1

OPTICS
INTERFERENCE
The phenomenon in which alternate bright and dark bands are observed due to the
superposition of light waves proceeding from two coherent sources of light is known as
„Interference‟.
Two monochromatic sources of light are said to be coherent if they emit radiation of the
same wavelength with the same amplitude and with a constant or zero phase difference.
Coherent sources can be obtained in two ways;
i) Division of a wave front (Ex. Young‟s Double slit Expt.)
ii) Division of amplitude (Ex. Newton,s Rings, Air-Wedge)
Air Wedge (Wedge-shaped Film):
Expt. to measure the diameter of a thin wire (or) thickness of a very thin object:
An Air Wedge is formed between two optically plane glass plates by inserting a thin wire
(or a very thin object) of uniform cross section at one end. The other ends of the two
plates are in direct contact at O. Monochromatic light of wavelength  from an extended
source is reflected vertically downwards on to the wedge by the inclined glass plate G. A
traveling microscope M is placed above G with its axis vertical. It is focused to observe
clearly the interference fringes in the light reflected from the air wedge (Fig. 1.a). These
interference bands are equidistant and are alternately bright and dark \with a constant
fringe width. By measuring the positions of different orders of dark bands using M, the
fringe width (β) is calculated. The distance of the object from the edge of contact (l) also
is measured. Knowing λ, the thickness (d) of the wire (or object) is calculated using the
l
formula, d .
2

M SOURCE S
G
S
B
E
Q

Q
A D
d
O   t
P
O P
Fig. 1. (a) C

Fig. 1. (b)
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THEORY FOR AIR- WEDGE

Consider a wedge-shaped film of refractive index  enclosed by the two optically plane
surfaces OP and OQ inclined at an angle θ to each other(Fig. 1. (b)). This can be formed
between two optically plane glass plates by inserting a thin wire (or a very thin object) of
uniform cross section at one end. The other ends of the two plates are in direct contact at
O. The thickness t of the film is zero at the edge of contact at O. It gradually increases as
one moves from O towards P. The film OPQ is illuminated by a parallel beam of
monochromatic light SA of wavelength . A part of it is reflected along AB and the
remaining is transmitted along AC in the wedge shaped film. At C, the ray suffers
reflection and travels along CD and DE. The rays AB and DE are coherent since they
originate from the same incident ray SA. Hence, interference occurs at A between the
reflected rays AB and DE showing different orders of alternate dark and bright straight
line fringes. They are parallel to each other. Successive fringes have equal thickness.
Order of interference fringe depends on the thickness t of the wedge shaped film at the
place of interference.
Expression for fringe width:
The geometrical path difference between the two interfering rays is AC + CD =
2t cos r where t is the thickness of airfilm, r is the angle of refraction. For normal
incidence, angle of refraction r = 0 and so cos r  cos 0  1 .
 geometrical path difference = 2t . Besides, there is an additional path difference of
/2 due to phase reversal during reflection at the denser medium at C. So the
Total path difference, TPD = geometrical path difference + additional path difference of

/2 due to phase reversal.  TPD = 2t  …………………….. (1)
2

The condition for mth order bright fringe is TPD = 2  tm  .= m 
2
 
(or) 2tm  m   (2m  1) ………….. (2)
2 2
where t = tm for mth order fringe and. m = 1,2.3 …
 
The condition for mth order dark fringe is TPD = 2  tm  .= (2m-1)
2 2
 
(or) 2tm  (2m  1)  (m  1) ……….. (3)
2 2
Suppose the (m+1)th dark fringe is formed where the thickness of the air film is tm+1.
Then, 2  tm 1   (m  1)  1  [replacing m by (m+1) in eqn (3)
= m ……………… (4)
Subtracting (3) from (4), 2 (tm  1  tm )   ………………….. (5)
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Let Xm+1 and Xm be the distances of the (m+1)th and mth dark fringes from O. d =
diameter of the wire; l = distance between the edge of contact O and the wire and  be
the angle of wedge. Then,
tm  1 tm d
   tan     (6) , since  is very small
xm  1 xm l
d d
Using eqn. (6) we have, tm  1   xm  1 ; and tm  xm
l l
d d d
 tm  1  tm    xm  1  - xm   xm  1  - xm 
l l l
d
But xm  1  xm    fringe width .   tm  1  tm   
l
Substituting the value of  tm  1  tm  in Eq. (5), tm tm+1
d Q
we get 2  
l
l d
  ................... (7)  P
2 d O
Xm Xm+1

, d, λ and l are constants. Therefore, fringe width β is constant. Similarly, if we consider

two consecutive bright fringes, the fringe width β will be the same as givenl in eqn (7).
l
Rearranging eqn (7) we have d  .................(8)
2
l
For air film  = 1 and hence, d  .................(9) .The thickness of the object (diameter
2
of the wire) can be calculated from eqn (9) knowing the value of  and measuring the
values of  and l. If the wedge shaped film between the plates has a Refractive index
(RI)  then eqn (8) is used.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
l d l 1
Consider   ................... (7) . From eqn (6) we find that   and hence 
2 d l d 
 
Substituting this in eqn (7) we get   . For air film,   since  = 1 for air.
2 2
Thus, the angle of the wedge is
 
 ( for a film of RI  ) and  for air film (  = 1 for air)
2 2
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Uses of Air-wedge Experiment
By Air-wedge experiment,
1) Wavelength of a monochromatic source can be determined
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2) Thickness of very thin objects of uniform cross section can be found.

3) Planeness of transparent glass plates can be tested.
4) Refractive index of transparent liquids can be determined.
Testing a surface for planeness:
Suppose, it is desired to test the planeness of surface OQ of a transparent glass
plate. Then, a wedge shaped air film is formed between an optically plane glass plate OP
and the surface under test (OQ). The fringes will be straight if the surface under test is
perfectly plane. If the surface OQ is not perfectly plane, the fringes will be irregular in
shape and are not straight lines . In practice, perfectly plane surfaces are produced by
polishing the surfaces and testing them from time to time, until the fringes are straight. In
testing for planeness, an extended source of light should be used.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
NEWTON‟S RINGS
EXPERIMENT: When a plano-convex lens of radius R is placed on a plane glass
plate, an air film is formed between them in the region surrounding the point of contact,
O. Suppose monochromatic light of wavelength  from a source S falls on a plane glass
plate G inclined at 45 to the horizontal. G reflects a part of the light normally on plano-
convex lens arrangement. A traveling microscope M is placed above G with its axis
vertical. It is focused to observe clearly the interference fringes in the light reflected
from the Newton.s rings arrangement. (Fig. 3.a). These interference bands are concentric
circular fringes which are alternately bright and dark with a dark spot at the center. They
are localized at the spherical surface of the lens.
By measuring the radii rn of different orders of circular fringes, Radius of
curvature and focal length of the lens can be determined accurately. Also, Refractive
index of transparent liquids can be determined.

M
G SOURCE

Fig. 3. (a)

O
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Measurements : The microscope M is adjusted to see the centre of rings clearly.

Considering one of the innermost dark ring as mth order, M is moved horizontally to
(m+21)th order dark ring such that the vertical crosswire is tangential to that dark ring.
Reading on the horizontal scale is noted. Then M is moved towards centre and readings
are noted for (m+18), (m+15), (m+12) .. etc orders of dark rings after keeping every time
the vertical crosswire tangential to the concerned rings. Readings are taken on both sides
about the central spot. The diameters D of these rings are calculated by finding the
difference between the corresponding readings on left and right. Measured D values are
used for determination of R, µ or .
THEORY and CALCULATIONS
THEORY : 1. Explanation for formation of circular fringes:
When a plano-convex lens is placed on a plane glass plate, an air film is formed
between them in the region surrounding the point of contact, O. Suppose a ray of
monochromatic light falls normally on this arrangement. A part of the ray is reflected at
A. The remaining light is reflected at B after passing through the air film.

Incident monochromatic ‘1’

‘2’
ray of light

Note: For clarity, oblique incidence is

shown. Actually rays “1” and “2” will
be very close.
Plano-convex lens

O C B
Plane-glass plate
AC = t

These two reflected rays „1‟ and „2‟ are coherent since they have been obtained by
division of amplitude of the incident monochromatic ray. Hence they can produce
interference according to the path difference (PD) at that place.
The total path difference is given by, d = Geometrical PD + PD due to phase reversal by
reflection at denser medium.
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The geometrical PD between the two interfering rays is 2t cos r where t is the
thickness of air / any transparent film of Refractive index µ and r is the angle of
refraction. For normal incidence, angle of refraction r = 0 and so cos r  cos 0  1 .

 for normal incidence, TPD between the rays is d = 2t  . --------- (1)
2
The nature of interference observed in the reflected light depends on the value of d
which in turn depends on the value of t. This is explained below.
1) When d is an integral multiple of , the rays suffer constructive interference
brightness). i.e., Condition to observe constructive interference is ,

d = 2  tm  = m -- (2) where m is an integer.
2
2) When d is an odd multiple of /2, the rays suffer destructive interference (showing
dark bands). i.e., Condition for destructive interference is
 
d = 2tn  = (2n  1) === (3) for nth dark band. Thus, nature of interference
2 2
depends on the value of total path difference (TPD) „d‟ which in turn depends on the
value of thickness of air film t at the point of interference.
The convex side of the lens is a spherical surface. So, all those points on the surface
of the lens from which thickness t of air-film is constant will lie on a circle.
If t corresponds to the condition eqn (2), constructive interference occurs at all these
points and hence bright circular band is observed . On the other and, if t corresponds to
the condition eqn.(3), dark circular band is observed due to destructive interference at
these points.

Plano-convex lens Plano-convex lens

t
t
t1 <t2 < t3 ……
t3
t2
Glass Plate t1
tn
t = constant O n = 1,2,3….
Plane Glass Plate …..

At the point of contact, O, t = 0 (no air-film at point of contact). Using this in equation
 
(1), we have, TPD = d = 2  0   
. This corresponds to destructive
2 2
interference. Hence at the point of contact O, a dark spot is observed.
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Thus, Newton‟s rings experiment shows alternately bright and dark concentric
circular fringes with a dark spot at the center.
Condition for interference fringes
Let R be the radius of curvature of the lens . Let rn be the radius of the nth order dark ring.
Here tn is the thickness of transparent film of refractive index (RI)  corresponding to nth
dark ring (For Air,  = 1).
The condition for observing nth order dark band is
 
2  tn   (2n  1) === (3) so that d is an odd multiple of /2.
2 2
 
Rearranging this, 2tn  (2n  1)  2tn  n …. (4)

2 2
Imagine that the convex surface of the lens is completed into a full sphere and
then cut into two halves. The circular cross section of a semi-sphere is shown in fig.
below. The line KCL drawn on the circle is the diameter of the nth order dark ring. Then,
KCL = 2rn.

Draw a line AXO passing through centre of sphere X and point of contact O. This will
be the perpendicular bisector to line KCL. Thus, AO = 2R and AX = XO = R
Hence, by geometry, AC x CO = KC x CL
i.e., [AO - CO] x CO = rn x rn
[2R- tn ] x tn = rn2  [2R tn - tn2 ] = rn2 ………  (5)
As tn is very small, tn2 can be neglected.
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So, 2R tn = rn2 ( or) 2 tn = [rn2 / R] ……..  (6)

Using this in eqn. (4),the condition for observing nth order dark band,

 rn 2 nR nR
 n (or) rn 2  …….(7.a)  rn  . ……… (7.b)
R  
For a given experimental arrangement, R,  and  are constants.
This implies that radius of nth dark ring, rn is proportional to square root of a natural number.

CALCULATION :
Let rn and rm be the radii of nth and mth order dark bands respectively. Then their
corresponding diameters are
Dn = 2rn and Dm = 2rm.
Hence, Dn2 = 4rn2 and Dm2 = 4rm2
 (Dm2 - Dn2) = 4(rm2 - rn2) …… (8)
Using eqn. (7.a), in eqn. (8), we have,
R
(Dm 2 - Dn 2 )  4  m  n

 ( Dm 2 - Dn 2 )
Rearranging this, Radius of curvature of the given lens is R = . …….. (9.a)
4  m  n 
where µ is the RI of the transparent film between lens and glass plate.
For air-film µ =1.
( Dm 2 - Dn 2 )
 R= ……. (9.b) for air medium between lens and plate.
4  m  n 
The quantities D m  21
2
- Dm9 2  , D m 18
2
- Dm6 2  , D m 15
2
- Dm32  etc are calculated
( Dm 2 - Dn 2 )
for all of which (m-n) =12. Then mean value of for different pairs of readings for
 m  n
which (m-n) is constant is found and substituted in the formula to find R.
To find RI of a liquid :
Few drops of the given transparent liquid whose RI is to be found is placed on a plane glass
plate. A convex lens of known radius is placed on the liquid. Newton’s rings are formed using a
monochromatic source and readings are observed and calculations are made as explained
( Dm 2 - Dn 2 )
above. Substituting the mean value of in formula eqn. (9.a), RI µ of the given
 m  n
transparent liquid can be found.
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Light containing two wavelengths 1 and 2 falls normally on a convex lens of radius
of curvature R resting on a glass plate. If the nth dark ring due to 1 coincides with
(n+1) dark ring due to 2, show that the radius of radius of nth dark ring due to 1 is
R12
.
 1  2 
nR
Wkt rn 2   nR (for air, as =1) ------- (1)

Let rn and rn+1‟ be the radii of n th order ring due to 1 and (n+1)th ring due to 2 respectively.
Using (1), rn 2  nR1 ---- (2) and  rn 1'    n  1 R2 --- (3)
2

Given that nth dark ring due to 1 coincides with (n+1) dark ring due to 2 hence
rn =rn+1‟  rn2 =( rn+1‟)2 
nR1   n  1 R2  nR2  R2 ----- (4) [using eqns. (2) and (3)]
Rearranging, nR  1  2   R2 (or)
2
n      (5)
 1  2 
Using (1) the radius of nth dark ring due to 1 is rn  nR1
R  1  2
Substituting from (5) we get rn  . Proved
 1  2 
{Note:To find n, You can also use the relation 2tn = n1 and 2tn+1‟ = (n+1)2
as the condition for nth and (n+1)th dark ring due to1 and 2 respectively.
When they coincide
2tn = 2tn+1‟  n1 = (n+1)2 Rearrange and simplify you will get eqn(5) for n. }

Light containing two wavelengths 1 and 2 falls normally on a convex lens of radius
of curvature R resting on a glass plate. If the nth dark ring due to 1 coincides with
nth bright ring due to 2, show that the radius of the nth dark ring due to 1
R12
rn  . What would be the resultant effect observed?
2  1  2 
condition for nth dark ring due to1 is 2tn = n1 and
2
condition for nth bright ring due to 2 is 2tn‟ =  2n  1
2
When they coincide
2
2tn = 2tn‟  n1   2n  1 Rearrange and simplify to get eqn for n.
2
Use the formula rn  nR1 to find rn
 10

MICHELSON‟S INTERFEROMETER .
Michelson‟s Interferometer is one of the early sophisticated and sensitive
optical instruments.
CONSTRUCTION
Michelson‟s Interferometer consists of two highly polished mirrors M1 and M2 and two
optically plane glass plates G1 and G2. They are arranged as shown in the figure. The
Mirror M1 is mounted on a carriage C. M1 is moved parallel to itself by moving the
carriage C along a straight line using a micrometer screw, H. The distance moved by M1
can be measured using a micrometer scale, M. The mirror M2 is kept fixed. Both mirrors
M1 and M2 can be tilted using the screws behind them. They can be made perpendicular
to each other or inclined at an angle by suitably adjusting these screws.
Both the optically plane glass plates G1 and G2 are made of the sane material and
are of the same thickness. The plate G1 is half-silvered at its front surface. A single light
ray passing through G1 is split into two rays; one is the ray partially reflected at the thin
half-silvered coating and the other is the transmitted ray. Hence G1 is known as „Beam
splitter‟. The two rays are coherent since they are obtained by splitting a single ray.
Light from a source S is rendered parallel using a lens L. It is incident on Beam
splitter‟ G1 . Both G1 and G2 are kept inclined at 45 to the incident beam of light and
hence they are parallel to each other. A part of the light beam incident on G1 is reflected
at A on the silvered surface and it moves towards the mirror M1 while the rest is
transmitted towards M2.

H M
C

M1

S L A

G1 G2 M2

The beam traveling towards the mirror M1 is reflected at M1. It retraces its path
and travels towards the telescope after passing through G1. The transmitted beam is
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reflected at the mirror M2. It retraces its original path and finally it is reflected at A
towards the telescope T. Both the rays moving towards the telescope are obtained from
the same incident ray and hence they are coherent. Therefore, they cause interference
effects by producing alternate bright and dark interference fringes. Depending on the
alignment of mirrors, the fringes are circular, straight or partially straight and partially
curved. These bands are observed through the telescope.
The light ray moving along AM1 and back is transmitted twice through the glass
plate G1 before it reaches the telescope. However, the rays moving along AM2 and back
never pass through G1 before reaching the telescope. This introduces an additional path
difference between the two interfering beams. In order to compensate the additional path,
another glass plate G2 is introduced between G1 and M2. The plate G2, known as
„compensating plate‟, is identical in thickness to G1 and is arranged parallel to it.
If M1 and M2 are perpendicular to each other, two images of source S reflected at
M1 and M2 can be seen through G1. These two images act as virtual sources S1 and S2
separated by a distance of 2.(d1d2) = 2d with an air film between them. Light rays from
these two sources reinforce one another giving rise to interference effects. If  is the
wavelength of the monochromatic light, then the total path difference between the two
interfering beams is T.P.D = (2d + /2).Here 2d is the geometrical path difference and
/2 is the additional path difference due to phase reversal by reflection at the denser
medium (i.e., reflection at the glass plate). If T.P.D is equal to an integral multiple of ,
i.e., T.P.D = 2d + /2 = n, (n=0,1,2, … etc) the waves interfere constructively leading
to brightness. If it is equal to an odd integral multiple of /2, i.e., T.P.D = 2d + /2 = (2n-
1)/2, (n=1,2, … etc) the interference is destructive and the interference band is dark.
.. Types of Fringes observed .:
i)Circular fringes due to monochromatic source.
When the two mirrors
M1 and M2 are made exactly
perpendicular to each other,
the virtual sources S1 and S2
are parallel to each other. In
this case, with an extended
monochromatic source of
light, a number of concentric
circular fringes (alternately
bright and dark) will be
observed.
 12

They are due to the superposition of waves from the two virtual sources, which are
inclined at the same angle to the normal to these sources. These are known as „fringes of
equal inclination‟. When the movable mirror M1 is moved parallel to itself by a distance
of /2, the total path difference changes by . Therefore, one fringe will appear from the
centre when T.P.D increases by  and one fringe collapses at the centre whenever T.P.D
is decreased by .
ii) Circular fringes due to white light:
When white light is used as a source, alternate bright and dark rings due to different
wavelengths will be produced. However, due to the overlap of maxima due to one
wavelength with minima due to some other wavelengths, only a very few coloured rings
at the center will be observed. These rings correspond to a very small total path
difference (close to zero). This requires that 2d must be very nearly equal to zero. Hence,
to observe circular fringes due to an extended white light source, the two mirrors M 1 and
M2 are arranged perpendicular to each other with their distances d1 and d2 from beam
splitter G1 made equal so that 2d = 0; Also, the compensating plate G2 must be used
between G1 and M2 to cancel the additional path traveled by the ray AM1.
iii) Straight line fringes: If M1 and M2 are not perpendicular to each other, the
virtual sources will not be parallel to each other. Hence a wedge shaped air film will be
formed between them. When d1 and d2 are not equal, a part of fringes will be straight
while others will be curved. When d1 and d2 are made equal by suitably tilting M1, S1 can
be made to bisect S2. In this case many straight line fringes due to a monochromatic
source can be observed. When the mirror M1 is moved by a distance of /2, one straight
line fringe will cross the field of view at the center. Under similar conditions, with white
light, only a few straight line fringes will be seen.
USES OF MICHELSON‟S INTERFEROMETER
1. Wavelength of monochromatic light can be determined
2. Thickness of thin, transparent glass plates can be found.
3. Refractive indices of thin glass plates and gases can be found.
4. Used to standardize metre in terms of wavelength of a monochromatic source.
Determination of Wavelength of monochromatic source.
Monochromatic light of unknown wavelength  is used as a source. Initial reading
on the micrometer scale M is noted. Using the handle H, the mirror M1 is moved and the
number of fringes N that crossed the field of view is counted. The distance „s‟ moved by
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the mirror M1 is found from the micrometer scale readings. When the movable mirror is
moved by a distance of /2, the total path difference changes by  and hence one fringe
crosses the field of view. The distance moved by M1 for N fringes is, s = N . /2
(or)  = 2s/N Using the above formula the wavelength of the source  is
calculated.
-------------------------------------------------------
. DIFFRACTION GRATING .
A diffraction grating consists of a large number of equidistant and very narrow
slits. Usually, a grating is constructed by ruling grooves with a diamond point on a
transparent glass plate or sheet. The rulings are equidistant and are of equal thickness.
The ruled grooves are opaque while the space between any two adjacent grooves is
transparent. A typical commercial grating has about 5000 rulings per centimetre length. A
slit of width „b‟ and its adjacent opaque ruling of width „a‟ on the grating constitute a
grating element of width d = (a + b ). Then the number of grating elements per unit
length is N = (1 / d ). N is also known as number of lines per unit length on the grating.
Diffraction of light by a diffraction grating:
Light from a monochromatic source of wavelength  passing through a slit S is
rendered parallel using a lens L1. It is incident normally on the grating which consists of
N number of alternate very narrow opaque rulings and slits per unit length. These are
parallel to the source slit S. The separation between any two adjacent slits is equal to the
grating element d. Then N = (1/d). The Fraunhofer diffraction pattern is formed in the
focal plane of the lens L2. The diffraction pattern can be observed on the screen placed at
this focal plane. On either side of an intense undiffracted (0th order diffraction) light at Q,
(different orders of (1st, 2nd ,.. etc) principal maxima separated by minima are formed at
positions such as P.
AB and CH are adjacent slits (each of width b) separated by an opaque ruling BC
(of width a). AF, CG, HK indicate the direction of undiffracted light (i.e., incident
direction). AD, CE .. etc are the disturbances from the secondary wavelets passing
through these slits which make an angle  with the undiffracted light;  is called „angle of
diffraction‟. These rays reinforce one another at P. The rays from corresponding
 14

AA 
F
P
E
B θ

C’  G
S C Q

H K



L1  L2 screen
Grating

positions of different slits making the same angle with the incident direction will cause
interference effects at the focus (see Fig.). Thus, rays AF, CG, HK etc which are
parallel to incident direction ( = 0) are focussed at Q which is the undiffracted
maximum. Rays AD, CE ..etc, making the same angle  with the incident direction will
cause the diffraction pattern at the focus P of the lens L2. The intensity of the diffraction
pattern at this point will depend on the path difference between the two rays from
adjacent slits.
To find the path difference between AD and CE, a line AC‟ is drawn
perpendicular to CE. CC‟ is the path difference between rays AD and CE. From ACC‟,
CAC‟ =   path difference CC‟ = AC sin = d.sin …………….. (1)
(as AC = AB+BC = b+a = d)
The two rays will interfere constructively giving rise to nth order principal maximum if
the path difference goven in eqn (1) is equal to an integral multiple of wavelength .
i.e., dsinθ = n……… (2) where n = 1, 2, 3, …..
When this condition is satisfied, the nth order principal diffraction maximum due to light
of wavelength  will be observed at an angle of diffraction  by a grating of grating
element d. Using number of lines per unit length N = 1/d, we get,
sinθ = nN ……….. (3)
This equation is valid when the light is incident normally on the surface of the grating
(i.e., when the angle of incidence is zero).
 15

From eqn (3) we infer that

(i) For a given grating (N = a constant) and a given source ( = a constant), angle
of diffraction  increase with the increasing order of principal maximum and
(ii) For a given grating (N = a constant), angle of diffraction  for a given order n
of principal maximum, increases when the wavelength of source is increased.
For a given wavelength , dsin = n
Intensity
corresponds to nth order principal maximum.
II I I II There are secondary maxima and minima
Principal maxima Secondary formed between any two successive
maxima &
minima orders of principal maxima. However, the
secondary maxima are very weak in
intensity.

2 1 0 1 2 The general condition for mth order

secondary minimum appearing after the
Angle of Diffraction
nth order principal maximum is given by
dsinm = n + m.( /N) where m is the corresponding angle of diffraction.
Grating Spectra:
i) In the condition for nth order diffraction maximum, dsin = n , sin is proportional
to  for a given order n. This implies that nth order maximum due to different
wavelengths occur at different angles of diffraction, . Different orders of diffraction
maxima due to spectral lines of various wavelengths in white light occur at different
values of .
ii) However, for the undiffracted light (zeroth order with n = 0), the angle of diffraction 
is zero for all wavelengths. Hence when white light passes normally through the grating,
the undiffracted, direct light is white again;
iii) Increasing orders of diffraction maxima due to a particular wavelength  occur at
increasing values of 
Thus, Different orders of principal maxima of spectral lines are formed symmetrically
on either side of undiffracted maximum (wnite line) as shown in the figure below.
Most of the intensity of the incident light is undiffracted while the remaining
 16

(GRATING SPECTRAL LINES) Intensity of maxima of spectral lines

1< 2 <3 < 4
II order I order 0th order I order II order

4 3 2 1 1 2 3 4

4 3 2 1 1 2 3 4

8 7 is6 distributed
Intensity 5 4 among
3 2 1 the different
0 1 2 3 of
orders 4 spectra such
5 6 that
7 intensity
8 decreases
with increasing orders of spectral
Angle lines.
of Diffraction

Spectral resolution and resolving power : Rayleigh’s criterion for spectral

resolution
The resolving power of any optical instrument is defined as its ability to show two
neighboring and close lying spectral lines as separate. If  and + are the wavelengths
of two close lying spectral lines which are just resolved by an optical component, then the
ratio ( /) is a measure of its resolving power. The condition for two spectral lines to
be just resolved is given by Rayleigh‟s criterion..
According to the Rayleigh‟s criterion, the two spectral lines due to wavelengths 
and + will be just resolved if the principal maximum corresponding to the
wavelength + coincides with the first secondary minimum of the wavelength  and

Intensity
 +
vice versa. This implies that both the
mth order principal maximum corresponding
to one of these wavelengths (say, +) and
the first secondary minimum of the mth
order principal maximum corresponding to
the other wavelength (say, ) occur at the
1 2 Angle of Diffraction θ
same angle of diffraction.
 17

. RESOLVING POWER OF A GRATING :

The resolving power of a grating is defined as its ability to show two neighboring
and close lying spectral lines as separate. If  and + are the wavelengths of two close
lying spectral lines which are just resolved by the grating, then its resolving power is
given by ( /). According to the Rayleigh‟s criterion, the two spectral lines due to
wavelengths  and + will be just resolved if the principal maximum corresponding
to the wavelength + coincides with the first secondary minimum of the wavelength 
and vice versa.
The Condition for mth order principal maximum for the wavelength + is given by,
d.sinm = m.(  +  )………… (1)
The condition for first secondary minimum associated with mth order principal maximum
due to the wavelength  is given by d.sinn = m. +  /N……………. (2) where
m and n are the corresponding angles of diffraction. If the two spectral lines are just resolved,
then, according to Rayleigh‟s criterion , m = n. Using this condition in eqns (1) and (2), one finds
that m.(  +  ) = m. +  /N  m + m = m. +  /N
(or) m. = /N Rearranging, . (/) = m.N
i.e., the resolving power of the grating (/) = m.N
Thus the resolving power of a grating is equal to the product of the order of the spectrum
and the total number of lines of the grating . Obviously, the resolving power of a grating
is i) is independent of the wavelengths of spectral lines and
ii) Increases with increasing orders of spectral lines

. RESOLVING POWER OF A PRISM .

The resolving power of a prism is its ability to form separate maxima of spectral lines of
two wavelengths which are very close to each other.
If the spectral lines of two close wavelengths  and +  are just resolved by a prism,
then, / is known as the chromatic resolving power of the prism. The figure shows the optical
diagram of a simple prism spectrometer. ABC is a prism of side „a‟ and base width BC = t which
is placed in the minimum deviation position. The angle of the prism is A. Light from a source
containing the two wavelengths  and +  is passed through a narrow slit S and is rendered
 18

parallel by a collimating lens L1. D and (D - D) are the angles of minimum deviation of these
two wavelengths respectively.  and - are their respective refractive indices. The telescopic
objective L2 focuses the emergent, refracted wavefronts of  and +. at P1 and P2
respectively forming their line images.

AB = AC = a BC = t, angle of prism A = BAC

A’

A D
D-ΔD
i (λ+Δλ)
E
θ P2

P1

B C
S (λ)

t
L1
L2

Since the prism faces are rectangular, each line in the spectrum may be considered as the
principal diffraction maximum (of order1) produced by a single slit of width „b‟ where b = CE is
the width of the emergent beam. Then according to the Rayleigh‟s criterion, if the rincipal
maximum due to + falls on the first secondary minimum due to  and vice versa, then, two
spectral lines formed at P1 and P2 will be just resolved. Thus, at P2 , principal maximum due to
(+) as well as the first secondary minimum due to  is formed.
From the theory for diffraction of light by a single slit, the condition for first
secondary minimum due to  to be formed at P2 is given by
b.sin(D) =; As D is very small, sin(D)  D
 b.D =  (or) D = /b ……….(1)
The refractive index of the spectral line due to  is given by
 19

 A D 
sin  
  2 
. Differentiating this w.r.t. , we get,
 A
sin  
2
 d  1  A  D  1  dD 
  .cos   . .  Rearranging,
 d   sin A  2  2  d 
2
 dD   2sin( A / 2)   d  
 = .   . Multiplying both sides by ,
 d    cos(( A  D) / 2)   d  
 dD   2. sin(A/2)   d  
 D =   . =   .  . ………….(2)
 d   cos(A+D)/2   d  

Using D = from eqn (1), this becomes,
b

  2. sin(A/2)   d  
 cos  (A+D)/2  .  d   .
=  ……….(3)
b  
From the figure,  = (90 – i ) where i is the angle of incidence.
A D
i=  A D  A D
But 2  sin = sin  90   = cos ……….. (4)
 2  2

 A D 
As  =  90  , we have A+D+2 = 180º ……(a) A
 2 

In the above figure,  + A + CAE + D = 180º. …….(b)

Comparing (b) with (a), CAE = .
In ACE, sin(CAE) = sin = CE/AC = b/a. a (A/2) (A/2)

b
Using sin = in eqn. (4),
a
A D b
sin = cos = ……………(5)
2 a B (t/2) D (t/2) C

Drawing ADBC and considering the ABD,

Sin(BAD) = BD/AB (as BAD = A/2)
t
i.e., Sin(A/2) = ……(6)
2a
 20

Substituting for Sin(A/2) and cos[(A+D)/2] from eqns (6) and (5) respectively in eqn (3), we
get, /b = [2(t/2a)]. (d/d). / (b/a)
 t 
2b  
 2a d   d
  . (or) RP =  t. .
 b d  d
a
This is the required expression for Resolving Power of a prism.
As (d/d) is not a constant, the resolving power of a prism is not a constant but it is a
function of wavelength.
RESOLVING POWER OF A TELESCOPE
Telescope is an optical instrument which is used to see distant objects such as
stars. Resolving power of a Telescope is its ability to show as distinct and separate two
distant objects whose angular separation is very small. The Resolving power of a
Telescope is measured by the angle subtended by two objects at the objective lens of
the telescope whose images are seen just resolved in the telescope.

A T
α O
B

In the Figure, A and B are the two distant objects viewed by the telescope T. The
angle subtended by A and B at the objective O of the telescope is α. The minimum
angular separation at which the images of A and B are just resolved is known as the
„Limit of Resolution‟. Let angle θ be the Limit of resolution of a telescope. Then if α ≥ θ,
separate images of A and B are seen in the telescope. But, when α < θ, highly
overlapping, smeared out image of A and B is seen. So images are not resolved in this
case.
Thus, if α is the angle subtended by the two distant objects at the objective of the
Telescope for which θ is the Limit of Resolution, then,
 When α = θ, the images seen in the telescope are just resolved.
 When α > θ, the images seen in the telescope are well resolved.
 When α < θ, the images seen in the telescope are not resolved.
 21

Expression for Limit of Resolution (or Resolving power) of a Telescope

CD = b
B C
D1 ᴧ
θ CDD1 = θ
A

θ
IA

IB
B1
θ
A1 D

Let CD be the aperture of the Objective lens of the telescope. Let AC and A1D be the
parallel rays from a distant object which are brought to focus at IA. Similarly, BC and B1D
are the parallel rays from a second distant object and they are brought to focus at IB. Let
θ be the angle subtended by the two objects at the objective lens. .
Assume that the aperture of the objective acts as a rectangular slit of width CD.
Then, the formation of images at IA and IB can be considered as Principal Maxima due to
diffraction of light from the objects by a single slit of width CD ( = b, say). These
principal maxima are followed by secondary diffraction minima and maxima due to the
rectangular aperture. .
Further, let us assume that the images of the two objects are just resolved. Then the angle
θ is the Limit of Resolution.
According to the Rayleigh‟s criterion, images at IA and IB will be just resolved if
the first secondary minimum accompanying the principal maximum at IA falls at IB and
vice versa.
To obtain an expression for the Limiting angle for resolution, with IB as centre and DIB
as radius, draw an arc to meet CIB at D1. By geometry, DD1can be approximated as a
straight line and the angle CDD1 = θ. Then in the Δ CDD1, (CD1/ CD) = Sinθ.
(or) CD1 = CD .Sinθ.  CD1 = b.Sinθ ≈ bθ ( since θ is very small, Sinθ ≈ θ). If λ is
the wavelength of light from the objects, then the required condition for Ist secondary
minimum of IA to fall at IB is CD1 = bθ = λ. (or)
The Limit of Resolution is θ = ( λ / b )........ (1)
In real practice, the aperture is circular. Taking this into consideration the Limit of
Resolution is modified as θ = ( 1.22λ / D ), where the width b in eqn. (1) is replaced by
the diameter of the objective, D. In the case of circular apertures, the diffraction pattern
will be a central bright circle (principal maximum) followed by several dark and bright
 22

concentric rings of increasing radii and widths. These are known as Airy‟s circular
pattern.
Resolving power of a Telescope will be larger if its limit of resolution θ is smaller. Thus
Limit of Resolution is a measure of Resolving Power. θ is small if the diameter D of
objective is large. When D is small, Airy patterns overlap more and hence the images are
not resolved. So, for better resolution, D should be large.
The radius of the 1st dark ring ( (i.e., 1st secondary minimum) is given by
r1 = (1.22λ.f/D) where f is the focal length of the objective lens.

. DOUBLE REFRACTION .
In a material, if a certain property is constant independent of direction, then the material
is known as isotropic. If some property varies with direction in a material, then it is
known as anisotropic
In Double Refraction (also known as birefringence) Refractive Index of light varies with
direction inside the material.
If a calcite or quartz crystal is placed on a dot marked on a piece of paper, two images of
the dot is observed. This is due to double refraction. The crystals which exhibit this
phenomenon are called „Doubly Refracting crystals‟.
In these materials, some optical properties (especially, the Refractive Index), vary with
direction. Hence these materials are optically „Anisotropic‟.
A light ray entering into a doubly refracting crystal (like calcite), splits up into
two rays. One of the rays follows the Snell‟s laws of refraction and it is known as an
“Ordinary ray ” (O-Ray). The other ray does not follow the Snell‟s laws of refraction. It
is known as an “Extra Ordinary ray ” (EO-Ray). O-ray exhibits isotropic behaviour, the
EO-ray shows anisotropic behaviour. Huygen explained double refraction by
applying his theory of secondary wavelets . According to this theory,
1. if one imagines a point source embedded in a uniaxial crystal such as calcite,
then, from any point inside the crystal two types of wave surfaces are
propagated.
2. The wave surfaces, which obey Snell‟s law, are called ordinary rays (O-Ray).
The velocity of the O-ray is the same in all directions within the crystal
3. The shape of the wave surface of the O-ray is spherical since its velocity is the
same in all directions.
4. The other ray, which does not follow the Snell‟s laws of refraction, is known
as an “Extra Ordinary ray ” (EO-Ray). The velocity of the EO-ray is different in
different directions.
5. The shape of the wave surface of the EO-ray is ellipsoid of revolution since the
velocity is different in different directions in the crystal.

6. The velocities of Ordinary and Extra Ordinary rays are equal along certain
directions in the crystal known as its „Optic Axis‟. Therefore the wave surfaces
of O- and EO-rays touch each other along the optic axis.
 23

Crystals in which the

spherical wave surface of O-ray is
enclosed entirely within the
ellipsoidal wave surface due to EO-
ray is called a negative crystal (E.g.
Cacite, Tourmaline). In this case, the
velocity of EO –ray is greater than
that of O-ray in any direction except
along the optic axis. Crystals in
which the elliptical wave surface of
EO-ray is enclosed entirely within
the spherical wave surface due to O-
ray is called a positive crystal (e.g.
Quartz). In this case, the velocity of
EO-ray is less than that of O-ray except along the optic axis. In both cases, the velocities
of O and EO rays are equal along the optic axis.
It is known that refractive index (R.I.) of a medium is the ratio of velocity of light
in vacuum to that in the medium. This implies that R.I. of EO-ray (e) is greater than or
equal to that of O-ray (o) in positive crystals. I.e.,  e  o in positive crystals. In
negative crystals, the R.I. of EO-ray (e) is less than or equal to that of O-ray (o). i.e.,
 e  o in negative crystals. In both types of crystals e = o along optic axis. Ordinary
ray is plane polarized with its vibrations perpendicular to the optic axis (i.e.,
perpendicular to the principal plane) while EO-ray is plane polarized with its vibrations
in the principal plane.
Huygen‟s construction of Wave surfaces in an Uniaxial crystal
A crystal with a single optic axis is said to be „uniaxial‟. Consider a parallel beam
(plane wavefront, CD) falling normally on the surface SS‟ of a negative uniaxial crystal

C D
Optic axis A B S’
S
K
E L
Optic axis
F

G
G’
O O’
 24

( e  o) . The optic axis is shown by the dashed straight lines passing through A
and B on SS‟. It lies in the plane of this figure but makes an angle with the crystal
surface. SS‟. When the incident light strikes the surface SS‟, each point on the surface
becomes a source of secondary spherical and elliptical waves due to Ordinary and Extra
Ordinary (O and EO) rays respectivelyA and B are two such points on the surface.
Consider the incident beam that strikes SS‟ at an instant t = 0. If Vo is the velocity of O-
ray, to find its position after a time of t seconds, a sphere of radius Vot is drawn with A
as center. Another sphere with the same radius is drawn with B as center. A common
tangent is drawn to these spherical wave surfaces and it touches the wave surfaces at K
and L as shown in figure.
Similarly, to find the position of EO-ray after t sec., ellipses with A and B as
centers and Vot as half of minor axis and Vet as half of major axis were drawn. Here, Ve
is the velocity of EO-ray. A common tangent drawn to the ellipsoidal Wave surfaces
touch these wave surfaces at E and F.
For the light ray incident at A, the line joining the points A and
K indicates the direction of ordinary ray inside the medium; the line joining A and E
gives the direction of EO-ray. Similarly for the ray incident at B, BL indicates the
direction of O-ray and BF indicates the direction of EO-ray. The ordinary ray is plane
polarized with its vibrations normal to both the optic axis and the direction of propagation
AKO. The Extra Ordinary ray is plane polarized with its vibrations lying in the plane
containing the optic axis and the EO-ray, AEG. This means that the vibrations of O-ray
are perpendicular to the plane of the figure while those of EO-ray lying in the plane of the
figure. They are represented by dots and arrows respectively.
Thus, an incident ray will split up into two rays
C D propagating in different directions and when they leave the
crystal, two linearly polarized beams traveling along
different parallel paths. Thus, two images (due to O and EO
EO O
rays) of a single object are seen. When the crystal is rotated
about its normal, the optic axis and hence the EO ray will
also rotate about the normal. This makes the EO ray to
rotate on the periphery of a cone. Therefore the image of
EO O
the object due to EO ray will rotate about the stationary
image due to O-ray.
Special Cases. 1). The optic axis lies in the plane of figure but normal to the surface SS‟

For normal incidence, the incident rays and optic axis are parallel to each other.
Insidethe crystal, the common tangent to the spherical wave surfaces starting from two
different points on the crystal surface coincides with the common tangent for elliptical
wave surfaces. Also the common tangents touch both the wave surfaces at the same
 25

points on the optic axis where the two wave surfaces touch each other. Hence, both the
O and EO-rays are propagated along the optic axis with the same velocity. Therefore,
effects due to double refraction are not observable in this case.
2) When the optic axis lies in the plane of the figure and is parallel to the surface
SS‟ of the crystal: For normal incidence, the constructed wave surfaces will be as
shown in the figure. Common tangent to the spherical wave surfaces is parallel to that
for the ellipsoidal wave surface but they are not collinear. In this case, the two wave
surfaces travel along the same direction (i.e., direction perpendicular to optic axis) within
the crystal but with different velocities. This introduces a path difference between them.
As they emerge out of the crystal, they move with a constant phase difference between
them. This property is used in the construction of Quarter Wave and Half Wave Plates.
Quarter Wave Plate
Consider a thin plate of
uniaxial crystal cut in such a
way that its surface is parallel to
the optic axis. When
monochromatic light of
wavelength  falls normally on
the surface of the crystal, it is
split into ordinary and Extra
ordinary (O and EO-rays). Both
O and EO rays travel in the same
direction which is perpendicular
to the optic axis but with
different speeds. This introduces
 26

a phase difference between them, which increases with increasing thickness of the
crystal.
If the thickness „t‟ of the crystal is such that it introduces a phase difference of /2
radians between O and EO rays, it is known as a “Quarter Wave Plate‟. This is because a
phase difference of /2 corresponds to a path difference of /4. The optical path
difference between O and EO rays is  = (e  o).t where. e and o are the refractive
indices of the EO and O rays respectively. For a quarter wave plate,  =/4.
Therefore,  = (e  o).t =  / 4
 t =  / 4(e  o)
Rhus t is the required thickness of uniaxial crystal to be a Quarter Wave Plate.
It should be pointed out that if t is an odd multiple of the above quantity,
i.e., if t = (2m + 1). [  / 4(e  o)] where m= 0, 1, 2, ….etc.,
it will still produce a path difference of /4 between O and EO-rays.
Uses: 1). QWP is used to produce circularly and elliptically polarized lights. For
example,
2) It is used to analyse and to find the nature of polarized lights.
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
. Half Wave Plate .(Diagram: Refer the diagram for QWP)
Similar to a quarter eave plate, a Half Wave Plate (HWP) is obtained by cutting a thin
plate of uniaxial crystal of thickness „t‟ such that its surface is parallel to the optic axis.
When monochromatic light of wavelength  is incident normally on the surface it will be
split into ordinary and Extra Ordinary rays (O and EO rays) traveling in the same
direction but with different speeds. This introduces a path difference between O and EO
rays. The thickness of the crystal is such that the phase difference is  which corresponds
to an optical path difference of /2 between the O and EO rays. i.e, optical path
difference between O and EO rays  is
 = (e  o).t =  / 2  t =  / 2(e  o)

where e and o are the refractive indices of EO and O rays respectively. This means that
the required thickness of the uniaxial crystal to be a Half Wave Plate is that,
t =  / 2(e  o). Also, when the thickness of the crystal is
t = (2m + 1). [  / 2(e  o)] where m= 0, 1, 2, ….etc the path difference will still be /2.
Use: Half wave plate is used in the construction of a Half Shade which is an important
component of Laurentz Half Shade Polarimeter.
 27

POLARIZED LIGHT

Introduction : Light waves are

transverse having electromagnetic character.
A light wave traveling along z-direction is
composed of electric and magnetic field
vectors which are varying sinusoidally in
two mutually perpendicular directions (x
and y respectively). They are also mutually
perpendicular to the direction of travel (z-
direction). In non-magnetic materials,
propagation characteristics of light waves depend on electric field variations only.
Natural light (e.g. sunlight) consists of electromagnetic waves with their electric
field vibrations varying rapidly and randomly in all directions. It is „ unpolarized light‟.

Consider light waves advancing in z-direction (moving out-of paper as shown in Fig.
below) In a light beam if all the waves have electric field vector varying along a single
direction, it is called „plane polarized light‟ or „Linearly polarized light‟ .
In addition, there are two more states of polarizations of light called „Circular‟ and
Elliptically polarized light.

y y
y

E E E
x x x

z
z
z

Linear polarization Circular polarization Elliptical polarization

Front view Side view

The above figure shows the three states of

polarization of light that is traveling along z-
direction (out of paper) as seen by an
observer . In Linear polarization the electric
field vector E varies sinusoidally along one
direction only. Electric field displacement
vibrates between a maximum and a minimum
 28

through zero (In Fig. above its vibration is along y-axis). Depending on the direction of
vibration, Linear Polarization can be vertical (vibration along y-axis), horizontal
(vibration along x-axis) or Linear Polarization along an arbitrary direction,

Linearly polarized light is also termed as plane polarized light since its electric field
vibration is restricted to be in one plane all the time.

In Circular polarization, electric field vector E rotates in the xy-plane (either clockwise
(CW)or counter clockwise(CCW)) with a constant magnitude. This motion of tip of
vector head of E sweeps a circle and hence it is called Circular polarization. CW rotation
corresponds to Right Circular polarization while CCW rotation corresponds to Left Circular
polarization. In general, Circular (as well as any arbitrary) polarization can be described as
a linear combination of orthogonal linear polarization states
In Elliptical polarization, electric field vector E rotates in the xy-plane (either clockwise
(CW)or counter clockwise(CCW)). As it rotates, magnitude of E vector changes
between a naximum and a minimum. The movement of tip of E sweeps an ellipse and
hence it is called Elliptical polarization.
It is common to have a mixture of un-polarized and polarized light, called partially
polarized light also.
THEORY:
General equation for Polarization (General case)
Generally, Any polarization state can be described as the sum of two orthogonal (i.e.,
mutually perpendicular) linear polarization states.

y In this figure, the vector sum of the two

orthogonal components Ex and Ey is E
Ey E which is inclined to both x and y axes.
Alternatively, a given arbitrary vector E
can be resolved into two orthogonal
component vectors Ex and Ey.
x
Ex

Light wave of wavelength  that propagates in the z direction is represented as two

orthogonal components (Linear polarizations) vibrating along x and y directions
E x (z,t)  E 0x cos(kz- t) x ..........................(1)
:
E y (z,t)  E 0y cos(kz- t   ) y ..................(2)
K = (2/)  (3.a) is the propagation constant and =2  (3.b) is angular frequency
of radiation of frequency, . x and y - unit vectors
E0x and E0y are the amplitudes of electric field components E x and E y respectively.
  is the phase difference between the two components of E .
 29

using trigonometric identities, squaring and adding eqns (1) and (2) we get, the
general equation for the resultant polarization is
2
 Ex   Ey 
2
E Ey
      2 x cos  sin 2  ..........(4)
 0x   0y 
E E E 0x E 0y

This is the equation of an ellipse.

This represents elliptical polarization provided (i) E0x  E0y and (ii) 0 and  90.
Thus the tip of the resultant electric field vector E moves along an ellipse as the wave is
advancing in z-direction.
An ellipse can be represented by 4 quantities:
size of minor axis, size of major axis. orientation (angle) and sense of rotation (CW,
CCW).

Linear Polarization
The general equation for the resultant polarization
2
 Ex   Ey 
2
E Ey
      2 x cos  sin 2  ....(4) will reduce to represent linear
 E 0x   E 0y  E 0x E 0y
polarization when  = 0.
For  = 0, cos = cos(0) = 1 and sin=sin(0)=0. Using them in (4) and simplifying, we
have,
2
 E   E y    E   Ey 
 x      0 or  x     ,,,,,,,,,,,(6),
 E 0x   E 0y    E 0x   E 0y 
(6) is an eqn. for straight line. So, this is general equation for linear polarization.
Special cases for linear polarization
When i) E0x = 0 eqns 1 and 2 are
E x (z,t)  0 ..........................(1.a)
E y (z,t)  E 0y cos(kz- t   ) y ..................(2.a)
 30

There is only one component, in y (vertical) direction. Hence, the above set of eqns.
represents a vertically linear polarization.
(vertically linear)
Similarly, If there is no amplitude in y (i.e.,E0y =
0) there is only one component, in x that leads to
horizontal polarization. When E0y = 0 eqns 1 and
2 are ,
E x (z,t)  E 0x cos(kz- t) x ..........................(1.b)
E y (z,t)  0 ..................(2.b)
(horizontally linear)

Vertical Polarization Ex = 0 Y
Horizontal Polarization Ey = 0

iii) E0x = E0y and  = 0. (45 linear polarization)

If (1) the amplitudes of two components are equal (E0x = E0y) and (2) the phase difference
is zero, (=0) then eqns. (1) and (2) become Ex = Ey …..(3) This represents a linear
polarization at 45.

Ey E

45
x
Ex

Circular Polarization :
The general equation for the resultant polatization will reduce to circular polarization
when the phase difference is  = 90 and the amplitudes of the two components are equal.
 31

i.e., E0x = E0y.The general equation for the resultant polatization is

2
 Ex   Ey 
2
E Ey
      2 x cos  sin 2  ....(4) . In the most general case this is an eqn.
 0x   0y 
E E E 0x E 0y

for ellipse. Hence it represents elliptical polarization.

Consider the case when E0x = E0y = a (say)
and  = 90 .
When  = 90 , cos = cos(90) = 0 and
sin=sin(90)=1.
Using them in (4) we get
2
 Ex   Ey 
2

     1 ..........(5) Using E0x = E0y =a in the eqn. (5),

 E 0x   E 0y 
2
Ex2 Ey
We have  1 ..........(6)
a2 a2
This is an eqn. for a circle of radius a.
Thus the resultant electric field vector rotates in
xy-plane as the wave is advancing in z-direction.
The tip of the resultant field vector traces circle.
This is circular polarization. The sense of rotation
can be either clockwise or counter clockwise.
The former is called “Right circular polarization” and
The latter is called Left circular polarization.

PRODUCTION & ANALYSIS OF PLANE, CIRCULAR & ELLIPTICALLY

POLARIZED LIGHTS
1. PRODUCTION
Plane Polarized light (Linearly Polarized Light):
Natural light or light from ordinary sources has its electric field vibrations varying
randomly in all direction. Such light beams are unpolarized.
In Linear polarization, the electric field vibrations are restricted to vary along a single
direction only.Plane Polarized light or (Linearly Polarized Light) can be obtained by
passing unpolarized light through certain anisotropic materials like, calcite, tourmaline,
Nicol prism etc.
A Nicol prism is made of a calcite crystal suitably cut into two pieces and then
cemented together by using transparent Canada balsam layer. When a ray of unpolarized
light (UPL) is incident normally on one end face of a nicol, it is split into two mutually
perpendicular polarized lights inside the nicol prism. They are called ordinary ray and
Extra-Ordnary ray (O- and EO-ray respectively). In an anisotropic material they travel
with different speeds. At the Canada balsam layer, the O-ray undergoes total internal
reflection and is not transmitted further. The EO-ray travels through the nicol and
 32

emerges through its other end. Thus the emergent beam is linearly polarized or plane
polarized (PPL).
Polarizing Nicol

EO - ray

Source
Plane Polarized Light
O - ray
UPL

Behaviour (Analysis) : 1) When Plane polarized light is passed through a „crossed‟

analyzing nicol prism, light is extinguished.(*( crossed‟, analyzing nicol is similar to
polarizer but its OA is  OA of Polarizer; Also it can be rotated about its length )
2) When PPL is passed through a „rotating analyzer‟, for a 360 rotation, the intensity of

Analyzer (Rotating Nicol)

PPL

light emerging through analyzer varies between zero and maximum twice. This is
because, as it is rotated, the OA of Analyzer twice becomes parallel to vibration of PPL
(0) and twice it is normal to it (90). When they are parallel, all the light is transmitted
through analyzer. Hence the intensity is maximum. As the angle increases from 0,
gradually the intensity decreases. When they are normal to each other, light is
extinguished (0 intensity), Thus it varies between zero and maximum.
Circularly polarized light (CPL): Circularly polarized light is the resultant of two
orthogonal (i.e., mutually perpendicular) plane polarized light rays which (i) have the
same maximum amplitude (E0x = E0y) and (ii) are moving with a path difference of /4
(or a phase difference of  = /2).
Production of (CPL): Circularly polarized light can be produced by passing plane
polarized light (PPL) through a Quarter Wave Plate (QWP).
Plane Polarized light (PPL) is incident normally on surface of a Quarter Wave Plate
(QWP) such that its electric field vibration makes an angle of 45 with the optic axis of
 Y Ey
33
P.D. = /4

X
Ex

QWP. In this case the PPL is split into O and EO rays inside the QWP with equal
amplitudes (E0x = E0y).

Optic axis (OA) Incident vibration makes 45

with OA of QWP

Incidenr vibration
CPL

Plane polarized
light (PPL) Quarter Wave
Plate (QWP)

Further, the QWP introduces a phase difference of /2 (i.e., a path difference of /4)
between them. As the two waves emerge out of QWP, their resultant will be circularly
polarized. As it moves, the tip of the resultant field vibration, traces a circle. It can be
either CW or CCW.
Behaviour: When Circularly polarized light is passed through a „rotating
analyzing nicol prism, the intensity of light emerging through analyzer remains constant.
It does not vary as the analyzer is rotated.
The same behaviour is observed when ordinary unpolarized is passed through a
rotating analyzer.
Elliptically Polarized Light (EPL)
Elliptically polarized light is the resultant of two orthogonal (i.e., mutually
perpendicular) plane polarized light rays which (i) have unequal maximum amplitudes
(E0x E0y) and (ii) are moving with a non-zero phase difference  such that 0 and 
90 (i.e they move with a non-zero path difference which is not equal to /2. So P.D. 0
and PD  /2).
 34

Superposition of a plane polarized light with a circularly polarized light will also
produce EPL.
Production of (EPL):
Plane Polarized light (PPL) is incident normally on surface of a Quarter Wave
Plate (QWP) such that its electric field vibration makes a non-zero angle with the optic
axis of QWP such that it is not equal to 45. In this case the PPL is split into O and EO
rays inside the QWP which move with unequal amplitudes (E0x  E0y).

Optic axis (OA) Incident vibration makes a nonzero angle

 with OA of QWP so that 045

Incidenr vibration
EPL

Plane polarized
light (PPL) Quarter Wave
Plate (QWP)

As the components emerge out of the QWP, the resultant electric field vector E rotates in
the xy-plane (either clockwise (CW)or counter clockwise(CCW)). As it rotates, magnitude
of E vector changes between a naximum and a minimum. The movement of tip of E
sweeps an ellipse and hence it is called Elliptical polarization.
Behaviour: When Elliptically Polarized Light is passed through a „rotating
analyzing nicol prism, the intensity of light emerging through analyzer varies between a
maximum and a minimum which is not zero.
The same behaviour is observed when partially plane polarized light (PPPL) is
passed through a rotating analyzer.
2. ANALYSIS (or) DETECTION OF POLARIZED BEAMS OF LIGHT
For detecting the nature of the given polarized beam, an ‘Analyser’ is used. Any polarizer can be
used as analyser. (usually a Nicol prism is used). As the given polarized beam passes through the

Analyzer (Rotating Nicol)

Light beam to be analysed

 35

analyser, the analyser is rotated. So,the optic axis of analyser makes different angles with the
vibrations of the beam. The resulting intensity variation will indicate the nature of polarized
light.
1) When Linearly polarized light is passed through a „rotating analyzer‟, intensity of
light emerging through analyzer varies between zero and maximum.

Analyzer
Intensity varies
between zero
and maximum.

Plane Polarized light

2) When ordinary unpolarized Light and Circularly polarized light are passed through a
rotating analyzer, the intensity of emergent light remains constant. It does not vary as
the analyzer is rotated.
3) When partially plane polarized light beam and Elliptically polarized light beam are
passed through a „rotating analyzer‟, intensity of emergent light varies between a non-
zero minimum and a maximum.
TO DISTINGUISH BETWEEN UNPOLARIZED LIGHT AND CIRCULARLY POLARIZED LIGHT.
When unpolarized Light and Circularly polarized light (CPL) are passed
through a rotating analyzer, the intensity of emergent light remains constant.

Analyser No Intensity
variation..

UPL / CPL

In order to distinguish between them, the beam is first passed through a QWP. If
it is circularly polarized, it is split into O and EO rays. The existing path difference
between O and EO rays would be increased from /4 to /2. This will convert CPL into
Plane polarized light. When this is analyzed, the intensity varies between zero and a
maximum.
Optic axis (OA)
Intensity varies
Analyser between
maximum & 0
 CPL

PPL/UPL No Intensity
CPL / UPL variation..
 UPL
Quarter Wave
Plate (QWP)
 36

On the other hand, if the given light is unpolarized (UPL), it remains unpolarized even
after passing through QWP. Hence, when analyzed, this will not show any intensity
variation.
TO DISTINGUISH BETWEEN PARTIALLY PLANE POLARIZED LIGHT AND ELLIPTICALLY POLARIZED LIGHT.
(TO DISTINGUISH BETWEEN PPPL AND EPL)

Partially plane polarized light (PPPL) is a mixture of plane polarized light and
unpolarized light. When PPPL and elliptically polarized light (EPL) are analysed, they
show an intensity variation between a maximum and non-zero minimum.

Analyser Intensity variation

between maximum
and non-zero
minimum..

PPPL /ECPL

In order to distinguish between them, the beam is first passed through a QWP and
then it is analysed. When passing through QWP, if it is elliptically polarized, it is split
into O

Optic axis (OA) Intensity varies

between
maximum & 0
Analyser
 EPL
Intensity varies
between
maximum &
PPL/PPPL
EPL / PPPL non-zero
minimum
 PPPL
Quarter Wave
Plate (QWP)

and EO rays. The existing path difference between O and EO rays would be increased
from /4 to /2. This will convert EPL into Plane polarized light. When this is analyzed,
the intensity varies between zero and a maximum.
If it is partially plane polarized light (PPPL), when passing through QWP, the polarized
part of the beam is converted to elliptically polarized but the unpolarized part remains
unpolarized. Just as they emerge from QWP the two components combine to produce
PPPL again. When this is analaysed, again it shows an intensity variation between a
maximum and non-zero minimum.
 37

USES OF POLARIZATION / POLARIZED LIGHT:

1. Testing of glass for optical quality: Glass used for making high quality optical
instruments (grating, prism, microscope, telescope etc) should be free from
defects, impurities. Strain etc. Strain could develop due to improper cooling of
molten glass while making the component. In most cases, strained glass is doubly
refracting. Testing the component for double refraction will reveal the presence of
strain.

2. Photoelastic measurements: Transparent plastic models of buildings, bridges etc

develop strains under loaded condition. They become birefringent under loaded
condition. The analysis of variation of double refraction in these models under
loaded conditions will indicate the variation of stress distribution under various
loaded conditions. This will be helpful in the design of large Engineering
structres.

3. Glareless head lights.: Glare produced by headlights of cars are reduced by

polarizing the light along certain direction by using polaroids.

4. Sterographic projection to understand the depth of vision is made possible by

using polarized lights.

5. Transmission Antennas : An antenna is a transducer that converts radio frequency (RF)

electric current to electromagnetic waves that are then radiatedinto space. Antenna
polarization is an important consideration when selecting and installing antennas. Most
wireless communication systems use either linear (vertical, horizontal) or circular
polarization.
An antenna is vertically linear polarized when its electric field is perpendicular to the
Earth‟s surface. (Application: in broadcast tower for AM radio). Horizontally linear
polarized antennas have their electric field parallel to the Earth's surface. (Application :
TV antennas are horizontally-oriented)
In wireless communication, circular polarized antennas give a higher probability of a
successful link because it is transmitting on all planes. Since circular polarized antennas
send and receive in all planes, the signal strength is not lost even if there is an
absorbing/signal deflecting obstacle in one or several planes, but is transferred to a
different plane and are still utilized.
In linearly polarized antennas signal is lost permanently if such absorption/deflections
occur.
Circular polarization is more resistant to signal degradation due to inclement weather
conditions
 38

OPTICAL ROTATION
When unpolarised light is pssed through two nicol prisms (polarizer and analyzer)
kept in a crossed position, emergent light is completely extinguished. If now certain
substances like calcite, quartz or sugar solution is introduced between the nicol prisms
some light will emerge through the analyzer. This is due to a phenomenon called optical
rotation or optical activity.
When polarizer and analyzer are kept in a crossed position their optic axes are
perpendicular to each other. Unpolarised light falling
on the polariser is polarized with its vibrations
parallel to the optic axis of the polarizer. When this
polarized beam falls on the analyzer, no light passes
through the analyzer since direction of vibrations of
polarized light is  to the optic axis of the analyzer.
Therefore, light is extinguished. However, when
substances like sugar solution are introduced
between the polariser and analyzer, the plane of
vibration of the polarized beam is rotated through
some angle by these substances. Therefore, polarized
vibrations are no longer perpendicular to the optic
axis of the analyzer and hence some light passes
through the analyzer. To observe darkness again, the
analyzer has to be rotated through the same angle
through which the vibration is rotated in the medium.
Fresnel’s Theory of Optical Rotation

According to Fresnel, when a monochromatic plane polarized light of wavelength

 is passed through an optically active medium, it is split into two circular vibrations
moving in opposite (anticlockwise and clockwise) directions. These left (anticlockwise)
and right (clockwise) circular components move with different angular velocities inside
an optically active medium. In a right handed substance, the clockwise component moves
faster while in a left handed substance the anticlockwise component moves faster.
In the diagram, YOY‟ is the incident plane vibration. It is split into right circularly
polarized component OR and left circularly polarized component OL. If OR moves
 39

faster than OL inside the optically active medium, then, a phase difference of  is
introduced between these two circularcomponents just as they come out of it. When they
come out of the medium they travel with the same velocity but their resultant vibration is
along XOX‟ which is rotated clockwise by an angle  =/2 from the original direction
YOY‟. In the case of a left handed material, it is rotated in the anticlockwise direction.
Let l be the length of the optically active medium. Let VL and VR be the velocities of left
and right circular components respectively.
The time taken by left component to cross the medium = l / VL
The time taken by Right component to cross the medium = l / VR
Time difference as they emerge out, t = l.(1 / VL – 1 / VR)
The slower component will emerge out after a time of t after the faster component has
moved out of the medium. If C is the velocity of light in air, the faster component would
have moved through a distance of t.C in air just when the slower component comes out.
This gives the path difference between the two components in air.
Path difference t.C = [ l.(1 / VL – 1 / VR) ].C
= l.(C / VL – C / VR) = l.(L -R)
Corresponding phase difference  = (2/).l.( L - R )
The resultant vibration is rotated through an angle  = /2 = (l/).(L - R)
For right handed substances (L - R) is positive and for left handed substances
(L - R) is negative.
SPECIFIC ROTATORY POWER
The phenomenon in which the plane of vibration of polarized light is rotated by an
angle of  is in a medium is known as optical activity. The substances, which cause this
optical rotation, are known as „optically active substances‟. Quartz, Sugar solution etc
are examples for optically active substances.
A substance, which rotates the plane of vibration in the clockwise direction, is known
as Right handed or Dextro Rotatory; A substance which rotates the plane of vibration in
the anti- clockwise direction, is known as Left handed or Laevo Rotatory.
In the case of sugar solution, the angle of rotation is directly proportional to the length
of the medium „l‟ (in dm) and the concentration of the solution „c‟ (in g/cc) at a constant
temperature. Thus,  l.c (or)  = lc where  is called „specific rotatory power‟ of
the sugar solution. It is given by  = /lc. If l is measured in cm, then  =10/lc.
 40

Specific rotatory power of an optically active substance is defined as the angle through
which the plane of vibration of the incident plane polarized light is rotated when it is
passing through the optically active medium of unit length (1 decimetre) and of unit
concentration (1 gram/cc)
UNIT: Deg.dm-1.(g/cc)-1
Specific rotatory power of an optically active substance is determined by measuring the
angle of rotation  using Laurent‟s half-shade polarimeter.
Expt to determine the angle of rotation byLaurent‟s half-shade polarimeter (or)
Expt to determine the concentration of an optically active substance in a solution
byLaurent‟s half-shade polarimeter
Laurent‟s half-shade polarimeter is an instrument which is used to determine specific
rotatory power  of an optically active substance in solution by measuring the angle of
rotation  of a plane polarized light in the optically active medium. This instrument is
mainly used to determine the concentration of sugar in sugar cane and hence it is also
called as “Saccharimeter‟.
PRINCIPLE: A known amount of the optically active substance is dissolved in a known
volume of a solvent which is not optically active. The concentration c of the substance is
thus known. It is filled into a a transparent glass tube of known length, l. After measuring
the angle of rotation  of a plane polarized light in the solution, specific rotatory power of

B
A’
S ’’

Q O G
L P HS T A E

HALF-SHADE

the substance is determined by the formula,  =10/lc.

Construction and working. Monochromatic light from a source S is rendered parallel
using a lens L. It becomes plane polarized when it passes through a polarizing nicol P.
Then it passes through a special arrangement HS known as „Half-shade‟.A half-shade is
made of two semicircular discs, one of ordinary glass and other of quartz which is
optically active. The emergent light from HS is then passed through a closed, transparent
tube T in which solvent or the optically active solution is filled. Light coming out of the
tube T then passes through an analyzing nicol A which can be rotated. The angle of
rotation can be measured using a circular scale attached to it. The light from A is viewed
through an eye-piece E. Construction and function of Half-Shade : A half-shade is made
 41

of two semicircular discs, one of ordinary glass G and other of quartz Q which is
optically active. The optic axis of quartz is parallel to the end surfaces. Suppose AOB is
the direction of vibration of the plane polarized light incident on HS. The vibration along
AO in the quartz portion is split into O and EO rays which travel in quartz with different
speeds due to optical activity. The thickness of Q is such that a path difference of  /2 is
introduced between the ordinary and extra-ordinary rays in the quartz portion. Due to the
path difference of  /2, the Resultant of the emergent O and EO rays is along OA‟ which
is rotated through 90 w.r.t. the incident vibration along AO. As glass is not optically
active, the vibration of the ray emerging from the glass portion is the same as that of the
incident ray, namely, OB. Thus the single ray of light incident on HS with vibration

A’ C’ B A’ C’ B A’ C’ B

O O O

C C C

along AOB is split into two vibrations along OA‟ and OB as they emerge out of HS.
When the position of the analyzing nicol A is adjusted such that the optic axis CC‟ of A
bisects the angle between OA‟ and OB, the intensities of light from both glass and quartz
portions of HS will appear equally bright. Hence, in the field of view of the the eye-piece
E, two equally bright half circular portions will be seen. But, if CC‟ makes different
angles with OA‟ and OB, then one half portion appears brighter while the other half
portion appears darker.
Experimental determination of angle of rotation
Initially the glass tube T is filled with the non-optically active solvent. The
analyzing nicol is rotated until the two semi-circular portions of the field of view appear
equally bright. The initial reading on the circular scale is noted as 1. Then the solvent in
the tube T is replaced by the optically active solution of known concentration c. Due to
optical rotation in the solution, the direction of vibration of light incident on HS is
different now. So, the equal brightness condition is altered. The equal-brightness
condition can be restored by rotating the analyzing nicol A through the same angle 
 42

through which the plane of vibration is rotated by the optically active solution in T. After
restoring the equal brightness condition in the field of view of E, the final reading 2 is
noted. The difference between the initial and final readings gives the angle of rotation 
in the solution. Knowing the length of the glass tube T (l) and concentration of the
solution ( c ), the specific rotatory power  of the optically active substance is calculated
10
using the formula   . The experiment is repeated for different concentrations of
lc
the solution and the mean value of  is determined.
If the specific rotatory power of a substance is known, then the unknown
concentration c of the substance in solution can be determined after measuring the angle
10
of rotation as described above using the formula, c 
l
.
===============================================================
Numerical Problems
1. Two glass plates are in contact at one end and a wedge shaped air film is formed
between them by placing a thin object of thickness 0.02mm between them at a distance
of 10cm from the edge of contact. If monochromatic light of wavelength 6000AU falls
normally on the air-wedge what is the fringe width of the interference pattern formed
in the reflected light?
Given:  = 6000AU = 6000x10-10m=6x10-7m; d = 0.02mm = 2x10-5m; l = 10cm =
-1
1x10 m
l6 107 1101
 = 5
 1.5 103 m  1.5mm
2d 2  2 10
2. Two glass plates enclose a wedge shaped air film. The glass plates touch each other
at one edge and are separated by a wire of 0.05mm diameter at a distance of 0.15m
frome the edge of contact. If a monochromatic light of wavelength 600nm from a
broad source illuminates the wedge, find out the fringe width. (PEC Dec. 2016)
Dia of wire, d =0.05mm = 5x10 m ; l = 0.15m; wavelength,  = 600nm = 6x10-7m
-5

l 6 107  0.15
Fringe width,   =  0.9 103 m  0.9mm
2d 2  5 105
3. Interference fringes are produced with monochromatic light falling normally on a
wedge shaped film of material of RI 1.4. The angle of wedge is 10 seconds of an arc
and the distance between successive fringes is 0.5cm. Calculate the wavelength of
monochromatic light.
10  
Given:  = 10sec =  radians ;  = 1.4 and  =0.5x10-2m .As   ,
60  60 180 2
10 3.14
  2  2 1.4    0.5 102 = 6.7840x10-7m = 6784.0x10 -10m=6784AU
3600 180
 43

4. Interference fringes are formed with monochromatic light falling normally on a

wedge shaped glass plate of Refractive index 1.5. The angle of wedge is 10 seconds of
an arc and the distance between successive fringes is 0.5cm. Find the wavelength of
light used. (PEC Jan. 2018)
10 
 = 10sec =  radians ;  = 1.5, β = 0.5cm = 0.5x10-2 m
60  60 180
10 3.14
  2  2 1.5    0.5 102 =
3600 180
5. Angle of the air-wedge is 40 secondsof an arc and the distance between successive
fringes is 0.125cm. Calculate the wavelength of light. (PEC May 2018)
{Formula to be used   2 }
6. A wedge shaped air-film having an angle of 45‟‟ is illuminated by monochromatic
light and fringes observed normally. If the fringe width is 0.12cm, calculate the
wavelength of light used. (PEC Dec. 2016)
{Formula to be used   2 }

7. Two different monochromatic sources which emit light of wavelengths 1 and 2

respectively are used to observe interference fringes in separate experiments with the
same Air-wedge arrangement. In both cases light from the sources are incident
normally on the Air-wedge. The ratio of the fringe widths of the two interference
patterns observed in the reflected light is found to be 1.079. In another experiment,
when light from the first monochromatic source (wavelength 1) falls normally on a
transparent wedge shaped film of Refractive index 1.40 having angle of wedge 7
seconds of an arc, the interference pattern observed in the reflected light has a fringe
width of 6.2mm. Calculate the wavelengths of the two monochromatic sources.
(PEC Dec. 2016)
Given : wavelengths of two sources are 1 and 2.
In the first experiment,
Same Air-wedge arrangement is used with the two sources.
For same air wedge arrangement, l1 = l2 = l (say) & Thickness of object d1 = d2 = d (say)
Let β1 and β2 are fringe widths of the two interference patterns using the same Air-
wedge arrangement.
The ratio of the fringe widths of the two interference patterns , β1/ β2 = 1.079.
l l
The two Band widths are , 1  1 and  2  2 . Using these two eqns.,
2d 2d
1 1
ratio of the fringe widths  = 1.079.
 2 2
or 1 =1.079 2
or 2 = 1 / 1.079 …….. (1)
 44

In the second experiment

first monochromatic source of wavelength 1 is used normally on a transparent wedge
shaped film of Refractive index µ = 1.40
The angle of wedge,  = 7 seconds of an arc
= 7” = (7/3600)º =(7/3600) (/180) radians ,
fringe width of observed interference pattern, β= 6.2mm=6.2x10-3m
7 3.14
 1  2  2 1.4    6.2 103 = 5.8938x10-7m
3600 180
Using eqn. (1), 2 =1 / 1.079 = 5.8938x10-7 / 1.079 = 5.4623 x10-7m
Thus, the wavelengths of two sources are, 5893.8 AU and 5462.3 AU respectively

8.In Newton‟s rings experiment. The diameter of 5th dark ring is 0.336cm and that of
15th ring is 0.590cm. If the wavelength of monochromatic light used is 5880AU,
calculate the radius of curvature of the plano-convex lens.
Given: m=15, n=5
D15 =0.590cm = 0.590x10-2m, D5 =0.336cm = 0.336x10-2m,
 = 5880AU=5880x10-10m
( Dm 2 - Dn 2 )  0.590  0.336  10
2 2 4

R= = 
4  m  n  4  15  5   5880 1010

9. Newton rings are obtained with reflected light of wavelength 5893 AU. If the
diameter of the 10th ring is 0.5cm, calculate the radius of curvature of the lens and
hence find out the radius of the 40th ring.
Given:  = 5893 AU = 5893 x10 m ; n =10, D10 = 0.5cm,
-10

So, r10 = D10 / 2 = 0.25 cm = 0.25x10-2m. For air,  = 1

 r 2 1  0.25 10 
2 2
nR
rn 2   Radius of curvature of lens R  n   1.06m
 n 10  5893 1010

10. In Newton‟s rings experiment the diameter of the 10th dark ring changes from 1.40
to 1.27cm when a liquid is introduced between the lens and the glass plate. Calculate
the RI of the liquid.
Let rn’ is the radius nth ring formed in air & rn is the radius of nth ring formed in liquid of RI .
Given : rn = 1.27cm = 1.27x10-2m and rn’ = 1.40cm = 1.40x10-2m
nR
cm rn 2  ………………..(1) For air, =1. then

 r '
2
1.402
 rn '  nR.........(2) . Dividing eqn.(2) by eqn. (1), we have,  n   1.215
2

rn 2 1.27 2
 45

11. In a Michelson‟s interferometer, it is found that for 20 rings to merge at the centre,
the mirror has to be moved through 0.0059mm. Calculate the wavelength of light used.
Solution:
Distance moved by the mirror s = 0.0059mm = 5.9 x 10 6 m
No. of rings merged at the centre, n = 20
2s 2 x5.9 x106
 Wavelength of light used, λ= = = 5.9x10 7 m = 5900 AU
n 20
12. In moving one mirror in a Michelson‟s interferometer, through a distance of
0.1474mm, 500 fringes cross the centre of the view. Find out Wavelength of light
used.
Solution: n = 500, s = 0.1474mm = 0.1474x10-3m
2s 2  0.1474 10 3
2s = nλ   = = = 5896x10 10 m.
n 500
13. In moving the mirror M1 of Michelson Interferometer through a distance of
0.422mm, 1500 fringes are counted. Calculate the wavelength of light used .
(PEC Dec. 2015)
-3
s = 0.422mm = 0.422x10 m n = 1500
 = 2s/n = 2x0.422x10 /1500 = 5.6267x10-7m =5626.7 AU
-3

14. In the Michelson interferometer, if one of the mirrors is moved by 0.04mm, 125
fringes cross the field of view. Calculate the wavelength of light used.
[Ans : 6.4x10-7m = 6400 AU] (PEC May. 2017)
15. A parallel beam of Na light is allowed to be incident on a plane grating having
4250 lines/cm and second order spectral line is observed to be deviated through
30º. Calculate the wavelength of the spectral line.
Given :   30; n  2; N  4.25105 lines / m Formula   sin  ;
nN
sin 30
sin    5882 10 10 m
: wavelength of the spectral line   2  4.25 10 5
nN
.
16. A diffraction grating used at normal incidence gives a line (5400A) in certain order
superimposed on another line (4050A) of the next higher order. If the angle of
diffraction is 30 degree, how many lines/cm are there in the grating?
[Ans: 3.0864x103lines/cm] (PEC May. 2015)
1 = 5400x10 m -10
order n1 = n (say)
2 = 4050x10 -10m
order n2 = n+1
They coincide and so have same angle of diffraction  = 30
Sin = nN 1 = (n+1)N2  n1 = (n+1)2
 nx5400x10-10 = (n+1)x4050x10-10 . Solving this, we get, n =3
So 3rd order line of first wavelength coincides with 4th order line of second wavelength.
 46

Using Sin = nN 1 we get no. of lines/cm = 3.0864x103lines/cm

17. Examine if D1 abd D2 lines of sodium will be clearly separated in the (i) dirst order
and (ii) second order by a 1” grating having 300 lines/cm. Wavelength of D1 and D2
are 589.6 and 589.0 nm respectively/. (PEC May 2018)

18. Calculate the thickness of a quarter wave plate for light of wavelength 4890AU.
(Given o = 1.5 and e = 1.52) (PEC May. 2016)
Given  = 4890AU = 4.89x10 m, o = 1.5 and e = 1.52
-7

 4.89 107
 Thickness of quarter wave plate t    6.113x10-6m
4( e  o ) 4(1.52  1.50)
19. Calculate the thickness of a half wave plate of quartz for a wavelength of 5000 AU.
Here  E =1.553 and 0 =1.544. {Ans. 2.78x10-5}

(Use t= ) for half wave plate
2(  E  o )
20. The rotation in the plane of polarization (λ= 5893 AU) in a certain substance is
10 /cm. Calculate the difference between the refractive indices for the right and left
circularly polarized light in the substance.
  
   [R  L ] .
l 
Solution:  = 5893 AU = 5893 x 10-8 cm; l = 1 cm;  = 10
   10 
      5893 10
8

[R  L ]      
l 1
 1.877 104  0.0001877
 3.14
21. Determine the specific rotation of the given sample of sugar solution if the plane of
polarization is rotated through 13.2 . The length of the tube containing 10% sugar
solution is 20 cm.
10
Solution: Specific rotation,  =
lc
  13.2 c = 10% = 0.1 g/cm 3
l = 20 cm
10 13.2
  = 66 dm-1.(g/cc)-1
20  0.1
22. A 0.20 m long tube containing sugar solution rotates the plane of polarization y
11  . If specific rotation of sugar is 66  , calculate the strength of solution.
Solution:
  11 , l = 0.20 m = 20cm , S = 66 
10 10 10 11
 = c    0.0833g / cc.
lc l  20  66
 47

strength of solution is 8.33%

23) A 20cm long tube containing sugar solution is placed between crossed nicols and
illuminated by light of wavelength 6000AU. If the specific rotation is 60 degree, and
the optical rotation produced is 12degree, what is the strength of the solution?
(PEC Dec 2014)
, length of tube, l =20cm;
Specific rotation S = 60 dm-1.(g/cc)-1
angle of rotation,  = 12

10 10 10 12

=  c   0.1 g/cc
lc l  20  60
 strength of solution is 10%.

24. A 20cm long tube containing sugar solution is placed between two crossed Nicols
and illuminated by light of wavelength 6000AU. If the specific rotation is /3 radian
and optical rotation produced is /15 radians, what is the strength of the solution?
(PEC Dec. 2016)
10
Specific rotation  =
lc
Given, length of tube, l =20cm;
Specific rotation S = /3 radian = (/3) (180/) = 60 dm-1.(g/cc)-1
optical rotation produced is /15 radians
i,e., angle of rotation,  = /15 radians = (/15) (180/) = 12
10 10 12
 concentration of the solution, c =   0.1g/cc  strength of solution is 10%.
l  20  60

Additional Problems:
1) A light wave of wavelength 590nm travels a distance of 1m in air. If the light travel
the same distance in water , what would be the path difference developed? (Velocity of
light 3x108 ms-1. RI of water = 1.33) [Ans: 0.33m] (PEC May. 2015)
l = 1m; w = 1.33 a = 1 velocity in air Va =3x108m/s
Time delay in travel t = l(1/ Va 1/ Vw) =
Path difference PD = time delay x velocity in air = tx Va
= l x Va (1/ Va  1/ Vw) = l (Va / Va  Va / Vw)
PD = l x (1w) since w = ( Va / Vw)
Substituting, PD = l x (1 w) = 1x (11.33) = 0.33m Ans.
 48

2. Calculate the specific rotation if the plane of polarization is turned through 26.4 in
traversing 20 cm length of 20% sugar solution.
{ Similar to pronlem no. 16. Ans.  = 66 dm-1.(g/cc)-1 }
3. A 10cm long tube containing 10% sugar solution produces optical rotation of
13.2degrees. Find specific rotation of sugar. [Ans  = 132 Deg/dm/cc]
(PEC May. 2016)

SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS

1. What is meant by interference?
The phenomenon in which alternate bright and dark bands are observed due to the superposition
of light waves proceeding from two coherent sources of light is known as „Interference‟.
2. What are coherent sources?
Two monochromatic sources of light are said to be coherent if they emit radiation of the same
wavelength with the same amplitude and with a constant or zero phase difference.
3. How are coherent sources obtained in Laboratory?
Coherent sources can be obtained in two ways;
i) Division of a wave front. Suppose a parallel beam of monochromatic light is passed through
two pinholes made on a opaque screen. If the separation between the pinholes very small, then
(Ex. Young‟s Double slit Expt.)
ii) Division of amplitude (Ex. Newton,s Rings, Air-Wedge)
4. What is an Air-Wedge?
An Air Wedge is formed between two optically plane glass plates by sandwiching a thin
wire/object of uniform cross section at one end. The other edges of the two plates are in
direct contact. The length of object is kept parallel to the edges of the glass plates. This
arrangement encloses a wedge shaped air film of varying thickness and hence it is known
as air-wedge.
5. Mention the uses of Air-Wedge experiment.
By Air-wedge experiment,
1) Wavelength of a monochromatic source can be determined
2) Thickness of very thin objects of uniform cross section can be found.
3. Planeness of transparent glass plates can be tested.

5. Why are fringes in Newton ring experiment circular?

6. What is meant by “Compensating Plate” in a Michelson‟s Interferometer ?
 49

7. Under what conditions white-light fringes are seen in a Michelson‟s

Interferometer?
8. Mention the uses of Michelson‟s Interferometer.
9. What is meant by Diffraction?
10 Compare interference and diffraction
11 What is meant by “Resolving power” of an optical component?
12 Write the Rayleigh‟s criterion for spectral resolution. (or) Under what conditions
spectral lines of two close lying wavelengths are seen just separated?
13 What is Limit of Resolution? How is it related to Resolving Power?
14 Diameter of objectives of two telescopes are 15” and 20” respectively. Compare
their Resolving powers.
15 What is meant by Double Refraction?
16 What are Ordinary and Extra ordinary rays?
17. What is meant by Optical rotation?
18. What is meant by polarization of light?
19. What is meant by Plane / circular / elliptically polarized light?
20. What is meant by analysis of polarized light?
21. How will you distinguish between UPL & CPL / PPPL & EPL?
22 What are the uses of polarized lights?
23
24 Define Specific Rotatory power.
25 What is a Half-shade?
26 Mention the uses of Half-shade Polarimeter.
27. What are Polarizing Filters?
28.What are the advantages and disadvantages of Polarizing Filters?
29. How is Air-wedge experiment used in testing the planeness of a glass plate?
30. Using an Air-wedge arrangement interference fringes are observed in the reflected
light. If this arrangement is kept immersed in a transparent oil, what are the changes
in the interference fringes observed using the same monochromatic light source?
Detailed Answer Questions :
1. Explain the theory and formation of wedge shaped films. How these can be used to
find the wavelength of light?
2. Explain the theory of Newton‟s ring expt.. Show that the radius of nth dark ring
is proportional to the square root of natural number.
3. Explain with theory the Newton‟s ring expt to find the wavelength of
monochromatic light?
4. Describe the principle, construction and working of Michelson‟s interferometer.
Explain the formation of different types of fringes in it. How is it used to determine the
wavelength of a monochromatic source?
 50

5. Explain the Rayleigh‟s criterion for for resolving power.

Derive an expression for the resolving power of a Grating / Prism / Telescope.

6. Explain Double Refraction in uniaxial crystals. What are +ve and –ve crystals?
Explain the theory and working of a quarter wave plate / Half wave plate and discuss
the Phase-shifting aspects of the polarized components through the plate.
7. Discuss the characteristics of differentbtypes of polarized beams of light.
8. Discuss the production, detection and analysis of PPL / CPL/EPL
9. Explain what is meant by optical rotation. Discuss the construction and working of
a Laurent‟s half-shade polarimeter. How is it used to find specific rotatory power of an
optically active solution?
10. Discuss the theory & construction of a Laurent‟s half-shade polarimeter. How
half-shade device is formed and used to find strength of sugar solution?
11. Write short note on the following
Double Refraction
quarter wave plate / Half wave plate

M
L

S G

Fig.