online]. Available at:
https://www.europarl.europa.eu/RegData/etudes/BRIE/2019/633143/EPRS_BRI(201
9)633143_EN.pdf.
75. Šajn, N. (2019b). Environmental impact of the textile and clothing industry: What
consumers need to know - Think Tank. [online] www.europarl.europa.eu. Available at:
http://www.europarl.europa.eu/thinktank/en/document.html?reference=EPRS_BRI%
282019%29633143 [Accessed 5 May 2021].
76. Sandin, G. and Peters, G.M. (2018). Environmental impact of textile reuse and
recycling – A review. Journal of Cleaner Production, [online] 184, pp.353–365.
Available at:
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0959652618305985?via=ihub.
77. Scott, J.L. and Buchard, A. (2019). Polymers from plants: Biomass fixed carbon
dioxide as a resource. Managing Global Warming, pp.503–525.
78. Shahbandeh, M. (2021). Cotton production in the US 2020. [online] Statista. Available
at: https://www.statista.com/statistics/191500/cotton-production-in-the-us-since-
2000/#professional [Accessed 4 Jun. 2021].
79. Shen, B., Wang, Y., Lo, C.K.Y. and Shum, M. (2012). The impact of ethical fashion on
consumer purchase behavior. Journal of Fashion Marketing and Management: An
International Journal, 16(2), pp.234–245.
80. Shrivastava, A., Jain, G., Kamble, S.S. and Belhadi, A. (2020). Sustainability through
Online Renting Clothing: Circular Fashion Fueled by Instagram Micro-celebrities.
Journal of Cleaner Production, 278, p.123772.
81. Siderius, T. and Poldner, K. (2021). Reconsidering The Circular Economy Rebound
Effect: Propositions from a case study of the Dutch Circular Textile Valley. Journal of
Cleaner Production, 293, pp.1–12.
82. Simpson, L. (2019). Exploration of the perpetuating fast fashion consumption cycle:
Young women' s experiences in pursuit of an ideal self-image Recommended Citation.
[online] . Available at:
https://lib.dr.iastate.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=8107&context=etd [Accessed 20
May 2021].
83. Spinoni, J., Barbosa, P., De Jager, A., McCormick, N., Naumann, G., Vogt, J.V.,
Magni, D., Masante, D. and Mazzeschi, M. (2019). A new global database of

16
 meteorological drought events from 1951 to 2016. Journal of Hydrology: Regional
Studies, 22, p.100593.
84. Spring, A. (2017). Landfill becomes the latest fashion victim in Australia's throwaway
clothes culture. [online] the Guardian. Available at:
https://www.theguardian.com/fashion/2017/dec/06/landfill-becomes-the-latest-
fashion-victim-in-australias-throwaway-clothes-culture.
85. Stål, H.I. and Corvellec, H. (2018). A decoupling perspective on circular business
model implementation: Illustrations from Swedish apparel. Journal of Cleaner
Production, 171, pp.630–643.
86. Štefko, R. and Steffek, V. (2018). Key Issues in Slow Fashion: Current Challenges
and Future Perspectives. Sustainability, 10(7), p.2270.
87. Stone, C., Windsor, F.M., Munday, M. and Durance, I. (2020). Natural or synthetic –
how global trends in textile usage threaten freshwater environments. Science of The
Total Environment, 718, p.134689.
88. Talvitie, J., Heinonen, M., Pääkkönen, J.-P., Vahtera, E., Mikola, A., Setälä, O. and
Vahala, R. (2015). Do wastewater treatment plants act as a potential point source of
microplastics? Preliminary study in the coastal Gulf of Finland, Baltic Sea. Water
Science and Technology, [online] 72(9), pp.1495–1504. Available at:
http://www.helcom.fi/Documents/HELCOM%20at%20work/Projects/BASE/BSD_Haz
ardous%20RT_Microplastics.pdf [Accessed 15 Jul. 2019].
89. Thorisdottir, T.S. and Johannsdottir, L. (2019). Sustainability within Fashion Business
Models: A Systematic Literature Review. Sustainability, 11(8), p.2233.
90. United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) (2020). USDA ERS - Agricultural
Baseline Database. [online] www.ers.usda.gov. Available at:
https://www.ers.usda.gov/data-products/agricultural-baseline-database/ [Accessed 6
May 2021].
91. Vadakkepatt, G.G., Winterich, K.P., Mittal, V., Zinn, W., Beitelspacher, L., Aloysius,
J., Ginger, J. and Reilman, J. (2021). Sustainable Retailing. Journal of Retailing,
[online] 97(1), pp.62–80. Available at:
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0022435920300713 [Accessed 2
Jun. 2021].
92. Wagner, M.M. and Heinzel, T. (2020). Human Perceptions of Recycled Textiles and
Circular Fashion: A Systematic Literature Review. Sustainability, 12(24), p.10599.
93. Wæhler, T.A. and Dietrichs, E.S. (2017). The vanishing Aral Sea: health
consequences of an environmental disaster. Tidsskrift for Den norske legeforening.
[online] Available at: https://tidsskriftet.no/en/2017/10/global-helse/vanishing-aral-
sea-health-consequences-environmental-disaster [Accessed 4 Jun. 2021].
94. Webb, H., Arnott, J., Crawford, R. and Ivanova, E. (2012). Plastic Degradation and Its
Environmental Implications with Special Reference to Poly(ethylene terephthalate).
Polymers, 5(1), pp.1–18.
95. Yuan, Q. and Shen, B. (2019). Renting fashion with strategic customers in the sharing
economy. International Journal of Production Economics, 218, pp.185–195.

17
96. Zhang, B., Zhang, Y. and Zhou, P. (2021). Consumer Attitude towards Sustainability
of Fast Fashion Products in the UK. Sustainability, 13(4), p.1646.

18