Work, Energy, Power and Collision

Introduction The positive work signifies that the external force

favours the motion of the body.
The terms 'work', 'energy' and 'power' are Example: (i) When a person lifts a body from the
frequently used in everyday language. A farmer ground, the work done by the (upward) lifting force is
clearing weeds in his field is said to be working hard. A positive
woman carrying water from a well to her house is said
F man
to be working. In a drought affected region she may be
required to carry it over large distances. If she can do
so, she is said to have a large stamina or energy. Energy
s
is thus the capacity to do work. The term power is
usually associated with speed. In karate, a powerful
punch is one delivered at great speed. In physics we Fig. 6.3
shall define these terms very precisely. We shall find
that there is a loose correlation between the physical
definitions and the physiological pictures these terms (ii) When a lawn roller is pulled by applying a
generate in our minds. force along the handle at an acute angle, work done by
the applied force is positive.
Work is said to be done when a force applied on
F
the body displaces the body through a certain distance
in the direction of force. s
Work Done by a Constant Force Fig. 6.4
(iii) When a spring is stretched, work done by the
Let a constant force F be applied on the body external (stretching) force is positive.
such that it makes an angle  with the horizontal and s
body is displaced through a distance s
F s
By resolving force F into two components : Fig. 6.5
F

(i) F cos in the direction of displacement of the Maximum work : Wmax  F s

body.
(ii) F sin in the perpendicular direction of When cos   maximum  1 i.e.   0 o
displacement of the body. It means force does maximum work when angle
F sin
between force and displacement is zero.
F
Negative work
 Negative work means that force (or its
F cos component) is opposite to displacement i.e.
F Direction of
s motion
Fig. 6.1 
s 90 o    180 o
Since body is being displaced in the direction of
F cos  , therefore work done by the force in displacing Fig. 6.6
the body through a distance s is given by
The negative work signifies that the external
W  (F cos  ) s  Fs cos 
force opposes the motion of the body.
or W  F.s Example: (i) When a person lifts a body from the
Thus work done by a force is equal to the scalar ground, the work done by the (downward) force of
(or dot product) of the force and the displacement of gravity is negative.
the body.
If a number of forces F 1 , F 2 , F 3 ......F n are acting on Fg

a body and it shifts from position vector r 1 to position

vector r then W  (F 1  F 2  F 3  ....F n ).( r 2  r 1 ) s

2

Nature of Work Done

Fig. 6.7
Positive work
(ii) When a body is made to slide over a rough
Positive work means that force (or its
surface, the work done by the frictional force is
component) is parallel toDirection
displacement
of negative.
F motion
Minimum work : Wmin  F s

s
0 o    90 o F
Fig. 6.2 + +
s
Fig. 6.8

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 Work, Energy, Power and Collision
When cos   minimum  1 i.e   180 o (iii) When a positive charge is moved towards
another positive charge. The work done by
It means force does minimum [maximum electrostatic force between them is negative.
negative] work when angle between force and
displacement is 180o.

Zero work

Under three condition, work done becomes zero W  Fs cos   0

(1) If the force is perpendicular to the displacement [ F  s ]

Example: (i) When a coolie travels on a horizontal platform with a

s
load on his head, work done against gravity by the coolie
is zero.

(ii) When a body moves in a circle the work done by the Fg

centripetal force is always zero.

(iii) In case of motion of a charged particle in a magnetic

field as force [F  q(v  B)] is always perpendicular to
motion, work done by this force is always zero.

(2) If there is no displacement [s = 0]

Example: (i) When a person tries to displace a wall or heavy stone by F

applying a force and it does not move, then work done is
zero. s 0

(ii) A weight lifter does work in lifting the weight off the
ground but does not work in holding it up.

(3) If there is no force acting on the body [F = 0]

Example: Motion of an isolated body in free space.

Work Done by a Variable Force

Absolute units Gravitational units
When the magnitude and direction of a force
Joule [S.I.]: Work done is kg-m [S.I.]: 1 kg-m of
varies with position, the work done by such a force for
said to be one Joule, when work is done when a
an infinitesimal displacement is given by dW  F. d s 1 Newton force displaces force of 1kg-wt.
B
the body through 1 metre displaces the body
ds
in its own direction. through 1m in its own

F From, W = F.s direction.

1 Joule = 1 Newton 1 m From W=Fs

A
1 kg-m = 1 kg-wt  1 m
Fig. 6.9
= 9.81 N  1 metre
The total work done in going from A to B as
shown in the figure is = 9.81 Joule
W  A F. d s  A (F cos  )ds
B B
erg [C.G.S.] : Work done gm-cm [C.G.S.] : 1
is said to be one erg when gm-cm of work is done
In terms of rectangular component
1 dyne force displaces the when a force of 1gm-
F  Fx ˆi  Fy ˆj  Fz kˆ body through 1 cm in its wt displaces the body
own direction. through 1cm in its own
d s  dxˆi  dyˆj  dz kˆ
From W = F s direction.
 W  A (Fx ˆi  Fy ˆj  Fz kˆ ).(dxˆi  dyˆj  dz kˆ )
B

1 erg  1dyne  1cm From W = F s

1 gm-cm = 1gm-wt 
xB yB zB
or W  x Fx dx  y Fy dy  z Fz dz
A A A Relation between Joule
1cm. = 981 dyne  1cm
Dimension and Units of Work and erg
= 981 erg
Dimension : As work = Force  displacement 1 Joule = 1 N  1 m
= 105 dyne  102 cm
[W]  [MLT 2 ]  [L]  [ML2 T 2 ]
= 107 dyne  cm = 107 erg
Units : The units of work are of two types

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 Work, Energy, Power and Collision
Note:- Work Done in Conservative and
 Work is defined for an interval or Non-conservative Field
displacement; there is no term like (1) In conservative field, work done by the force
instantaneous work similar to instantaneous (line integral of the force i.e.  F.d l ) is independent of
velocity. the path followed between any two points.
 For a particular displacement, work is W AB  W AB  W AB I
independent of time. Path I Path II Path III A B
II
 When several forces act, work done by a or  F.d l   F.d l   F.d l
force, for a particular displacement, is Path I Path II Path III
independent of other forces. III
Fig. 6.11
 Displacement depends on reference frame
(2) In conservative field work done by the force (line
so work done by a force is reference frame
integral of the force i.e.  F.d l ) over a closed path/loop is
dependent. Work done by a force can be
zero.
different in different reference frames.
WAB  WB A  0 A B
 Work is done by an energy source or agent  
that applies the force. or  F.d l  0
 When θ= 0°, force does maximum positive
Fig. 6.12
work.
 When θ = 180°, force does maximum Conservative force : The forces of these type of
fields are known as conservative forces.
negative work
Example : Electrostatic forces, gravitational
forces, elastic forces, magnetic forces etc and all the
Work Done Calculation by Force Displacement central forces are conservative in nature.
Graph If a body of mass m lifted to height h from the
Let a body, whose initial position is x i , is acted ground level by different path as shown in the figure
B B B B
upon by a variable force (whose magnitude is changing
continuously) and consequently the body acquires its
final position x f . Force
 I II III IV
F l h
h3
 h2
h1

O xi xf Displaceme A A A A
x dx
nt Fig. 6.13
Fig. 6.10
Work done through different paths
WI  F. s  mg  h  mgh
Let F be the average value of variable force within
the interval dx from position x to (x + dx) i.e. for small WII  F. s  mg sin   l  mg sin  
h
 mgh
displacement dx. The work done will be the area of the sin 
shaded strip of width dx. The work done on the body in WIII  mgh1  0  mgh 2  0  mgh 3  0  mgh 4
displacing it from position x i to x f will be equal to the  mg (h1  h2  h3  h4 )  mgh
sum of areas of all the such strips
WIV   F. d s  mgh
dW  F dx
xf xf
It is clear that WI  WII  WIII  WIV  mgh .
W  xi
dW  
xi
F dx
Further if the body is brought back to its initial
xf position A, similar amount of work (energy) is released
W  x i (Area of strip of width dx ) from the system, it means WAB  mgh and WBA  mgh .
W  Area under curve between x i and x f Hence the net work done against gravity over a
i.e. Area under force-displacement curve with round trip is zero.
proper algebraic sign represents work done by the WNet  WAB  WBA  mgh  (mgh )  0 i.e. the
force. gravitational force is conservative in nature. Non-
conservative forces : A force is said to be non-
conservative if work done by or against the force in
moving a body from one position to another, depends

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 Work, Energy, Power and Collision
on the path followed between these two positions and Relation between different units:
for complete cycle this work done can never be zero. 1 Joule = 10 7 erg
Example: Frictional force, Viscous force, Airdrag
1 eV = 1.6  10 19 Joule
etc.
1 kWh = 3.6  10 6 Joule
If a body is moved from position A to another
1 calorie = 4.18 Joule
position B on a rough table, work done against
frictional force shall depend on the length of the path (4) Mass energy equivalence : Einstein’s special theory
between A and B and not only on the position A and B. of relativity shows that material particle itself is a form of
WAB  mgs energy.
The relation between the mass of a particle m
Further if the body is brought back to its initial and its equivalent energy is given as
position A, work has to be done against the frictional
E  mc 2 where c = velocity of light in vacuum.
force, which opposes the motion. Hence the net work
done against the friction over a round trip is not zero. If m  1 amu  1.67  10 27 kg
R
s then E  931 MeV  1.5  10 10 Joule .
F If m  1kg then E  9  10 16 Joule
Examples : (i) Annihilation of matter when an
Fig. 6.14
electron (e  ) and a positron (e  ) combine with each
WBA  mgs . other, they annihilate or destroy each other. The
WNet  WAB  WBA  mgs  mgs  2 mgs  0. masses of electron and positron are converted into
energy. This energy is released in the form of  -rays.
i.e. the friction is a non-conservative force.
e  e    
Work Depends on Frame of Reference
Each  photon has energy = 0.51 MeV.
With change of frame of reference (inertial), force
Here two  photons are emitted instead of one
does not change while displacement may change. So
the work done by a force will be different in different  photon to conserve the linear momentum.
frames. (ii) Pair production : This process is the reverse
Examples : (1) If a porter with a suitcase on his of annihilation of matter. In this case, a photon ( )
head moves up a having energy equal to 1.02 MeV interacts with a
staircase, work nucleus and give rise to electron (e  ) and positron (e  ) .
done by the upward Thus energy (is
Photon)
converted into matter.
lifting force relative e– + e+
to him will be zero
(as displacement Fig. 6.16
relative to him is
h
zero) while relative (iii) Nuclear bomb : When the nucleus is split up
to a person on the due to mass defect (The difference in the mass of
ground will be mgh. Fig. 6.15 nucleons and the nucleus), energy is released in the
(2) If a person is pushing a box inside a moving form of  -radiations and heat.

train, the work done in the frame of train will F.s (5) Various forms of energy
(i) Mechanical energy (Kinetic and Potential)
while in the frame of earth will be F. (s  s 0 ) where s 0
(ii) Chemical energy
is the displacement of the train relative to the ground.
(iii) Electrical energy
Energy (iv) Magnetic energy
The energy of a body is defined as its capacity for (v) Nuclear energy
doing work. (vi) Sound energy
(1) Since energy of a body is the total quantity of (vii) Light energy
work done, therefore it is a scalar quantity.
(viii) Heat energy
(2) Dimension: [ML2T 2 ] it is same as that of work (6) Transformation of energy : Conversion of
or torque. energy from one form to another is possible through
(3) Units : Joule [S.I.], erg [C.G.S.] various devices and processes.
Practical units : electron volt (eV), Kilowatt hour
(KWh), Calories (cal)
Table : 6.1 Various devices for energy conversion from one form to another

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 Work, Energy, Power and Collision
Mechanical  electrical Light  Electrical Chemical  electrical

Ligh Cathod
Anode
N S t – + e

Dynamo Photoelectric A Primary

cell + – cell

Chemical  heat Sound  Electrical Heat  electrical

Fe

Hot Cold

G Cu
Coal
Burning Microphone Thermo-couple

Heat  Mechanical Electrical  Mechanical Electrical  Heat

Engine Motor Heater

Electrical  Sound Electrical  Chemical Electrical  Light

Anod Catho
e+ – de

Speaker Voltameter Bulb

Electrolyt
e

Kinetic Energy
The energy possessed by a body by virtue of its
motion, is called kinetic energy.
(1) Expression for kinetic energy :
Examples : (i) Flowing water possesses kinetic
energy which is used to run the water mills. Let m = mass of the body,

(ii) Moving vehicle possesses kinetic energy. u = Initial velocity of the body (= 0)

(iii) Moving air (i.e. wind) possesses kinetic F = Force acting on the body,
energy which is used to run wind mills. a = Acceleration of the body,
(iv) The hammer possesses kinetic energy which s = Distance travelled by the body,
is used to drive the nails in wood. v = Final velocity of the body
(v) A bullet fired from the gun has kinetic energy From v 2  u 2  2as
and due to this energy the bullet penetrates into a
target. v2
 v 2  0  2as  s 
2a
v
u=0
F

s
Fig. 6.17

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 Work, Energy, Power and Collision
Since the displacement of the body is in the mc 2
direction of the applied force, then work done by the E  mc 2
1  (v / c )
2 2
force is
(5) Work-energy theorem: From equation (i)
v2
W  F  s  ma  dW  mv dv .
2a
Work done on the body in order to increase its
1
 W  mv 2 velocity from u to v is given by
2
v
This work done appears as the kinetic energy of v v v 2 
W  u mv dv  m u v dv  m  
1
the body KE  W  mv 2  2  u
2
1
(2) Calculus method : Let a body is initially at W  m[v 2  u 2 ]
2
rest and force F is applied on the body to displace it Work done = change in kinetic energy

through small displacement d s along its own direction
then small work done W  E
This is work energy theorem, it states that work
dW  F.d s  F ds done by a force acting on a body is equal to the change
 dW  m a ds [As F = ma] in the kinetic energy of the body.
This theorem is valid for a system in presence of
dv  dv  all types of forces (external or internal, conservative or
 dW  m ds  As a  dt 
dt   non-conservative).
ds If kinetic energy of the body increases, work is
 dW  mdv .
dt positive i.e. body moves in the direction of the force (or
field) and if kinetic energy decreases, work will be
 dW  m v dv …(i)
negative and object will move opposite to the force (or
 ds  field).
 As dt  v 
  Examples : (i) In case of vertical motion of body
Therefore work done on the body in order to under gravity when the body is projected up, force of
increase its velocity from zero to v is given by gravity is opposite to motion and so kinetic energy of
the body decreases and when it falls down, force of
v
v v v 2  1 gravity is in the direction of motion so kinetic energy
W 0 mv dv  m 0 v dv  m  2   2 mv
2
increases.
  0
(ii) When a body moves on a rough horizontal
This work done appears as the kinetic energy of surface, as force of friction acts opposite to motion,
1 kinetic energy will decrease and the decrease in kinetic
the body KE  mv 2 .
2 energy is equal to the work done against friction.

In vector form KE 
1
m (v . v )
(6) Relation of kinetic energy with linear
2 momentum: As we know

As m and v .v are always positive, kinetic energy is 1 1 P

E mv 2    v 2 [As P  mv ]
2 2 v 
always positive scalar i.e. kinetic energy can never be
negative. 1
 E Pv
(3) Kinetic energy depends on frame of reference 2
: The kinetic energy of a person of mass m, sitting in a
P2
train moving with speed v, is zero in the frame of train or E
2m
1
but mv 2 in the frame of the earth.  P
 As v  m 
2
 
(4) Kinetic energy according to relativity : As we
1 So we can say that kinetic energy
know E  mv 2 .
2 1 1 p2
E  mv 2  Pv 
2 2 2m
But this formula is valid only for (v << c) If v is
comparable to c (speed of light in free space = 2E
and Momentum P   2mE
3  10 8 m / s ) then according to Einstein theory of v
relativity

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 Work, Energy, Power and Collision
From above relation it is clear that a body can not versa.
have kinetic energy without having momentum and vice-
(7) Various graphs of kinetic energy

E E
E  P2
Ev 2
m = constant
m = constant

v v

E
E
E
1 P E
m
m = constant
P = constant
m P

Stopping of Vehicle by Retarding Force moving with velocities v1 and v2 respectively. When
they are stopped by the same retarding force (F).
If a vehicle moves with some initial velocity and due
The ratio of their stopping distances
to some retarding force it stops after covering some
x1 E m 1 v 12
distance after some time.  1 
x2 E2 m 2 v 22
(1) Stopping distance : Let m = Mass of vehicle,
v = Velocity, P = Momentum, E = Kinetic t1 P m v
and the ratio of their stopping time  1  1 1
energy t2 P2 m 2 v 2

F = Stopping force, x = Stopping distance, (i) If vehicles possess same velocities

t = Stopping time v1 = v2
Then, in this process stopping force does work on x1 m
 1
t1 m
 1
;
the vehicle and destroy the motion. x2 m2 t2 m2
By the work- energy theorem (ii) If vehicle possess same kinetic momentum
1
W  K  mv 2
P1 = P2
2
x1 E  P 2   2m  m2
Initial velocity = v Final velocity = 0  1   1   22 
 m
x2 E2  2m1   P2  1

t1 P
 1 1
t2 P2
x
Fig. 6.18 (iii) If vehicle possess same kinetic energy

 Stopping force (F)  Distance (x) = Kinetic x1 E

 1 1
energy (E) x2 E2

Kinetic energy ( E) 2m1 E1

 Stopping distance (x)  t1 P
 1  
m1
Stopping force (F) t2 P2 2m 2 E2 m2
2
 x
mv
2F
…(i) Note :  If vehicle is stopped by friction
then
(2) Stopping time : By the impulse-momentum
theorem 1
mv 2
1
mv 2
v2
F  t  P  F  t  P Stopping distance x  2  2 
F ma 2 g
P
 t [As a  g]
F
mv mv v
or t 
mv
…(ii) Stopping time t   
F F m g g

(3) Comparison of stopping distance and time for

two vehicles : Two vehicles of masses m1 and m2 are

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 Work, Energy, Power and Collision
U
 Partial derivative of U w.r.t. x (keeping y and
x
Potential Energy
z constant)
Potential energy is defined only for conservative U
forces. In the space occupied by conservative forces  Partial derivative of U w.r.t. y (keeping x and
y
every point is associated with certain energy which is
z constant)
called the energy of position or potential energy.
U
Potential energy generally are of three types : Elastic  Partial derivative of U w.r.t. z (keeping x and
z
potential energy, Electric potential energy and
Gravitational potential energy. y constant)
(3) Potential energy curve : A graph plotted
(1) Change in potential energy : Change in
between the potential energy of a particle and its
potential energy between any two points is defined in displacement from the centre of force is called
the terms of the work done by the associated
potential energy curve.
conservative force in displacing the particle between
Figure shows a graph of potential energy function
these two points without any change in kinetic energy.
U(x) for one dimensional motion.
 
r
U 2  U1    r 2 F. d r  W …(i) As we know that negative gradient of the
potential energy gives force.
1

We can define a unique value of potential energy dU

  F
only by assigning some arbitrary value to a fixed point dx
called the reference point. Whenever and wherever (4) Nature of force
possible, we take the reference point at infinity and (i) Attractive force :
assume potential energy to be zero there, i.e. if we take
On increasing x, if U increases,
r1   and r2  r then from equation (i)
dU
   positive , then F is in negative direction
r
U     F. d r  W dx
i.e. force is attractive in nature.
In case of conservative force (field) potential In graph this is represented in region BC.
energy is equal to negative of work done by (ii) Repulsive force :
conservative force in shifting the body from reference On increasing x, if U decreases,
position to given position. dU
 negative , then F is in positive direction
This is why, in shifting a particle in a conservative dx
field (say gravitational or electric), if the particle i.e. force is repulsive in nature.
moves opposite to the field, work done by the field will In graph this is represented in region AB.
be negative and so change in potential energy will be (iii) Zero force :
positive i.e. potential energy will increase. When the On increasing x, if U does not change,
particle moves in the direction of field, work will be dU
positive and change in potential energy will be negative  0 then F is zero
dx
i.e. potential energy will decrease. i.e. no force works on the particle.
(2) Three dimensional formula for potential Point B, C and D represents the point of zero

energy: For only conservative fields F equals the force or these points can be termed as position of

negative gradient () of the potential energy. equilibrium.
   (5) Types of equilibrium : If net force acting on a
So F  U (  read as Del operator or Nabla
particle is zero, it is said to be in equilibrium.
  ˆ  ˆ  ˆ
operator and   i j k) For equilibrium
dU
 0 , but the equilibrium of particle
x y z dx
  U ˆ U ˆ U ˆ  can be of three types :
 F   i j k
 x y z 
where,

Stable Unstable Neutral

When a particle is displaced
slightly from its present position,
then a force acting on it brings it
back to the initial position, it is
said to be in stable equilibrium
position.
When a particle is displaced
slightly from its present position,
then a force acting on it tries to
displace the particle further away
from the equilibrium position, it is
said to be in unstable equilibrium.
When a particle is slightly displaced
from its position then it does not
experience any force acting on it and
continues to be in equilibrium in the
displaced position, it is said to be in
neutral equilibrium.

U ( x)

C D
A

B
SUCCESS STUDY CIRCLE Page 8 x
O
Fig. 6.19
 Work, Energy, Power and Collision
Potential energy is minimum. Potential energy is maximum. Potential energy is constant.
dU dU dU
F 0 F 0 F 0
dx dx dx

d 2U d 2U d 2U
 positive  negative 0
dx 2 dx 2 dx 2
dU dU dU
i.e. rate of change of is positive. i.e. rate of change of is negative. i.e. rate of change of is zero.
dx dx dx
Example : Example : Example :

A marble placed at the bottom of A marble balanced on top of a A marble placed on horizontal table.
a hemispherical bowl. hemispherical bowl.

Elastic Potential Energy F

Dimension : As k 
(1) Restoring force and spring constant : When a x
spring is stretched or compressed from its normal [F] [MLT 2 ]
position (x = 0) by a small distance x, then a restoring  [k ]    [MT 2 ]
[x ] L
force is produced in the spring to bring it to the normal
Units : S.I. unit Newton/metre, C.G.S unit
position.
Dyne/cm.
According to Hooke’s law this restoring force is
proportional to the displacement x and its direction is Note : Dimension of force constant is
always opposite to the displacement. similar to surface tension.
(2) Expression for elastic potential energy : When
m a spring is stretched or compressed from its normal
position (x = 0), work has to be done by external force
x=0
F against restoring force. F ext  F restoring  k x
m Fext Let the spring is further stretched through the
distance dx, then work done
+x
F
dW  F ext . d x  Fext . dx cos 0 o  kx dx [As cos 0o = 1]
m Fext
Therefore total work done to stretch the spring
–x through a distance x from its mean position is given by
Fig. 6.20 x
x x x2  1 2
W  0 dW  0 kx dx  k    kx
i.e. F   x  2  0 2

This work done is stored as the potential energy

or F  k x
in the stretched spring.
…(i)
where k is called spring constant. 1 2
 Elastic potential energy U  kx
2
If x = 1, F = k (Numerically)
or k=F 1  F
U Fx  As k  x 
2  
Hence spring constant is numerically equal to
force required to produce unit displacement F2  F
(compression or extension) in the spring. If required U  As x  k 
2k  
force is more, then spring is said to be more stiff and
vice-versa. 1 2 1 F2
 Elastic potential energy U  kx  Fx 
Actually k is a measure of the stiffness/softness of 2 2 2k
the spring.

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 Work, Energy, Power and Collision
 Work done by the spring-force on the
Note : If spring is stretched from
block in various situation are shown in the following
initial position x 1 to final position x 2 then work done table
= Increment in elastic potential energy
1
 k (x 22  x 12 )
2
Table : 6.2 Work done for spring

Initial state of the Final state of the Initial position (x1) Final position (x2) Work done (W)
spring spring

Natural Compressed 0 –x –1/2 kx2

Natural Elongated 0 x –1/2 kx2

Elongated Natural x 0 1/2 kx2

Compressed Natural –x 0 1/2 kx2

Elongated Compressed x –x 0

Compressed Elongated –x x 0

(3) Energy graph for a spring : If the mass 1

 K mv 2  0 ]
attached with spring performs simple harmonic 2
motion about its mean position then its potential
Now kinetic energy at any position
energy at any position (x) can be given by
1 1
x=0
K  EU  k a2  k x 2
2 2
m
1
K k (a 2  x 2 ) …(iii)
O 2
x=–a
From the above formula we can check that
m
1 2
U max  ka [At extreme x =  a]
A 2
x=+
a and U min  0 [At mean x = 0]
m
1 2
B K max  ka [At mean x = 0]
2
Fig. 6.21
and K min  0 [At extreme x =  a]
1 2
U kx …(i)
2 1 2
E ka  constant (at all positions)
2
So for the extreme position
1 2 It means kinetic energy and potential energy
U ka [As x =  a for extreme] changes parabolically w.r.t. position but total energy
2
remain always constant irrespective to position of the
Energy

E mass
U Electrical Potential Energy
K It is the energy associated with state of
A O B separation between charged particles that interact via
x =– a x=0 x = +a electric force. For two point charge q 1 and q 2 ,
Position
This is maximumFig.
potential energy or the total separated by distance r.
6.22
energy of mass. 1 q q
U . 1 2
1 2 4  0 r
 Total energy E  ka …(ii)
2
While for a point charge q at a point in an electric
[Because velocity of mass is zero at extreme field where the potential is V
position]
U = qV

SUCCESS STUDY CIRCLE Page 10

 Work, Energy, Power and Collision
As charge can be positive or negative, electric potential it due to gravity will be mgy.
energy can be positive or negative.
The work done in pulling the dy length of the
Gravitational Potential Energy chain on the table.
dW = F(– dy) [As y is decreasing]
It is the usual form of
potential energy and this is the F12 F21 i.e. dW = mgy (– dy)
m1 m2
energy associated with the So the work done in pulling the hanging portion
state of separation between r on the table.
two bodies that interact via
Fig. 6.23 y2 
0
mg L2
gravitational force. 0
W  
L/n
mgy dy  mg  
 2  L / n

2n 2
For two particles of masses m1 and m2 separated
by a distance r MgL
 W [As m = M/L]
G m 1m 2 2n 2
Gravitational potential energy U  
r Alternative method :

(1) If a body of mass m at height h relative to If point mass m is

surface of earth then pulled through a height h
then work done W = L/2
mgh mgh n
Gravitational potential energy U  Centre of
h
1 Similarly for a mass
R
chain we can consider its
Where R = radius of earth, g = acceleration due centre of mass at the Fig. 6.26
to gravity at the surface of the earth. middle point of the
hanging part i.e. at a height of L/(2n) from the lower
(2) If h << R then above formula reduces to U =
M
mgh. end and mass of the hanging part of chain 
n
(3) If V is the gravitational potential at a point,
So work done to raise the centre of mass of the
the potential energy of a particle of mass m at that
chain on the table is given by
point will be
M L
U = mV W g [As W = mgh]
n 2n
(4) Energy height graph : When a body projected
MgL
vertically upward from the ground level with some or W 
2n 2
initial velocity then it possess kinetic energy but its
initial potential energy is zero. Velocity of Chain While Leaving the Table
As the body moves upward its potential energy
increases due to increase in height but kinetic energy
(L/n)
decreases (due to decrease in velocity). At maximum
height its kinetic energy becomes zero and potential L
energy maximum but through out the complete
motion, total energy remains constant as shown in the
Energy

figure. E

U Fig. 6.27
Taking surface of table as a reference level (zero
K potential energy)
Height Potential energy of chain when 1/ nth length
Fig. 6.24  MgL
hanging from the edge 
2n 2
Work Done in Pulling the Chain Against Gravity Potential energy of chain when it leaves the table
MgL
A chain of length L and mass M is held on a 
2
frictionless table with (1/n)th of its length hanging over
the edge. Kinetic energy of chain = loss in potential energy
1 MgL MgL
M  Mv 2  
Let m  mass 2 2 2n 2
L
1 MgL  1 
per unit length of the L/n  Mv 2  1 2 
2 2  n 
chain and y is the length of
the chain hanging over the  1 
 Velocity of chain v  gL 1  2 
edge. So the mass of the  n 
chain of length y will be Fig. 6.25
ym and the force acting on

SUCCESS STUDY CIRCLE Page 11

 Work, Energy, Power and Collision
Law of Conservation of Energy i.e. power is equal to the scalar product of force
with velocity.
(1) Law of conservation of energy
For a body or an isolated system by work-energy Important Points
 
theorem we have K 2  K 1   F. d r (1) Dimension : [P]  [F][v]  [MLT 2 ][LT 1 ]
…(i)  [P]  [ML2 T 3 ]
But according to definition of potential energy in
  (2) Units : Watt or Joule/sec [S.I.]
a conservative field U 2  U 1    F. d r …(ii)
Erg/sec [C.G.S.]
So from equation (i) and (ii) we have
Practical units : Kilowatt (KW), Mega watt (MW)
K 2  K1  (U 2  U1 ) and Horse power (hp)
or K 2  U 2  K1  U1 Relations between different units :
i.e. K + U = constant.
1 Watt  1 Joule / sec  10 7 erg / sec
For an isolated system or body in presence of
conservative forces, the sum of kinetic and potential 1hp  746 Watt
energies at any point remains constant throughout the
1 MW  10 6 Watt
motion. It does not depend upon time. This is known
as the law of conservation of mechanical energy. 1 KW  10 3 Watt
(K  U)  E  0
(3) If work done by the two bodies is same then
[As E is constant in a conservative 1
field] power 
time
 K  U  0
i.e. the body which perform the given work in
i.e. if the kinetic energy of the body increases its
lesser time possess more power and vice-versa.
potential energy will decrease by an equal amount and
vice-versa. (4) As power = work/time, any unit of power
(2) Law of conservation of total energy : If some multiplied by a unit of time gives unit of work (or
non-conservative force like friction is also acting on the energy) and not power, i.e. Kilowatt-hour or watt-day
particle, the mechanical energy is no more constant. It are units of work or energy.
changes by the amount equal to work done by the J
1 KWh  10 3  (60  60 sec )  3 .6  10 6 Joule
frictional force. sec
(K  U)  E  W f (5) The slope of work time curve gives the
[where W f is the work done against instantaneous power. As P = dW/dt = tan
friction] Work
The lost energy is transformed into heat and the heat

energy developed is exactly equal to loss in mechanical
energy.
We can, therefore, write E + Q = 0
Time
[where Q is the heat produced]
Fig. 6.28
This shows that if the forces are conservative and (6) Area under power-time curve gives the work
non-conservative both, it is not the mechanical energy dW
which is conserved, but it is the total energy, may be done as P 
dt
heat, light, sound or mechanical etc., which is
conserved.
In other words : “Energy may be transformed
 W 
 P dt
 W = Area under P-t curve
from one kind to another but it cannot be created or
Position and Velocity of an Automobile w.r.t Time
destroyed. The total energy in an isolated system
remain constant". This is the law of conservation of An automobile of mass m accelerates, starting
energy. from rest, while the engine supplies constant power P,
its position and velocity changes w.r.t time.
Power
(1) Velocity : As Fv = P = constant
Power of a body is defined as the rate at which
dv  mdv 
the body can do the work. i.e. m vP  As F  dt 
dt  
W W
Average power (Pav. )  
 v dv   m dt
P
t t or
 
dW F. d s
Instantaneous power (Pinst.)   [As v2 P
dt dt By integrating both sides we get  t  C1
  2 m
dW  F. ds ] As initially the body is at rest i.e. v = 0 at t = 0, so
   C1  0
 ds
Pinst  F. v [As v  ]
dt

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 Work, Energy, Power and Collision
 2 Pt 
1/2 magnitude of the interacting force is often unknown,
 v  therefore, Newton’s second law cannot be used, the law
 m  of conservation of momentum is useful in relating the
(2) Position : From the above expression initial and final velocities.
1/2
 2 Pt  F
v 
 m 
1/2
ds  2 Pt   ds  v1 v2
or    As v  dt  m1
u1
m2
u2
m1 m2
dt  m    mm
1m1m
2 2
1/2 Fext
 2 Pt 
i.e.
 ds 

 m  
 dt
t
t

Before collisionDuring collisionAfter collision

By integrating both sides we get
1/2
 2P  2 3/2 Fig. 6.29
s  . t  C2
 m  3 (2) Momentum and energy conservation in
Now as at t = 0, s = 0, so C 2  0 collision
1/2 (i) Momentum conservation : In a collision, the
 8P  effect of external forces such as gravity or friction are
s  t3/2
 9m  not taken into account as due to small duration of
Collision collision (t) average impulsive force responsible for
collision is much larger than external force acting on
Collision is an isolated event in which a strong the system and since this impulsive force is 'Internal'
force acts between two or more bodies for a short time therefore the total momentum of system always
as a result of which the energy and momentum of the remains conserved.
interacting particle change. (ii) Energy conservation : In a collision 'total
In collision particles may or may not come in real energy' is also always conserved. Here total energy
touch e.g. in collision between two billiard balls or a includes all forms of energy such as mechanical energy,
ball and bat, there is physical contact while in collision internal energy, excitation energy, radiant energy or
of alpha particle by a nucleus (i.e. Rutherford even mass energy.
scattering experiment) there is no physical contact. These laws are the fundamental laws of physics
(1) Stages of collision : There are three distinct and applicable for any type of collision but this is not
identifiable stages in collision, namely, before, during true for conservation of kinetic energy.
and after. In the before and after stage the interaction (3) Types of collision : (i) On the basis of
forces are zero. Between these two stages, the conservation of kinetic energy.
interaction forces are very large and often the
dominating forces governing the motion of bodies. The

Perfectly elastic collision Inelastic collision Perfectly inelastic collision

If in a collision, kinetic energy after If in a collision kinetic energy
collision is equal to kinetic energy after collision is not equal to
before collision, the collision is said to kinetic energy before collision, the
be perfectly elastic. collision is said to inelastic.
Coefficient of restitution e = 1 Coefficient of restitution 0 < e < 1
Here kinetic energy appears in
other forms. In some cases (KE)final
(KE)final = (KE)initial < (KE)initial such as when initial
KE is converted into internal
energy of the product (as heat,
elastic or excitation) while in
other cases (KE)final > (KE)initial
such as when internal energy
stored in the colliding particles is
released
Examples : (1) Collision between Examples : (1) Collision between
atomic particles two billiard balls.
(2) Bouncing of ball with same (2) Collision between two
velocity after the collision with earth. automobile on a road.
In fact all majority of collision
belong to this category.
(ii) On the basis of the direction of colliding bodies
Head on or one dimensional collision
In a collision if the motion of colliding particles before If two particle collision is ‘glancing’ i.e. such that
If in a collision two bodies stick
together or move with same
velocity after the collision, the
collision is said to be perfectly
inelastic.
Coefficient of restitution e = 0
The term 'perfectly inelastic'
does not necessarily mean that
all the initial kinetic energy is
lost, it implies that the loss in
kinetic energy is as large as it
can be. (Consistent with
momentum conservation).
Example : Collision between a
bullet and a block of wood into
which it is fired. When the bullet
remains embedded in the block.
Oblique collision

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 Work, Energy, Power and Collision
and after the collision is along the same line, the their directions of motion after collision are not
collision is said to be head on or one dimensional. along the initial line of motion, the collision is called
oblique.
If in oblique collision the particles before and after
collision are in same plane, the collision is called 2-
dimensional otherwise 3-dimensional.
Impact parameter b is zero for this type of collision. Impact parameter b lies between 0 and (r1  r2 )
i.e .
0 < b < (r1  r2 ) where r1 and r2 are
v1 radii of colliding
u1 u2 v1 v2 bodies. m1
m1 m2 m1 m2
u1
m1 b 
m2 
u2
Before After collision
collision
Before After collision
collision
m2
v2

Example : collision of two gliders on an air track. Example : Collision of billiard balls.

Perfectly elastic head on collision v 2  v1

e
Let two bodies of masses m 1 and m 2 moving with u1  u 2

initial velocities u 1 and u 2 in the same direction and or v 2  v1  e(u1  u 2 )

they collide such that after collision their final
 For perfectly elastic collision, e = 1
velocities are v 1 and v 2 respectively.
 v 2  v 1  u1  u 2 [As shown in eq. (vi)]
u1 u2 v1 v2
m1 m2 m1 m2
 For perfectly inelastic collision, e = 0
Before After collision  v 2  v1  0 or v 2  v1
collision
Fig. 6.30
It means that two body stick together and move
According to law of conservation of momentum with same velocity.
m1u1  m 2 u 2  m1v1  m 2 v 2 … (i)  For inelastic collision, 0 < e < 1
 m1 (u1  v1 )  m 2 (v 2  u 2 ) …(ii)  v 2  v1  e(u1  u 2 )

According to law of conservation of kinetic In short we can say that e is the degree of
energy elasticity of collision and it is dimensionless quantity.
1 1 1 1
m 1 u12  m 2 u 22  m 1 v 12  m 2 v 22 …(iii) Further from equation (v) we get
2 2 2 2
v 2  v1  u1  u 2
 m 1 (u12  v12 )  m 2 (v 22  u 22 ) …(iv)

Dividing equation (iv) by equation (ii) Substituting this value of v 2 in equation (i) and
rearranging
v1  u1  v 2  u 2 …(v)
 m  m2  2m 2 u 2
 u1  u 2  v 2  v1 …(vi) we get, v1   1  u1  …(vii)

 m1  m 2  m1  m 2
Relative velocity of separation is equal to relative
velocity of approach. Similarly we get,

Note :  The ratio of relative velocity of  m  m1 

v 2   2  u2 

2m1u1
…(viii)
 1
m  m 2  m 1  m2
separation and relative velocity of approach is defined
as coefficient of restitution.
(1) Special cases of head on elastic collision

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 Work, Energy, Power and Collision
(i) If projectile and target are of same mass i.e. m1 = m2
 m  m2  2m 2  m  m1  2m1u1
Since v1   1  u1 
 u2 and v 2   2  u2 

 m1  m 2  m 1  m2  1
m  m 2  m 1  m2

Substituting m1  m 2 we get

v1  u2 and v2  u1
It means when two bodies of equal masses undergo head on elastic collision, their velocities get
interchanged.
ExampleBefore After
: Collision of two billiard balls
collision collision Sub case : u2  0 i.e. target is at rest
10 10 10 10
v1  0 and v2  u1
kg kg kg kg
u1 = u2 = v1 = 20 m/s v2 = 50 m/s
50m/s 20m/s

(ii) If massive projectile collides with a light target i.e. m1 >> m2

 m  m2  2m 2u 2  m  m1  2m1u1
Since v1   1  u1 
 and v 2   2  u2 

 m1  m 2  m 1  m2  1
m  m 2  m 1  m2

Substituting m 2  0 , we get
v1  u1 and v2  2u1  u2
Example : Collision of a truck with a cyclist
u1 = 120 km/hr
m1 = 10 kg3
m2 = 60
kg u2 = 10
km/hr

Before collision
v1 = 120 km/hr

v2 = 230 km/hr Sub case : u2  0 i.e. target is at rest

v1 = u1 and v2 = 2u1

After collision
(iii) If light projectile collides with a very heavy target i.e. m1 << m2
 m  m2  2m 2u 2  m  m1  2m1u1
Since v1   1  u1 
 and v 2   2  u2 

 1
m  m 2  m 1  m2  1
m  m 2  m 1  m2

Substituting m1  0 , we get
v1   u1  2u2 and v 2  u2
Example : Collision of a ball with a massive wall.

Sub case : u2  0 i.e. target is at rest

u2 = 2 m /s v2 = 2 m /s
v1 = – u1 and v2 = 0
u1 = 30 m/s v1 = – 26 m/s
i.e. the ball rebounds with same speed in
m1 = 50gm opposite direction when it collide with
stationary and very massive wall.
m2 = 100
Before collision kg After collision

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 Work, Energy, Power and Collision
(2) Kinetic energy transfer during head on elastic  Kinetic energy retained by the
collision  K 
projectile    1  kinetic energy transferred
 K  Retained
Kinetic energy of projectile before collision
1 by projectile
K i  m 1u12
2
 K    m  m 2   m  m 2
Kinetic energy of projectile after collision     1  1   1 2
   1 2

 K Retained   m 1  m 2    m 1  m 2 
1  
K f  m 1 v 12
2
(3) Velocity, momentum and kinetic energy of
Kinetic energy transferred from projectile to stationary target after head on elastic collision
target K = decrease in kinetic energy in projectile
(i) Velocity of target : We know
1 1
K  m 1 u 12  m 1 v 12
2 2  m  m1  2m 1 u 1
1 v 2   2 u2 

 m 1 (u 12  v 12 )  m1  m 2  m1  m 2
2

Fractional decrease in kinetic energy

u1 u2=0 v1 v2
1 m1 m2 m1 m2
m (u 2  v 12 ) v 
2
K 2 1 1
  1   1 
 …(i) Before After collision
K 1  u1 
m 1 u 12 collision
2 Fig. 6.31

We can substitute the value of v1 from the

2m 1 u 1
equation  v2 
m1  m 2
 m  m2  2m 2 u 2
v 1   1  u1 

 m  m  m 1  m2
2u 1
1 2
 As u 2  0 and
1  m 2 / m1
If the target is at rest i.e. u2 = 0 then
 m  m2  m2
v1   1  u1
 Assuming n
 m1  m 2  m1

2
K  m  m2   v2 
2u 1
From equation (i)  1   1 
 …(ii)
1n
K  m1  m 2 

K 2nm 1 u 1
or 
4m1m 2
…(iii) (ii) Momentum of target : P2  m 2 v 2 
K (m 1  m 2 ) 2 1n

K 4m1m 2
or  …(iv)
K (m 1  m 2 ) 2  4 m 1 m 2  2u 1 
 As m 2  m 1 n and v 2  1  n 
 
Note :  Greater the difference
2m 1 u 1
in masses, lesser will be transfer of  P2 
1  (1 / n)
kinetic energy and vice versa

 Transfer of kinetic energy will be (iii) Kinetic energy of target :

maximum when the difference in masses is minimum 2
1 1  2u 1  2 m 1 u 12 n
i.e. m1  m 2  0 or m 1  m 2 then K2  m 2 v 22  n m 1   
2 2 1  n  (1  n) 2
K
 1  100 %
K 4 (K 1 )n  1 2
  As K 1  2 m 1 u 1 
(1  n)  4 n
2
 
So the transfer of kinetic energy in head on
elastic collision (when target is at rest) is maximum (iv) Relation between masses for maximum
when the masses of particles are equal i.e. mass ratio is velocity, momentum and kinetic energy
1 and the transfer of kinetic energy is 100%.

 If m 2  n m 1 then from equation (iii) we

K 4n
get 
K (1  n)2

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 Work, Energy, Power and Collision
Velocity For v 2 to be maximum n must be minimum
2u1
v2  m2 Target should be
1n i.e. n  0  m 2  m1
m1 very light.

Momentum For P2 to be maximum, (1/n) must be minimum

2m1u1 or n must be maximum. Target should be
P2 
(1  1 / n) m2 massive.
i.e. n    m 2  m1
m1

Kinetic energy For K2 to be maximum (1  n)2 must be

4 K1 n minimum. Target and
K2 
(1  n)2  4 n projectile should be
m2
i.e. 1  n  0 n  1   m 2  m1 of equal mass.
m1

Perfectly Elastic Oblique Collision Using (vi) and (vii) we get cos(   )  0
Let two bodies moving as shown in figure.     / 2
By law of conservation of momentum
i.e. after perfectly elastic oblique collision of two
v1
bodies of equal masses (if the second body is at rest),
m1 the scattering angle    would be 90 o .
u1
m1  Head on Inelastic Collision
m2 
u2
(1) Velocity after collision : Let two bodies A and
Before After collision
m2 B collide inelastically and coefficient of restitution is e.
collision v2
Where
Fig. 6.32
v  v 1 Relative velocity of separation
Along x-axis, m 1 u1  m 2 u 2  m 1 v1 cos   m 2 v 2 cos  e 2 
u1  u 2 Relative velocity of approach
...(i)
 v 2  v1  e(u1  u 2 )
Along y-axis, 0  m 1 v 1 sin   m 2 v 2 sin 
 v 2  v1  e(u1  u 2 ) …(i)
...(ii)
From the law of conservation of linear
By law of conservation of kinetic energy
momentum
1 1 1 1 m 1 u1  m 2 u 2  m 1 v 1  m 2 v 2 …(ii)
m 1 u 12  m 2 u 22  m 1 v 12  m 2 v 22
2 2 2 2
...(iii) By solving (i) and (ii) we get

 m  em 2   (1  e ) m 2 
In case of oblique collision it becomes difficult to v 1   1  u1   u2
  m m 
solve problem unless some experimental data is  m1  m 2   1 2 
provided, as in these situations more unknown  (1  e ) m 1   m 2  e m1 
variables are involved than equations formed. Similarly v 2    u 1   u2

 1m  m 2   m1  m 2 
Special condition : If m 1  m 2 and u 2  0
By substituting e = 1, we get the value of v1 and
substituting these values in equation (i), (ii) and (iii)
v 2 for perfectly elastic head on collision.
we get
(2) Ratio of velocities after inelastic collision : A
u1  v1 cos   v 2 cos  sphere of mass m moving with velocity u hits
...(iv) inelastically with another stationary sphere of same
mass.
0  v1 sin   v 2 sin  ...(v)
u1 = u u2 = 0 v1 v2
and u12  v12  v 22 …(vi) m m m m

Squaring (iv) and (v) and adding we get Before After collision
collision
u12  v12  v 22  2v 1 v 2 cos(   ) …(vii) Fig. 6.33

SUCCESS STUDY CIRCLE Page 18

 Work, Energy, Power and Collision
v 2  v1 v 2  v1 vn  e nv0
 e 
u1  u 2 u0
Therefore the height after nth rebound will be
 v 2  v1  eu …(i) v n2
hn   e 2n h0
By conservation of momentum : 2g

Momentum before collision = Momentum after  hn  e 2 n h 0

collision (3) Total distance travelled by the ball before it
mu  mv 1  mv 2 stops bouncing
H  h0  2h1  2h2  2h3  ...  h0  2e 2h0  2e 4 h0  2e 6 h0  ...
 v1  v 2  u …(ii)
H  h0 [1  2e 2 (1  e 2  e 4  e 6 ....)]
u
Solving equation (i) and (ii) we get v 1  (1  e )   1 
2  h0 1  2e 2  
  1  e 2 
u
and v 2  (1  e )  1 
 As 1  e  e  .... 
2 4
2 
 1e2 
v1 1  e
  1  e 2 
v2 1  e  H  h0  
 1  e 
2

(3) Loss in kinetic energy

(4) Total time taken by the ball to stop bouncing
Loss in K.E. (K) = Total initial kinetic energy 2h0 2h1 2h2
T  t0  2t1  2t2  2t3  ..  2 2  ..
– Total final kinetic energy g g g

1 1  1 1  2h 0
=  m 1 u 12  m 2 u 22    m 1 v 12  m 2 v 22   [1  2e  2e 2  ......] [As h1  e 2 h0 ;
2 2  2 2  g

Substituting the value of v1 and v 2 from the h 2  e 4 h0 ]

above expressions 2h0

 [1  2e (1  e  e 2  e 3  ......)]
g
1  m1m 2 
Loss (K) =   (1  e 2 ) (u1  u 2 )2
2  m1  m 2 
 2h0   1  2h0  1  e 
 1  2e     
g   1  e  g 1  e 
By substituting e = 1 we get K = 0 i.e. for
perfectly elastic collision, loss of kinetic energy will be  1  e  2h 0
 T  
zero or kinetic energy remains same before and after 1  e  g
the collision. Perfectly Inelastic Collision
Rebounding of Ball After Collision With Ground In such types of collisions, the bodies move
If a ball is dropped from a height h on a independently before collision but after collision as a one
horizontal floor, then it strikes with the floor with a single body.
speed. (1) When the colliding bodies are moving in the
same direction
v 0  2gh0 [From v  u  2 gh]
2 2
By the law of conservation of momentum
and it rebounds from the floor with a speed m 1u1  m 2 u 2  (m 1  m 2 )v comb
m 1 u1  m 2 u 2
 v comb 
m1  m 2
h0 vcomb
h1 h2 u1 u2
m1 m2 m1 m2
v0 v1 v2
t0 t1 t2
Before After collision
Fig. 6.34 collision
Fig. 6.35

v 1  e v 0  e 2gh 0 Loss in kinetic energy

1 1  1
 velocity after collision  K   m 1 u 12  m 2 u 22   (m 1  m 2 )v comb
2

 As e   2 2  2
 velocity before collision 
1  m1m 2 
K    (u 1  u 2 ) 2
v2 2  m 1  m 2 

(1) First height of rebound : h1  1  e 2 h 0
2g [By substituting the value of
 h1 = e2h0 vcomb]
(2) Height of the ball after n rebound : th (2) When the colliding bodies are moving in the
Obviously, the velocity of ball after nth rebound will be opposite direction

SUCCESS STUDY CIRCLE Page 19

 Work, Energy, Power and Collision
By the law of conservation of momentum Now substituting this value in the equation (i) we
m 1 u1  m 2 (u 2 )  (m 1  m 2 )v comb mu
get 2 gh 
mM
(Taking left to right as positive)
 (m  M ) 2 gh 
m u  m 2u 2  u 
 v comb  1 1  m 
m1  m 2

u1 (3) Loss in kinetic energy : We know that the

u2
m1 m2 formula for loss of kinetic energy in perfectly inelastic
collision
Before
collision 1 m 1m 2
Fig. 3.36 K  (u1  u 2 )2 (When the bodies are
2 m1  m 2
when m 1 u1  m 2 u 2 then v comb  0 (positive) moving in same direction.)

i.e. the combined body will move along the  K 

1 mM
u2
direction of motion of mass m 1 . 2 mM

when m 1 u1  m 2 u 2 then v comb  0 (negative) [As u1  u , u 2  0 , m 1  m and m 2  M ]

i.e. the combined body will move in a direction (4) Angle of string from the vertical
opposite to the motion of mass m 1 . From the expression of velocity of bullet
 (m  M ) 2 gh  u2  m 
2
(3) Loss in kinetic energy u  we can get h   
 m  2g  m  M 
K = Initial kinetic energy – Final kinetic energy
1 1  1  From the figure
  m 1 u 12  m 2 u 22    (m 1  m 2 ) v comb
2
 2
2 2  2  Lh h u  m 2
cos   1  1  
L L 2 gL  m  M 
1 m 1m 2
 (u1  u 2 )2
2 m1  m 2  1  mu  
2
or   cos 1 1    
2 gL  m  M  
Collision Between Bullet and Vertically  
Suspended Block
A bullet of mass m is fired horizontally with
velocity u in block of mass M suspended by vertical
thread.
After the collision bullet gets embedded in block.
Let the combined system raised upto height h and the  The area under the force-displacement graph is
string makes an angle  with the vertical. equal to the work done.
(1) Velocity of system
 Work done by gravitation or electric force does
Let v be the velocity of the system (block + not depend on the path followed. It depends on the
bullet) just after the collision.
initial and final positions of the body. Such forces
are called conservative. When a body returns to the
 L starting point under the action of conservative force,
L–h

M
the net work done is zero that is  dW  0 .
m u h
M  Work done against friction depends on the path
Fig. 3.37 followed. Viscosity and friction are not conservative
forces. For non conservative forces, the work done
Momentumbullet + Momentumblock = Momentumbullet
and block system
on a closed path is not zero. That is  dW  0 .
mu  0  (m  M )v
 Work done is path independent only for a
mu conservative field.
 v …(i)
(m  M )  Work done depends on the frame of reference.
(2) Velocity of bullet : Due to energy which  Work done by a centripetal force is always zero.
remains in the bullet-block system, just after the  Energy is a promise of work to be done in future.
collision, the system (bullet + block) rises upto height It is the stored ability to do work.
h.
 Energy of a body is equal to the work done by the
By the conservation of mechanical energy body and it has nothing to do with the time taken to
1 perform the work. On the other hand, the power of
(m  M )v 2  (m  M )gh  v  2 gh
2 the body depends on the time in which the work is

SUCCESS STUDY CIRCLE Page 20

 Work, Energy, Power and Collision
done.
 When work is done on a body, its kinetic or
potential energy increases.
 When the work is done by the body, its potential
or kinetic energy decreases.
 According to the work energy theorem, the work
done is equal to the change in energy. That is
W  E .
 Work energy theorem is particularly useful in
calculation of minimum stopping force or minimum
stopping distance. If a body is brought to a halt, the
work done to do so is equal to the kinetic energy lost.
 Potential energy of a system increases when a
conservative force does work on it.
 The kinetic energy of a body is always positive.
 When the momentum of a body increases by a
factor n, then its kinetic energy is increased by factor
n2.
 If the speed of a vehicle is made n times, then its
stopping distance becomes n2 times.
 The total energy (including mass energy) of the
universe remains constant.
 One form of energy can be changed into other
form according to the law of conservation of energy.
That is amount of energy lost of one form should be
equal to energy or energies produced of other forms.
 Kinetic energy can change into potential energy
and vice versa.
When a body falls, potential energy is converted into
kinetic energy.
 Pendulum oscillates due to conversion of kinetic
energy into potential energy and vice versa. Same is
true for the oscillations of mass attached to the
spring.
 Conservation laws can be used to describe the
behaviour of a mechanical system even when the
exact nature of the forces involved is not known.
 Although the exact nature of the nuclear forces
is not known, yet we can solve problems regarding
the nuclear forces with the help of the conservation
laws.
 Violation of the laws of conservation indicates
that the event cannot take place.
 The gravitational potential energy of a mass m at
a height h above the surface of the earth (radius R)
mgh
is given by U  . When h << R, we find U=mgh.
1  h/R
1
 Electrostatic energy in capacitor - U  CV 2 ,
2
where C is capacitance, V = potential difference
between the plates.
 Electric potential energy of a test charge q0 at a
place where electric potential is V, is given by :
UP=q0V.
 Electric potential energy between two charges
(q1 and q2) separated by a distance r is given by
SUCCESS STUDY CIRCLE Page 21
1 q1q 2
U . Here  0 is permittivity of vacuum and
4 0 r
1 / 4  0  9  10 9 Nm 2 C 2 .
 Magnetic energy stored in an inductor –
1 2
U LI , where L = inductance, I = current.
2
 Energy gained by a body of mass m, specific heat
C, when its temperature changes by  is given by :
Q  mC  .
 The Potential energy associated with a spring of
constant k when extended or compressed by
1 2
distance x is given by U  kx .
2
 Kinetic energy of a particle executing SHM is
1
given by : K  m  2 (a 2  y 2 ) where m = mass,  =
2
angular frequency, a= amplitude, y = displacement.
 Potential energy of a particle executing SHM is
1
given by : U  m 2y 2 .
2
 Total energy of a particle executing SHM is given
1
by : E  K  U  m  2a2 .
2
1
 Energy density associated with a wave   2 a 2
2
where  =density of medium,  = angular frequency,
a = amplitude of the of the wave.
 Energy associated with a photon :
E  h  hc /  , where h = planck’s constant,  =
frequency of the light wave, c = velocity of light,  =
wave length.
 Mass and energy are interconvertible. That is
mass can be converted into energy and energy can be
converted into mass.
 A mass m (in kg) is equivalent to energy (in J)
which is equal to mc2 where c = speed of light.
 A stout spring has a large value of force constant,
while for a delicate spring, the value of spring
constant is low.
 The term energy is different from power.
Whereas energy refers to the capacity to perform the
work, power determines the rate of performing the
work. Thus, in determining power, time taken to
perform the work is significant but it is of no
importance for measuring energy of a body.
 Collision is the phenomenon in which two bodies
exert mutual force on each other.
 The collision generally occurs for very small
interval of time.
 Physical contact between the colliding bodies is
not essential for the collision.
 The mutual forces between the colliding bodies
are action and reaction pair. In accordance with the
Newton’s third law of motion, they are equal and
opposite to each other.
 The collision is said to be elastic when the
 Work, Energy, Power and Collision
kinetic energy is conserved.
 In the elastic collisions the forces involved are
conservative.
 In the elastic collisions, the kinetic or
mechanical energy is not converted into any other
form of energy.
 Elastic collisions produce no sound or heat.
 There is no difference between the elastic and
perfectly elastic collisions.
 In the elastic collisions, the relative velocity
before collision is equal to the relative velocity after
     
the collision. That is u1  u 2  v 2  v1 where u1 and u 2
 
are initial velocities and v1 and v 2 are the velocities
of the colliding bodies after the collision. This is
called Newton's law of impact.
 The collision is said to be inelastic when the
kinetic energy is not conserved.
 In the perfectly inelastic collision, the colliding
bodies stick together. That is the relative velocity of
the bodies after the collision is zero.
 In an elastic collision of two equal masses, their
kinetic energies are exchanged.
 If a body of mass m moving with velocity v,
collides elastically with a rigid wall, then the change
in the momentum of the body is 2mv.
 
v 2  v1
 e    is called coefficient of restitution. Its
u1  u 2
value is 1 for elastic collisions. It is less than 1 for
inelastic collisions and zero for perfectly inelastic
collision.
 During collision, velocity of the colliding bodies
changes.
 Linear momentum is conserved in all types of
collisions.
 Perfectly elastic collision is a rare physical
phenomenon.
 Collisions between two ivory or steel or glass
balls are nearly elastic.
 The force of interaction in an inelastic collision
is non-conservative in nature.
 In inelastic collision, the kinetic energy is
converted into heat energy, sound energy, light
energy etc.
 In head on collisions, the colliding bodies move
along the same straight line before and after
collision.
 Head on collisions are also called one
dimensional collisions.
 In the oblique collisions the colliding bodies
move at certain angles before and/or after the
collisions.
 The oblique collisions are two dimensional
collisions.
 When a heavy body collides head-on elastically
with a lighter body, then the lighter body begins to
move with a velocity nearly double the velocity of
SUCCESS STUDY CIRCLE Page 22
the heavier body.
 When a light body collides with a heavy body, the
lighter body returns almost with the same speed.
 If a light and a heavy body have equal momenta,
then lighter body has greater kinetic energy.
 Suppose, a body is dropped form a height h0 and
it strikes the ground with velocity v0. After the
(inelastic) collision let it rise to a height h1. If v1 be
the velocity with which the body rebounds, then
v1  2 gh1 
1/2
h 
1/2
e    1
v0  2 gh0   h0 
 If after n collisions with the ground, the velocity
is vn and the height to which it rises be hn, then
1/2
vn  hn 
en   
v0  h0 
  
 P  F . v  F v cos  where v is the velocity of the
 
body and  is the angle between F and v .
 Area under the F  v graph is equal to the power
dissipated.
 Power dissipated by a conservative force
(gravitation, electric force etc.) does not depend on
the path followed. It depends on the initial and final
positions of the body. That is  dP  0 .
 Power dissipated against friction depends on the
path followed. That is  dP  0 .
 Power is also measured in horse power (hp). It is
the fps unit of power. 1 hp = 746 W.
 An engine pulls a train of mass m with constant
velocity. If the rails are on a plane surface and there
is no friction, the power dissipated by the engine is
zero.
 In the above case if the coefficient of friction for
the rail is  , the power of the engine is P   mgv .
 In the above case if the engine pulls on a smooth
track on an inclined plane (inclination  ), then its
power P  (mg sin  ) v .
 In the above case if the engine pulls upwards on
a rough inclined plane having coefficient of friction
 , then power of the engine is
P  ( cos   sin  )mg v .
 If the engine pulls down on the inclined plane
then power of the engine is
P  ( cos   sin  )mg v .