Diffraction

General Physics III - PHS203
Diffraction
Dr. C. Eid
NOTRE DAME UNIVERSITY
Eid (NDU) Gen. Physics III 1 / 38

Outline
1 Diffraction

Diffraction
Diffraction and the wave theory of light
In the previous chapter, we defined the diffraction as the spreading of light as it

emerges from a narrow slit. Light produces an interference pattern called a diffraction
pattern. For example, when monochromatic light from a distant source passes through
a narrow slit and is then intercepted by a viewing screen, the light produces on the
screen a diffraction pattern. This pattern consists of a broad and intense (very bright)
central maximum plus a number of narrower and less intense maxima (called
secondary or side maxima) to both sides. In between maxima are minima.
Diffraction is a wave effect. That is, it occurs because light is a wave and it occurs with
other types of waves as well.

Diffraction
Diffraction by a single slit : Locating the minima
Let us now examine the diffraction pattern of plane

waves of light of wavelength λ that are diffracted by a
single long, narrow slit with width a in an otherwise
opaque screen B, as shown in the figure. When the
diffracted light reaches viewing screen C, waves from
different points within the slit undergo interference and
produce a diffraction pattern of bright and dark fringes.
To locate the fringes, we shall use a procedure similar to
the one used in a two-slit interference pattern.
We will only be interested in dark fringe (mathematically

easier). We can justify the central bright fringe by noting
that the Hughens wavelets from all points in the slit
travel about the same distance to reach the center of the
pattern and thus are in phase there. As for the other
bright fringes, we can say only that they are
approximately halfway between adjacent dark fringes.

Diffraction
To locate the dark fringes, let us consider P1 . First we

divide the slit into two zones of equal widths a/2. Then
we extend to P1 a light r1 from the top point of the top
zone and a ray r2 from the top point of the bottom zone.
P1 is located at an angle θ to the central axis.
The wavelets of the pair of rays r1 and r2 are in phase

within the slits because they originate from the same
wavefront passing through the slit, along the width of the
slit. However, to produce the first dark fringe they must
be out of phase by λ/2 when they reach P1 . This phase
difference is due to their path length difference |~r2 | − |~r1 |

Diffraction
To display this path length difference, we find a point b

on r2 such that the path length from b to P1 matches the
path length of ray r1 . Then the path length difference is
the distance from the center of the slit to b.
We consider that the screen separation D to be much
larger than the slit width a. Then we approximate rays r1
and r2 to be parallel and the path length difference will
be :
a
sin θ
2
Setting this path length difference equal to λ/2
(condition for the first dark fringe), we have :
a λ
sin θ =
2 2
a sin θ = λ (first minimum)

Diffraction
a sin θ = λ (first minimum)
Note that if we begin with a > λ and then narrow the slit while holding the wavelength
constant, we increase the angle at which the first dark fringes appear. When we have
reduced the slit to the wavelength a = λ, the angle of the first dark fringe is then 90o .
Since the first dark fringes mark the two edges of the central bright fringe, that bright
fringe must then cover the entire viewing screen.

Diffraction
We find the second dark fringes above and below the

central axis as we found the first dark fringes, except
that we now divide the slit into four zones of equal
widths a/4. We then extend rays r1 , r2 ,r3 and r4 from the
top points of the zones to point P2 , the location of the
second dark fringe above the central axis. To produce
the fringe, the path length difference between r1 and r2 ,
r2 and r3 , and that between r3 and r4 must be equal to
λ/2.
For D >> a, we can approximate the rays to be parallel,

at angle θ to the central axis :
a λ
sin θ =
4 2
a sin θ = 2λ (second minimum)

Diffraction
And now we can generalize the positions of the dark fringes by :
a sin θ = mλ (minima)
with m=1,2,3,...

Diffraction
Intensity in single-slit diffraction
We want to find an expression of the intensity I of the pattern as a function of θ, the

angular position of a point on a viewing screen.
We divide the slit into N zones of equal widths ∆x small enough that we can assume
each zone acts as a source of Huygens wavelets. We wish to superimpose the
wavelets arriving at an arbitrary point P on the screen, at angle θ to the central axis, so
that we can determine the amplitude Eθ of the electric component of the resultant wave
at P. The intensity of the light at P is then proportional the the square of that amplitude.
To find Eθ , we need the phase relationships among the arriving wavelets. The phase
difference between wavelets from adjacent zones is given by :
2π
(phase difference)=( )(path length difference)
λ
and the path length difference between wavelets from adjacent zone is ∆x sin θ
2π
∆φ = ( )(∆x sin θ)
λ

Diffraction
2π
∆φ = ( )(∆x sin θ)
λ
We assume that the wavelets arriving at P all have the same amplitude ∆E. To find the
amplitude Eθ of the resultant wave at P, we add the amplitude ∆E via phasors. To do
this, we construct a diagram of N phasors, one corresponding to the wavelet from each
zone in the slit.
For point P0 at θ = 0 on the central axis, the phase difference ∆φ is zero. That is, all
the wavelets arrive in phase (Fig. a). This arrangement of the phasors turns out to be
the one that gives the greatest value for the amplitude Eθ . We call this value Em . Em is
the value of Eθ for θ = 0

Diffraction
We next consider a point P that is at a small angle θ to the central axis. ∆φ is no longer
zero. Fig b shows the corresponding phasor diagram, the phasors are arranged head to
tail with an angle ∆φ between adjacent phasors. the amplitude Eθ is smaller than Em .
If we continue to increase θ, the angle ∆φ between adjacent phasors increases, and

eventually the chain of phasors curls completely around so that the head of the last
phasor just reaches the tail of the first phasor (Fig. c). The amplitude Eθ is now zero
and we have reaches the first minimum or dark fringe in the diffraction pattern. The first
and last phasors have a phase difference of 2π rad, which means that the path length
difference between the top and bottom rays through the slit equals one wavelength.
(This was the condition that we derived earlier to have the first minimum)

Diffraction
As we continue to increase θ, ∆φ continues to increase and the chain of phasors

begins to wrap on itself and the resulting coil begins to shrink. Amplitude Eθ now
increases until it reaches a maximum value in the arrangement shown in Fig. d. This
arrangement corresponds to the first side maximum in the diffraction pattern.
If we increase θ more, the resulting shrinkage of the coil decreases Eθ , which means
that the intensity also decreases. When θ is increased enough, the head of the last
phasor again meets the tail of the first phasor. We have then reaches the second
minimum.
Next : Quantitative method

Diffraction
The arc of the phasors of this figure represents the

wavelets that reach an arbitrary point P on the viewing
screen, corresponding to a particular small angle θ. The
amplitude Eθ of the resultant wave at P is the vector
sum of these phasors. If we divide the slit into
infinitesimal zones of width ∆x, the arc of phasors
approaches the arc of a circle ; we call its radius R as
indicated in the figure. The length of the arc must be Em ,
the amplitude at the center of the diffraction pattern,
because if we straightened out the arc we would have
the phasor arrangement of Fig a previously.

Diffraction
The angle φ in the lower part is the difference in phase

between the infinitesimal vectors at the left and right
ends of arc Em . From the geometry, φ is also the angle
between the two radii marked R. The dashed line in that
1
figure, which bisects φ, then forms two angles of φ.
2
From either triangles, we can write
1 Eθ
sin φ =
2 2R
and in radian measure
Em
φ=
R
Solving this equation by substituting R
Em 1
Eθ = 1
sin φ
2
φ 2

Diffraction
We know that the intensity is proportional to the square

of the amplitude of the electric field.
I(θ) E2
= θ2
Im Em
1
and using α = φ
2
2
sin α
I(θ) = Im
α
2π
using ∆φ = ( )(∆x sin θ), we can derive the phase
λ
difference φ between the rays from top and bottom of
the entire slit.
2π
φ= (a sin θ)
λ

Diffraction
Diffraction by a circular aperture
Here we consider diffraction by a circular aperture, a circular opening such as a circular

lens, through which light can pass.
The image of a star on a camera is not a point, but a circular disk surrounded by
several progressively fainter secondary rings.
If the aperture is a circle of a diameter d, the analysis of such patterns shows that the
first minimum for the diffraction pattern of a circular aperture of diameter d is located by
λ
sin θ = 1.22 (first minimum-circular aperture)
d

Diffraction
Resolvability
The fact that diffraction patterns is important when we wish to resolve (distinguish) two
distant point objects whose angular separation is small.
To have separated image, the two objects have to be separated by a minimum angle θR
based on Rayleigh’s criterion.
λ
θR = 1.22 (Rayleigh’s criterion)
d

Diffraction
Circular apertures

Diffraction
Diffraction by a double slit

In the double slit experiment of the previous chapter, we assumed that a << λ. In
practice with visible light, this condition is not often met. For relatively wide slits, the
interference of light from two slits produces bright fringes that do not all have the same
intensity.
The intensities of the fringes produced by double slit interference are modified by
diffraction of the light passing through each slit.

Diffraction
In these figures, plot a describe a normal interference pattern if a << λ, all maxima
have the same intensity.
In plot b, we describe the a diffraction pattern by a single slit, we have a maximum at
the center and weaker secondary maxima.
In plot c, we have the pattern of two actual slits. It was constructed by using plot b as
an envelope on the intensity plot in Fig a.
With diffraction effects taken into account, the intensity of a double-slit interference is
given by :
2
sin α
I(θ) = Im (cos2 β)
α
πd
in which β = sin θ
λ
πa
and α = sin θ
λ
here d is the distance between the centres of the slits and a is the slit width.

Diffraction
2
sin α
I(θ) = Im (cos2 β)
α
Note that I(θ) is the product of Im and two factors : The interference factor cos2 β is due
to the interference between two slits with slit separation d ; The diffraction factor
sin α 2
( ) is due to the diffraction by a single slit of width a.
α
Try to make a and d −→ 0 ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !

Diffraction
Diffraction gratings
This device is somewhat like a double-slit arrangement but has a much greater number
N of slits, often called rulings, as many as several thousand per millimetre. Increasing
the number of slits from 2 to N, the intensity plot changes from a typical double-slit plot
to a much more complicated one and then eventually to a simple graph like Fig a.

Diffraction
Diffraction gratings
The separation d between rulings is called the grating spacing. the path length
difference between adjacent rays is again d sin θ where θ is the angle from the central
axis of the grating to point P.
The maxima appear for d sin θ = mλ where λ is the wavelength of the light. The integer
m is called the order number, and when m=0, it is the zeroth-order line , m=1 the
first-order line

Diffraction
Width of the line
A grating’s ability to resolve lines of different wavelength depends on the width of the
lines. We shall here derive an expression for the half-width of the central line (m=0) and
then state an expression for the half-widths of the higher-order lines. We define the
half-width of the central line as being the angle ∆θhw from the center of the line at
θ = 0 outward to where the line effectively ends and darkness effectively begins with
the first minimum.

Diffraction
Width of the line
Each slit is separated from the next by distance d, the distance between the top and
the botton ruling is Nd. The path length difference between the top and bottom rays
here is Nd sin ∆θhw , thus the first minimum occurs where Nd sin ∆θhw = λ.
∆θhw is small then : sin ∆θhw = ∆θhw
λ
and then we have ∆θhw =
Nd
and for any other θ, we have
λ
∆θhw =
Nd cos θ

Diffraction
Grating spectroscope
Diffraction gratings are widely used to determine the wavelengths that are emitted by
sources of light ranging from lamps to stars.
This figure show a simple grating spectroscope in which

grating is used for such a purpose. Light from S is focused by
lens L1 on a vertical slit S1 placed at the focal plane of lens
L2 . The light emerging from tube C (collimator) is a plane
wave and is incident perpendicularly on grating G, where it is
diffracted into a diffraction pattern, with the m = 0 order
diffracted at angle θ = 0 along the central axis of the grating.
We can view the diffraction pattern that would appear on a
viewing screen at any angle θ simply by orienting telescope
T to that angle. Lens L3 of the telescope then focuses the
light diffracted at angle θ onto a focal plane FF’ within the
telescope. E is the eyepiece.

Diffraction
By changing the angle θ of the telescope, we can examine

the entire diffraction pattern. for any order number other than
m = 0, the original light is spread out according to
wavelength so that we can determine (using d sin θ = mλ),
just what wavelengths are being emitted by the source. If the
source emits discrete wavelengths, what we see as we
rotate the telescope horizontally through the angles
corresponding to an order m is a vertical line of color for
each wavelength, with the shorter wavelength at smaller θ.

Diffraction
For example, the light emitted by a hydrogen lamp, which contains hydrogen gas, has
four discrete wavelengths in the visible range. If our eyes intercept this light directly, it
appears to be white. If, instead we view it through a grating spectroscope, we can
distinguish, in several orders, the lines of the four colours corresponding to these
visible wavelengths.
For m = 0, all the colours are superimposed and we will see white line at θ = 0.
Ex : For m=4 and λ of the red line, we find that sin θ is greater than unity which is
impossible and that is why we do not see the fourth line. The fourth order is said to be
incomplete for this grating.
Order 3 is not plotted for clarity reasons (overlapping with 2 and 4)

Diffraction
Gratings : Dispersion and Resolving power
To be useful in distinguishing wavelengths that are close to each other, a grating must
spread apart the diffraction lines associated with the various wavelengths. this
spreading, called dispersion, is defined as
∆θ
D=
∆λ
Here ∆θ is the angular separation of two lines whose wavelengths differ by ∆λ. The
greater D is, the greater is the distance between two emission lines whose
wavelengths differ by ∆λ.
The dispersion of a grating at angle θ is given by :
m
D=
d cos θ
Proof on next slide

Diffraction
Gratings : Dispersion and Resolving power
We have the location of the lines in the diffraction pattern of a grating : d sin θ = mλ
let us take the differential of this equation : d(cos θ)dθ = mdλ
For small angles write these, we can write these differentials as small differences :
d(cos θ)∆θ = m∆λ
that gives us
∆θ m
=D=
∆λ d cos θ

Diffraction
Resolving Power
The resolving power R is defined as :

λavg
R=
∆λ
λ
Recall that ∆θhw =
Nd cos θ
if ∆θ is to be the smallest angle that will permit the two lines to be resolved (Rayleigh’s
criterion), it must be equal to the half-width of each line.
∆θ m
Substituting ∆θhw by ∆θ and using = , we derive that λ/N = m∆λ and :
∆λ d cos θ
λ
R= = Nm
∆λ

Diffraction
X-Ray Diffraction
X rays are EM radiation whose wavelengths are of the order of 1 Å (=10−10 m). X-rays
are produced when electrons escaping from a heated filament F are accelerated by a
potential difference V and strike a metal target T.
A standard optical diffraction cannot be used to discriminate between different
wavelengths in the X ray range. For λ = 1 Å and d=3000 nm, the first order maximum
occurs for :
mλ
θ = sin−1 = 0.0019o
d
And this is too close to the center maximum.

Diffraction
X-Ray Diffraction
A grating with d ≈ λ is desirable, but because X-ray wavelength are about equal to
atomic diameters, such grating cannot be constructed mechanically.
In a crystal such as sodium chloride (NaCl),a basic unit of atoms repeats itself
throughout the array. Fig a represents the cubic cell or size a0 .

Diffraction
X-Ray Diffraction
When a X-ray beam enters a crystal, X-rays are scattered and redirected in all
directions by the crystal structure. In some directions, the scattered waves undergo
destructive interference (minima) and in other directions, the interference is
constructive (maxima). This process of scattering and interference is a form of
diffraction, although it is unlike the diffraction of light travelling through a slit or past an
edge as we discussed earlier.
The process of diffraction of X-rays is complicated. the maxima turn out to be in

directions as if the rays were reflected by a family of parallel reflecting planes (crystal
planes) that extend through the atoms within the crystal and that contain regular arrays
of the atoms.
Figure b shows three reflecting planes with interplanar spacing d. In this case, the
angles are represented relative to surface rather than the normal. In this case the
interplanar spacing is equal to the unit cell dimension a0

Diffraction
X-Ray Diffraction
Figure c shows an edge-on view of the reflection from an adjacent pair of planes. The
waves 1 and 2 arrive at the crystal in phase. After they are reflected, they must again
be in phase in order to interfere constructively. Unlike light rays, the X rays do not
refract upon entering the crystal. Thus the relative phase between rays 1 and 2 are is
set by their path length difference. For these rays to be in phase, the path length
difference must be equal to an integer multiple of the wavelength.
Using Fig c, we can see that the path length difference is 2d sin θ.

Diffraction
X-Ray Diffraction
Thus we have, as criterion for intensity maxima for X-rays diffraction :
2d sin θ = mλ for m=1,2,3,... Bragg’s law

Diffraction
X-Ray Diffraction
The relation between

qthe interplanar spacing d and the unit cell depends on the crystal.
5 2 a
For this case 5d = a and d = √0 = 0.2236a0
4 0 20
X-ray diffraction is a powerful tool for studying both X-ray spectra (different wavelength
are reflected with different angles) and the arrangement of atoms in crystals.

Diffraction

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General Physics III - PHS203

NOTRE DAME UNIVERSITY

Eid (NDU) Gen. Physics III 1 / 38

Eid (NDU) Gen. Physics III 2 / 38

Diffraction and the wave theory of light

In the previous chapter, we defined the diffraction as the spreading of light as it

Eid (NDU) Gen. Physics III 3 / 38

Diffraction by a single slit : Locating the minima

Let us now examine the diffraction pattern of plane

We will only be interested in dark fringe (mathematically

Eid (NDU) Gen. Physics III 4 / 38

Diffraction by a single slit : Locating the minima

To locate the dark fringes, let us consider P1 . First we

The wavelets of the pair of rays r1 and r2 are in phase

Eid (NDU) Gen. Physics III 5 / 38

Diffraction by a single slit : Locating the minima

To display this path length difference, we find a point b

a sin θ = λ (first minimum)

Eid (NDU) Gen. Physics III 6 / 38

Diffraction by a single slit : Locating the minima

a sin θ = λ (first minimum)

Eid (NDU) Gen. Physics III 7 / 38

Diffraction by a single slit : Locating the minima

We find the second dark fringes above and below the

For D >> a, we can approximate the rays to be parallel,

Eid (NDU) Gen. Physics III 8 / 38

Diffraction by a single slit : Locating the minima

And now we can generalize the positions of the dark fringes by :

Eid (NDU) Gen. Physics III 9 / 38

Intensity in single-slit diffraction

We want to find an expression of the intensity I of the pattern as a function of θ, the

Eid (NDU) Gen. Physics III 10 / 38

Intensity in single-slit diffraction

Eid (NDU) Gen. Physics III 11 / 38

Intensity in single-slit diffraction

If we continue to increase θ, the angle ∆φ between adjacent phasors increases, and

Eid (NDU) Gen. Physics III 12 / 38

Intensity in single-slit diffraction

As we continue to increase θ, ∆φ continues to increase and the chain of phasors

Next : Quantitative method

Eid (NDU) Gen. Physics III 13 / 38

Intensity in single-slit diffraction

The arc of the phasors of this figure represents the

Eid (NDU) Gen. Physics III 14 / 38

Intensity in single-slit diffraction

The angle φ in the lower part is the difference in phase

Eid (NDU) Gen. Physics III 15 / 38

Intensity in single-slit diffraction

We know that the intensity is proportional to the square

Eid (NDU) Gen. Physics III 16 / 38

Diffraction by a circular aperture

Here we consider diffraction by a circular aperture, a circular opening such as a circular

Eid (NDU) Gen. Physics III 17 / 38

Eid (NDU) Gen. Physics III 18 / 38

Eid (NDU) Gen. Physics III 19 / 38

Diffraction by a double slit

Eid (NDU) Gen. Physics III 20 / 38

Diffraction by a double slit

Eid (NDU) Gen. Physics III 21 / 38

Diffraction by a double slit

Eid (NDU) Gen. Physics III 22 / 38

Eid (NDU) Gen. Physics III 23 / 38

Eid (NDU) Gen. Physics III 24 / 38

Width of the line