Late Quaternary

Environmental Change
in North-west Europe:
Excavations at
Holywell Coombe,
South-east England
R.e. Preece
and
D.R. Bridgland

mJ
CHAPMAN & HALL
Published by Chapman & Hall, 2-6 Boundary Row, London SEt 8HN, UK

First edition 1998

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 Late Quaternary
Environmental Change
in North-west Europe:
Excavations at Holywell
Coombe, South-east
England
Aerial view of Holywell Coombe and the Folkestone-Etchinghill escarpment, looking westwards. Summer 1990.
Construction of the cut-and-cover tunnel is well underway.

The cover illustration shows exposure of Late-glacial slope deposits overlain by early Holocene organic sediments and
tufa, Holywell Coombe, 1988 (Trench 6). In the background is Castle Hill through which the tunnel is being driven.
Contents

list of contributors xi
Preface xlli
English abstract xv
French abstract xviii
Acknowledgements xxi

Part One. Introduction R. C. Preece 1

(1) Previous work 3
(2) Scientific importance of the Holywell Coombe site 4
(3) Nature of the threat 5
(4) Programme of research 7
(5) The nature of the investigation 8
(6) Nomenclature and terminology 11
(7) Storage and archive 13

Part Two. Environmental Background R.C. Preece and D.R. Bridgland 15

(1) Location of the site 17
(2) Palaeogeographical context 17
(3) Solid geology 20
(4) Geomorphology 21
(a) Regional context 21
Cb) Local context 24
(5) Climate 26

Part Three. The Geology 31

1. Stratigraphical investigations R.C. Preece, n.R. Bridgland and MJ Sharp 33
(1) General stratigraphy inferred from the borehole survey 33
(2) Representative sections 42
(a) Main Section 45
Cb) Trench HV 51
(c) Trench 3 52
(d) Trench 4 54
(e) Trench 5 56

v
 Contents

(f) Trench 6 58
(g) Cut-&-cover Section 61
(h) Section below Sugarloaf Hill (BS) 64
(i) Cherry Garden 65
(3) Correlation of sections 68
2. Sedimentological investigations 69
(1) Petrography of sediments and buried soilsJA. Catt and Sj. Staines 69
(a) Introduction 69
(b) Samples analysed 70
(c) Methods 70
(d) Results: particle size distribution, mineralogy and sediment provenance 70
(e) Results: micromorphology and soil development processes 76
(f) Discussion and conclusions 83
(2) Petrology of tufa sediments HM. Pedley 85
(a) General comments 85
(b) Fabric analyses 85
(c) Depositional environments 86
(3) Mineral magnetic properties of valley-fill sediments: implications for
provenance and weathering history Mj. Sharp and JA. Dowdeswell 86
(a) Introduction 86
(b) The sediment infill of Holywell Coombe 89
(c) Sampling and measurement procedures 89
(d) Results: mineral magnetic assemblages 90
(e) Results: stratigraphical analyses 101
(f) Discussion 105

Part Four. Radiocarbon Dating v'R. Switsur and R.A. Housley 107
(1) Introduction 109
(2) Physical and chemical pretreatment 109
(a) Cambridge 110
(b) Oxford 110
(3) Sample preparation and isotopic measurement 111
(a) Conventional measurement in Cambridge 111
(b) AMS measurement in Oxford 111
(4) Results and discussion 112
(a) Radiocarbon dating of colluvial sediments 112
(b) Radiocarbon dating of the shells of land snails 112
(c) Comparison of radiocarbon ages from shell carbonate
and organic materials 114
(d) Radiocarbon dating of the 'Allen~d soil' 115
(e) Possible calibration of Late-glacial radiocarbon ages 115
(f) Radiocarbon plateaux 117
(g) Late-glaciallPost-glacial boundary 118
(h) Conclusions 118

Part Five. Biostratigraphy and Palaeoecology 121

1. Palaeobotany K.D. Bennett and R.C Preece 123
(1) Introduction 123
(2) Methods and results 123
(a) Pollen (analysed by S.M Peglar) 123

vi
 Contents

(b) Macrofossils (analysed by M.E. Pettit) 130

(c) Wood and charcoal (analysed by R. Gale) 130
(d) Mosses (analysed by C.R. Stevenson) 130
(3) Vegetational history 133
(4) Notable plant records 142
(5) Discussion 143
(a) Taphonomy and preservation 143
(b) Comparison with other sequences in south-east England 143
(c) Timing of the arrival of trees in Britain in the early Post-glacial 146
(d) Nature of eady Post-glacial vegetation on chalk 147
(6) Conclusions 148
2. Fungal spores and other microfossils JJ. Blackford 149
(1) Introduction: Quaternary palaeomycology 149
(2) Methods: preparation and enumeration 150
(3) Results 150
(4) Fungi, algae and other non-pollen microfossils 150
(a) Identified fungi of known or partly-known affinities 150
(b) Unidentified fungal remains with previously recorded distributions 152
(c) Unidentified fungal remains not previously recorded 153
(d) Microfossils other than fungal remains 154
(5) Sample interpretations 155
(6) Conclusions 156
(a) Comparison with Usselo 156
(b) Summary 156
3. Mollusca R.C Preece 158
(1) Introduction 158
(2) Sampling and laboratory analysis 159
(3) Preservation 169
(4) Notes on identification 169
(5) Analysis of faunal change through the sections 181
(a) Main Section: Deep Trench 1 and Sump 3 (series 1) 181
(b) Main Section: Deep Trench 2 (series 2) 184
(c) Trench HV 187
(d) Trench 3 190
(e) Trench 4 192
(f) Trench 5 192
(g) Trench 6 193
(h) Cut-&-cover Section 193
(i) Section below Sugarloaf Hill (BS) 193
(j) Cherry Garden 196
(6) Notes on selected species 199
(7) Reversed coiling 204
(8) Traces of predation 204
(9) Synthesis of faunal history and molluscan zonation 204
(10) Discussion and conclusions 208
4. Insects G.R. Coope 213
(1) Introduction 213

vii
 Contents

(2) Sampling and analysis 213

(3) Local environmental reconstructions based on the Coleoptera 219
(4) Analysis of faunal changes 219
(a) Zone 1 219
(b) Zone 2 221
(c) Zone 3 223
(d) Zone 4 224
(5) Summary of the local environment inferred from the Coleoptera 229
(6) Climatic implications of the Coleoptera 229
(7) Caddisflies and other aquatic insects NB. Williams 232
(8) Chironomidae 233
5. Mites J. Schelvis 234
(1) Introduction 234
(2) Material and methods 235
(3) Results 235
(a) Section BS, sample A 237
(b) Section BS, sample B 238
(c) Section BS, sample C 238
(4) Discussion 240
(5) Conclusions 241
6. Ostracoda J.E. Robinson 242
(1) Introduction 242
(2) Sampling and treatment of data 242
(3) Taxonomy and problems of identification 245
(4) Faunal analyses of the profiles 245
(a) Trench HV 245
(b) Trench 3 247
(c) Trench 4 248
(d) Trench 5 248
(e) Trench 6 250
(5) Comments on species of interest 250
(6) Discussion and conclusions 252
7. Vertebrates A.M. Lister and AJ. Stuart 254
(1) Introduction 254
(2) Identification and interpretation 254
(a) Late-glacial 254
(b) Early Post-glacial 256
(c) Bronze Age and Iron Age 257

Part Six. The Prehistory of Holywell Coombe P. Bennett, S. Ouditt 261

andJ Rady with contributions from A. Gibson, B. Healey and
N Macpherson-Grant
(1) Introduction 263
(a) Previous finds 263
(b) Methodology 263
(c) Summary of results 263
(2) The 1987 excavation 264

viii
 Contents

(a) The general stratigraphic sequence 264

(b) The early settlement features 265
(c) Basal buried soil and Late Bronze Age-Early Iron Age features 270
(d) The Early Iron Age soil horizon 272
(e) The later sequence of hillwash 273
(f) Summary 273
(3) The 1988 excavation 284
(a) Introduction 284
(b) Late Neolithic-Bronze Age transition (ca. 2500-1850 Be) 284
(c) Later Bronze Age (ca. 1300-600 Be) 289
(d) Early Iron Age (ca. 600-400 Be) 290
(e) Middle or Late Iron Age (ca. 300-75 Be) to Post-medieval 290
(f) Summary 290
(4) The flint-work E. Healey 291
(a) Chronology and implications 291
(b) Traditions and illustrated material 292
(c) Industries, condition and raw material 293
(d) Technological aspects 293
(5) The Neolithic-Early Bronze Age pottery A. Gibson 295
(a) Chronology and implications 295
(b) Traditions and illustrated material 297
(c) Fabric groups and technological aspects 299
(6) The Late Bronze Age and Iron Age pottery N Macpherson-Grant 302
(a) Chronology and implications 302
(b) Traditions and illustrated material 303
(c) Fabric groups and technological aspects 305
C) The 'Belgic', Roman and later pottery N Macpherson-Grant 308
(a) Chronology and implications 308
(b) Traditions and illustrated material 309
(c) Fabric groups 310
(8) Conclusions 311
(9) Holywell Coombe and other Channel Tunnel sites: a brief overview 312

Part Seven. Present-day Ecology of the Folkestone Escarpment 315

R.C. Welch
(1) Introduction 317
(2) Modem surface soils fA. Catt 317
(a) Introduction 317
(b) Effects of bedrock geology 318
(c) Effects of Quaternary deposits 318
(d) Descriptions of soil series in the immediate area 319
(3) Vegetation 322
(a) Escarpment grassland 322
(b) Escarpment woodland and scrub 327
(c) Holywell Coombe fen and scrub communities 328
(d) Plants of marsh, fen and stream 331
(4) Invertebrate fauna 333
(a) Terrestrial invertebrates 333
(b) Aquatic invertebrates 350
(5) Discussion and conclusions 357

ix
 Contents

Part Eight. Synthesis R. C Preece 359

(1) Geological sequence at Holywell Coombe 361
(a) 'B011ing' and earlier 361
(b) 'Aller0d' 363
(c) Younger Dryas (Loch Lomond Stadial) 366
(d) The early to mid Post-glacial 367
(e) The late Post-glacial 370
(2) General conclusions and comparisons with sites elsewhere 372
(a) The Late-glacial period 372
(b) The Post-glacial period 379
References 383
Index 405

x
Contributors

Dr K.D. Bennett, Department of Plant Sciences, University of Cambridge, Downing

Street, Cambridge CB2 3EA
Mr P. Bennett, Canterbury Archaeological Trust, 92a Broad Street, Canterbury, Kent cn
2LU
Dr ].J. Blackford, Department of Geography, Queen Mary and Westfield College,
University of London, Mile End Road, London EI 4NS
Dr D.R. Bridgland, Department of Geography, University of Durham, Science
Laboratories, South Road, Durham DHI 3LE
Professor ].A. Catt, Rothamsted Experimental Station, Harpenden, Herts AL5 2JQ
Professor G.R. Coope, Department of Geography, Royal Holloway, University of London,
Egham, Surrey TW20 OEX
Professor J.A. Dowdeswell, Institute of Earth Studies, University College of Wales,
Uandinam Building, Penglais, Aberystwyth, Dyfed SY23 3DB
Rowena Gale, Folly Cottage, Chute Cadley, Andover, Hants SPII 9EB
Dr A. Gibson, 2 and 3 Hendomen Cottages, Montgomery, Powys SYI5 6HB
Dr E. Healey, Ashbourne Hall, Old Hall Lane, Fallowfield, Manchester MIA 6HP
Dr R.A. Housley, Department of Archaeology, University of Glasgow, 10 The Square,
Glasgow GI2 8QQ
Dr A.M. Lister, Department of Biology, University College London, London WCIE 6BT
Mr N. Macpherson-Grant, Canterbury Archaeological Trust, 92a Broad Street,
Canterbury, Kent cn 2LU
Mr S. Ouditt, Canterbury Archaeological Trust, 92a Broad Street, Canterbury, Kent cn
2LU
Dr H.M. Pedley, Research Institute for Environmental Science and Management,
University of Hull, Hull Hu6 7RX
Dr S.M. Peglar, Botanical Institute, University of Bergen, Allegaten 41, N-5007, Bergen,
Norway
Mary Pettit, Department of Plant Sciences, University of Cambridge, Downing Street,
Cambridge CB2 3EA
Dr R.C. Preece, Department of Zoology, University of Cambridge, Downing Street,
Cambridge CB2 3EJ
Mr]. Rady, Canterbury Archaeological Trust, 92a Broad Street, Canterbury, Kent cn 2LU
Dr ].E. Robinson, Department of Geology, University College London, Gower Street,
London WCIE 6BT
Dr]. Schelvis, Alkumaheerd, Wirdumerweg 1, 9917 PA Wirdum (Gn), The Netherlands
Professor M.]. Sharp, Department of Earth and Atmospheric Sciences, University of
Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada T6G 2E3

xi
 Contributors

Mr S.]. Staines, 33 Bryanston Street, Blandford, Dorset

Mr C.R. Stevenson, Norfolk College of Arts & Technology, Tennyson Avenue, King's
Lynn, Norfolk PE30 2QW
Dr A.}. Stuart, Castle Museum, Norwich NR1 3JU
Dr V.R. Switsur, Godwin Laboratory, University of Cambridge, Free School Lane,
Cambridge CB2 3RS
Dr R.C. Welch, Institute of Terrestrial Ecology, Monks Wood Experimental Station,
Abbots Ripton, Huntingdon PE17 2LS
Dr N. E. Williams, Division of Life Sciences, University of Toronto, Scarborough
Campus, 1265 Military Trail, Scarborough, Ontario, Canada MIC 1A

xii
Preface

The scientific importance of Holywell Coombe, Folkestone, was first appreciated in

1968, when a number of trial pits were excavated by Kent County Council Highways
Department in connection with the proposal to build a Channel Tunnel. These trial pits
revealed the presence of organic deposits in the valley bottom, which had resisted oxi-
dation and other forms of decay because they had remained waterlogged since their
deposition. This discovery was important for two reasons. First, the waterlogging had led
to the preservation of an array of delicate fossils, such as plant and insect remains, that
do not normally survive in contexts prone to oxidation. Second, the organic remains
themselves could be used to build up a detailed chronology of the site by means of radio-
carbon dating. Further trial pits were excavated in 1969 to enable systematic sampling
and the taking of a monolith of sediment. The results of the laboratory analyses on these
samples were published in full some years later (Kerney, Preece and Turner, 1980).
The scientific importance of the site became obvious as a result of this work and it
was consequently designated a Site of Special Scientific Interest (SSSI) by the Geological
Conservation Review Unit of the Nature Conservancy Council (NCC) , the latter now
renamed English Nature. There the matter rested until early in 1987, when plans to con-
struct the Channel Tunnel were resurrected by Eurotunnel, the newly formed
Anglo-French Consortium that had been granted the concession to undertake the pro-
ject. Since there was an immediate threat to the Holywell Coombe SSSI, Eurotunnel were
obliged, by law, to submit detailed plans of their development proposals to the NCe.
These proposals were carefully scrutinized to establish the extent of the damage that
was likely to accrue. A preliminary borehole survey was instigated and funded by the
NCC to gain a better idea of the exact nature of the geological sediments at certain crit-
icallocations in the valley. Other boreholes were located in several adjacent valleys, for
example those at Arpinge and Newington, which confirmed that the valley sediments
there lacked organic sediments and did not replicate those in Holywell Coombe.
This evidence was presented and discussed in front of the House of Lords Select
Committee during the debate on the Channel Tunnel Bill on March 9th 1987. The out-
come of this debate was twofold. First Eurotunnel, mindful of their environmental
responsibilities, agreed to adopt the least damaging southern alignment to their 'cut-
and-cover' tunnel, which would eventually be positioned obliquely across Holywell
Coombe. Second, they generously agreed to fund a major 'rescue' operation so that as
much scientific information as possible could be obtained from the site before its ulti-
mate destruction. A contract was signed with the University of Cambridge to
coordinate this research under my direction. A team of specialists from about a dozen
institutions, from Britain and abroad, were invited to collaborate on different aspects
of the work.

xiii
 Preface

The archaeological community in Britain is well served by the existing planning struc-
ture, such as the Government's Planning Policy Guidance No 16. This recognizes that
archaeological remains should be seen as a finite and non-renewable resource and
where nationally important sites (whether scheduled or not) are affected by proposed
development 'there should be presumption in favour of their physical preservation'. If
physical preservation in situ is not feasible then an archaeological excavation for the
purposes of 'preservation by record' may be an acceptable alternative. If this is the
case, the onus is placed on the developer to demonstrate to the planning authorities
that he has 'made appropriate and satisfactory provision for the excavation and record-
ing of the remains'. Planning approval is generally only granted when such stringent
conditions have been met. The agreement by Eurotunnel to fund a rescue excavation of
a 'geological' site sets an important and most welcome precedent.
Although the interest in the site was primarily geological, it seemed likely that the
area would have been occupied by prehistoric humans and the chance of finding arte-
facts stratified in the younger deposits seemed good. Consequently, a team from the
Canterbury Archaeological Trust was deployed to investigate this possibility. This
hunch proved to be well-founded and an account of the archaeology and prehistory of
the valley is incorporated within this volume.
The Chalk escarpment between Folkestone and Etchinghill harbours a variety of grass-
land plants and insects and has also been declared an SSSI for biological reasons. The
Institute of Terrestrial Ecology, amongst others, has also been contracted to monitor the
effects of the construction of the Channel Tunnel on the fauna and flora of the area. A
number of local streams have been surveyed by the Freshwater Biological Association
(now Institute of Freshwater Ecology), again to assess any damage that may result from
hydrological disturbances during the construction of the Tunnel. Having traced the
palaeoecology of the site in detail for the last 13 000 years, the account concludes with a
brief account of its present-day ecology based largely on this new survey work.
A wide range of expertise and much of the latest technology has been brought to
bear on unravelling the environmental history of Holywell Coombe. Some of this tech-
nology, such as radiocarbon dating using accelerator mass spectrometry (AMS), was
unavailable when the site was first investigated. This new technology has enabled
events to be dated with much finer precision and this situation demonstrates the impor-
tance of geological site conservation. It is always possible to learn more, even from the
most intensely studied sequences.
It falls to me as senior editor of this volume to thank all who have assisted in its pro-
duction. Our aim has been to show why Holywell Coombe is a site of special scientific
importance and to document the work carried out during the last few years, much of it
with financial aid from Eurotunnel and Transmanche-link (TML). All those who have
written sections have been personally involved in the investigations they describe, and
their willingness to contribute, busy as they are, has been much appreciated. Special
thanks are due to Dr Mary Seddon, now with the National Museum of Wales, and Mr
Richard Wright (English Nature) for the enormous help they gave during the initial
fieldwork and especially during the borehole survey. Dr David Bridgland not only
helped me sample two of the trenches in continuous rain, but also helped enormously
with the post-excavation phase, not least as a most rigorous co-editor. Finally I must
pay tribute to Eurotunnel personnel, first to Lord Berkeley for his interest and support
throughout the project, second to Peter Cowsell for ensuring that no harm befell us
during the excavation of deep trenches and third to Dr Elisabeth Culbard and subse-
quently Dr Kate Kershaw, who oversaw the whole project in their capacity as
environmental officers.
Richard Preece
Cambridge,january 1997

xiv
English abstract

Holywell Coombe is a scarp-face valley cut into the North Downs near Folkestone,
Kent. It is floored by a thick sequence of Late-glacial and Post-glacial deposits, including
the products of solifluction, tufa formation in calcareous springs and hillwash result-
ing from soil erosion on higher ground. Waterlogging of the basal sediments has
prevented oxidation and allowed the preservation of a range of organic fossils, such as
plant and insect remains, that normally do not survive in such a calcareous environ-
ment. The molluscan succession is especially important, since Holywell Coombe is the
type site for a zonation scheme applicable over large areas of southern Britain and pos-
sibly further afield. For these reasons the valley had been designated as a geological
Site of Special Scientific Interest (SSSI). The proposed alignment of the Channel Tunnel
across the valley floor posed a threat to the site and led to the Eurotunnel Consortium
funding the multidisciplinary 'rescue' investigation described here. A complete record
of the geological sequence was established from a network of 180 boreholes, together
with specially excavated trenches and sections exposed during construction of the tun-
nel. Systematic sampling at a number of locations within the valley provided a
palaeontological record from the full stratigraphical sequence. It was pOSSible, in this
way, to determine in great detail the responses of different groups of organisms to the
abrupt climatic and environmental changes that occurred in east Kent during the last
13 000 years. A precise chronological framework for this story is provided by more
than 35 new radiocarbon age determinations.
The earliest Quaternary sediments in Holywell Coombe are organic deposits that
accumulated in marshy hollows in the valley floor 13 000-12 000 years ago. Some of
these hollows seem to have arisen from ponding in front of foundered masses of Gault
Clay, which were dislodged from the valley slopes by land-slipping at the end of the last
glacial. Fossils from these marsh deposits show that tree birches and willows grew on
the valley floor and that a more open landscape, supporting juniper scrub and a variety
of herbaceous communities, occurred on the higher slopes. The molluscan fauna at
this time was extremely impoverished, comprising open-ground and marsh assemblages
dominated by Vallonia species and Pupilla muscorum with Vertigo genesii, Catinella
arenaria and Cochlicopa nitens (the last new to the British Late-glacial).
Thermophilous beetles were recovered from the same levels, including Bembidion
octomaculatum, a southern species that today extends as far north as southern Britain.
Temperature estimates, based on the Mutual Climatic Range method, from the beetle
data suggest a maximum of 17-18°C for July and minimum winter temperatures of
about -7° to - 2°e. The impoverishment of the molluscan communities at this time
cannot therefore have resulted from climatic severity but must reflect retarded immi-
gration.

xv
 English abstract

Shortly before 12000 yrs BP, the July temperature appears to have fallen by about
4°C, as indicated by the arrival of northern beetles such as pycnoglypta lurida,
Boreaphilus henningianus and Notaris aethiops. This climatic deterioration heralded
a period of slope activity leading, in places, to the accumulation of 2-3 m of chalk rub-
ble and muds above the basal organic deposits. The fining upwards of these slope
deposits suggests declining activity, culminating in a period of relative stability repre-
sented by a distinctive grey soil (the 'Aller0d soil') formed in their uppermost levels.
The pedogenic origin of this horizon has been confirmed by micromorphological analy-
ses, which have demonstrated the extensive incorporation of humus, gleying, evidence
of decalcification, mineral weathering and clay illuviation. Radiocarbon dates from char-
coal extracted from this soil fall in the range 11 800-11 300 yr BP. Molluscan faunas
become more diverse at this level and include species such as Arianta arbustorum,
Nesovitrea hammonis, Abida secale and Trichia hispida. This faunal change, coupled
with soil formation, was recognized previously and attributed to climatic amelioration,
but beetles recovered from this stratigraphical level during the present study have
called this into question. The occurrence of northern taxa such as Notaris aethiops
and Otiorhynchus dubius, which indicate a July temperature of 13-15°C and winter
temperatures of -18° to 4°C, suggest that this period was colder than that during
which the basal marsh sediments accumulated. The vegetation at this time shows little
change from the basal marsh depOSit, but the scarcity of juniper pollen is noteworthy.
Above the soil there are further chalk muds and rubbles, generally lacking in fossils,
although finer-grained horizons preserve arctic-alpine assemblages from the end of the
Younger Dryas period. The plant macrofossils include Betula nana, Arenaria ciliata,
Helianthemum cf. canum, Dianthus cf. deitoides, Ranunculus aconitijolius, Papaver
(Sect. Scapiflora) and Dryas octopetala. The arctic-alpine snail Columella columella
also occurs. Beetles include arctic-alpine and snow-patch species such as Helophorus
glacialis, Olophrum boreale, Bembidion dauricum and Arpedium quadrum. Their
occurrence suggests mean July temperatures of between 5°C and 11°C and winter tem-
peratures of between -16°C and O°C, making this the coldest period from which fossils
have been obtained at Holywell Coombe.
Following this cold episode there was a sudden and intense climatic amelioration,
marking the onset of the Post-glacial period. Erosion from the hillsides became negligi-
ble and tufa began to form in springs. The arctic-alpine communities of the Younger
Dryas were replaced by thermophilous taxa. Trees and shrubs accounted for about 60%
of the total land pollen, with juniper showing a particularly marked increase; shade-
intolerant land snails declined and the beetle Bembidion octomaculatum returned.
The subsequent development, after about 9500 yr BP, of hazel-dominated woodland
with its closed canopy resulted in the further decline of shade-intolerant taxa. As forest
development continued, with increasing amounts of oak and elm present by 8600 yr BP,
the valley was progressively colonized by a succession of shade-demanding snails.
Tufa formation ceased after about 6000 yr BP, by which time the forest canopy had
thinned, as indicated by the relative decline of woodland snails in the uppermost levels
of the tufa. The possible anthropogenic influence on this intitial forest recession, which
coincided with the late Mesolithic, is a subject for conjecture, but there can be no
doubt about the major woodland clearance that occurred during the subsequent
Neolithic and, especially, the Bronze Age. This brought about renewed erosion from
the slopes, resulting in the accumulation of hillwash. Ard-marks resulting from plough-
ing on the surface of sediments beneath the hillwash provide direct evidence of
prehistoric agricultural activity. The hillwash provides an archaeological record from
the Neolithic onwards; an excavated area on the valley floor beneath Sugarloaf Hill
revealed a number of structures, including a sunken trackway and a system of post-
holes, demonstrating human occupation during the early Bronze Age. Two buried soils
are developed within the hillwash, a major one at its base and a less strongly devel-
oped one within its upper levels. Knapped flints and decorated pot-sherds are abundant

xvi
 English abstract

in the lower soil, whereas Iron Age artefacts have been recovered from the upper one.
The historical period is scarcely represented within the sedimentary archive at
Holywell Coombe, although post-Iron Age artefacts are represented in the upper levels
of the hillwash. The maintenance of the chalk grassland habitat of the North Downs,
the ecological significance of which is recognized in the designation of the Folkestone-
Etchinghill biological SSSI, has required continued human intervention since its creation
in the Neolithic and Bronze Age. Important plants include both early and late spider
orchid (Ophrys sphegodes and O. jucijlora) , bedstraw broomrape (Orobanche
caryophllacea) , wild cabbage (Brassica oleracea) , candytuft (lberis amara) and
woolly thistle (Cirsium eriophorum). The site is also of entomological interest, espe-
cially for Lepidoptera. Baseline conditions prior to the construction of the Channel
Tunnel are provided by surveys, reported herein, of the fauna and flora from various
habitats along the escarpment and within Holywell Coombe. Results from surveys of a
number of local streams are also reported. The final chapter in the history of Holywell
Coombe was the construction of the new A20 road and the final completion of the
Channel Tunnel, which opened in 1994. Despite these developments, late Quaternary
sediments survive in undisturbed parts of the geological SSSI and will be conserved in
readiness for future investigation.

xvii
Resume fran~ais

Holywell Coombe est une vallee escarpee taillee dans les collines crayeuses denudees
situees pres de Folkestone dans Ie Kent. Le fond de la vallee est recouvert par une
epaisse couverture sedimentaire du Tardiglaciaire et du Postglaciaire composee de
depots de solifluction, de tufs calcaires de source et de formations de ruissellement
resultant de l'erosion de sols situes au sommet des versant. L'engorgement des sedi-
ments de base par l'eau, a empeche l'oxydation et permis la preservation de plusiers
types de fossiles organiques, tels que les restes de plantes et d'insectes, qui normale-
ment ne se conservent pas dans un environnement calcaire. La succession
malacologique est particulierement importante. Holywell Coombe est Ie site type apar-
tir duquel a pu etre defini un schema de zonation malacologique, applicable sur une
grande partie du Sud de la Grande-Bretagne et probablement au-deIa. Pour ces raisons
la vallee a ete classee 'Site geologique d'Interet Scientifique Special' (SSSI). Le projet
de trace du tunnel sous la Manche a travers la vallee mena<;;ait Ie site et a conduit Ie
financement, par Ie Consortium Eurotunnel, des recherches multidisciplinaires de
sauvetage presentees dans cet ouvrage. Une etude complete de la sequence geologique
a ete realisee a partir de 180 sondages, auxquels se sont ajoutees des tranchees effec-
tuees ala pelle mecanique et l'observation des coupes mises a jour par les travaux de
construction du tunnel. L' echantillonnage systematique effectue en divers points de la
vallee, a fourni des donnees paleontologiques pour l'ensemble de la sequence strati-
graphique. n a ete ainsi possible de determiner dans Ie detailles reponses des differents
groupes d'organismes representes aux changements abrupts d'environnement et de
climat, survenus dans Ie Kent au cours des derniers 13000 ans. Le canevas
chronologique precis de cette histoire s'appuie sur plus de trente-cinq nouvelles data-
tions radiocarbone.
Les plus anciens sediments quaternaires de Holywell Coombe sont des depots
organiques qui se sont accumules, entre 12 000 et 13 000 ans avant Ie temps present (BP),
dans des depressions marecageuses situees dans Ie fond de la vallee. Certaines de ces
cuvettes semblement s'etre formees ala faveur de barrages constitues par l'effondrement
de masses d'argiles de Gault, qui se sont detachees des versants a la fin du dernier
glaciaire. Les fossiles provenant de ces depots de marecages montrent que bouleaux et
saules occupaient Ie fond de la vallee, alors que Ie haut des versant supportait un paysage
plus ouvert, compose de buissons de genevrier et de communautes variees d'herbacees.
La malacofaune contemporaine est extremement pauvre, elle comprend des associations
de milieu ouvert et marecageux dominees par les especes du genre Vallonia, Pupilla
muscorum, Vertigo genesii, Catinella arenaria et Cochlicopa nitens (Ie dernier etant
nouveau pour Ie Tardiglaciaire britannique). Des coleopteres thermophiles ont ete
recoltes dans les memes niveaux, ainsi Bembidion octomaculatum, une espece

xviii
 Resumefran~ais

meridionale dont la limite septentrionale de repartition actuelle s'arrete au Sud de

I'Angleterre. Les estimations de paleotemperatures, basees sur la methode du 'Mutual
Climatic Range' appliquee aux donnees entomologiques, suggerent un maximum de
17-18°C en juillet et un minimum des temperatures hivernales situe aux environs de -7°
a -2°C. La pauvrete de la communaute malacologique a cette periode ne peut donc resul-
ter de la severite climatique mais reflete plutot une colonisation tardive.
Peu avant 12000 BP, les temperatures de juillet semblent etre tombees autour de 4°C,
comme l' indique l'arrivee de coleopteres nordiques tels que Pycnoglypta lurida,
Boreaphilus henningianus et Notaris aethiops. Cette deterioration climatique
provoque une periode d'activite des versants qui se marque ponctuellement par l'accu-
mulation de 2 a 3 m de depots crayeux, grossiers et fins, au dessus des premier
sediments organiques. La periode qui suit est caracterisee par une stabilite relative
representee par un sol gris (Ie 'sol Allen"d') qui se forme sur les niveaux les plus eleves
de ces depots de versant. L' origine pedogenetique de cet horizon a ete confirmee par
des analyses micromorphologiques. Elles ont demontre l'intense incorporation d'humus,
Ie deveioppement d'un processus de gleyification, des traces de decalcification, l' ero-
sion des mineraux et migration des argiles. Des datations radiocarbone, effectuees sur
des charbons extraits de ce sol, donnent un age situe entre 11 300 et 11 800 BP. Les
malacofaunes se diversifient et plusiers especes apparaissent, telles que Arianta arbus-
torum, Nesovitrea hammonis, Abida secale et Trichia hispida. Ce changement de
faune, couple avec la formation d'un sol, a deja ete observe precedemment et attribue a
une amelioration climatique, mais les coleopteres recuellis dans ce niveau strati-
graphique, a l'occasion de la presente etude, remettent en cause cette interpretation.
La presence de taxons nordiques teis que Notaris aethiops, et Otiorhynchus dubius,
qui indiquent des temperatures de juillet de 13-15°C et des temperatures hivernales de
-18° a 4°C, suggere que cette periode etait plus froide que celIe durant laquelle se sont
accumules les sediments organiques de la base. La vegetation n'est pas tres differente
de celIe des depots marecageux mais les pollens de genevrier se rarefient.
Au dessus du sol se trouvent a nouveau des boues et des depots grossiers crayeux.
Ces derniers sont generalement azolques, alors que les horizons fins livrent des assem-
blages d'especes arctico-alpines de la fin du Dryas recent. Les restes de macro-vegetaux
sont composes de Betula nana, Arenaria ciliata, Helianthemum cf. canum,
Dianthus cf. deltoides, Ranunculus aconitijolius, Papaver (Sect. Scapiflora) et Dryas
octopetala. Le mollusque arctico-alpin Columella columella est egalement present. Les
coleopteres sont representes par des especes arctico-alpines et de milieu enneige teis
que Helophorus glacialis, Olophrum boreale, Bembidium dauricum et Arpedium
quadrum. Leur presence suggere des temperatures moyennes de 5°C a 11°C pour juil-
let, et des temperatures hivernales situees entre -16°c et O°C. Le Dryas recent est donc
la plus froide des periodes representees par les fossiles recoltes a Holywell Coombe.
Apres eet episode froid survient une soudaine et intense amelioration climatique,
marquant Ie passage au Postglaciaire. L'erosion des versants devient negligeable et les
tufs commencent a se former dans les sources. Les communautes arctico-alpines du
Dryas recent sont remplacees par des taxons thermophiles. Les arbres et buissons
representent 60% des pollens, Ie genevrier connait une augmentation particulierement
sensible; les mollusques de milieu ouvert declinent et Ie coleoptere Bembidion
octomaculatum reapparait. Apres 9500 BP une foret a canopee dense, dominee par Ie
noisetier, se developpe et engendre la baisse des taxons de milieu ouvert. Tandis que la
foret continue a s'etendre, avec des proportions de plus en plus importantes de chene
et d'orme, presents des 8600 BP, la vallee est progressivement colonisee par une suc-
cession de mollusques forestiers.
La formation des tufs cesse apres 6000 BP, au moment OU la canopee de la foret
s'eclaircit, comme l'indique Ie declin relatif des mollusques forestiers dans les niveaux
superieurs du tuf. La possibilite d'une influence anthropique sur cette premiere phase
de recession de la foret, qui coincide avec la rm du Mesolithique, est evoquee. En

xix
 Resume franr;ais

revanche, il ne peut y avoir de doute sur I'importance du rOle joue par I'Homme au
sujet de I'important defrichement qui survient durant Ie Neolithique et surtout au cours
de rAge du Bronze. Ce phenomene reactive l'erosion des versants et provoque I'accu-
mulation de colluvions. Des traces de labour, observees a la surface des sediments qui
se trouvant directement sous Ies colluvions, fourissent une preuve directe de l'activite
agricole prehistorique. Les colluvions livrent des donnees archeologiques datant du
Neolithique et au-dela. Vne zone fouillee dans Ie fond de la vallee, pres de la colline de
Sugarloaf, revele l' existence de plusiers structures, une piste encaissee et un systeme de
trous de poteaux, qui temoignent de l'occupation humaine au debut de rAge du
Bronze. Deux sols se sont formes dans la sequence de colluvions, Ie plus important est
situe a la base et Ie second, moins developpe, dans les niveaux superieurs. Les silex
tailles et les fragments de poterie decores sont abondants dans Ie sol inferieur, tandis
que des vestiges de rAge du Fer ont ete recoltes dans Ie sol superieur.
La periode historique est mal representee dans les archives sediment aires de
Holywell Coombe, bien que des vestiges posterieurs a rAge du Fer soient presents dans
les niveaux sommitaux des colluvions. La permanence des habitats de prairie develop-
pee sur substrat crayeux de ces collines denudees, dont la signification ecologique
particuliere a ete reconnue par Ie c1assement de la zone de Folkestone-Etchinghill en
'site biologique SSSI', a implique une intervention humaine continue depuis sa crea-
tion au Neolithique et a rAge du Bronze. Parmi Ies plantes rares, se trouvent I'ancienne
et la nouvelle ophrys araignee (Ophrys sphegodes et O. jucijlora) , orobanche
(Orobanche caryophllacea) , Ie chou sauvage (Brassica oleracea) , l'iberis (Iberis
amara) et Ie chardon laineux (Cirsium eriophorum). Le site presente egalement un
interet entomologique, particulierement pour les Lepidopteres. Anterieurement a la
construction du tunnel sous la Manche, des etudes ont ete realisees sur la faune et la
flore de divers habitats situes Ie long des versants ainsi que dans Ie fond de la vallee. Ces
resultats, ainsi que ceux des travaux menes sur un certain nombre de cours d'eau
locaux, sont presentes dans cet ouvrage. La construction de la nouvelle route A20 et du
tunnel sous la Manche, qui s'est ouvert en 1994, constitue Ie chapitre final de l'histoire
de Holywell Coombe. En depit de ces derniers developpements, les sediments de la fin
du Quaternaire subsistent en divers endroits du site geologique SSSI et seront conserves
en l'etat pour de futures recherches.

xx
Acknowledgements

In addition to the general acknowledgements outlined in the Preface, individual specialists would
also like to record their thanks in the following way.
Dr M.]. Sharp and Professor]. Dowdeswell thank R. Maxted, ]. Branson and M. Driver for assis-
tance with the magnetic measurements. MJS wrote his contribution while on sabbatical leave at
the Department of Geography, University of Alberta and thanks Professors John England and John
Shaw for their hospitability and acknowledges receipt of a Royal Society/NSERC scientific
exchange award.
Dr V.R. Switsur and Dr R.A. Housley acknowledge the valuable assistance of the staff of both
the Oxford Radiocarbon Accelerator Unit and Cambridge University Radiocarbon Research
Group, C. Anglias, A.D. Bowles, c.R. Bronk, ]. Foreman, A. Gerrard, M.A. Hall, R.E.M. Hedges,
MJ. Humm, P. Leach, A.R.T. Stocker and G. Tyrrell in helping to date the samples.
]. Schelvis thanks Dr Anton Ervynck from the Institute for the Archaeological Heritage of the
Flemish Community, who assisted in the preparation of his SEM pictures at the Laboratory of
Palaeontology, University of Gent.
Most of the other SEM photographs were taken on a Philips-50S in the Department of Zoology,
Cambridge and thanks are due to Mrs M. Bray, formerly of this Department, for technical advice.
Several other members of the Department of Zoology have helped in various ways during the
course of this project, especially Mick Ashby and Ray Symonds.
Sylvia Peglar and Mary Pettit undertook the pollen and plant macrofossil analyses respectively,
Rowena Gale identified the wood and charcoal and Robin Stevenson reported on the bryophytes.
Mrs]. Dye kindly undertook many of the laboratory analyses of the sediments Ooss-on-ignition)
and Mr I.]. Killeen helped with some fieldwork and measured the Littorina from the midden.
Arthur Corner, David Hume, Steven Allan and Chris Orton of the Cartography section,
Department of Geography, University of Durham, are thanked for the production of some of the
figures.
Permission to reproduce photographs of the study area has been kindly granted by Diana
Craige and Jim Byrne (QA Photographers), the official photographers contracted by Eurotunnel to
record a photographic archive of the construction of the Channel Tunnel.
The following people not directly involved with the project kindly read and commented on
selected sections: Dr M. Bell (University of Wales, Lampeter), Dr S.P. Dark (University of Reading),
Dr H.I. Griffiths (University of Hull), Dr R.A. Kemp (Royal Holloway, University of London), Dr
M.P. Kerney (formerly Imperial College, University of London), Dr N. Limondin-Lozouet
(Laboratoire de Geographie physique, Meudon, France), Professor].J. Lowe (Royal Holloway,
University of London), Mr R.A. Meyrick (University of Cambridge), Dr R. Mortimer (University of
Brighton), Mr A. Saville (National Museums of Scotland), Dr C. Turner (Open University), Professor
MJ.C. Walker (University of Wales, Lampeter), Professor R.G. West (University of Cambridge).

xxi
 PART ONE

Introduction
R.C. Preece
 Previous work
(1) PREVIOUS WORK
In]uly 1968 a trial pit made by Kent County Coun-
cil Highways Department in Holywell Coombe,
below the Chalk escarpment at Sugarloaf Hill,
Folkestone, revealed a sequence of Late-glacial and
Post-glacial spring and slope deposits containing
molluscs, plant remains and beetles. Some samples
were collected and passed to Michael Kerney, then
at Imperial College, University of London, who had
a long-standing interest in the geological history of
chalkland valleys. Kerney undertook some prelimi-
nary analyses of the fossils contained in these
samples and immediately realized the importance
of the site as one where faunal and vegetational his-
tories since the Late-glacial might potentially be
linked. Since conditions required for the preserva-
tion of plant remains and the shells of land snails
are generally rather different, it has seldom been
possible to obtain good records of both from the
same site. Consequently there has been great
uncertainty as to how each of these groups
responded to the dramatic climatic and environ-
mental changes that characterized the
Late-glacial-Post-glacial transition. The initial sam-
ples from Holywell Coombe also yielded remains
of beetles, an invertebrate group that has come to
be regarded as one of the most sensitive for
palaeoclimatic reconstruction (Coope, 1977;
Atkinson et at., 1987). Recent studies have shown
that beetles, because of their greater mobility,
react to changes of climate with great rapidity, par-
ticularly in comparison with other groups such as
plants, which often show lagged responses (e.g.
Walker et at., 1993).
Kerney's work on Late-glacial and Post-glacial
deposits on the chalk downlands of south-east Eng-
land began in the early 1960s, when he undertook
detailed investigations at sites on the North Downs
such as Oxted (Surrey), Upper Halling, Holbor-
ough, Dover Hill and Castle Hill, Folkestone (all in
Kent) as well as Cow Gap, Beachy Head (East
Sussex), on the South Downs (Fig. 1.1; Kerney,
1963). At all these sites a fossil rendzina soil, which
he correlated with the 'Aller0d soil' recognized on
the continent, formed an important marker horizon
within the Late-glacial sequences. At Holborough,
beneath the soil, a lower organic horizon occurred,
which Kerney thought had formed during the so-
called 'B011ing Interstadial', first recognized in
Denmark (Iversen, 1954). Pollen-analytical work
conducted during the subsequent two decades on
3
organic sequences in upland Britain generally failed
to distinguish separate 'B0lling' and 'AUer0d' Inter-
stadials. In 1964 the results of a detailed study of a
single site, the Devil's Kneadingtrough near Brook,
Kent, were published (Kerney et at., 1964). This
valley, which contains an important Late-glacial and
Post-glacial sedimentary record, was shown to have
been greatly enlarged by intense physical erosion
during the 'Younger Dryas' (Loch Lomond Stadial),
the cold period immediately following the 'Aller0d
Interstadial' (Kerney et at., 1964). A sediment lobe
emanating from the Devil's Kneadingtrough cov-
ered organic deposits containing pollen and
molluscs. This provided the first tentative link
between the vegetational and molluscan sequences
during the Late-glacial, a link that was strengthened
and greatly expanded by evidence from the Holy-
well Coombe site, discovered four years later.
In November 1969 a second phase of investiga-
tion was undertaken at Holywell Coombe, when
three closely adjacent pits were cut with a mechan-
ical excavator as near as possible to the site of the
orginal trial pit in the axis of the valley floor. This
work allowed the stratigraphy to be seen in open
section and enabled more comprehensive sam-
pling. The stratigraphy was shown to consist of an
essentially tripartite sequence of (1) basal solifluc-
tion and associated deposits (Late-glacial),
consisting largely of redeposited Gault Clay, Glau-
conitic Marl and Chalk, (2) calcareous tufa (early to
mid Post-glacial), and (3) hillwash (post-Neolithic).
Although elements of this general sequence were
found in several of the pits, there was much litho-
logical variation and nowhere could the full
succession be found in direct superposition. The
environmental history therefore had to be built up
from a composite sequence. The basal sediments
have remained permanently waterlogged since
deposition and so their organic contents have been
protected from oxidative processes and are well
preserved. They provided material for a series of
conventional radiocarbon dates, enabling a
chronology to be established for the site. The
upper horizons, above the water-table, could not
be dated because of the lack of such organic
remains. Important plant and insect fossils were
recovered from the basal horizons, although pollen
was absent in the Late-glacial part of the sequence
studied at this time, a shortcoming made good
during the present study.
The molluscan biostratigraphy proved to be of
particular interest because it contained an unusu-
 Introduction
Great Harrowden
•
Figure 1.1 Localities of south-east England where the 'Allen~d soil' has been recognized, in relation to the Chalk
outcrop (brickwork symbol). Sources: Kerney (1963, 1965); Kerney et al. (1964); Evans (1966); Paterson (1971,
1977); Peake (1971); Preece et al. (1995).
ally complete sequence showing the order in
which species colonized the area during the Post-
glacial. Subsequent work (Preece, 1978) showed
that the sequence at Holywell Coombe was recog-
nizable over large areas of southern Britain, albeit
with some minor regional variation. Although a rel-
atively complete Post-glacial succession was
recognized, the Late-glacial sediments were all
ascribed to the Younger Dryas. No evidence of any
interstadial deposits was found in the sections and
the stratigraphy was therefore thought to mirror
the succession described from the Devil's Knead-
ingtrough, Brook, some 16 km NW of Folkestone
(Kerney et al., 1964).
Holywell Coombe proved to be the most impor-
4
~--,-'---,-'YrDover
Dover Hill
Castle Hili/Holywell
Coombe
o 30km
~ ........_o....-....'
tant of Kerney's chalkland sites, a 'rosetta stone'
linking vegetational and faunal histories for much of
the Late-glacial and Holocene. The results of the ini-
tial work at the site appeared in the Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of London
(Kerney et al., 1980).
(2) SCIENTIFIC IMPORTANCE OF THE
HOLYWELL COOMBE SITE
Holywell Coombe has proved to be a crucial site of
both geomorphological and palaeontological
importance. There are several reasons for this.
First, the very location of the site in the extreme
 Nature a/the threat
south-east of England is critical from a biogeo-
graphical standpoint. Thermophilous species
expanding their ranges from their glacial refugia
after the last cold stage would be expected to
arrive at such a site at a much earlier date than at
more northerly locations. Moreover, comparisons
could be made between the colonization sequence
on both the English and French sides of the Chan-
nel and the biological repercussions of British
insularity critically assessed (cf. Rose, 1972;
Preece, 1995).
Second, the site is situated in a valley cut into the
chalk escarpment and may therefore shed impor-
tant light on the palaeoecological history of the
chalklands in south-east England. There has hith-
erto been a dearth of such data relating to
well-dated sites on this bedrock and the few
records that exist have not been easy to interpret
(d. Bush and Flenley, 1987; Bush, 1989, 1993;
Thomas, 1989).
Third, the sediments span virtually the entire
period of the last 13 000 years from the Late-glacial
to the present day. Very few sites in south-east Eng-
land, where natural lakes and peat-bogs are rare,
have produced such a complete sequence.
Fourth, the occurrence of organic deposits at
various levels within the succession is of crucial
importance. These have not only yielded rich
assemblages of land snail, plant and insect fossils,
but have also provided a means of establishing an
absolute chronology based on radiocarbon dating.
It is not unusual to find pollen and insect remains
together in Quaternary sediments, since conditions
necessary for their preservation are nearly identi-
cal. Likewise land snails and vertebrate fossils are
also commonly associated. The unusual feature at
Holywell Coombe is the fact that all these groups
are found together in the waterlogged levels, so
that it has been possible, for the first time, to derive
a clearer picture of the temporal responses of dif-
ferent groups of organisms to environmental and
climatic changes at the Late-glaciaI-Post-glacial tran-
sition. No other British site affords such an
opportunity for linking faunal and vegetational
changes throughout much of this period. Most
other sites either produce incomplete sequences
or else consist entirely of oxidized sediments lack-
ing pollen and material suitable for radiocarbon
dating.
Fifth, good early Post-glacial pollen records are
few and far between in southern, particularly
south-eastern, England. The basal sediments at
Holywell Coombe are waterlogged and contain
5
pollen (and plant macrofossils) and have partly
filled this gap in our knowledge of the vegetational
history of the chalklands in this critical area.
Sixth, the molluscan sequence at Holywell
Coombe is particularly important, not only for its
completeness but also because, as already stressed,
it can be partly related to the vegetational history
and independently dated by radiocarbon assay. For
these reasons it was selected as the type site for a
series of molluscan zones (Kerney, 1977; Kerneyet
at., 1980). Holywell Coombe was designated as a
geological Site of Special Scientific Interest (SSSI)
in 1985, as a result of the Geological Conservation
Review. The upper slopes of the coombe had pre-
viously enjoyed protection as part of the
Folkestone to Etchinghill Escarpment biological
SSSI, scheduled in the early days of the Nature Con-
servancy, in 1951.
(3) NATURE OF THE THREAT
Eurotunnel proposed to locate the Folkestone Ter-
minal of the Channel Tunnel at the foot of the
chalk escarpment extending from Castle Hill in the
east to Newington in the west, an area of some 140
hectares (Fig. 1.2). The Folkestone Terminal was
therefore to be the largest single element of the
Channel Tunnel project in the UK in terms of sur-
face development, providing access for road
vehicles loading onto the shuttle trains, as well as
toll payment, customs clearance, vehicle parking,
shopping and duty-free facilities. Although this area
lies outside the limits of the Holywell Coombe SSSI,
some sections at Cherry Garden and Danton Pinch
(Fig. 1.2) were also studied at the invitation of
Transmanche-Link (TML), the contractors
appointed by Eurotunnel to design and construct
the Channel Tunnel. The engineering geology of
the Channel Tunnel project is the subject of an ear-
lier monograph (Harris et at., 1996).
The immediate threat to the Holywell Coombe
SSSI resulted from Eurotunnel's original proposal
to drive a 'Cut-and-cover' section of the Channel
Tunnel across the floor of the coombe. The Tunnel
would thus pass through Castle Hill, cross the
coombe, disappear into the chalk forming its
eastern flank and thence continue beneath Shake-
speare Cliff, Dover, before turning towards France
(Fig. 1.2). Boreholes, funded by the Nature Con-
servancy Council (NCC), were located at various
points along this route in order to assess the
potential damage to the important geological
 Introduction

~ Chalk

- Lme of lunnel

150m

150m

Figure 1.2 Location maps of the study area. A. Geographical location. B. Alignment of the Channel Tunnel in relation
to the outcrop of the Chalk. C. Artist's impression of the proposed developments at the terminal site near Folke-
stone. Note the realignment of the initial route to avoid damage to the geological deposits at the head of Holywell
Coombe.

deposits. These boreholes demonstrated the
occurrence of an important Late-glacial sequence
towards the head of the valley about 100 m north-
east of the original 1960s trial pits. Consequently
an alternative route, aligned just south of that orig-
inally proposed and running into the northern
flank of Sugarloaf Hill, was adopted instead (Fig.
1.2). Although this new alignment avoided the crit-
ical area towards the head of the coombe
completely, it did mean that other areas down
valley, which also contained important sedimen-
tary sequences, were now threatened, including
the area of the 1968-9 trial pits.
The physical removal of sediments posed the
most obvious and immediate threat, but there were
also serious concerns that the local hydrology
might have been disrupted during the construction
of the tunnel. A retaining sheet pile wall had there-
fore been installed towards the head of the valley
to maintain high ground-water levels. If the water-
table had been lowered for any significant period,
or if its level had been allowed to fluctuate widely,
then the surviving organic deposits would have
been prone to oxidation and their palaeoecological
value seriously damaged. Consequently, careful
monitoring of the water-table was maintained by
means of piezometers throughout the period of
construction to ensure that this did not occur. A
full account of the main ecological effects and the
measures adopted by TML to minimize damage and
disruption to the environment is provided by Ker-
shaw et al. (1996) .
Additional threats to the site were posed by
plans by the Department of Transport to extend
the A20 from the roundabout at the end of the M20
across the southern flank of Castle Hill and then
across the western part of Holywell Coombe and
into Round Hill. Although this section was planned
to be raised above the floor of the valley, it was
inevitable that it would cause further damage to the

6
 Programme of research

geological deposits and render those that remain
virtually inaccessible. Views of the valley before,
during and after these developments are shown in
Fig. 1.3a-c.
(4) PROGRAMME OF RESEARCH
After the contract between Eurotunnel and the Uni-
versity of Cambridge was signed in July 1987, it
was estimated that major construction work would

(a)

(b)

(c)

Figure 1.3 (a) View of Holywell Coombe from Castle Hill in 1987 before the construction ofthe cut-and-<:overtunnel.
(b) Same view of Holywell Coombe in 1988 during the construction of the cut-and-<:over tunnel. Note that the area
towards the head of the Valley (left of centre) has been fenced and remains undisturbed.
(c) Same view of Holywell Coombe in 1992 after completion of cut-and-cover tunnel. The viaduct entering Round Hill
is part of the new A20 trunk road.

7
 Introduction
begin at Holywell Coombe early in 1988. The field-
work for the present project therefore had to be
completed within the final half of 1987.
The present project began in August 1987 with a
detailed borehole survey, aimed primarily at iden-
tifying stratigraphically important areas and
pin-pointing the location of organic deposits. The
location of each borehole was carefully planned
according to a predetermined grid so that the inter-
val between boreholes was closest in the valley
axes (every 5 m or occasionally every 2.5 m), with
greater intervals (10 m or 20 m) on the valley sides
(Fig. 1.4). At the end of the survey a total of over
180 boreholes had been logged. This information
has been used to interpret the formation of the sed-
imentary infill, as is discussed in a later section.
The boreholes were undertaken commercially
by Geodrive Ltd (Maidenhead), who used a light-
weight, petrol-driven percussion corer (Fig. 1.5a).
This corer was used to drive an open-chambered
sample probe into the sediments. On reaching the
required depth, the driving hammer was removed
and the sample probe jacked out (Fig. 1.5b). The
maximum diameter of the corer was 8 cm, but this
was reduced to about 4 cm during the deeper
drives. Each drive succeeded in recovering some
1-1.5 m of sediment, depending on the exact
arrangement of probes used. Although the data
obtained were not comparable in quality with
those from a conventional cased borehole with
undisturbed sampling, they proved entirely ade-
quate for this mapping exercise (plate I (c)).
A series of trial pits was excavated mechanically
with a ]CB to explore certain problematic areas
identified during the borehole survey. The main
sampling programme, however, was undertaken
from deep trenches that had been cut using a
Hymac excavator, which has a Significantly longer
reach than a ]CB and was able therefore to reach
bedrock. All these trenches required shoring and
de-watering to prevent collapse of their unstable
sides. Sampling was made possible by the provision
of narrow gaps between the trench sheets. As this
was an extremely costly exercise, there was only
limited time, 48 hours at most, to study the sec-
tions revealed in the trenches. The significance of
certain horizons only became apparent as a result
of the subsequent laboratory analyses, by which
time the trenches had been back-filled.
A watching brief was maintained during the con-
struction of the cut-and-cover tunnel, but once the
major earth-moving operations were underway
there proved to be little scope for further sampling.
8
Important sections were created in the sides and at
the ends of the tunnel (close to the portals through
Castle Hill and Sugarloaf Hill). These were logged
and are described in detail in a later section.
(5) THE NATURE OF THE
INVESTIGATION
This project has been truly multidisciplinary. Its pri-
mary objective has been to reconstruct the
environmental history of Holywell Coombe from a
detailed study of the sedimentary succession and
from palaeoecological interpretations of the fossil
record. Other objectives have included an assess-
ment of the human impact on the site and a
description of its modern ecology. The following
key questions needed to be addressed:
(1) What is the nature of the sedimentary infill
and how, when and why did these sediments
accumulate?
(2) What were the depOSitional environments
and the climatic history?
(3) What was the composition of the animal and
plant communities and how did they develop?
(4) Did the communities change Simultaneously
or was there a phased response to any envi-
ronmental change?
(5) What was the spatial extent and variability of
each community?
(6) What was the human impact on the past and
present ecosystem?
Answers to some of these questions are pre-
sented in the pages that follow.
In Part Two, the environmental background of
the site is discussed. This includes a discussion of
the biogeographical context of the site and a
description of the solid geology and its effect on the
local geomorphology and nature of the Quaternary
sediments. The history of sea-level, which for ter-
restrial organisms governs access into Britain from
the continent, is reviewed. A brief account of the
present climate of the area is also given, based on
data obtained from the Meteorological Office and
collected at Folkestone between 1973 and 1991.
Part Three describes the geological succession
of the Quaternary sediments filling the valley. The
stratigraphical sequence has been reconstructed
from the results of the detailed borehole survey
together with data obtained from open sections.
The borehole data have also been used to build up
 Q Spring ~ Waler N
.' Borehole o sam
Trench/secHon
Transect

~
('i)

~
E'
~
~
\D ~
('i)

~.

~
~
~.
~
~
C·
;:s

Figure 1.4 Map of Holywell Coombe showing the location of the boreholes (numbered dots) and studied sections. Transect numbers are circled.
 Introduction
(a)
Figure 1.5 The percussion corer used to map the deposits at Holywell Coombe: (a) a drive; (b) jacking out the
probe.
a clear picture of the three-dimensional geometry
of the sedimentary infill. Sedimentological investi-
gations have involved petrographic study of all
major stratigraphic units. The mineral magnetic
properties of each sample from each of the princi-
pal profiles have been measured in order to throw
light on the provenance and weathering histories
of the sediments.
The palaeoecological data, discussed in Part Five,
have been used to reconstruct the various deposi-
tional environments and to provide amplification
of the climatic history of the site, inferred from a
study of the sediments. A systematic biostrati-
graphical study of the successions of plants and
animals not only provides a means of correlation
between each analysed profile, but also provides
answers to some of the questions above. A chronol-
ogy for these events has been provided by
radiocarbon dating using both conventional and
accelerator mass spectrometric CAMS) techniques
on a range of different materials. Because of the rel-
ative abundance of seeds and charcoal at several
levels, the opportunity has been taken to establish
the validity of dates based on other materials, such
10
as shell, by dating these from levels already dated
using standard plant remains. The radiocarbon
dates that provide the chronology for the site,
together with the results of these inter-compar-
isons, are discussed in Part Four.
These geological and palaeoecological investi-
gations have been combined with detailed
archaeological excavations, which are discussed in
Part Six. Evidence of human occupation is provided
by the occurrence of middens, a 'sunken way', post-
holes and ring ditches. Ard-marks made by primitive
ploughs provide direct evidence of agricultural
activity. The stratigraphical distribution of datable
artefacts in the hillwash, which itself may have an
anthropogenic origin resulting from forest clearance
and early agriculture, has provided an additional
chronology for this part of the sequence and a
check on some of the later radiocarbon dates.
The present form of Holywell Coombe and the
chalk escarpment surrounding it are largely the
result of geological processes that operated towards
the end of the last glacial stage. Similarly the plants
and animals that inhabit the area are partly the cul-
mination of natural processes of colonization and
 Nomenclature and terminology

succession since the Late-glacial, 13000 years ago,
and partly the result of human activities, which
have radically altered the environment during the
last 5000 years. The escarpment is now carefully
managed to maintain the chalk grassland and pre-
vent the spread of scrub. The present ecology of
the area is therefore a direct result both of these his-
torical processes and modern management
practices. Part Seven provides an account of the
present ecology of the chalk escarpment near
Folkestone, based largely on recent survey work
undertaken by various institutions contracted to
monitor the effects of the construction of the Chan-
nel Tunnel. The book concludes in Part Eight with
a general synthesis of all aspects of the geological,
archaeological and ecological work undertaken at
Holywell Coombe, which is then put into broader
context by comparisons with other sites in Britain
and mainland Europe.
(6) NOMENCLATURE AND
TERMINOLOGY
The Quaternary deposits that form the sedimentary
infill of Holywell Coombe accumulated during the
final part of the last glacial stage and throughout
the Post-glacial period. These periods of time have
been subdivided using various criteria and both
formal and informal names have been given to each
sub-stage. The term 'Late Devensian' refers to the
youngest sub-stage of the Devensian, or last, glacial
stage and is defined as the period of time from
26 000 to 10 000 radiocarbon years before present
(BP) (Mitchell et at., 1973). The major feature of the
Late Devensian was the expansion of the last ice
sheet to affect the British Isles. This at its maximum
extent during the Dimlington Stadial, between
13 000 and 26 000 yr BP (Rose, 1985), covered over
two-thirds of the present land area of the country.
The period immediately following the wastage of
the last ice sheet has been called the 'Devensian
Late-glacial' (usually abbreviated to simply 'Late-
glacial'), which was a transitional period from the
climatic severity of the Dimlington Stadial to the
markedly warmer conditions that heralded the
beginning of the Post-glacial period. There is a
wealth of evidence (geomorphological, lithostrati-
graphical and biostratigraphical) to indicate that
this was not a simple transition from cold to tem-
perate conditions. Early work undertaken in
Denmark suggested that two warm intervals,
termed the 'B011ing' and 'Aller0d' interstadials,
were separated by two cold phases, the interven-
ing 'Older Dryas' and 'Younger Dryas' periods,
immediately following the 'Aller0d' (Iversen,
1954). The cold period immediately preceding the
B0lling was termed the 'Oldest Dryas', although its
lower boundary was never satisfactorily defined.
These periods were assigned to a numbered series
of pollen zones (Table 1.1).
These stratigraphical terms, and their accompa-
nying pollen zones, were subsequently applied to
Late-glacial sequences over large areas of NW
Europe, including the British Isles. The numbered
pollen zones were even applied to sequences that
lacked pollen altogether, demonstrating a confu-
sion of stratigraphical concepts.

Table 1.1 British and European subdivisions of the Late-glacial (after Iversen, 1954; Mangerud et at., 1974;
Lowe and Gray, 1980; Coope and Pennington, 1977 and Rose, 1985). Note that Mangerud et at. (1974) regarded
the Late-glacial as equivalent to the Late Weichselian beginning at 13000 yr BP, but most other authors define
the base of the Late Devensian at 26 000 yr BP. The period of the last glacial maximum in Britain between 26 000
and 13000 yr BP has recently been termed the Dimlington Stadial (Rose, 1985)
14Cyears Pollen NWEuropean NWEuropean British Usage
BP zones chronozones climatostratigraphic units
IV Preboreal Flandrian (early part) Flandrian (early part)
10000
Transition
III Younger Dryas Loch Lomond Stadial
Younger Dryas Stadial
11 000
II Allen<ld
11800 Transition
Ic Older Dryas
12000 Windermere Interstadial
Ib Bolling Late glacial Interstadial
13000
Ia Middle
Weichselian Transition Dimlington Stadial

11
 Introduction
More recent work has necessitated a complete
reappraisal of this classic scheme. First, recent
pollen analytical studies, mostly in upland Britain,
have generally failed to distinguish two separate
interstadials. This largely results from the fact that
at many of these sites no clear evidence for the
'Older Dryas' could be found. Second, studies of
the fossil beetles showed that the thermal optimum
occurred not during the 'Allerod', as generally sup-
posed, but during the earlier 'Bolling Interstadial'
(Coope, 1969). These new findings led to the aban-
donment of this terminology. Instead, the entire
interval from the beginning of the 'Bolling' to the
end of the 'Allerod' came to be regarded as a single
episode, variously termed the 'Windermere'
(Coope and Pennington, 1977) or 'Lateglacial Inter-
stadial' (Lowe and Gray, 1980). The following cold
episode (the Younger Dryas) was formally named
the Loch Lomond Stadial. Much debate surrounded
the definition of the boundaries between these sub-
stages, as the palaeobotanical response apparently
lagged behind that of the insects and lithological
boundaries, as will be seen, were found to be unre-
liable guides to climatic history.
A similar proposal to regard the 'Bolling-Allerod'
interval as a single episode has recently been
advanced by Broecker (1992). He suggested that
the boundaries marking the onset and ending of
this interval should be defined by the mid-points of
the stable isotope (oxygen or deuterium) shifts rec-
ognized in the oxygen isotope records from
Greenland ice (Dansgaard and Oeschger, 1989),
North Atlantic foraminifera (Bard et ai., 1987) and
lake sediments (Ammann and Lotter, 1989), which
mark the abrupt warming at about 12 700 yr BP and
the abrupt cooling at about 10 800 yr BP.
Although it is often difficult to distinguish
'Bolling' and 'Allerod' phases in both marine and
lake sediments, this is not the case in the sedimen-
tary infills of several dry Valleys. Here there is not
only a clear lithostratigraphical separation of the
two organic levels, but diagnostic biostratigraphi-
cal differences were found between the upper and
lower interstadial horizons (Kerney, 1963, 1965;
Preece, 1992a).
It should be stressed that the climatic history of
the period between the end of the 'BOlling' and the
beginning of the Younger Dryas was far from
simple and appears to have undergone a number
of small-scale and short-lived oscillations. These
appear to have varied markedly, with strong signals
being recorded in some areas and weaker ones in
others (Lowe et ai., 1994). For example, evidence
12
of cooling at or shortly before 12 000 yr BP has
been recognized in several regions of Europe. In
Switzerland this has been termed the Aegelsee
Oscillation (Lotter et ai., 1992). A later cooling
episode at about 11 000 yr BP, termed the
Gerzensee Oscillation, has been inferred from
oxygen isotope data from Late-glacial sediments
from numerous Swiss lakes, which reveal a consis-
tent drop in the 180/ 160 ratio just before the onset
of the Younger Dryas (Eicher and Siegenthaler,
1976; Lotter et ai., 1992). A similar, or possibly
identical, short but intense cold period preceding
the Younger Dryas, dated to between 11 160 and
10 910 yr BP and termed the Killarney Oscillation,
has recently been recognized in eastern North
America (Levesque et ai., 1993; Cwynar and
Levesque, 1995). The amplitude of these oscilla-
tions varies both within and between regions, so
that one area may record a strong signal for oscilla-
tion at 12000 yr BP or 11 000 yr BP, but not both.
Moreover many regions also indicate a series of
lesser temperature oscillations between these dates
(Lowe et ai., 1994).
An independent stratigraphical terminology has
been proposed for 'soil stratigraphic units'. The
prominent buried soil within the Late-glacial
sequence at Pitstone, Buckinghamshire, first
described under the name 'Allerod soil' by Evans
(1966), has recently been formally named the 'Pit-
stone Soil' and selected as the type site for this
episode of pedogenesis in southern England (Rose
et ai., 1985).
A problem thus exists concerning the strati-
graphical terminology that should be employed at
Holywell Coombe and how this might be defined.
In a paper reviewing the proposed terminology of
the Quaternary stratigraphy of Norden, Mangerud
et ai. (1974) persisted with the classic stratigraphi-
cal nomenclature but regarded each division as a
chronozone whose boundaries were clearly
defined using radiocarbon dating (Table 1.1). A
chronozone is a chronostratigraphical unit defined
as 'a body of rock strata that is unified by being the
rocks formed during a specific interval of geologic
time' (Hedberg, 1976). Thus the boundaries of
chronostratigraphical units are isochronous and, in
theory, everywhere the same age. The basis for the
time span of a chronozone may be the time range
of a biostratigraphic unit, or of a lithostratigraphic
unit, or of any other feature that has a time range,
or it may be any purely arbitrary but specified inter-
val of strata, provided it has features allowing
time-correlation with stratal sequences elsewhere
(Hedberg, 1976).
 Storage and archive
This chronostratigraphical subdivision of the
Late Devensian (= Late Weichselian) would appear
to offer a useful and potentially unambiguous ter-
minology that can be applied to the succession at
Holywell Coombe (fable 1.1). In adopting this ter-
minology it is appreciated that the 'birch zone' at
B0llings0, the type site of the 'B0lling Interstadial',
has a lower boundary dated at -12 300 yr BP (ct.
Mangerud et al., 1974: 117) and is therefore not
equivalent to the base of the B0lling Chronozone
as used here. Moreover, Mangerud et al. (1974)
also include the 'Oldest Dryas' within their B0lling
Chronozone (= 'B011ing' sensu lato), but it was
decided to restrict this term to the interstadial
period (= 'B011ing' sensu stricto) between
12-13000 yr BP. It is also necessary to be aware of
the dangers of transferring climatostratigraphical
schemes derived in one region to other areas,
since it is becoming clear that the timing (or even
direction) of climatic changes in different regions
is not necessarily identical (Lowe et al., 1994;
Coope and Lemdahl, 1995). Nevertheless, a deci-
sion was taken to persist with a slightly modified
version of the Mangerud et al. (1974) scheme
(fable 1.1), rather than proposing an entirely new
nomenclature. In the adopted scheme, the
'B011ing' and 'Aller0d' are recognized as distinct
phases of the 'Late-g!acial Interstadial' (sensu Lowe
and Gray, 1980). Although, at Holywell Coombe,
there is clear evidence for climatic deterioration at
about 12 100 yr BP, before the period of stability
reflected by the 'Aller0d soil', the use of the term
'Older Dryas' has been deliberately avoided. It is
clear, even at Holywell Coombe, that the climatic
history during this time was not simple and the use
of the term 'Older Dryas' would, it is believed, only
result in confusion. The correlation of the 'Aller0d
13
soil' at Folkestone with the Pitstone soil in Buck-
inghamshire is probable but still provisional. This
will be discussed further in a later section.
The term 'Flandrian' has commonly been used to
refer to the youngest stage of the British Quater-
nary succession (Mitchell et al., 1973), but since it
has never been properly defined in the type area
its use cannot be recommended (ct. Mangerud and
Berglund, 1978). Instead the term 'Post-glacial',
which is used synonymously with 'Holocene', has
been retained here to refer to the period covering
the last 10 000 radiocarbon years. Dates are
expressed as uncalibrated radiocarbon years BP,
except in Part Six where the archaeological
sequence is discussed in terms of calibrated
ages Be.
(7) STORAGE AND ARClDVE
Most of the fossils, together with unprocessed sed-
iment samples and thin sections from all of the
studied sections, have been deposited in the Uni-
versity Museum of Zoology, Cambridge. The mite
remains have been retained by Dr]. Schelvis. The
archaeological artefacts are lodged with the Can-
terbury Archaeological Trust at their premises in
Canterbury. Several large monoliths were taken
through critical parts of the sequence. These were
specially impregated for exhibition purposes and
were formerly on display at the Eurotunnel Exhibi-
tion Centre at Cheriton. Following the closure of
the Centre in 1996, these have been put in storage
at the same site.
Written archives relating to the archaeological
excavations are kept in Canterbury (CAT premises)
and borehole records are archived in Cambridge.
 PART TWO

Environmental Background
R. c. Preece and D.R. Bridgland
 Palaeogeographical context

(1) LOCATION OF TIlE SITE were carried out on sites in the neighbouring valley
west of Castle Hill (Fig. 2.2).
Folkestone is situated in the extreme south-east of
England, in East Kent, at the eastern ends of the
Weald and the North Downs. The Chalk escarp- (2) PALAEOGEOGRAPmCAL
ment immediately north of Folkestone contains a CONTEXT
number of impressive coombe valleys (Fig. 2.1).
Although the ecological work discussed in Part The extreme south-east of England has always been
Seven was carried out over the whole of the Folke- regarded as a key area for the history of the British
stone - Etchinghill SSSI (Fig. 2.2), the main focus fauna and flora. It is that part of the country that
of the geological and archaeological investigations lies closest to the continental mainland, only 34 km
reported here relates to the valley (national grid ref- distant at its closest point (Fig. 1.2), and it is via
erence TR 220379) between Castle Hill and former land-bridges in this region that many of the
Sugarloaf Hill. In fact, this area is occupied by two early colonists (humans, other animals and plants)
small valleys, Holywell Coombe proper, which are likely to have entered Britain. Hitherto there
skirts the western flank of Sugarloaf Hill, and an have been few sites in this crucial region that have
unnamed western limb flanking the east of Castle provided detailed fossil records to test whether this
Hill, at the head of which is Horseshoe Spring (Fig. was the case. The information documented here
2.3). In this volume this is referred to as the Horse- from Holywell Coombe has now given us our clear-
shoe Spring valley. Although most of the work was est insight into the faunal and vegetational history
undertaken in this general area, some additional of this critical region available to date.
investigations, such as those at Cherry Garden, Before presenting this in detail in Part Five, it is

"''''''''n, , I }

,
~J } , ~

"
I ".
I ".
~ \ I I {
""1'''''''' I \ I
, "'t,.,.>, \
'\ I
\
\
\ ,
\
\
/ I
>, \ \ \
">
( \
\
,\.:J
\.~ .....
\ \I
\ I
.,~\''''''\
....
",,\ \
I
I -,
~ I, \
I
., /1, \ I \

,\
I \
~¥ ( I, I
I
I

,
, I

,
I f \
.' I I
I ~
\
,,
I { ". \
\ I
,'I \ \
~1 I
/ \\ \ .-
,/"'" I
I I ".
I I /,'
\
I ".
,
,./ , //'

/ ,.7/
I I
I ./
~Cliffline HOlywell
Coombe
~ Hythe Beds scarp

~
1~~lrr" Chalk scarp

n Coombe
'- --, Dry valley
• Spring ~~\~/~
L-..L..-..........I...-..........J'
skm
~ Romney Marsh

Figure 2.1 Geomorphological context of Holywell Coombe in relation to other coombe valleys along the south-east-
em extremity of the North Downs scarp. The box in the south-eastem comer denotes the area covered by Fig. 2.2.

17
 Environmental background

Figure 2.2 Detail of the chalk escarpment near Folkestone, showing the location of critical sites mentioned in the
text. The area of south-facing scarp shown on this map approximately coincides with the Folkestone-Etchinghill
SSSI.

necessary to review the palaeogeographical and
sea-level history of the region to establish when the
land connection with the continental mainland was
severed and Britain became an island. It is widely
believed that a chalk escarpment, the northern
limb of the Weald-Artois anticline, formerly
extended continuously from the North Downs of
Kent into northern France. This situation, with
Britain forming a peninsula of the European conti-
nent, persisted from the Early to the Middle Pleis-
tocene, when the chalk ridge was breached,
possibly as an indirect consequence of glaciation
(Gibbard, 1995). The resultant channel, occupied
by the Rhine-Thames river during periods of low
sea-level, has presumably been widened by coastal
erosion during sucessive interglacials. The history
of British insularity during the Quaternary has
recently been extensively reviewed (preece, 1995).

N
A
Water

// Valley axis
/

,
,/ Earthworks
$'

Figure 2.3 Geomorphological map of the study area showing the form of the double valley feature of Holywell
Coombe and Horseshoe Spring. Hachuring has been used to show the main slope elements. The positions of landslips,
valley axes and the gap (col) through the crest of the escarpment are all shown. CH =Castle Hill; RH =Round Hill; SH
=Sugarloaf Hill.

18
 Palaeogeographical context

...... .

. . (Z
. . . . · · · ~: i·
' .
.:, .. ;':
~:~

;::::.~. ~ ""$

\....... ..•. : ..~.... Dogger Bank

··h···· ... :· .:..... ,----.......

12,000 yr BP 9,000 yr BP
- - - 10,300 yr BP 8 ,700 yr BP
~
~-~

:' .......f::::::::::·
\ :' Dogger Bank .:::..~.:.:) Dogger Bank
..... !.......

.............. 8,300 yr BP I. . . . . . . 7 ,800 yr BP I

Figure 2.4 North Sea shorelines at various stages during the Late-glacial and early Post-glacial (after ]elgersma, 1979).
Note that the Strait of Dover was flooded by about 8700 yr BP but that the Haisborough-Terschelling rise to the north
was still dry land, finally being breached by 8300 yr BP.

Despite the fact that East Kent lies closest to the
continent, the last land connection to be severed
by rising sea-level during the early Post-glacial prob-
ably existed further north. A submerged ridge, the
Haisborough-Terschelling rise, has been recog-
nized beneath the North Sea between Lincolnshire
and the Netherlands (Gregory, 1927; Fig. 2.4). This
ridge is thought to be formed from sediments
emplaced during the last glaciation (praeg, 1994),
so it would not have existed as a possible land-
bridge earlier in the Pleistocene.
Precise details of the amount of glacio-eustatic
lowering of sea-level during the last glacial maxi-
mum, about 18 000 yr ago, are not known, but it is
estimated to have been in the order of 130 m. The
western coastline of the North Sea must have stood
many kilometres north-east of the present shore
(Fig. 2.4). The southern North Sea Basin is an area
of net subsidence and it is important to remember
that the relative sea-level history represents the
combined effects of tectonic, eustatic and isostatic
movements. The magnitude of these individual
effects is not easy to establish.
Around 18000 yr BP, the land ice started to

19
 Environmental background
retreat and sea-level began to rise. Calculations
based on the ice volume during the Late-glacial sug-
gest that mean sea-level would have been some
90 m below the present level and that the shoreline
at 12000 yr BP must have been close to the north-
ern side of the Dogger Bank (Fig. 2.4). The
southern part of the North Sea was probably dry
land for much or all of the Late-glacial, because the
lowest parts of the present floor lie at elevations
just below -60 m. Evidence in support ofthis sug-
gestion occurs in the vicinity of Sandettie Bank,
where a Weichselian (Devensian) sand deposit,
overlain by a Late Weichselian clay, contains a
freshwater molluscan fauna (Oele and Kirby, 1976).
Far more information is available for the contin-
ued sea-level rise during the early Post-glacial (e.g.
]elgersma, 1979; Devoy, 1982). Boreholes along the
line of the Channel Tunnel have encountered
wood peat at -37.0 m OD and -36.5 mOD, radio-
carbon-dated to 10 350 ± 120 and 9920 ± 120 yr BP
respectively (Shephard-Thorn, 1975). Similar mate-
rial from Tilling Green in the Rother Valley, at
-22.5 mOD, has given a date of 9595 ± 120 yr BP,
and from Langney Point near Eastbourne, at
-24.9 mOD, a date of 8760 ± 75 yr BP has been
obtained (Shephard-Thorn, 1975). The final flood-
ing of the Strait of Dover has been estimated at
8250 ± 300 yr BP, based on a date from organic
material below marine deposits in the region
(Delibrias et al., 1974; Heyworth and Kidson,
1982). However, this may not have been the last
link between Britain and the continent, as the Hais-
borough-Tershelling Rise is likely to have remained
Figure 2.5 Geological map of the Folkestone area (modified from maps prepared by the British Geological Survey).
20
dry land until somewhat later (cf. Bridgland and
D'Olier, 1995).
(3) SOLID GEOLOGY
Folkestone is situated near the eastern end of the
Wealden anticline, the well-known structure that
gives rise to the west-east outcrop pattern of Cre-
taceous strata in south-east England. The oldest of
these rocks, the Hastings Beds, form the central
'High Weald', with progressively younger forma-
tions outcropping to the north and south. The soft
Weald and Gault Clays form the major vales,
whereas the Lower Greensand and the Chalk give
rise to escarpments, in the latter case the North and
South Downs. Folkestone lies at the eastern end of
the North Downs although, as discussed above, this
escarpment formerly extended into Northern
France. In the immediate vicinity of Folkestone the
following formations outcrop (Fig. 2.5):
Gault Clay. In general, the Gault consists of stiff
blue clay, with phosphatic and pyritic nodules both
in layers and dispersed in the clay. The type section
of the Gault is commonly regarded as that at Copt
Point (TR 243365) near Folkestone. Lower and
Upper divisions of the Gault have been defined.
The Lower Gault, about 9 m (30 ft) consists of dark
grey clay or silty clay, mostly non-calcareous, over a
thin bed of glauconitic sandy clay with many phos-
phatic nodules. The latter includes the misnamed
'Sulphur Bed', an iron-rich phosphatic nodule bed
deriving its name from yellow alteration products
t
N
o kllomotres
o Land.llp ~ lowe, and M iddle Chalk
D UndlUerenl18ted Drift - - Glauconi tiC Mati
[I] Coombe DepO SIts ~ OaullClay
~ Lasl In terg lacial DepoS its [ill Folkestone Beds
o Pliocene Sands • Sand gale Bed.
 Geomorphology
of pyrite (principally limonite) which encrust the
nodules. The Upper Gault, about 23 m (75 ft) thick,
has a similar texture, but is lighter grey and domi-
nantly calcareous; it includes another thin
phosphatic, slightly glauconitic nodule bed.
Although the base of the Gault can be recognized
with precision, the Gault-Lower Chalk boundary is
often difficult to establish and this had led to uncer-
tainties and discrepancies regarding the recorded
thicknesses of the unit. In the vicinity of Folkestone
the Gault is estimated to be about 43 m (140 ft)
thick.
Chalk. In the immediate neighbourhood of Folke-
stone only the lower divisions of the Chalk are
represented; they form the lower slopes and scarp
of the North Downs. Boreholes sunk in connection
with the Channel Tunnel project have provided
revised thicknesses for the divisions of the Chalk
(R.N. Mortimore, pers. comm.).
Lower Chalk. This formation consists of marly
chalk, dark grey at the base and becoming progres-
sively lighter grey upwards to greyish white near
the top. These colour differences reflect changes
in the proportion of non-calcareous matter, which
decreases from about 50% at the base to only about
10% at the top. At the base a relatively thin bed (up
to about 3 m thick) of 'Glauconitic Marl' (termed
the 'Chloritic Marl' by early workers) is present.
This is overlain by Chalk Marl, Grey Chalk, then
White Chalk and finally Plenus Marl, forming the
remainder of the Lower Chalk. The thickness of the
Lower Chalk increases eastwards along the escarp-
ment, so that in the vicinity of Wye it is about 69 m
(225 ft), between Etchinghill and Peene, 73 m (240
ft), and at Folkestone Warren it is 79 m (258 ft).
Middle Chalk. This is about 76 m (250 ft) thick,
nodular and gritty at the base becoming slightly
flinty towards the top, with up to 5% insoluble
residue. It forms the main scarp near Folkestone.
The basal Melbourn Rock consists of about 2-3 m
(6-10 ft) of hard nodular chalk overlain by gritty
shell beds.
Further details are given by Smart et al. (1966).
(4) GEOMORPHOLOGY
(a) Regional context
The solid geology is not only the source for most
of the Quaternary sediments found in the valleys,
21
but also has a profound influence on the geomor-
phology. A description of the regional
geomorphology of the North Downs escarpment,
in relation to the Late-glacial and Post-glacial sedi-
ments at Brook, about 16 km north-west of
Folkestone, was provided by Kerney et al. (1964).
They noted the west-east distribution of river gaps
utilized by the Wey, Mole, Darent, Medway and
Stour and that the easternmost three of these 'have
substantial funnel like entrances opening to the
south' (Kerney et al., 1964: 136). Four major dry
gaps, interpreted as possibly of fluvial origin, were
also recognized, including one at 'Sugarloaf' that
coincides with the head of the valley at Holywell
Coombe. Another was noted at Coombe Farm, 5
km to the north-east. The rivers that once flowed
through these gaps would presumably have been
precursors of the Alkham Valley river (now dry)
and the Little Stour, respectively (Fig. 2.1).
Kerney et al. (1964) cited the 'Sugarloaf' dry gap
as an example of a col through the escarpment that
leads into a coombe (Holywell Coombe) in the
scarp face, forming a small funnel-like feature.
Comparable examples were noted at Stowting (TR
126434), about 12 km north-west of the 'Sugarloaf'
(Holywell) coombe, and at Pebble and Colekitchen
coombes in Surrey. Such cols were termed passes
by Fagg (1954), who described in detail a similar
feature at Westwell, north-west of Ashford (Fig.
2.1). Kerney et al. recognized numerous other
coombes, ranging in shape from funnels to 'mere
scallops' and differing from those mentioned above
in that the scarp crest behind them is unbroken.
They also noted other minor cols, but thought
these likely to have formed as the result of scarp
retreat (ct. Small, 1961). They apparently disre-
garded the feature described by Fagg at Westwell,
which is situated only 6 km to the north-west of
the Stour Gap.
The implication of the above interpretation of the
col at 'Sugarloaf' is that Holywell Coombe, which
has formed on the scarp side of this col, may have
origins in a former fluvial route through the escarp-
ment, presumably one of considerable antiquity.
The theory that dry gaps through the North Downs
may once have been occupied by rivers has a sub-
stantialliterature (e.g. Wooldridge and Linton, 1955;
Worssam, 1973). Fagg (1954) regarded the col at
Westwell as a former through-route once occupied
by a northward-draining river, a precursor of the
stream that formed the dry valley cut into the dip
slope immediately to the north. The theory is par-
ticularly well founded in the case of the gap at
 Environmental background
Merstham, Surrey, which leads northwards into a
dry tributary of the River Wandle. The modern
WandIe is entirely confined to the north of the
downs, but high-level gravels in the Croydon area,
of apparent early WandIe origin, contain Greensand
chert (Prestwich, 1890; Dewey and Bromehead,
1921) and thus point to a former catchment extend-
ing south of the Chalk escarpment (Peake, 1982,
1983). Theories for the evolution of the trellised
drainage system of the Weald point to river capture
by neighbouring north-flowing streams as the likely
mechanism whereby the WandIe lost its headwaters
south of the Chalk escarpment (e.g. Wooldridge
and Linton, 1939, 1955; Worssam, 1973). The high-
level gravels of the Croydon area are of probable
Early Pleistocene age; their relation to the terraces
of the Wandle system suggests that the route
through the North Downs was abandoned by the
Middle Pleistocene, although Peake (1983) sug-
gested that it may have persisted as late as the
Anglian Stage. The morphology of the Merstham
gap is significantly more impressive than that at
'Sugarloaf'; although the differences in height
between the floor of the col and the crest of the
escarpment are comparable (134 m and 185 m OD
at Merstham and 109 m and 165 m OD at 'Sugar-
loaf'), the Merstham gap is around 0.5 km wide,
whereas that at 'Sugarloaf' is about half that figure.
If both cols relate to former fluvial breaches in the
escarpment, that at Folkestone was presumably cut
by a smaller river or by a river that lost its headwa-
ters earlier than did the Wandle. The close
comparability of depth below the scarp crest
between the two features would seem to argue
against the latter option. An early beheading would,
however, explain the paucity of evidence, such as
high-level gravels, for an ancient fluvial course
through the area of the Alkham Valley. The prox-
imity to the Channel coast may also be a factor in
the removal of such evidence. Indeed, the Strait of
Dover is itself thought to occupy the position of a
former north-east flowing river, an eastern neigh-
bour of the Kentish Stour. The valley of this
hypothetical river, named the Lobourg by Stamp
(1927), is thought to have been utilized by the
south-westward flowing Rhine-Thames River sub-
sequent to the breach of the Chalk escarpment
(Gibbard, 1995; Bridgland and D'Olier, 1995). It
would perhaps have been the Lobourg river, and/or
the East Stour, that captured the headwaters of the
hypothetical stream that cut the 'Sugarloaf' gap.
Kerney et al. (1964) also referred to a possible
wave-cut platform, of supposed Pliocene-Early
Pleistocene age, near the scarp crest. In this they
22
followed Wooldridge and Linton (1955), who rec-
ognized this platform on the Chilterns as well as
the North Downs. In recent years the interpreta-
tion of this feature on both escarpments has been
severely questioned, most authors attributing such
breaks of slope to structural and/or lithological fac-
tors (Docherty, 1967; Jones, 1974; Catt and
Hodgson, 1976; John, 1980; Moffat et al., 1986).
Many of the high-level deposits formerly associated
by Wooldridge (1927; Wooldridge and Linton,
1939, 1955) with Pliocene-Early Pleistocene
marine activity have been reinterpreted as early flu-
viatile depOSits, their marine characteristics
(rounded pebbles and sand grains with character-
istic surface markings) inherited from the
Palaeogene strata of the London Basin (Bridgland,
1994). There is evidence for a Late Tertiary marine
incursion into East Kent, however, in the form of
sands attributed to the Pliocene on the geological
map (Fig. 2.5). These may be equivalent to the
Lenham Beds, which occur in the area east of Maid-
stone as small remnants near the crest of the North
Downs and in solution pipes within the Chalk.
They have an extensive literature, much of which
debates whether they should be assigned to the
Miocene or the Pliocene (e.g. Worssam, 1963;
Cooper, 1980). The present consensus favours a
Miocene age. In the first description of the deposits
later to be called Lenham Beds, Prestwich (1858
p.323) recorded these sediments at various loca-
tions on the North Downs of west Kent and near
Maidstone 'and thence, in increasing importance,
to the Downs above Folkestone'. According to
Prestwich, sections 'on the top of the Hill on the
Dover Road' were amongst the best available at
that time. Another important locality, at Pad-
dlesworth (TR 200397), was first described by
Prestwich (1858, p. 324) who recorded 9-12 m of
ferruginous sands with 'blocks of iron-sandstone'.
Some of the latter yielded pieces of fossil wood
bored by Teredo. Wooldridge (1927, fig. 1) and
Wooldridge and Linton (1939, figs 11 and 15) also
indicated that the area between Ashford and Folke-
stone saw the optimum development of Pliocene
outliers, which they attributed to the Diestian (=
Deurnian of the Belgian Miocene succession).
These are described in greater detail in the Geo-
logical Survey Memoir (Smart et aI., 1966),
although here they are classified as 'Sand in Clay-
with-flints'. Unfortunately none of the recent
reviews of the Miocene-Early Pleistocene refers to
the evidence in the Folkestone area and a reap-
praisal of the high-level sands of this district is
badly needed.
 Geomorphology
Most of the discussion of the geomorphological
history of the North Downs has involved largely
theoretical notions of landscape evolution over the
whole of the Quaternary and even back into the
earlier Neogene. However, most of the empirical
evidence that can be applied to this subject comes
from the very latest part of the Quaternary and has
been derived from the study of sites like Holywell
Coombe. In this context the latter site can be
regarded as one of many North Downs scarp-face
coombes, but one that is atypical in that (a) it is a
double feature and (b) it appears to have devel-
oped at the site of a former gap through the
escarpment. Nevertheless, the data arising from the
present study may have some bearing on the long-
standing debate amongst geomorphologists about
the origin both of chalkland features of this sort
and of dry valleys in general. In both cases the
debate centres on the role of periglaciation. The
view that periglacial conditions provided both the
intensity of erosional and weathering processes and
the intermittent periods of high stream discharge
(resulting from the spring melt) needed for rapid
valley incision, at the same time as a frozen subsoil
kept stream water flowing on the surface rather
than underground, dates back to Clement Reid
(1887). It subsequently found support from Bull
(1940), Kerney et al. (1964), Brown (1966), Sheail
(1971), Paterson (1977) and Williams (1980).
Opponents of this view argued that processes such
as spring sapping and stream erosion could have
excavated all these features during periods when
water-tables were higher, either because the cli-
mate was wetter or prior to a regional lowering of
base-level by denudation; amongst their number
were Chandler (1909), Fagg (1923, 1954),
Pinchemel (1954), Small (1965) and Sparks and
Lewis (1957).
Reid (1887) was the first to recognize that the
coombe rock, which lines the lower sides and
floors of dry valleys and extends in lobes beyond
the mouths of scarp-face coombes, was formed by
the destruction of solid chalk in a periglacial cli-
mate. Indeed, studies of deposits surviving in
chalkland dry valleys, so often ignored by geomor-
phologists, provide the best evidence for settling
the debate over the origin of the erosional features.
Thus Kerney et al. (1964) favoured the periglacial
theory because at Brook they found that sediments
forming fans extending from the mouth of the Dev-
il's Kneadingtrough were largely of cold-climate
origin and could be attributed to the Devensian
Late-glacial. Similarly Paterson (1977), in a study of
scarp-face dry valleys in the Chilterns, near Wan-
23
tage, drew the same conclusions about deposits
lining the valley floors and forming fans beyond the
foot ofthe scarp.
Kerney et al. (1964) found that, despite its sub-
stantial volume, at least one third of the Devil's
Kneadingtrough would be infilled if the lobes of
sediment that extend from its mouth onto the floor
of the Vale of Holmesdale could be replaced into
the coombe. This is a minimum figure, as much
material is likely to have been removed by solution.
Since these lobes bury an early Late-glacial soil (see
Preece, 1994, for new radiocarbon dates), it is clear
that much of the Devil's Kneadingtrough has been
excavated since the Dimlington Stadial. The nature
of the sediments and their contained fossils clearly
indicates that this activity took place under
periglacial conditions and must be attributed to the
Younger Dryas.
A full comparison between the situation at Brook
and that at Holywell Coombe is not possible,
because the erosional feature at the latter is clearly
superimposed upon a much older one and also
because the lobes of sediment that extend south-
wards from the coombe continue well beyond the
area studied, so that no information about their
volume and content is available. However, a
number of important observations can be made.
First, and in contrast to the Devil's Kneadingtrough,
it will be shown later in this volume that early Late-
glacial deposits survive beneath the central
valley-floor of Holywell Coombe. This means that
the erosional feature here was clearly excavated to
its maximum extent prior to the Late-glacial; it
probably decreased in size during that period as a
result of solifluction and mass movement from the
surrounding slopes onto the valley floor, although
the main effect of these processes was to decrease
the steepness of the sides of the coombe. Second,
and this time in full agreement with the evidence
from Brook, the importance of cold-climate
processes in the erosion of the chalk and its redis-
tribution within superficial deposits is readily
apparent at Holywell Coombe, where about 70% of
the deposits lining the double valley feature are
attributable to Late-glacial solifluction (part Three).
Third, Holywell Coombe provides negative evi-
dence against the role of spring sapping and
temperate-climate stream erosion in dry valley for-
mation. That springs existed here during the late
Quaternary, as they do at present, is clearly evi-
denced by the tufa deposits that issued from them
during the early Post-glacial (part Three). However,
their role was clearly depositional rather than ero-
sional; indeed, the survival of these early Holocene
 Environmental background

tufas and other post-glacial deposits on the valley
floor shows that neither spring sapping, nor stream
erosion, nor any other erosional process has been
at all active at this site during the 10 000 years
since the end of the Devensian. This is in contrast
to the complete emptying of the valley during the
last glacial, so that not a trace of any pre-late-glacial
sediments survives. All of this suggests that the
erosion of such chalkland valleys takes place pref-
erentially during cold-climate episodes and not
during interglacials.
The only proviso to add is that the Holocene
cannot be seen as a typical interglacial, thanks to
the activities of human populations, so that the role
of anthropogenically induced slope instability and
resultant hillwash accumulation might need to be
added to the equation. Certainly, at Holywell
Coombe, burial by hillwash might have protected
the Late-glacial and early Post-glacial sediments
from erosion. Moreover, the swamping of valley
systems by hillwash might have prevented
processes that would have operated during normal
interglacials from operating during the later
Holocene. Nevertheless, there is no evidence that
spring sapping and stream erosion were operative
at Holywell Coombe during the early Post-glacial,
before the onset of hillwash formation, when more
'normal' interglacial conditions prevailed. In any
case, empirical evidence now suggests that most of
the valleys and coombes for which an explanation
is sought were either formed or greatly modified
during the Devensian, so any theory that requires
most of the erosion to have taken place during ear-
lier interglacials (as is also implicit if denudational
lowering of base level is to be invoked) is clearly
inadequate or, at best, relatively unimportant. Dry
valley and coombe genesis can probably be attrib-
uted in its entirety to the processes of enhanced
erosion that would have operated during periods
of periglaciation. It is likely that these processes
would have been most effective during the transi-
tions between full glacials and interglacials, when
there was optimum supply of meltwater.
(b) Local context
The complex concavity in the scarp face of the
North Downs that coincides with the study area,
bounded to the west by Castle Hill and to the east
by Sugarloaf Hill, comprises two principal ele-
ments, Holywell Coombe proper to the east and a

\ /·100
Round Hill
road
_ ~ :mo.o. A - 100
2 .~
Horseshoe Spring
mO.D .
. 100
A20
Location of transects - mO.D. I - 50

.50
11 : 3 B
-100
Round Hill
100·

mO.D.: mO.D.
- 100
50·. ·50

mO.D .
. 100
100·
. m 0.0.
mO.D.: - 50
: 50 track
50·
7 A260
\
100· ·100
- 100
mO.D mO.D. Holywell Coombe
50· ·50 mO.D.
100· ·100
A20
m 0.0.- mO.D. , - 50

50· ·50

Figure 2.6 Transverse profiles across the Holywell

Coombe and Horseshoe Spring valleys and along the
interfluve separating them. Profiles 1 to 11 are projec-
tions of the borehole transects with those same numbers
(See Fig. 1.4). The locations of the profiles are shown in
the inset
Figure 2.7 Longitudinal profiles along the axes of the
Holywell Coombe and Horseshoe Spring valleys and
along the interfluve separating them. The transect along
the Holywell Coombe valley floor is a projection of bore-
hole transect 7 (see Fig. 1.4).

24
 Geomorphology
subsidiary arm extending from Horseshoe Spring in
the north-west (Frontispiece; Fig. 2.3). To the north
of Holywell Coombe proper is the col, or dry gap,
in the scarp crest. Additionally the present spring
at Holy Well occupies a tributary coombe on the
north-eastern flank of Holywell Coombe proper
(Fig. 2.3). The heads of the Holywell Coombe and
Horseshoe Spring arms are separated by Round Hill.
Following the example of Kerney et al. (1964)
at Brook, transverse and longitudinal profiles of
the two arms of Holywell Coombe have been
drawn, as well as a long profile from Round Hill
down the intervening interfluve (Figs. 2.6 and
2.7). These reveal the Holywell Coombe branch
to be somewhat wider and substantially longer
than the Horseshoe Spring branch, although the
latter has the steeper back-face. Caution is
required in connection with this last observation,
however, in that the long profile of the Holywell
Coombe branch does not intersect with the true
back face of the coombe because of the west-
facing orientation of Holy Well itself (Fig. 2.3).
The steepest slopes in the study area are to be
found on the backwall of the Holy Well depres-
sion, which lies on the eastern flank of Holywell
Coombe facing west. The average slope angle
around the edges ofthis hollow is about 25°, with
minor slope elements above 30° and even 40°, the
steepest occurring on the north-eastern side,
where the feature eats into the scarp slope below
the Canterbury Road. The asymmetry of certain
chalkland dry valleys has been noted in the past
and related to aspect, with the steepest slopes
preferentially facing west or south-west (Ollier
and Thomasson, 1957; French, 1973). The form
of the Holy Well hollow within the larger Holy-
well Coombe feature would seem to conform
with this trend, which is ascribed to enhanced
frost weathering of such slopes as a result of
greater frequency and depth of thawing.
The most significant geological boundary to
affect the research area, the junction between the
Gault Clay (often with glauconitic sand facies in its
upper part) and the overlying Lower Chalk, has
little effect on the modern topography. This is
probably because the solid geology is everywhere
buried beneath colluvial deposits of considerable
thickness. Indeed, there is some indication of a
break in slope in the bedrock surface, beneath the
colluvium, that broadly coincides with this geolog-
ical boundary (Fig. 3.1, transects 1 and 2). The
occurrence of springs at or near this boundary,
where the porous Chalk overlies the impermeable
Gault, may have been instrumental in the location
25
of the scarp-face depression features under consid-
eration here.
The superposition of thick porous Chalk above
impervious and incompetent Gault Clay has given
rise to a high incidence of mass movement wher-
ever this sequence is exposed in steep sections.
Indeed Folkestone Warren, an area of collapsed
cliffs extending for over 3 km NE of the town, is
notorious for the frequency of landslips (Smart et
al., 1966). Over 30 landslides have affected the
Warren since the Dover-Folkestone railway was
constructed through the lower parts of the slipped
masses in 1844. The failures, involving rotational
slips within the Gault Clay, are thought to have
been initiated by the formation of sea-cliffs here as
the result of the Post-glacial rise of sea-level
(Hutchinson, 1969). A different mechanism was
envisaged for an event at Danton Farm (TR
191374) in 1891, where an 'avalanche' reSUlting
from rapid melting of snow destroyed a house
(McDakin, 1893). Scars resulting from ancient land-
slips can be recognized on the flanks of Sugarloaf
Hill and elsewhere along the Chalk escarpment and
displaced landslipped masses have been mapped
(Smart et aI., 1966; Griffiths et aI., 1995; Birch and
Griffiths, 1996; Fig. 2.5). A review of landslides
along the Folkestone-Etchinghill escarpment has
arisen as a result of the Channel Tunnel project,
particular attention being given to the complex
landslip feature on the western flank of Castle Hill
in which the portal was constructed (Griffiths et
al., 1995; Birch and Griffiths, 1996). Large masses
of displaced Gault Clay have been recognized
within the infill of the two valleys under consider-
ation here (Fig. 3.1). The dating of these landslips
and their effects on valley asymmetry will be dis-
cussed in Part Three.
Smaller-scale landscape features are the result of
both natural processes and human activity. Exam-
ples of the former include terracettes, which are
developed on some of the steeper chalk slopes,
particularly on the flanks of Round Hill. Ridge-and-
furrow field systems (Darville, 1986), resulting
from early agriculture, are an example of the latter.
Human influence on a larger scale is seen in the
impressive motte-and-bailey earthworks on Castle
Hill (Fig. 2.3). The top of Sugarloaf Hill also shows
the effects of human modification, from Romano-
British to post-Medieval times. Cuttings and
embankments for tracks and roads form significant
landscape features, many progressively enlarged
during the 20th century. The most modern anthro-
pogenic features are associated with the A20
extension, which crosses the Horseshoe Spring
valley on an embankment and enters a double
 Environmental background
tunnel by means of portals in the flank of Round
Hill (Figs. 1.2, 1.3(c», constructed after the field-
work for this project was completed.
(5) CLIMATE
Climate is one of the most important factors gov-
erning the distribution and frequency of species.
The effect of climate upon different species varies
widely and it may take years of research to deter-
mine the critical factor that has limited a particular
species to its present range. Morever, the limiting
factor may not be the same in different parts of the
range and in many cases it will be a combination of
factors that will be of importance. The following
factors are generally thought to be important.
(1) Mean of daily minimum temperature, Febru-
ary. The lowest mean temperatures occur in
February. In the British Isles minimum values
occur in eastern Scotland and England (1.1 0C),
and the lowest values in Ireland are found in
the north. In contrast, high values (4.4°C) are
confined to south and west Ireland and to
south-west England. The value for Folkestone
(104°C) is therefore close to the extreme lower
limit of the range. Its coastal location may have
benefitted from a moderating maritime influ-
ence and sites further inland may experience
an even harsher winter climate.
(2) Incidence offrost. It is probable that intoler-
ance of low winter temperatures involves at
least two factors. Many species are known to
be frost-sensitive and the ranges of several of
these become distinctly coastal towards their
northern limit. The other effect of low tem-
perature is to limit those species, mainly
plants, which use the winter and spring for
growth and become dormant during the heat
of the summer. These species are not neces-
sarily frost-sensitive but probably fail to
compete successfully after a series of cold
winters.
In the most recent period for which we
have records (1973-91), ground frost has
been recorded at Folkestone in every month
except July. The greatest incidence occurred
between November and March.
(3) Mean of daily mean temperature, July. The
range of many species appears to be governed
by a demand for high summer temperatures.
Conversely, many northern species appear to
be intolerant of such high summer tempera-
26
tures. July and August are the warmest
months and at Folkestone average daily means
for these months are 16.6 and 16.7°C respec-
tively, which are very close to the upper end
of the national average.
Both summer and winter temperatures are
affected by altitude, such that a temperature
difference of about 0.6°C could theoretically
be expected at anyone time between the
lowest and the highest points of the 100 m
high chalk escarpment. Small as this may
seem, the effect can be strongly enhanced by
hourly or daily accumulation of the differ-
ences.
(4) Rainfall/precipitation. Rainfall is another
factor that can have an important influence on
certain species. Its effect may not necessarily
be direct and must be considered in relation
to evaporation and humidity, which will also
determine the water regime of the soil and
hence the microclimates experienced by many
smaller species. Evaporation and humidity will
in turn be affected by the vegetation cover.
The total annual average rainfall at Folke-
stone is 743 mm, which is low compared to
the national average. However, the seasonal
distribution of rainfall, which governs the
length of drought periods, is often more
important than the total amount. The winter
months are the wettest, particularly October
and November (84 and 87 mm respectively),
whereas the driest month is May (45 mm).
The average number of rain-days (days with at
least 0.2 mm rain) is about 167 and there are
about 118 wet-days (days with at least 1.0 mm
rain). It must be remembered that these data,
although measured locally, refer to an open
site and that the microhabitats occupied by
many small plants and invertebrates will be
much more humid and less likely to dry out,
irrespective of the distribution of rainfall.
No figures are available on soil moisture
deficit (SMD), but data from the Ashford area
have been published by Hurst (1973), who
showed marked variability in the years under
study (1941-70). He found that there was a
tendency for maximum SMD to occur in July
or early August in wet years and in September
or October in dry years. This probably varies
locally with topography, aspect and soil char-
acteristics.
Cloud cover is correlated with rainfall.
Mists and fog are frequent and occur in all
months of the year. Besides maintaining a
 Climate
regionally high air humidity, which will pre-
vent transpiration and water loss from plants,
prolonged low cloud reduces incident radia-
tion and air temperature, and can also
potentially limit plant growth.
The duration of snow-lie varies greatly from
one winter to another, but has been reported
in each month from November to April
during the period under study (1973-91). In
an average year snow or sleet falls on about
15 days, but snow-lie at 0900 h occurs on only
about seven mornings, mostly in January and
February. These figures are somewhat higher
than those recorded from other inland sites in
Kent (philp, 1982). By reflecting up to 95% of
the incoming solar radiation, and adding sub-
stantially to the quantity of water held in the
surface soil if it melts rather than evaporates,
the persistence of even a light covering of
snow in early spring can seriously delay soil
warming and plant growth.
(5) Wind. The prevailing wind direction is from
the south-west, but there are no available data
from the immediate area on wind strength.
The aspect of the valley may cause a slight
funnelling effect for winds within a narrow
sector from south to south-south-west. The
slopes and crest of the chalk escarpment
would be most exposed. Exposure to strong
winds can have deleterious effects on plant
growth and cause stunting and marked wind-
shaping. Occasional storms can cause more
serious and long-term effects. The severe gale
of the 16th of October, 1987, for example,
caused enormous damage to the local wood-
lands and resulted in complete felling of some
smaller copses (Ogley, 1988).
Small quantities of impurities may also be
transferred by wind and rain to soil and vege-
tation. Down-wind of industrial areas these
may include pollutants such as soot and sul-
phur dioxide, the latter of which is known to
have limiting effects on the occurrence of
many lichens and perhaps some land snails
(e.g. Holyoak, 1978). According to the map
provided by Hawksworth and Rose (1976),
27
the Folkestone area appears to suffer only
moderate levels of sulphur dioxide pollution
with mean winter S02 levels between about
35-50 llg/m3. In coastal situations, onshore
winds may be salt-laden, but the effects of salt
damage are generally confined to the immedi-
ate coastal strip and are not discernible any
distance inland. Onshore winds can also
reduce the risk of frost by maintaining high
humidity and breaking up temperature inver-
sions and along much of the Channel coast
they can push convection cloud inland, caus-
ing large annual sunshine totals.
(6) Sunshine. The amount of solar radiation, of
which hours of sunshine is the commonest
index, is a function of latitude, which deter-
mines day length and also the angle of
elevation of the sun. Total hours of bright
sunshine recorded at the Folkestone meteor-
ological station are given in Table 2.1.
Holywell Coombe faces approximately south-
west and consequently may receive slightly
more sunshine than the meteorological station.
Meteorological data measured between 1973 and
1991 at the closest monitoring station to Holywell
Coombe, a site located at TR 214369, are presented
in Table 2.1. This station is at a slightly lower alti-
tude (31 m above mean sea-level) than the floor of
Holywell Coombe (about 50 m above mean sea-
level) and the temperature figures may therefore be
marginally higher than those actually experienced
within the valley. Once again it should be stressed
that different habitats within the valley will experi-
ence their own individual microclimates, which are
likely to differ from that measured at the monitor-
ing station. For a full treatment of the climate of the
British chalklands at various spatial scales, refer-
ence should be made to Smith (1980).
In summary, compared with the rest of the
British Isles, Kent has generally higher tempera-
tures in summer and has winter temperatures near
or a little below the national average. Rainfall is also
at the lower end of the national average, so that the
climate of Kent can be considered as warm, dry
and moderately continental.
 Table 2.1 Climatological data measured between 1973-1991 from Folkestone (fR 214369). The monitoring station is 31 m above mean sea-level. Data provided
by tbe Meterological Office
Climatological means and extremes - Part 1
No. of
Jan Feb Mar Apr May June July Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec Annual years
Temperature - degrees C
Absolute maximum 13.2 15.6 19.1 21.5 26.5 32.0 30.6 33.6 26.3 23.5 16.6 14.6 33.6 19
Average monthly maximum 11.3 11.2 13.9 17.8 22.5 24.2 26.8 26.1 22.7 19.1 14.8 12.7 28.01 19
Mean daily maximum 7.2 6.7 9.3 11.6 15.2 18.0 20.4 20.7 18.3 14.6 10.5 8.3 13.4 19
Average daily mean 4.5 4.0 6.1 7.9 11.4 14.2 16.6 16.7 14.4 11.3 7.5 5.7 10.1 19
Mean daily minimum 1.8 1.4 2.9 4.2 7.6 10.3 12.7 12.7 10.6 7.9 4.5 3.2 6.7 19
Average monthly minimum -4.9 -4.6 -3.2 -2.0 1.3 4.7 7.3 6.7 4.8 1.5 -2.4 -3.3 -6.82 19
Absolute minimum -12.4 -14.5 -5.9 -4.5 -1.9 0.0 4.2 3.1 2.1 -1.6 -6.3 -7.5 -14.5 19
Highest minimum 10.1 9.8 10.5 11.8 16.3 18.5 20.2 21.7 17.7 15.4 13.6 11.7 21.7 19
Lowest maximum -4.7 -4.0 0.7 4.4 7.6 11.7 13.7 14.7 12.0 7.0 2.2 -2.8 -4.7 19
N
00
Precipitation - millimetres
Monthly average amount 74 48 62 49 45 54 49 49 70 84 87 72 743 19
Wettest month on record 154.8 91.5 146.0 123.4 97.8 117.2 159.1 108.0 182.7 184.8 185.5 150.8 910.7 19
Driest month on record 25.7 15.3 4.4 10.9 3.9 16.4 16.2 3.9 15.4 9.4 17.5 19.0 569.9 19
Maximum fall in 24 hrs 32.2 22.3 55.2 27.5 27.4 34.0 45.4 32.2 67.6 37.1 39.0 37.0 67.6 19

Sunshine - hours
Monthly average 66 85 121 185 208 224 231 235 168 124 84 59 1810 19
Sunniest month on record 93.3 132.9 177.1 269.8 334.8 306.7 312.6 312.9 199.1 153.3 146.6 87.2 2216.7 19
Dullest month on record 42.9 41.7 66.8 134.2 160.4 144.3 169.4 181.4 125.4 77.6 48.2 34.0 1535.0 19
Sunniest day on record 8.5 9.7 11.5 14.3 15.0 15.7 15.3 13.8 12.3 10.4 8.9 7.6 15.7 19
No. of days with-
nil sunshine 11.9 8.4 6.4 3.0 1.6 2.1 1.1 0.9 2.6 5.5 8.8 12.2 64.5 19
9 hr or more sunshine 0.0 0.6 3.6 9.6 13.1 12.2 12.7 13.6 7.6 2.5 0.0 0.0 75.5 19
1 Average of the highest value(s) in every year.
2 Average of the lowest value(s) in every year.
 Table 2.1 Continued
Climatological means and extremes - Part 2
No. of
Jan Feb Mar Apr May June July Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec Annual years
No. of days with:
Air frost (min <0 C) 9.5 9.4 5.5 2.7 0.6 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.3 0.6 6.0 37.6 19
Ground frost (g. min <0 C) 16.4 16.8 13.9 9.5 2.5 0.2 0.0 0.1 0.4 3.0 11.3 13.6 87.6 18
"Snow/sleet falling 4.1 3.6 2.8 1.6 0.2 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.9 1.8 15.0 18
Snow lying at 09 h GMT 2.6 3.6 0.4 0.2 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.3 0.4 7.4 19
*Thunder heard 0.3. 0.4 0.2 0.5 1.3 1.8 1.9 2.2 1.7 1.1 0.8 0.4 12.6 18
N "Hail (>5 mm diam.) 0.2 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.2 1.4 18
\0
"Ice pellets «5 mm diam.) 0.4 0.4 0.6 0.7 0.4 0.1 0.0 0.1 0.0 0.2 0.1 0.2 3.1 18
Fog at 09 h GMT 0.8 1.1 0.8 0.3 0.5 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.2 0.2 0.3 0.4 5.9 19
"Gale (34 kn for 10 min) 4.8 2.3 2.8 1.1 0.5 0.1 0.2 0.7 2.2 2.8 3.7 4.4 25.5 19
Precip. 0.2 mm or more 17.8 13.3 16.3 13.5 11.9 12.6 11.1 10.5 12.8 14.4 16.7 15.7 166.6 19
Precip. 1.0 mm or more 12.9 9.6 11.6 8.6 8.1 9.1 7.9 6.9 9.2 10.9 11.4 11.6 117.9 19
Precip. 5.0 mm or more 5.2 3.7 4.7 3.2 2.9 3.4 3.5 2.9 4.2 5.5 5.8 5.1 50.2 19
Precip. 10 mm or more 1.9 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.0 1.2 1.3 1.7 1.8 2.8 2.9 1.8 19.4 19
Precip. 25 mm or more 0.1 0.0 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.2 0.1 0.5 0.3 0.5 0.1 2.2 19
• At any time during the civil day. midnight to midnight.
 PART THREE

The Geology
 Chapter 1
Stratigraphical investigations
R.C. Preece, D.R. Bridg/and and MJ Sharp
The stratigraphy of the Quaternary sediments in
the study area has been determined from a
number of lines of evidence. First, a borehole
survey was undertaken to obtain general sub-sur-
face information and identify critical areas, which
were then studied in open sections. Six specially
excavated trenches provided such open sections,
which were recorded and sampled. Other impor-
tant sections, fortuitously exposed during the
construction of the cut-and-cover tunnel, provided
additional information.
(1) GENERAL STRATIGRAPHY
INFERRED FROM BOREHOLE
SURVEY
The borehole survey has provided a reasonably
clear picture of the general morphology and spatial
disposition of the sedimentary infill of the valley.
The borehole data from each of the 11 transects
(Fig. 1.4) have been plotted in the form of six trans-
verse profiles of the Holywell Coombe valley (Fig.
3.1), four transverse profiles of the Horseshoe
Spring valley (Fig. 3.2) and a single longitudinal
profile along the axis of the Holywell Coombe
valley (Fig. 3.1). These have been used to provide
the basis for computer-generated maps (Fig. 3.3)
and three-dimensional block diagrams (Fig. 3.4)
showing the thickness distribution of each sedi-
mentary unit.
It proved difficult to determine the precise level
of the Pleistocene-bedrock junction in many of the
boreholes, causing uncertainties in interpreting the
33
form of the bedrock surface. In particular the Gault
Clay, Glauconitic Marl and Chalk Marl, which occur
at the foot of the escarpment, appear to have been
much disturbed, probably by periglacial processes
or mass movement. This is particularly true at the
eastern end of transect 4. Throughout the area, the
form of the upper surface of the Gault is suggestive
of modification and it is not always easy to distin-
guish in situ Gault Clay from soliflucted material.
To complicate the situation further, the surface of
the Gault has, in places, also been deeply weath-
ered. During the mapping a careful note was made
of the Munsell colour of the Gault. In general, fresh
in situ material was dark greenish grey (5G 4/1)
whereas weathered material was olive (5Y 5/3).
In the following discussion, reference will be
made to numbered boreholes, the locations of
which are shown in Fig. 1.4. Stratigraphical inter-
pretation of these borehole data are presented in
the transects (Figs 3.1 and 3.2).
On the flank of Round Hill there is an apparent
rise in the Gault surface, well seen in transects 3
and 4 (boreholes 93-98 and 14-21). The origin of
this feature is uncertain, but it may result from
early mass movement or from valley bulging under
periglacial conditions. The drift-filled depression in
the hillside above the bulge may be an infilled
spring-hollow, formed by water issuing from above
the impervious Gault. In support of this interpreta-
tion is the fact that the feature corresponds in
elevation to a change in lithology between clay and
glauconitic sand. Even stronger support derives
from the occurrence of a thick (> 2 m) deposit of
tufa in the hollow (borehole 91), overlying the
Transect 1
mO.D. mO.D. Round Hill
- 8.

60- -60

"-
~ 85&<8382
...... '., ',. T7::t:'ji.;X."L::V; -55
loI..=----.~
.... _.. .. _ _ _ _ 11
55-

01.
.___10

...I
Transect 2
mO.D. mO.D.
- ",
-60
\"\
55-
) 7
~
50- -50

GIll

Transect 3
mO.D.
mO.D.
-60
104
00- ••• •

... I. -55
55-
-.. . . . ~~·:C-r·-~~1,':.'~
50-
Gault Clay

Transect 4
mO.D.
mO.D.
28

-60
60-
1 -

55- Intersection
with
Transect 7

-50
50-
Gault Clay
Gault Clay -45
45-
TransectS
mO.D. mO.D.
2.
30
60- i Gla
-60

Intersection
55- with
Transect 7
Trench 4

50- -50

45- - 45

Transect 6
mO.D. mO.D.
55- sa- 55

50- -50

Gault Clay
45- -45

toe of landsllp (?)

Intersection
Transect 7 mO.D.
Intersection
with with
Transect 1
mO.D.
55- Transect 3 I
120 .!. 116 82 115 -
Intersection
Intersection with disturbed (?)
Intersection with ",, ' - 55
with Transect 4
TransectS
Transect 6 , '123 122
12.
50- I 12. 128 .4fI 127 Departs from
66 130
l'lli, axis of buried valley spur Gi~ -50
.;;;:;;:0::;;~. causing rise in Gault Clay
•AllerlJd soli'
45-
-45
Gault Clay
Key to Figure 3.1

• Soil D Chalky colluvium ,~ Chalk rubble ~ Organic detritus mud ~ Redeposited Gault Clay ':,
....~.~:, ~ Weathered/soliflucted Gault Clay
~ L.:::....J 14' 1 . ,

~ Brown humic chalk mud

G Calcareous tufa G Detrital Glauconitic Marl [jhl Organic silt and chalk mud B Organic streak ~ Gault Clay
~ (hillwash)

Figure 3.1 opposite Borehole transects (1-7) from the Holywell Coombe valley. Their locations are shown on the inset map. For location of individual boreholes see
Fig. 1.4 For further explanation see text.
 Stratigraphical investigations

Transect 11
mO.D. mO.D.

Gault Clay

Transect 10
mO.D. mO.D.

10-

55-

Transect 9
mOoD.
mO.o.
"
-10

55-
-55

50-
soliflucted Gault Clay -
-50
with Glauconitic Marl

TransectS
",0.0.
mO.D,
10-
-eo

-
- 55

Figure 3.2 Borehole transects (8-11) from the Horseshoe Spring valley. Their locations are shown on the inset map
Fig. 3.1. For location of individual boreholes see Fig. 1.4. For further explanation see text.

chalky solifluction deposits. Furthermore there is a
substantial break of slope, still present at the
modern surface, between boreholes 25 and 26,
perhaps marking the back-wall of a spring hollow.
In several borehole transects the Gault Clay
appears to rise anomalously very dose to the pre-
sent ground surface and the stratigraphy appears
somewhat confused. This is particularly obvious in
borehole 52 (Fig. 3.1, transect 5). Similar anomalies
occur in approximately comparable positions in
transects 4 (borehole 7), 5 (borehole 52) and 6
(borehole 62) and would seem to represent the toe
of a landslide from the western flank of Sugarloaf
Hill (Fig. 2.3). In fact, a scar is discernible in pre-
cisely the expected position on the side of the hill
and a landslide has been mapped here by the
Geological Survey and by Griffiths et al. (1995) and
Birch and Griffiths (1996). The organic marsh sedi-
ments from Trench 4 accumulated in a hollow
immediately in front of this toe, which would seem
to imply that this landslide occurred sometime
before 13 100 yr BP. Similar anomalies were
detected in transects 9, 10 and 11 below Castle
Hill, which might indicate the presence of another
landslide, this time from the eastern slope of Castle
Hill (Figs 2.3; 3.2), although such a feature was not
detected during geomorphological mapping by
Griffiths et al. (1995).
If the Gault Clay beneath the lower flanks of
Sugarloaf Hill was largely emplaced by mass move-
ment, it is possible that Quaternary deposits may
have been preserved between it and undisturbed

36
 General stratigraphy inferred from borehole survey
Gault, at depth. None of the boreholes penetrated
far enough into this material to fully explore this
possibility.
The earliest Late-glacial deposits discovered were
the marsh sediments ascribed to the B011ing phase
of the Late-glacial interstadial. These were only
identified in Holywell Coombe proper, that is in
the valley immediately west of Sugarloaf Hill, and
even here they only extended from the head of the
valley to approximately midway along its length
(Fig. 3.5).
A prominent buried soil, the 'Allenild soil',
formed an important marker horizon within the
Late-glacial succession. Like the earlier interstadial
marsh deposits, this soil also occurred only in cer-
tain areas (Fig. 3.6). It was present stratigraphically
above the earlier marsh deposits at the head of the
valley and in sections and boreholes immediately
west of Sugarloaf Hill. It was also identified in a
number of boreholes in transect 4 on the eastern
limb of the interfluve separating the two parts of
the valley. The Cut-&-cover Section, to be
described later, also revealed it in this vicinity (Fig.
3.6). No trace of any interstadial sediments was
found in the Horseshoe Spring valley below Castle
Hill, although the 'Aller0d soil' was recognized in
the sides of a Bronze Age ring ditch at the southern
margin of Castle Hill in January 1992 (R.c. Preece,
personal observation). Kerney (1963) also reported
this soil near Castle Hill (TR 212375) in the area
now occupied by the roundabout at the end of the
M20. It was also present in the sections to be
described from Cherry Garden, immediately west
of Castle Hill.
The basal solifluction deposits are derived from
the slopes of Castle Hill, Round Hill and Sugarloaf
Hill and from each source they form slope-foot
fans, thickening and then thinning downslope (Figs
3.1-3.2). Material from Round Hill has filled a
hollow on the western flank of the Holywell
Coombe valley burying a land surface represented
by the Aller0d soil (transect 4, boreholes 21-25).
The wedge derived from Sugarloaf Hill has partly
infilled Holywell Coombe from the ESE, causing it
to be substantially narrowed and realigned from NE
to NNE (Fig. 3.7). This is particularly well exempli-
fied by transect 3, which shows a considerable
accumulation (up to 8 m) of chalky colluvium at
the foot of Sugarloaf Hill, plugging the erosional
sub-drift valley that lay about 35 m east of the
modem feature (boreholes 99-103). It is interest-
ing to note that some of the interstadial marsh
deposits, which are now located upslope of the
37
present valley axis, would have accumulated very
close to the former axis of the valley (Figs 3.5 and
3.7). This transect demonstrates that the original
pre-Late-glacial valley had a markedly asymmetrical
form, with the steeper slope on the eastern side.
In transects 4, 5 and 6, the solifluction deposits
are again generally thickest on the eastern side of
the valley (Figs 3.3 and 3.4). In these transects,
however, the old valley seen in transect 3 had
already been partly infilled by landslide material
from the side of Sugarloaf Hill (see above). In this
region it is difficult to determine the precise align-
ment of the axis of the buried valley, but it is
apparent that this was in the area of borehole 9
(transect 4), borehole 52 (transect 5) and boreholes
62 or 63 (transect 6). This again reveals a west-
wards shift ofthe valley axis (Fig. 3.7), which must
have been a direct consequence of the mass move-
ment from the flanks of Sugarloaf Hill. It should be
noted that this shifting of the valley axis away from
a south-west facing slope is the reverse of what is
predicted by theories of periglacially induced valley
asymmetry. These hold that preferential thawing of
such slopes leaves them open to erosion while
solifluction is more active on north- and east-facing
slopes, pushing streams towards the south-west-
facing slopes (cf. Williams, 1980).
There is an indication in transect 6 of an inter-
mediate position of the valley axis, occupied after
the deposition of the tufa but before the onset of
hillwash formation. The contact between the tufa
and the overlying hillwash (with palaeosol) indi-
cates an intermediate axis in the region of borehole
66, whereas the modem axis coincides with bore-
hole 69. The buried axis beneath the hillwash also
appears to have been slightly east of the modem
axis in transects 3 and 5, although less markedly so
than in transect 6.
Transect 7, which provides a longitudinal profile
along the axis of the Holywell Coombe valley, was
positioned without prior knowledge of its west-
ward displacement revealed by the borehole data.
The transect was therefore positioned with refer-
ence to the modem topography and situated well
to the west of the deep buried valley excavated in
the bedrock. The best impression of the form of the
pre-Late-glacial valley is gained from computer-gen-
erated contour and block diagrams derived from the
borehole data (Figs 3.3 and 3.4). These show that
the original Holywell Coombe valley was aligned
further east, as already noted, providing a more
direct outlet from the main coombe. A tributary
valley, now occupied by springs, joined the main
 Stratigraphical investigations

350.,.----------------,-,-,-.,----,

300 300

250 250

'"
c '"
c
'§ 200 ~ 200
~ z

150 150

100 100

(a)
~ m ~ = ~
Eosling
= ~ ~ ~
(b)
~ m ~ = ~
Eosling
= ~ ~ ~

350",,--r::Tf-,--.,.-----r---r--,----,

300 300

250 250

150 150

100 100

50~~TTn,+rrn~rrn<,+nn++nn~~~~~
50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450
(c) 450 (d)
Eosling Eosling

Figure 3.3 Computer-generated contour maps of the following sediment thicknesses: (a) solifluction deposits; (b)
tufa; (c) hillwash and (d) total sediment thickness. Location is provided by ordnance survey coordinates. In (b) infor-
mation from the heads of the valleys is omitted, since it is corrupted by 'edge effects' caused by upward projections
by the computer beyond the known limits of both sediment thickness and area.

coombe from the NW. The migration of the valley
to the west brought about a realignment, giving the
original tributary the more direct outlet and leaving
the main coombe as an apparent right-bank tribu-
tary. By following the modem topography, transect
7 crosses from the lower part of the buried valley
into the tributary, cutting through a buried inter-
fluve between the two. The latter results in a sharp
rise in the Gault between boreholes 117 and 123.
The Gault Clay also rises beneath borehole 82, but
this corresponds to a spur in the modem hillside
and probably represents a long-standing topo-
graphical feature.
Although the thickness of solifluction deposits
decreases dramatically downslope, there appears to
be no appreciable change in thickness down-valley.
The lower margins of solifluction units appear to be
eroded and later deposits associated with the dis-
placed valleys abut them. Thus only a thin veneer of
solifluction deposits underlies the present valley
axes and in places they may be lacking entirely.
The main tufa deposits, which reach 3 m in
thickness, are restricted to the valley axes, where
the springs responsible for their formation would
have been confined. These tufa deposits form
tongues that generally thin down-valley (Figs 3.3,
3.4 and 3.8). A few other localized sources (bore-
holes 16, 17 and 91) have been identified in areas
upslope from the axes and these probably relate to
independent spring-heads. The basal parts of the
main tufa bodies are usually highly organic, with
plant detritus and hazel-nuts, especially in the
lower part of the valley (transect 7, boreholes
126-129). The thickest tufa occurs around
Horseshoe Spring, at the head of the valley below
Castle Hill, where it is generally devoid of organic
debris (see below).
In contrast to the Late-glacial colluvium, the hill-

38
 General stratigraphy inferred from borehole survey

Figure 3.4 Computer-generated block diagrams showing the thickness of the major sedimentary units: (a) solifluc-
tion deposits; (b) tufa; (c) hillwash and (d) total sediment thickness. Location is provided by ordnance survey
coordinates. Note that (b) has been modified to eliminate edge effects (see Figure 3.3).

wash forms thin wedges that thicken both downs- Using the borehole data, estimates of the vol-
lope and down-valley. The hillwash is very thin on umes of each major sediment type have been
the interfluves and on the upper slopes and is the calculated. The following table sets out some fig-
product of slope erosion and valley floor deposition ures representing mean values calculated using (a)
resulting from anthropogenic forest clearance. the trapezoidal rule (b) Simpson's rule and (c)
Deposition was concentrated in various topo- Simpson's 3/8 rule (Banister and Raymond, 1984).
graphic hollows along the valleys, which appear to
have acted as effective sediment traps. It would
appear that the hollows closest to the contributing Sedimentary unit Age Volume (m3) %
slopes were infilled first and only subsequently Hillwash + modern
ploughsoil Late Post-glacial 77 883 17.4
were the more distal areas supplied. This could
Calcareous tufa early-mid Post-glacial 52 185 11.7
explain the differences in basal radiocarbon dates
Solifluction and
and in the number of palaeosols recognized within
associated deposits late-glacial 316614 71.0
the hillwash (see later). In the Holywell Coombe
Total sediment 446682
valley the thickest accumulations of hillwash gener-
ally lie to the east of the modem axis, although not
as far east as the deep buried valley, indicating that These estimates relate only to the area covered by
the pre-hillwash valley lay between the pre-Late- the borehole grid (Fig. 1.4). The results demon-
glacial valley and the modem one. This reveals a strate that sediments of Late-glacial age are
progressive displacement of the main valley axis volumetrically by far the most important group,
away from the foot of Sugarloaf Hill. accounting for 71 % of the total. Next are the two

39
 Stratigraphical investigations

~m
CJ T'8l"\Ch1's8cton
(j) T,ansea
III E",e~ of earty !.ate-glaclal

Figure 3.5 Map of the study area showing the sub-surface extent of early Late-glacial ('B011ing') marsh deposits.
Smaller occurrences are arrowed. Note that several of these marsh deposits occur upslope of the present valley axis.
The dots show the position of the boreholes which have formed the basis of these reconstructions. For borehole
numbers see Figure 1.4.

C\ Spnno ~ Watt'
• 8ofehOiO 0 SOm
CJ Trenc;hl5k1lOn
-=-=-
G) Transect

Figure 3.6 Map of the study area showing the sub-surface extent of the 'Aller0d soil'. Dashed lines indicate uncer-
tainty. The dots show the position of the boreholes which have formed the basis of these reconstructions. For
borehole numbers see Figure 1.4.

40
 General stratigraphy inferred from borehole survey

c::J
G)
TrenelVSeC1iOt'1
TranSf(l
~m

1
~ Buried landshp 100
~ Axis 01 buried vaHey

E-3=J.
- /®..... .
.' 6

Figure 3.7 Map of study area showing the position of the buried axes of the valleys. The location of possible toes of
buried landsJips, which may have caused displacement of the axes, are also shown. The dots show the position of the
boreholes which have formed the basis of these reconstructions. For borehole numbers see Figure 1.4.

Figure 3.8 Map of the study area showing the sub-surface extent of the tufa deposits. The dots show the position of
the boreholes which have formed the basis of these reconstructions. For borehole numbers see Figure 1.4.

41
 Stratigraphical investigations

Figure 3.9 Deep trench excavated near Horseshoe Spring (french 5). Most of the sequence above the step is tufa.
Note that the shoring was not close-boarded but left a narrow window between the trench sheets to enable sampling.
Access to these waterlogged sediments required continuous pumping and a pipe drawing off the water can be seen.

deposits of calcareous tufa which, although spa-
tially limited to the valley axes, together account
for over 11 %. The hillwash, together with the
modem ploughsoil, seldom exceeds 2 m in thick-
ness and form a mantle making up about 17% of the
sedimentary infill of this area.
(2) REPRESENTATIVE SECTIONS
As a result of the borehole survey, several areas
were identified that, for various reasons, were
thought to be critical in the interpretation of the
sedimentary sequence. Particular attention was
paid to the occurrence of organic deposits, because
these could potentially be radiocarbon-dated and so
provide the necessary chronology for the site. It
was clear from the borehole survey that many of
these organic beds were laterally impersistent and
that it would be necessary to study several sections
in different parts of the valley in order to study the
full range of sediments.
Deep trenching was undertaken with a Hymac
excavator with an extendible arm. Over much of

42
 Representative sections
the valley the water-table occurs at about 1.5 m
below the ground surface and all trenches cut
below this depth required pumping in order to
allow examination of the deposits. Free movement
of water through the permeable basal levels above
the Gault Clay rendered the sides of these trenches
highly unstable. They consequently had to be
shored and the deeper trenches also required well-
pointing to lower the water level to the necessary
depth. To enable examination of the stratigraphy
and to allow detailed systematic sampling, the sec-
tions were not close-boarded. Instead, alternate
trench-sheets were omitted so as to leave a narrow
vertical window, about 30 cm wide, every metre or
so along the face of the section (Fig. 3.9). Because
of the high cost of these operations, these deep
trenches were only open for a limited time, usually
for one or at most two days (see also Plate 2(c).).
In addition to the five specially commissioned
trenches, three further sections created during the
construction of the cut-and-cover tunnel were also
studied. A watching brief had been instigated by
the Canterbury Archaeological Trust, but in the
event there proved to be little scope for further
field-work once the hectic earth-moving operations
were underway. The sections that could be stud-
ied were at either end of the cut-and-cover tunnel
just below the portals that entered the Chalk at
Castle Hill (Trench 6) and Sugarloaf Hill CBelow
Sugarloaf Hill'). A further critical section was
exposed on the interfluve in the middle section
CCut-&-cover Section').
Each of these important representative sections
will now be described in detail. In addition to the
stratigraphical logs, details will also be presented
in the accompanying figures about:
(1) Texture of the sediments. Each sample was
dried, weighed and then broken down in
water. Hydrogen peroxide (100 vol.) was also
used to disaggregate some of the more clay-
rich samples. The resultant slurry was passed
through 0.25 mm sieves and the material
retained was oven dried and then passed
through a nest of sieves of different mesh
sizes and the residues weighed. This proce-
dure provided a simple way of describing and
quantifying the texture of the sediments.
(2) Magnetic susceptibility. These measurements
were undertaken primarily as an aid to the
interpretation of the weathering history of the
sediments, but were also useful for establish-
ing bedrock source material and the extent of
43
bioturbation or contamination from more
recent sediments. A full account is provided
in Section 2(3) below. Only low-frequency
magnetic susceptibility measurements are
plotted on this group of figures. This parame-
ter measures the ease with which a sample
can be magnetized and is proportional to the
concentration of ferrimagnetic minerals (e.g.
magnetite) in a sample. Additional parameters
are considered in the later section.
(3) Loss-on-ignition analyses. The loss-on-igni-
tion of each sample was determined by first
drying subsamples of 1 cm3 at 105°C, weigh-
ing and then combusting in a muffle furnace
at 550° for six hours. The ignition loss rea-
sonably reflects the organic carbon content,
except in some argillaceous sediments,
where it can greatly over-estimate carbon
content (Dean, 1974). For all the main strati-
graphical units, however, direct analyses of
organic carbon content have also been made
(see Section 2(1) below). In addition, values
for loss-on-ignition at 950°C were also
obtained to determine the carbonate content
of each sample (Dean, 1974).
(4) Number of shells/500 grams. Although most
samples analysed were 500 g dry weight,
there were a number of samples that were
either smaller (from organic horizons) or
larger (from less fossiliferous sediments). The
shelliness of each sample is to some extent
dependent on the texture of the sediment.
Coarse sediments that may have accumulated
very rapidly generally produce lower totals of
shells. Conversely, sediments with very slow
accumulation rates are likely to yield very
high totals. Consequently, the concentration
of shells/500g was calculated for each sample
and the results are shown alongside the tex-
tural and other analyses of the same samples.
(5) Number of ostracod valves/500 grams. As
ostracods are almost exclusively aquatic (a
few can inhabit damp leaf litter), their occur-
rence can be used to identify episodes of
waterlogging or spring activity. A full account
of their palaeoecology at Holywell Coombe is
given in Part Five (6).
(6) Number of calcitic granules/JOO grams.
Many calcareous sediments, such as slope
deposits or loess, contain calcareous granules
that have a maximum diameter of between
0.5-1.5 mm. They are frequently ovoidal or
subspherical and many show crystal facets on
 Stratigraphical investigations

Figure 3.10 Calcareous granules, thought to have been formed by earthworms, from the 'Allerod soil' in the Cut-&-
cover' Section. la-b. Low and high-power views of the same specimen. 2a-b. Low and high-power views of another
specimen. 3 and 4. Transverse sections through two other specimens showing internal radial crystalline structure.

their outer surface (Fig. 3.10). Internally they
have a radial crystalline structure (Fig. 3.10.3).
X-ray diffraction analysis has confirmed that
they consist of pure calcite of a low magne-
sian type (Kerney, 1971). As a separate
exercise to the molluscan analyses, the
number of these granules/l00 g dry weight of
sediment was established for each sample
throughout several profiles (those that
included buried soil horizons).
The origin of such granules has been much
debated. Two schools of thought have
emerged. The first believes that they are the
internal remains of slugs (Hayward, 1956) that
possibly belong to the family Arionidae
(Kerney, 1971). The second school believes
that they are produced by the calciferous
tubules of earthworms (Beam, 1956; Bal,
1977). When they reach a certain size (which
is not constant) these granules are secreted
into the oesophagous of the worm and thence
pass through the intestine and are excreted
with the faeces. Since the bulk of the faeces
is excreted as castings at the entrance to the

44
 Representative sections
burrow on the surface of the ground (Le. the
same level where molluscan remains accumu-
late), the greatest concentration of granules
will occur at this level (Meijer, 1985).
Although granules are certainly produced
by both groups of organisms, it is believed
that most of those recovered at Holywell
Coombe were produced by earthworms.
They certainly closely match similar structures
voided by earthworms and their pattern of
occurrence fits better with this interpretation.
(1) Numbers of the subterranean snail
Cecilioides acicula It is well known that C.
acicula has been found living at depths of up
to 2 m below ground surface (e.g. Evans,
1972: 168). It appears that it can follow root
channels to these depths, as well as actively
burrowing into friable soil. The absolute
number of this species in each of the profiles
is plotted because this might give some indi-
cation of the extent and depth of bioturbation.
In several profiles there is indeed a close link
between the occurrence of C. acicula and
enhanced magnetic susceptibilty values,
which denote disturbance. Further discussion
on the Significance of C. acicula is given in
Part Five (3).
(8) Number of mollusc species (S). This curve
Simply plots the number of mollusc species
recovered from each sample. This can be
affected by the coarseness of the sediment
sample, which has a direct bearing on shelli-
ness. In general there is a progressive increase
during the Late-glacial and throughout the
early to mid Post-glacial, but a reduction fol-
lowing the forest clearances of the Neolithic
and Bronze Age.
(9) Species diversity index (lId). A measure of
species diversity should take into account
three variables: (1) the total number of
species (S), (2) the total number of individuals
and (3) the distribution of individuals
between the species. There are many diver-
sity indices that have been employed, each
having its own strengths and weaknesses (see
Magurran, 1988, for a good review). Although
the Shannon index has been widely used for
data sets similar to those in the present study,
it was felt that the simpler Berger-Parker
index d had several advantages. This index
expresses the proportional importance of the
most abundant species
45
d=N~
where Nmax =the number of individuals in the
most abundant species. As with other indices
the reciprocal form of the Berger-Parker index
is usually adopted, so that an increase in the
value of the index accompanies an increase in
diversity and a reduction in dominance. This
index is independent of S but is influenced by
sample size. It is therefore important to inter-
pret changes in diversity by considering both
the number of species (S) and the Berger-
Parker (lid) as either index in isolation can be
misleading. Note that the indices plotted on
the figures refer only to land snail data (slugs
have been excluded). Individual interpreta-
tions are included in the figure captions for
each trench studied.
(a) Main Section
The location of the Main Section is shown on Fig.
1.4. The initial intention was to cut a long trench
across the present axis of the valley to extend some
way up the eastern flank beyond the feather-edge of
the tufaceous sediments. Excavations in the valley
axis had to be abandoned because of the discovery
of, first, a small field drain and then, a couple of
metres or so away, a much larger culvert. The main
cut, some 40 m long, 8 m wide and 1.5 m high, was
made with a Hymac excavator. The modem plough-
soil was then stripped away and the vertical section
of the north face was cleaned by hand (plate 1(a».
Two deeper trenches were subsequently cut into
the Gault Clay with a ]CB excavator to expose the
basal levels. Because these deeper trenches
extended well below the water-table, they required
constant pumping. As it turned out, the most criti-
cal part of the basal sequence occurred in the pit
dug for 'Sump 3' in the narrow dividing wall
between the two trenches. The relations between
the various sections is shown in Fig. 3.11, together
with the positions of the sampling columns.
The stratigraphy of the north face of the Main
Section (basal part measured from Deep Trench 1)
was as follows:
0-30 cm modem plough-soil;
30-70 cm light yellowish brown (2.5Y 6/4)
chalk silt with scattered stones;
70-80 cm light olive brown (2.5Y 5/4) chalk
silt;
 w E
Series 1
midden
Series 2 upper palaeosol mol/usc samples (stratigraphy disturbed)
lower palaeosol
mol/usc samples 5620 ±90 3515 ± 80
modern ploughsoil soil samples

I I '

I I I I I I

~-;-~--T--~---f~~::.1 T
~~>¢5Cjef""""5E *a;:~ ..... 'AllerBd soil'
"" 0 , <> o
o 11,520 ± 90
o o <> '" • 0 O • .,
o o 0 0 o c::l <;::. 0
•• , - ....organic ,,0 0 o • C> 0
.. 4
_. - : .. 00 0. detritus mud <> 0
11,820± 140 0 o· 0 o
1r Q DI moss
~ 'V <>
- - - - - +7--,,.......,::-
"
Gault Clay
Deep trench 2 Sump 3
Deep trench 1

o
I
5m

Figure 3.11 A measured drawing of the Main Section at Holywell Coombe showing the relation between the deposits. The position of the sampling columns are also
shown, as are the location of the radiocarbon dates.
 Loss on Loss on
Wt% Wt% Wt"Io Shells! Cecilioidesl
ignition ignition S lId
<1501IJ11 1501lJ11-2mm >2mm 500g 500g
(550°C) (950°C)
4060 80 1000 10 20 300 40 800 6 12 10 20 30 400 1000 0 10 20 30 o 10 20 30 40 o 2 4 6 8
0 ~

T T
T r
,,
T T
I
T I
~,,, ,
T T ,,
50~ T
T T ~
~ ~
'" <:> ~
c> ~
~
E
~
. o C1 ~
s::. 100 <>
.. <I t>
:t
a ~.
~
1~ c
<>
C cO

.-,
co
. '".
0 ~
10 <> <I :t
<>
C·
~
0 . ~
<I <>
" <> <>
150-1 C> <>
0
.
" .. Q
>'"
• 0
<>
.
Q o '"
<;7 0 0

0'
......
0° 0-

..
. <I <I
Q 0

" 0 "
200....,...
---------------~-------~--------------------------

Figure 3.12 Diagram through the Main Section 19.5 m east of datum (Series 2) showing details of sediment texture, loss-on-ignition, number of shells/SOO g, frequency
of the burrowing snail Cecilioides acicula, number of land snails (S) and the molluscan species diversity (l/d). See text for full explanation.
 Stratigraphical investigations
80-100 cm light yellowish brown (2.5Y 6/4)
chalk silt (hillwash);
100-112 cm light olive brown (2.5Y 5/4) chalk
silt with scattered clasts of chalk
and flint and some charcoal;
112-131 cm very pale brown (lOYR 8/3) tufa,
coarse-textured through and heavily
iron-stained towards its top;
131-169 cm light brownish grey (2. 5Y 6/2) chalk
silt, more clay-rich than the overly-
ing units. Distinctly darker (2.5Y
6/4) in the upper 10 cm;
169-172 cm greyish brown (2.5Y 5/2) silty clay
with shells and occasional charcoal.
Interpreted as a palaeosol;
172-200 cm light grey (2.5Y 7/2) stone-free
chalk mud, virtually devoid of shells;
200-345 cm light grey (2.5Y 7/2) medium to
coarse chalk gravel with much glau-
conite and clay (re-worked from the
Gault). Heavily iron-stained to olive
yellow (2.5Y 6/8) in places;
345 cm + Gault Clay
Another section, 11.5 m west of that described
above, was also measured in the north face of Deep
Trench 2 (Figs 3.11; 3.12). The zero datum relates to
the top of this trench and not to the ground surface as
in the previous section. The sequence was as follows:
calcareous silty clay, iron-stained in
0-38 cm
places and with many tufa nodules
below 26 cm;
38-51 cm tufaceous silty clay, more humic
below 45 cm. Heavy iron-staining;
51-66 cm coarse-grained tufa;
66-72 cm highly organic tufaceous silt;
72-95 cm pale brown silty clay with shells;
95-150 cm calcareous clay with many chalk
clasts;
150-210 cm stiffer, greyer clay with many chalk
clasts and much iron-staining. Many
rotted roots along its upper surface.
A fragment of wood (35 cm long
with a diameter of 5 cm) was recov-
ered from this unit (aligned along
the valley axis) from the south face
of the trench;
210 cm + Gault Clay.
Sump 3
A small pit was dug in the narrow area dividing
Deep pits 1 and 2, in order to install a sump to
48
drain water out of the main excavation. Some
organic sediments were revealed at the base of this
section. Because of the unstable sides of this tem-
porary section it was not possible to enter the pit
and make detailed observations but an approxi-
mate log of the stratigraphy was measured (zero
datum taken as the top of the section):
0-150 cm calcareous silt becoming more tufa-
ceous with depth. Distinctly nodular
towards the base;
150-180 cm chalk gravel with many large flints;
180-185 cm chalky clay rich in glauconite;
185-200 cm dark grey brown (lOYR 4/2) humic
silt with wood fragments, less
organic in lower half;
200-210 cm chalk gravel;
210 cm+ Gault Clay.
Interpretation
The relations of the three separate components of
the Main Section, which can be conveniently dis-
cussed together, are shown in Fig. 3.11. The earliest
deposit is the veneer of chalk gravel resting on the
surface of the Gault Clay in Sump 3. This occurs
immediately below an organic detritus mud that has
yielded a date of 11 820 ± 140 yr BP. This organic
deposit covers an area of no more than about 2 m 2 .
It is overlain by a unit of coarse gravel (flint and
chalk), which in turn is covered by a thick deposit
of tufa. The relations of the organic deposit to the
adjacent chalk gravels (solifluction deposits) are not
clear, but it would appear to pre-date them. In Deep
Trench 2 there appeared to be two units of collu-
vium, a lower unit that had a stiffer clay matrix was
separated from an upper unit by a horizon of rotted
rootlets and heavy iron-staining. This distinction
was not altogether clear in Deep Trench 1, but the
basal levels of this trench could not be effectively
de-watered. The sediments became finer towards
the top of Deep Trench 1 and the upper 10 cm
were virtually stone-free. At the base of the open
trench section (roughly coeval with these upper
stone-free muds), a well developed soil was present.
This reached a maximum thickness of about 10 cm
towards the eastern part of the section. Fragments
of charcoal were present at one spot just north of
the sampling column. These yielded a radiocarbon
date of 11 520 ± 90 yr BP and this, together with the
contained molluscan fauna, suggests that this is the
'AUer0d soil'. Towards the valley axis lateral equiva-
lents of this soil, perhaps even detached portions of
 Lasson Lass on
Wt% Wt% Wt% XLF Shells! CeciIioidBs/ Granulesl
ignition ignition s lId
<150"," 150","-2mm >2mm (","3 kg-1) 500g 500g 500g
(550"C) (950"C)
20 40 o 20 40 0 10 20 0 0.1 0.2 12 16 20 24 10 14 18 22 0 800 40 80 0 1000 2000 0 20 40 2 4 6 8 10
o I'lillll" I o -t-'"--'--'--'-......... oI ' ,

I I
50--1 I I 50

I III ~
~
lil1i11 1i ~
'1.11 11 ~
~
~
E 11111 ~
~I 100 -- --- -- ---- ------ --- --- - --- -- --- - --- - ----- - ----- -- --- - --- ;:.
i 100 lillillil ~
~
~
(")
;:.
C
~
~

150
\ I( I II 1\ 1\ 1(" r I/" I f I~

o
Q •
0
o • •o
200 200

Figure 3.13 Diagram through the Main Section at 24.5 m east of datum (Series 1) showing details of sediment texture, magnetic susceptibility, loss-on-ignition, number
of shells/SOO g, frequency of the burrowing snail Cedlioides adeula, numher of calcareous (earthworm) granules/IOO g, number of land snail species (S) and the mol-
luscan species diversity (lI{/). Note the increase in the number of shells and calcareous granules in the weathering horizon below the tufa. See text for full explanation.
 Loss on Loss on
Wt% Wt% Wt% XLF ignition ignition Shells! Ostracodsl Ceci/ioides!
<l50jUTl 150jUTl-2mm >2mm (jUTl3 kg.1) s lId
(550°C) (950°C) 500g 500g 500g
40 60 80 100 0 10 20 30 40 0 10 20 30 40 0.00 0.04 0.08 0 10 20 30 40 10 20 30 40 50 o 400 800 o 200 400 0 2550 75100 0 10203040 12 3456
o """"'"

100--. T T

T T ~
", "
T
~
~
..,...
200-j
T T ~.
-;-
· 0 t:::J 0 ~
GO", 0
~
o· <7 " . ~
.0 •
• oa 0
e-
~ t=J o-c::s
.
o.~.o
\Jl
0
.r::
a
Q)
300.
·0 .0
III I I II I
f·'· !
-
~
.....
T T
C
~
-.
~
~
..,...
400 ~.
~
~
C
~
500

600
--------------~--------------~------------------------ ------

Figure 3.14 Diagram through Trench HV showing details of sediment texture, magnetic susceptibility, loss-on-ignition, number of shells/500 g, number of ostracods/
500 g, frequency of the burrowing snail Cedlioides acicula, number of land snail species (S) and the molluscan species diversity (l/d). Note the sharp increase in the
number of snail species at the base of the tufa. This reflects a hiatus at the base of the Post-glacial. Note also the similarity between the occurrence of C. adcula and the
enhanced magnetic susceptibilty values at the top of the sequence. See text for full explanation.
 Representative sections
the same unit, are present. The main unit of chalk
gravel, which is here over 2 m thick, is therefore
demonstrably pre-Aller0d and was emplaced
between 11 820 and 11 520 yr BP.
Above the 'Aller0d soil' are chalk muds, pure
white at first but becoming greyer upwards. These
muds become particularly dark towards their
upper surface, a fact that, together with enhanced
magnetic susceptibility values and peaks in the fre-
qencies of both shells and calcitic granules (Fig.
3.13), suggests that this is a weathering horizon.
The Mollusca from these chalk muds indicate that
they accumulated during the early to mid Post-
glacial (Fig. 5.3.8). In other words, in this section
there are no deposits that can be assigned to the
Younger Dryas (Loch Lomond Stadial), unless this
is represented by the sterile white chalk muds
immediately overlying the 'Aller0d soil' .
A relatively thick unit of calcareous tufa, about
2 m thick in the valley axis, overlies these chalk
muds in the east of the section and chalk gravels in
the west. The organic silt at its base in Deep
Trench 2 has yielded a radiocarbon date of 9240 ±
90 yr BP. Tufa formation continued for much of the
early to mid Post-glacial and its initiation seems to
have been broadly coeval with the deposition of
the Post-glacial chalk muds just described. Its
feather-edge, clearly seen in the section, would
appear to have formed towards the end of the mid
Post-glacial (-5-7000 yr BP).
Overlying the tufa, and forming a mantle cover-
ing the entire length of the section, is a unit of
hillwash. Two distinct soil horizons are discernible
within this unit: a prominent basal horizon and a
weaker soil towards the upper part of the hillwash.
This latter horizon was not apparent until about a
week after the sections had been prepared. The hill-
wash clearly formed by slope processes operating
during the late Post-glacial, but the dating of events
during this period has proved to be problematic.
This will be discussed more fully in a later section.
(b) Trench HV
This deep trench, about 10 m long X 2 m wide,
was situated along the present axis of the valley
towards its head (HV = head of valley), at the edge
of the field bordering the present stream about half-
way between transects 1 and 2 (Fig. 1.4). The
following sequence was measured:
0-35 cm modem plough-soil;
35-80 cm light yellowish brown (2.5Y 6/4)
51
chalk silt with scattered chalk clasts
(hillwash);
80-90 cm brown (lOYR 5/3) to greyish brown
(lOYR 5/2) tufa;
90-235 em very pale brown (lOYR 7/3 to lOYR
8/3, towards base), soft, fine-grained
tufa. A coarser granular facies occurred
between 110-120 cm and a slightly
darker (lOYR 7/2), more humic unit
occurred between 160-165 cm;
235-322 cm pale olive (5Y 6/3) calcareous silts
with many chalk clasts. Stone-free
between 235-245 cm;
322-327 cm two greyish brown (lOYR 5/2)
humic silty clay horizons. Some
plant macrofossils (Carex/Scirpus
seeds) and flecks of charcoal;
327-335 cm very pale brown (lOYR 7/3) tufa-
ceous silt;
335-336 cm thin greyish brown humic horizon;
336-365 cm light grey (5Y 7/2) calcareous silty
clay with small chalk clasts;
365-420 cm light grey (2.5Y 7/2) calcareous silty
clay becoming darker (2. 5Y 612)
with depth. Unit generally lacking
large clasts. Iron-staining between
365-370 cm. Organic streak at
385 cm. Moss remains frequent
below 380 cm;
420-430 cm very dark grey (lOYR 3/1) organic
detritus mud, rich in shells and
plant macrofossils. A scapula of an
aurochs (Bos primigenius) was also
recovered from this horizon;
430-520 cm light brownish grey (2.5Y 6/2) chalk
mud with chalk clasts and occa-
sional fragments of moss (mostly
Cratoneuron commutatum);
520 cm + Gault Clay.
Interpretation
The basal sediments clearly represent marsh
deposits that formed in the bottom of the valley at
the beginning of the Late-glacial. The organic con-
tent of these sediments varies significantly, probably
reflecting changes in the local hydrology. An
organic detritus mud between 420-430 cm, which
yielded a Bos bone radiocarbon-dated to 12280 ±
140 yr BP, represents an episode when the surface
of the marsh became somewhat drier. The marshy
hollows clearly received some clastic input from the
valley sides. Between 336-365 cm a unit of chalk
debris completely buried the marsh. A thin organic
horizon subsequently formed on the finer stone-free
 Stratigraphical investigations
muds at the top of this unit. A brief episode of tufa
formation then ensued, indicating the initiation of
spring activity. The resultant thin lens of tufa was
immediately succeeded by two thin organic hori-
zons, marking a temporary cessation of spring
activity and brief period of stability. A radiocarbon
date of 11 530 ± 160 yr BP was obtained from seeds
recovered from these organic levels, which indi-
cates that they are the equivalent of the 'Aller0d
soil' seen within the Late-glacial succession else-
where in Holywell Coombe. The organic levels
were buried by a thin unit of chalk mud which
rapidly coarsens to become a chalk gravel. From its
stratigraphic context this is thought to have accu-
mulated during the Younger Dryas (Loch Lomond
Stadial). The top 10 cm of this unit reverts to stone-
free muds and has yielded the arctic-alpine snail
Columella columella (Fig. 5.3.10). It was expected
that a radiocarbon date from this level might pro-
duce a terminal date for this cold episode. In the
event a date of 11 490 ± 100 yr BP was obtained
from shells of Arianta arbustorum. The interpreta-
tion of this date is not straightforward, since it
seems most unlikely that the gravel was emplaced
during the Aller0d. Taken at face value, it could
simply mean that the Arianta shells were reworked
from the 'Aller0d soil', but the associated fauna does
differ in some respects from this earlier unit.
Overlying the Late-glacial deposits is a thick tufa,
implying a resurgence of spring activity. Molluscan
analyses (Fig. 5.3.10) reveal that there is a substan-
tial hiatus in the succession between these units and
that the earliest part of the Post-glacial sequence
(-10 000-9500 yr BP) is missing. The tufa is litholog-
ically relatively homogeneous, but the slightly
coarser onchoidal facies (110-120 cm) indicates
more energetic conditions. A grey horizon, inter-
preted as a zone of subaerial weathering, occurs at
the top of the tufa.
Above the tufa is a unit of hillwash. There is no
evidence of a buried soil horizon at the base of this
unit. Molluscan evidence demonstates that this hill-
wash accumulated during Romano-British times.
Another hiatus therefore exists at the base of this
unit. The occurrence of the burrowing snail
Ceciliodes acicula in the upper levels shows a
remarkable similarity to the magnetic susceptibility
values (Fig. 3.14).
(c) Trench 3
This trench was 10m long and 2 m wide and was
located in the vicinity of boreholes 45-47, some
52
50 m down-valley from the Main Section (Fig. 1.4)
and very close to the location of pits 1 and 2 of the
original investigation (Kerney et al., 1980). The
stratigraphy was as follows:
0-23 cm modern plough-soil;
23-158 cm light yellowish brown (2.5Y 6/4)
chalk silt (hillwash) with fine angu-
lar to rounded chalk clasts (a few up
to 2 cm). Becomes distinctly darker
(2.5Y 5/4) below 110 cm, which is
thought to be a palaeosol;
158-184 cm light yellowish brown (2.5Y 6/4)
chalk silt with scattered tufaceous
nodules becoming paler (10YR 8/3)
downwards;
184-186 cm black (10YR 2/1) organic clay with
some small tufa granules;
186-265 cm very pale brown (10YR 7/3) tufa-
ceous silt, slightly humic (10YR 5/3)
in upper 20 cm, becoming distinctly
coarser and more nodular with
abundant plant debris (including
wood and hazel-nuts) below
230 cm. A lens of granular tufa
occurs between 210-220 cm. Bones
of wild boar (Sus scrota) and red
deer (Cervus elaphus) were recov-
ered from the the lower part of this
unit;
265-330 cm angular chalk gravel (clasts up to
3 cm) in a matrix of grey chalky
clay. Matrix-supported except for
unit of coarse gravel between
270-290 cm which was clast-sup-
ported. Gravel is finer between
310-320 cm and much finer at the
base where the unit is essentially a
chalk mud with only occasional
clasts of Chalk and re-worked Gault
Clay;
330-360 cm brecciated clasts of Gault Clay in a
matrix of chalky silt;
360 + Orange-brown Gault Clay. Sharp
weathering contact at 360 cm.
Interpretation
The basal Late-glacial deposits below 265 cm show
much variation in texture and may therefore be the
products of more than one phase of slope activity
(Fig. 3.15). The Late-glacial sequence culminates in
a clast-supported unit of angular chalk gravel.
 Loss on Loss on
Wt% Wt% Wt% XLF
Shellsl Ostracods! Cecilioidesl
ignition ignition S lid
<150/UTI 150/UTl-2rnm >2mm (/UTl3 kg-') 500g 500g 500g
(550°C) (950°C)
o 50 100 0 20 40 0 40 80 0 0.1 0.2 0 4 8 12 20 30 40 50 0 1000 2000 100 300 0 20 40 60 0 20 40 2 3 4 5 6 7
o 1111 [(11H 1

I I

III I
100 -l I III

~
~
T T ~
~
I T ~
.c 200
VI ~
UJ ! ~
~.
~

~
~
C·
~
300 ~

400 ---------------------~--------------------~---------------~--------------~-----

Figure 3.15 Diagram through Trench 3 showing details of sediment texture, magnetic susceptibility, loss-on-ignition, number of shells/SOO g, number of ostracods/
500 g, frequency of the burrowing snail Cecilioides acicula, number of land snail species (S) and the molluscan species diversity (lid). Enhanced magnetic susceptibilty
values occur through the buried soil at the base of the hillwash. The number of snail species increases through the early Post-glacial but declines in the upper levels. Note
that during the period of maximum species richness there is a fall in diversity, reflecting a marked dominance by one or two taxa. Here the fall in diversity results largely
from the rise to dominance of Carychium tridentatum. See text for full explanation.
 Stratigraphical investigations
Figure 3.16 Hazel-nuts (Corylus avellana) from the
early Post-glacial sediments (220-265 cm) in Trench 3.
The sediment yielding these hazel-nuts have been dated
between 9000 and 9300 yr BP.
Occasional shells recovered from this deposit
include fragments of Trichia hispida, which would
imply that the gravel was post-Aller0d and very
probably Younger Dryas (Loch Lomond Stadial) in
age. This is in complete accord with the conclu-
sions of Kerney et al. (980), who also ascribed the
chalk gravel in their pits 1 and 2 to the Younger
Dryas. It is noteworthy that the Late-glacial
sequence is considerably thicker in the present sec-
tion and may include earlier deposits than seen
previously.
Above the Late-glacial sequence is a deposit of
calcareous tufa. The base of this unit is onchoidal
and rich in plant debris (hazel-nuts are especially
obvious; Fig. 3.16). The occasional large bone has
also been recovered. This tufa would appear to
have accumulated in a relatively energetic spring.
The upper part of the tufa is generally devoid of
plant remains (except Eupatorium cannabinum)
and is generally finer grained and would seem to
reflect a much quieter paludal (marshy) deposi-
tional environment. The thin organic silt at
184-186 cm appears to represent a period when
the marsh temporarily dried out. Above this
organic horizon the land snails (Fig. 5.3.11) indi-
cate that conditions were never as damp as those
that existed in the earlier phase of tufa deposition.
The tufa is overlain by a substantial unit of hill-
wash, which has a thick and prominent buried soil
at its base. Charcoal from the base of this soil has
yielded a radiocarbon date of 3980 ± 70 yr BP,
somewhat younger than dates obtained from the
base of the equivalent soil in the Main Section. The
hillwash above this soil horizon contains the
garden snail, Helix aspersa, and would therefore
appear to have accumulated during or since
Romano-British times. The pattern of sedimentation
of the hiIlwash in Trench 3 is thus rather different
from that described from the Main Section.
54
(d) Trench 4
This was a smaller trench, only 5 m long and 2 m
wide, located on the same cross-valley transect as
Trench 3, about 18 m upslope towards Sugarloaf
Hill (Fig. 1.4). The borehole survey had revealed
the presence of Late-glacial organic sediments
within a hollow in the Gault surface and this trench
was excavated specifically to examine these in
open section. The stratigraphy was as follows:
0-35 cm modem plough-soil;
35-65 cm light yellowish brown (2.5Y 6/4)
chalk silt (hillwash);
65-230 cm chalk gravel (some flint and iron-
stone) in olive (5Y 5/3) clay matrix
containing glauconite producing a
minor sand component. The gravel
is finer (clasts < 10 mm) between
90-120 cm and below 120 cm there
are fewer clasts altogether;
230-260 cm poorly sorted iron-stained gravel
(10YR 6/8) with rounded chalk
clasts up to 4 cm diameter. Some
angular flint clasts;
260-290 cm very pale brown OOYR 7/3) stone-
free chalk mud, with irregular lower
boundary, iron-stained in part, that
in places is nearly vertical;
290-360 cm soft, light grey (5Y 6/1) calcareous
clay with remains of plants;
360-390 cm as above but passing down into a
stiffer, dark greenish grey (5GY 4/1)
clay with chalk clasts up to 4 cm;
390 cm + unweathered, brecciated clasts of
clay derived from the Gault in a dark
greenish grey (5GY 4/1) clay matrix.
Interpretation
The borehole data suggested that a thick Late-
glacial organic sequence might occur within a
hollow created within the very uneven surface of
the Gault Clay. This peculiar bedrock topography
is thought to result from landslipping. The trench
section revealed that the surface of the Gault had
been brecciated and probably soliflucted. The
upper part of this unit contained some chalk clasts
and even produced Late-glacial pollen (Fig. 5.1. 2).
The main organic clay occurred between
290-360 cm and produced abundant fossil evi-
dence (Fig. 3.17) indicating accumulation in a
marsh during an interstadial climate. Radiocarbon
 loss on loss on
Wt% Wt"k Wt% Shells! Ostracods!
XLF ignition ignition S lId
<l50jUTl 150jUTl-2mm >2mm (jUTl3 kg·') 500g 500g
(550 DC) (950 DCl
70 80 90 100 0 10 20 30 o 2 4 6 8 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0123456 32 34 36 38 0 200 400 0 200 400 2 6 10 14 2 3 4
250 '0
.,. ..,

~
300 -p' )( ")<.1 -I- -I-- -- - - -I- - --l- - --ll- - ____ -1-1 ______ ...LL _ __ ~ ~ ~~ .. \ I~ r \ I
~
~
~
E ~
~ ;:s
.c ~'
VI 15.. ~
ill
VI
0
t&j
,. ,;<y"',t-. r ~ ~ ) ') \ ......
....
~
~
l I '> ( ~
~
~
......
350 -j''';<' . ~, .nI -+--~---I-",,------~---....j-.J-- ___ ...L....L:. ___ ...L""""~~~~~.J~C.~_ I J I ./
....C
;:s
~

400 --------------------------------------

Figure 3.17 Diagram through Trench 4 showing details of sediment texture, magnetic susceptibility, loss-on-ignition, number of shells/500 g, number of land snail
species (S) and the molluscan species diversity (lid). The fall in the number of species and in the diversity index towards the upper levels of the humic chalk mud
results from the local development of a swamp (see Figure 5.3.12). See text for full explanation.
 Stratigraphical investigations
dates of 11 830 ± 140 and 13 160 ± 400 yr BP were
obtained from the top and bottom of this unit
respectively, demonstrating that it was deposited
at the beginning of the Late-glacial, during the
B011ing chronozone. These organic clays were
immediately overlain by white chalk muds lacking
stones. This unit was severely disturbed by slope
movement, as indicated by the occurrence of near
vertical bedding in one place. This is succeeded by
Chalk gravel that shows marked variations in tex-
ture implying several episodes of slope activity. No
trace of the 'Aller0d soil' was apparent, so it is not
possible to say definitely whether these gravel units
were pre- or post-Aller0d'. The section is capped
by hillwash, which was not sampled.
(e) Trench 5
At the end of August 1987, some field-drains were
laid in the vicinity of Horseshoe Spring, towards
the head of the valley immediately east of Castle
Hill. A thick but very localized deposit of tufa was
discovered in these drainage trenches. The occur-
rence of such a thick tufa here had not been
detected during the borehole survey. Two deep
trenches that intersected at right angles were con-
sequently excavated between January 13-14th
1988. The backwall of the first, a 10 m X 2 m
trench oriented ENE-WSW, proved to be unstable
even with shoring and no sampling was possible.
The second, which was simply an enlargement of
the eastern part of the first extending a further 5 m
down valley, proved to be more stable. Samples
were taken from the western face, which revealed
the following sequence:
0-30 cm modem plough-soil;
30-340 cm soft, white (10YR 8/2) calcareous
tufa. Upper levels disturbed by recent
ploughing. Coarser granules and con-
cretionary crusts up to 3 cm occur
between 150 -165 cm. Iron-staining
at this level has coloured the tufa
yellow (10YR 7/8). Granular facies
also occur at 185-195 cm and
270-285 cm and an even coarser
nodular (onchoidal) facies occurs at
the base of the unit between
330-340 cm, where it is heavily iron-
stained a reddish yellow G.5YR 6/8).
Between 205-215 cm there is a
slightly higher clay content and the
56
tufa is somewhat sticky. There is a
concentration of small charcoal frag-
ments between 245-255 cm;
340-360 cm very dark greyish brown (lOYR 3/2)
organic detritus mud with many
shells and occasional fragments of
wood (including Juniperus), becom-
ing less organic below 345 cm;
360-400 cm dark grey brown (10YR 4/2) silty
clay with chalk pellets, snails and
occasional wood fragments becom-
ing greyer (lOYR 6/1) with depth;
400-470 cm fine glauconitic sand with much
clay and the occasional chalk clast;
470-520 cm greenish grey (5GY 5/1) blocks of
Gault Clay in clay matrix (soli-
flucted);
520 cm + solid unweathered Gault Clay (5GY
4/1).
Interpretation
The surface layers of the Gault Clay have clearly
been soliflucted. There is a relatively sharp distinc-
tion between the lower, largely Gault-derived
material, the overlying glauconitic sand and the
largely chalk-derived muds above (Fig. 3.9). Only
the last unit is fossiliferous and this indicates depo-
sition close to the Late-glacia1!Post-glacial
transition. There is no secure evidence to indicate
when the earlier episode(s) of solifluction
occurred, but sometime during the Younger Dryas
would seem likely.
The position of the Late-glacia1!Post-glacial
boundary is not easy to locate on purely biostrati-
graphic criteria and it has been placed at the base
of the tufa. Tufa formation here began somewhat
earlier than in either Trench HV or Trench 3. Its
thickness and extremely limited extent (no more
than about 15 m across) indicates the position of a
localized spring. The texture of the tufa varies and
not only includes onchoidal facies (at its base) but
also more granular facies at several horizons, indi-
cating periods of more energetic spring flow (Fig.
3.18). There were also significant variations in the
clay content of the tufa. At the levels where the
clay content was particularly low (260-340 cm),
pollen was not preserved, even though the sedi-
ments were completely waterlogged. From the
molluscan evidence it appears that tufa formation
began immediately after 9760 ± 100 yr BP and
lasted until sometime after 8000 yr BP.
The top of the section has been disturbed by
 Loss on Loss on
Wt% Wt% Wt% XLF Shells! 0strac0dsI Ceci/ioidesl
ignition ignition s 1/d
<150JIITI 150JIITI-2mm >2mm (J.IIII3kg.l) 500g 500g 500g
(550°C) (950°C)
20 60 100 0 10 20 30 40 0 20 40 ~.1 0 0.1 0.2 0 10 20 30 20 30 40 50 0 1000 2000 0 200 400 0 4 8 12 0 20 402 4 6 8
o """"i ..

T T

T T
100-1
T
T T >,:,
T
~
I.,.. .....
-=0 ~
T T ~
~
~
VI E is'
-...J :;200 T T T ----- - ---- ------ ---- ------- ------- ~
a
~
1 T
~.
~
T T ~
~
T ~
c·
T T ~
~
T
300-1
T T
~ I)
(I T
G 0

400

Figure 3.18 Diagram through Trench 5 showing details of sediment texture, magnetic susceptibility, loss-on-ignition, number of shells/SOO g, frequency of the burrow-
ing snail Cecilio/des acicula, number of land snail species (S) and the molluscan species diversity (l/d). Note the progressive increase in the number of land snail species
through the lower part of the sequence. Note also the variability in the texture of the tufa. See text for full explanation.
 Stratigraphical investigations

s N
~__-~--,,:r--------------:A:52.0 m 0.0.
~ samples
original land surface (approximate)

o 5m

Figure 3.19 Measured section drawing of Trench 6. This was a temporary exposure immediately east of Castle Hill,
exposed during the construction of the cut-and-cover tunnel. The upper levels had already been mechanically stripped
away before study. The approximate position of the original land surface is shown as is the location of the sampling
column.

recent ploughing. This has removed the upper
levels of the tufa and an unknown amount of over-
lying hillwash that presumably must once have
mantled the section.
(t) Trench 6
This was not strictly a trench but a temporary sec-
tion exposed in the side of a ramp used by lorries
during the construction of the portal through
Castle Hill (plate 2(a)). The upper levels of the tufa
had been dug away before they could be studied
(Fig. 3.19). The stratigraphy of this temporary sec-
tion, measured on the 18th of October 1988, was
as follows:
0-25 cm very pale brown (10YR 7/3) soft
tufa, granular between 10-20 cm;
25-40cm black (5Y 2/1) highly humified peat
with occasional fragments of
wood. A few compressed haZel-
nuts were present at the top of the
unit. A humerus of a mole (Talpa
europaea) was recovered from
30-35 cm. This unit was devoid of
both pollen and molluscs;
40-60cm very dark grey (5Y 3/1) organic silty
clay with shells and plant macrofos-
sils. Less humified than the
overlying unit;
60-110 cm olive grey (close to but not exactly
5Y 5/2) silty clay with shells and
plant macrofossils particularly
towards the top of the unit.
Occasional rounded chalk clasts up
to 5 cm;
110-190 cm medium to coarse chalk gravel with
rotted greensand clasts and heavy
iron-staining between 130 -150 cm
(5Y 6/2);
190 cm + weathered Gault Clay (5Y 5/3).
Interpretation
The surface of the Gault Clay in this section shows
signs of having been weathered and has obviously
not been periglacially scoured to any depth. Above
the Gault is a medium to coarse chalk gravel that
represents a phase of active erosion of the valley
sides. This is succeeded by 50 cm of fine grey chalk
muds, probably related to the same period of slope
instability. Fossils from the lower part of this unit
are of arctic-alpine character and radiocarbon dates
of 9900 ± 100 and 10 160 ± 110 yr BP suggest that
these muds began to accumulate at the end of the
Younger Dryas period (Loch Lomond Stadial). If
the underlying gravels are part of the same erosive
episode, then these are likely to have been
emplaced during the coldest part of the stadial
(between 11-10 000 yr BP).
The upper half of the chalk muds was more fos-

58
 Loss on Loss on
Wt% Wt% Wt% Shells Ostracods
Xu: ignition ignition s lid
<150fUII 1SOfUll-2mm >2mm (J.un3 kg-1) (550"C) 500g 500g
(9SO"C)
20 60 1000 20 400 40 800 0.060 40 80 0 25 500 100 200 0 100 200 300 2030402 4 6
o

so

~
~
~
~
~
5
;; 100
\Jl ~
\C)
~
! ~.

~
~
c·
~
150

200

Figure 3.20 Diagram through Trench 6 showing details of sediment texture, magnetic susceptibility, loss-on-ignition, number of shells/500 g, number of ostracod
valves/500 g, number of land snail species (S) and the molluscan species diversity (lid). Note the progressive increase in the number of land snail species through the
sequence. The sharp rise in the frequency of shells and in the number of species in the upper part of the chalk muds coincides with the Late-glaciallPost-glacial bound-
ary. See text for full explanation.
 ~
2
aq.
"""
2
~
~
§.
0\ ......
o
~.

~
~.
"""
~
~
o·
~

Figure 3.21 The Cut-&-cover Section exposed on the eastern limb of the interfluve in Holywell Coombe. Round Hill is in the background. This section shows a Late-glacial
sequence of chalky slope deposits filling a hollow in the surface of the Gault Clay. The 'Al1er0d soil' can be clearly seen (arrowed). For location of this section see Figure
1.4; see also Figure 3.22.
 Representative sections

w samples (SP 2)
E

samples (SP1) o 5 10m

I

AllerllJd soil
Gault Clay (weathered)

• Soil developed in chalky colluvium

• Soil developed in remobilized Glauconitic Marl

------------------------------------------------------------------------
Figure 3.22 Measured drawing of the Cut-&-cover Section (see Figure 3.21), showing the position of the two sam-
pling columns.

siliferous than the lower part. In fact, no pollen
was recovered between 90-100 cm and the fre-
quency of shells was considerably less than the
upper part (Fig. 3.20). Insect evidence indicates a
complete change in the character of the fauna from
arctic-alpine to temperate within this lithological
unit. This suggests that the Late-glacial/Post-glacial
boundary should be placed within this unit and not
at the lithological boundary with the overlying unit.
Support for this interpretation is provided by the
radiocarbon date of 9820 ± 90 yr BP from juniper
fruits from the top of the chalk muds.
A major organic deposit overlies the chalk muds.
This is only weakly organic in its lower part but it is
highly humified above 40 cm (Fig. 3.20). Shells,
pollen and insect remains were only recovered
from the lower part. Despite looking very promis-
ing, the upper part failed to yield any pollen but
did contain some wood and other plant macrofos-
sils. Salix wood from the base of the humified unit
produced a date of 9530 ± 75 yr BP. This organic
unit clearly formed in a marsh in the valley bottom.
There is molluscan evidence of pools and some
minor stream activity. The environment, at least
during formation of the upper unit,. was also
wooded. Tufa immediately overlying this organic
unit indicates the initiation of spring activity at this
spot. From the molluscan evidence this appears to
have occurred after about 7500 yr BP.
(g) Cut-&-cover Section
The deep excavations undertaken by TML in con-
nection with the cut-and-cover tunnel effectively
cut a wide oblique trough across the valley (Fig.
1.2). These excavations were cut to a level well
down into the Gault Clay. Magnificent sections
were created across both Holywell Coombe and the
Horseshoe Spring valleys and the interfluve
between. These showed how the Gault Clay had
been weathered on both limbs of the interfluve
(plate 2 (b)). They also revealed, on the eastern
limb, a small hollow about 20 m wide, filled with
chalk rubble and silts, in places mixed with glau-
conite derived from weathered Glauconitic Marl.
The basal contact with the underlying Gault
was sharp and obvious (Figs. 3.21; 3.22). A well

61
 Loss on Loss on
Wt"Io Wt% Wt"lo XLF ignition Shells! Granules!
ignition S lid
<1501lfTl 15OIlfTl-2mm >2mm (1lfTl3 kg-I) 500g 500g
(550°C) (95000)
86 9094 98 3 5 7 0 5 10 0.02 0.04 15 20 15 20 0 200400600 0 400 BOO 0 5 10 15 20 1 2 3 4 5
120

140
V:l
~
~
""'"
aq.
~
160 "g
....
0\
E ~
N ~ ......
IQ C
.s:::
iQ)i ~.
0

180~"<> ~
'"
""'"
~.
Q ~
~
a> O·
" <>
<> '>
. .. ~
200~
0 0

'"
0

220

Figure 3.23 Diagram through the Cut-&-cover Section (profile SP2) showing details of sediment texture, magnetic susceptibility, loss-on-ignition, number of shells/500
g, number of calcareous (earthworm) granules/500 g, number of land snail species (S) and the molluscan species diversity (l/d). Note the increases in magnetic suscep-
tibilty, loss-on-ignition, and numbers of shells and granules through the 'Aller0d soil'. See text for full explanation.
 Representative sections

N s
7'\ 53.0 m 0.0.

Disturbed
Not recorded

o Sm
~I--~--~--~--~~I

Figure 3.24 Measured drawing of Section below Sugarloaf Hill (see Plate 1(d)), showing position of samples. For
key see Fig. 3.1. Numbers shown apply to molluscan and plant samples (Tables 5.3.11 and 5.1.3). Numbering of
larger samples taken from identical stratigraphical positions for insect and mite analyses were as follows:
Molluscs Plants Insects Mites
7
6 6 8 D
5 5 7 C
4 4 6 B
3 3 5
2 2 4 A
1 1 3

developed soil horizon occurred within the chalk
head and could be traced to the margins of the
hollow, where it became less distinct (Figs 3.21 and
3.22). Two series of samples were taken through
this sequence. The first was at the eastern margin
of the hollow and taken purely for pedological and
micromorphological description (Section, 1(1)
above). The second, from just east of the mid-point
of the hollow, was fossiliferous and was taken for
molluscan analysis. The stratigraphy at this point
was as follows:
0-150 cm white (2.5Y 8/2) chalk silt with
occasional chalk clasts;
150-170 cm light brownish grey (2.5Y 6/2) chalk
silt, darker towards the top, with
frequent land snails and occasional
fragments of charcoal. Interpreted
as a buried soil horizon;
170 -190 cm light grey (5Y 7/2) chalk silt;
190-400 cm white (2.5Y 8/2) chalk silt with
occasional chalk clasts. Some iron-
staining immediately below 190 cm;
400-435 cm chalk gravel (occasional flints);
435 cm + soliflucted/weathered Gault Clay.
A fragment of unidentified bone (- 3 cm dia-
meter) was recovered about 2 m west of this
sampling column.
Interpretation
The basal contact of the chalky colluvium with the
weathered surface of the underlying Gault Clay was
very sharp (Fig. 3.21) and the hollow itself must
have a periglacial origin. The fact that nothing is
known about the morphology of this hollow, such
as whether it is a linear or circular feature, clearly
hampers interpretation. Its location on the present
intertluve, perched high above the floor of the pre-
sent valley, is quite striking.
Since the 'Allen1ld soil', which has yielded
charcoal dated at 11 370 ± 150 yr BP, passes over
the top of the hollow, its origin is demonstrably
pre-Allerl3d. The unfossiliferous nature of the sedi-
ments in the lower part of the hollow prevents

63
 Stratigraphical investigations
Figure 3.25 Section below Sugarloaf Hill showing detail of 'Moss layer' severely deformed by downslope movement.
further discussion about their age. Values of mag-
netic susceptibility and loss-on-ignition, as well as
frequencies of shells and calcitic granules, all
increase upwards through the 'Aller0d soil' (Fig.
3.23). These trends are characteristic of buried soil
horizons (e.g. Preece et al., 1995).
(h) Section below Sugarloaf Hill (BS)
This section was created in October 1988 on the
western flank of Sugarloaf Hill, at the site of the
portal to the tunnel that would eventually cut
through the hill (Fig. 1.4 and Plate l(d». A detailed
drawing of this important section is shown in Fig.
3.24. Because of the complexity of the section, a
single stratigraphical log would be somewhat mis-
leading but the essential details are outlined below.
The irregular surface of the Gault Clay can be
seen at the base of the section. At the northern end
this surface rises Significantly. The contact with the
overlying Late-glacial sediments is extremely sharp
and the surface of the fresh, unweathered, Gault
(5GY 4/1) would appear to have been periglacially
scoured. Some iron-staining occurs along this con-
64
tact. In places, particularly towards the southern
end of the section, the surface of the Gault has
been brecciated.
A soft, humic grey silt (lOYR 6/2) overlies the
Gault for much of the southern part of the section.
This is fossiliferous and contains shells, insects and
plant remains, including leaves. Analyses of these
fossils, to be described later, indicate that this unit
accumulated in a marsh during interstadial condi-
tions at the beginning of the Late-glacial. About
halfway along the measured section, a thin lens of
fine chalk gravel, about 5 cm thick, occurred
within these silts about 15 cm above the surface of
the Gault. In the central part of the section a bed
of moss (mostly Cratoneuron commutatum and
Amblystegium serpens) also occurred within these
silts. Some of the moss stems had tufaceous coat-
ings. The moss bed had been severely displaced by
downslope movement, which had not only
detached portions of it but had also caused each
end of the bed to be folded in on itself (Fig. 3.25).
Such structures are reminiscent of turf-bank lobes,
features common in periglacial areas (Ballantyne
and Harris, 1994). A very dark grey (lOYR 311)
organic-rich silty clay occurred as a drape at the top
 Representative sections

mO.D.
54~-------------------------------------'
obscured a <::1
o a
o <:> 0
<0

<> <::7 o 0
53 o
CJ
" o Cl
<:> <:> ">
" a <>
<:>
" o o
samples
Q

o <:J
<>

rill
Q

52 <::l 0 ~ o
'upper sOil'O

rlm
0 <I \ 0
o

~Cl
a <::>

""TTTTTI
..
51
o

" o
<>

o
o o

o
o
t
'lower soil'
o o <>
o
o
50 t-__o~_____o--~o~--_o------~----~Q~------o----------,"
obscured

Figure 3.26 Measured section through part of the Cherry Garden landslip showing the superimposition of different
parts of the 'Allen2ld soil'. The 'upper' and 'lower' soils are merely lateral equivalents of the same horizon thrust on top
of each other by major shearing. The location of the sampling column is also shown.

of the silts. A sizeable trunk of birch (Betula pubes- northern part of the section. Mollusca from this
cens), some 1.5 m in length and lying parallel to the horizon (Table 5.3.10),which included Trichia
section, was removed from this horizon. This sub- hispida, Abida secale and Arianta arbustorum,
sequently produced a radiocarbon date of 12 150 strongly support this correlation. Towards the
± 110 yr BP. The upper part of this unit, above the south the soil became less obvious and appeared
birch trunk, was paler (5Y 6/2) and less organic. to be distinctly up-turned, again indicating post-
These organic beds had also been severely affected depositional disturbance. Above this soil were light
by downslope movement. grey (5Y 7/2) chalk muds, at first almost white and
Immediately overlying the organic deposits was a stone-free but later becoming greyer and contain-
coarse, matrix-supported angular chalk gravel that ing small scattered chalk clasts up to 2 cm in
was heavily iron-stained (lOYR 7/8) in places. This diameter. The top of the section had been badly
thickened towards the north where it rested disturbed by machinery and vehicles and could not
directly on the Gault Clay and was over 2.5 m be recorded with any accuracy.
thick. Some organic lenses were contained within
the upper part of the gravel. These included
sample 6 (Table 5.3.10), which contained a mol- (i) Cherry Garden
luscan fauna (with Trichia and Arianta), showing
it to be later than, and not merely detached por- Between February and April 1989 excavations for
tions of, the lower organic-rich horizons. Towards the Cherry Garden Watermain Duct created expo-
the top of the gravel, the clast size and density sures through Late-glacial sediments. A detailed
became less (up to 4 cm diameter) and a light investigation of these sections was carried out by
brownish grey (2.5Y 6/2) silty clay, interpreted as Geomorphological Services Ltd (GSL) for G.
the 'Allerod soil', could be traced along most of the Maunsell & Partners. Details of the stratigraphy

65
 loss on Loss on
WI"Io WI"Io Wto/. Shellsl
XLF ignition ignition S lid
<15011'" 150J.Ull-2mm >2mm (11'"3 kg") 500g
(55O·C) (950·C)
91 92 93 94 95 5 6 7 8 9 0.1 0.3 0.5 0.04 0.06 6 7 8 9 10 10 20 30 220 260 300 14 15 16 17 18 2.4 2.8 3.2
0 1 1 1 < 1< . 7 1 t-I~~~~~

10

20
"g

30
I
::l ~
~
aq.
""'"
40 ~
E ~
~
~
oS
Q. -.
0\ ~5O ~
0\ ......
93 94 95 96 97 3 4 5 6 7 0.00 0.04 0.08 0.04 0.06 5 6 7 8 20 22 24 26 28 200 400 14 16 18 2.4 2.8 3.2 3.6 ~ .
0

~
~.
""'"
10
~
~
C·
.~
20 ~
j
.9
30

40

Figure 3.27 Diagram through the 'Aller0d soil' exposed in the Cherry Garden landslip showing details of sediment texture, magnetic susceptibility, loss-on-ignition,
number of shells/SOO g, number of calcareous (earthwonn) granules/SOO g, number of land snail species (S) and the molluscan species diversity (lId). Note the increases
in magnetic susceptibilty, loss-on-ignition, and numbers of shells and granules through the 'Aller0d soil'. See text for full explanation.
 Depth
below Cut-&-cover Main section (ms) Trench HV Trench 4 Trench 3 Pit 1 Trench 5 Trench 6
surface section (eastern sample column) (lower part) (Kerney et a[1980) (Horseshoe
cm spring)
0

I
II
ITT
50
IT
T
T
T T
100 e , T
, T T
, T
, T

150
__ T T
o •
· ..
'd/<
C
T
T
200 T ~
-•• G. T
T
~Q: T 'I ~
. -...: T
250 G () .... : 94601140 _, T T
T
~
T
;:.~~~ T
• • OQ T T
300 ·.. T
~
:·.:°":1 T ~
0\ ~~;{: T
--.J ~
~.
350
· .' .".
~

o ••
400 ~~
C·
450
~
500

550

~ Organic silt ~ ~ ~~ Weatheredlsoliflucted

ITlllIIIIIIII Soil ITT'l Tufa ~~ Chalk gravel
L..L::J and chalk mud Gault Clay

~ Organic
G.2lJ Hillwash ~ Chalky colluvium [G.M.l Glauconitic Marl ~ Gault Clay (in situ)
~ detritus mud

Figure 3.28 Correlation of the principal trench sections in Holywell Coombe. Simplified logs are given for each profile and the stratigraphical context of the radiocarbon
dates is shown. Lithological boundaries, which are not necessarily time equivalent, are connected by dashed lines. Biostratigraphical zone boundaries, which are assumed
to be isochronous, are joined by solid lines.
 Stratigraphical investigations
were most clearly displayed on the west side of the
cutting 13-46 m south of the sheet pile wall. The
upper levels of the section had been cut and filled
with spoil 20-90 cm thick. Two major units of
chalk head (combined thickness about 3 m) were
separated by a buried soil horizon (the 'Allen~d
soil'). The upper unit was light grey (5Y 7/2) and
consisted of weathered fine to medium-sized, sub-
rounded to sub-angular chalk clasts in a silty matrix.
The lower unit was similar, varying in colour
between light olive grey (5Y 6/2) and olive (5Y
5/3), which resulted from the higher proportion of
rotted greensand and derived Gault Clay. Both units
were mottled yellow in places. The buried soil was
an olive grey (5Y 4/2) to light brownish grey (2.5Y
6/3) silty clay and was generally quite thin
(10-15 cm) although it reached 50 cm thick
towards the northern part of the section. It was
rich in land snails (Fig. 5.3.16) and, in places, char-
coal (Table 5.1.4).
This whole section had been extensively
sheared, leading to a complex relationship
between the various units. The boundary between
the lower chalk head and overlying buried soil was
marked by a shear surface that was well-devel-
oped, for the most part, with strong seepage and
obvious slickensides. According to GSL, this sur-
face was tilted 4 towards 281 WNW. Two other
0 0
medium to high angle thrust shear surfaces were
recognized separating the upper and lower chalky
68
head and displacing the buried soil (Fig. 3.26). In
places the soil itself was internally sheared and fur-
ther shears were recognized within the upper
chalk head. No shears were recognized within the
lower unit of chalk head and it would seem that
the shearing was post-Aller0d in age. Details of the
physical and biological properties of this profile
are given in Fig. 3.27.
(3) CORRElATION OF SECTIONS
In the foregoing section, a description of each rep-
resentative profile has been given followed by the
suggested interpretation of each sequence. The
interpretations have necessarily drawn on bios-
tratigraphical data and radiocarbon dates that are
not presented in full until later sections.
Nevertheless, at the risk of pre-empting the pre-
sentation of these data, it is felt to be important at
this stage to clarify the correlation of individual pro-
files. Fig. 3.28 presents simplified stratigraphical
logs for the main profiles showing the positions of
the radiocarbon dates and the mollusc zone bound-
aries (see Part Five (3». Dashed lines connect
lithological boundaries (which are not necessarily
time equivalent), whereas solid lines connect bios-
tratigraphical zone boundaries that are assumed to
be isochronous, at least within an area the size of
Holywell Coombe.
 Chapter 2
Sedimentological investigations
(1) PETROGRAPHY OF SEDIMENTS
AND BURIED SOILS
J.A. Can and SJ. Staines
(a) Introduction
The sections dug in Holywell Coombe revealed sev-
eral buried soils ranging in radiocarbon age from
Late-glacial to late Post-glacial. Standard pedologi-
cal techniques (thin sections, particle size analyses,
mineralogical analyses, % CaC0 3, % organic C)
were employed in order to extract environmental
evidence from these. Particle size and mineralogi-
cal analyses were also used to determine the
sources of all the major sedimentary units.
There have been very few studies in Britain of
soils formed during short periods « 2000 yr) in the
Late-glacial or Post-glacial. In soils on the present
land surface the weak pedogeneic signal from
these short periods is difficult to detect, because it
is strongly overprinted by properties developed
throughout the whole Post-glacial period or is
superimposed on the even stronger effects of inter-
glacial soil development. Although individual
examples are known from several sites in southern
England, very few soils from these brief Late-glacial
or Post-glacial intervals have yet been assessed by
standard pedological techniques (d. Preece et al.,
1995). The excavations at Holywell Coombe there-
fore provided an unrivalled opportunity not only
for examining a sequence of such soils all formed
in a single area, but also for comparing the
palaeoenvironmental evidence they provide with
69
the numerous other lines of evidence described in
this volume.
The only previous work on buried soils on the
East Kent chalkland (Fig. 1.1) was by Kerney (1963,
1965), who drew attention to buried rendzina-like
Late-glacial soils at sites in the Medway Valley, on
the Isle of Thanet and at Dover Hill and Castle Hill,
Folkestone, while at Brook a Late-glacial soil buried
by a solifluction lobe was described by Kerney et
al. (1964) and Burnham and Fordham (1973). At
most of the sites described by Kerney (1963, 1965),
a grey, organic 'rendzina-like soil', attributed to the
'Aller0d Interstadial', shows disturbance by cry-
oturbation during the subsequent Younger Dryas
Stadial. At Dover Hill this soil contained charcoal
initially dated at 11 934 ± 210 yr BP (Q-463); this
date has been shown to be erroneous and younger
ages of 11 220 ± 110 yr BP (OxA-3238) and 11 100
± 110 yr BP (OxA-3239) have recently been
obtained from the same horizon (preece, 1994). At
two other sites (Holborough and Broadstairs) a
weaker lower soil, really just an organic layer, was
probably formed during the earlier 'B011ing
Interstadial' (radiocarbon date of 13 180 ±
230 yr BP (Q-473) at Holborough). The soil at Brook
was situated near the foot of the chalk scarp and
was derived from very calcareous Gault Clay; it
consisted of 7 cm of olive grey silty clay containing
much less carbonate (6%) than the underlying
Gault (41 %), which suggests that it represents a
fairly long period of land surface stability. A radio-
carbon date of 11 170 ± 70 yr BP (AA-I0706) on a
'marsh soil' at the same level in a nearby profile
 Sedimentological investigations
(Preece, 1994) suggests that this soil was also
formed during the latter part of the Late-glacial
Interstadial. The date of 11 900 ± 160 yr BP (Q-618),
from an organic detritus mud about 15 cm lower
in the same borehole (Kerney et al., 1964), has
recently been redated with a pooled mean age of
12 190 ± 30 yr BP (preece, 1994).
(b) Samples analysed
Undisturbed samples for thin section study were
taken in Kubiena tins from Trench 5 (organic hori-
zon at 340-345 cm depth with 14C date of 9760 ±
100 yr BP), Trench HV (organic horizon at
420-430 cm, 14C date of 12280 ± 140 yr BP),
Cherry Garden (the 'Alle1'0d' soil, dated to 11 580 ±
100 and 11 430 ± 100 yr BP) and from various hori-
zons through the Late-glacial buried soils (profiles
SPI and SP2) in the Cut-&-cover Section (Fig. 1.4
and Plate 3).
Bulk samples for particle size, mineralogical
analyses and chemical analyses (% CaC0 3 and %
organic C) were taken from the following units in
the Main Section (Fig. 3.11): gravelly coombe
deposit (sample 4); Late-glacial chalky loams (5d)
and 'Aller0d' soil (5c); early Post-glacialloam (5b);
mid Post-glacial soil (5a) and tufa (6); mid to late
Post-glacial hillwashac, 7a) with two soils ad at
base dated 5620 ± 90 yr BP, and 7b dated 3515 ±
80 yr BP). Similar samples were obtained from
Trench 1 (basal Late-glacial deposit), Trench 2
(70-75 cm and 175-200 cm), Trench HV (Late-
glacial clay 450-460 cm; organic horizon at
420-430 cm, dated 12280 ± 140 yr BP; calcareous
clay at 400-410 cm; clay with chalk clasts at
355-365 cm (pre-AlleCj."d); calcareous clay at
265-275 cm (post-Aller0d); tufa at 160-165 cm,
130-135 cm and 80-90 cm; and hillwash at
35-45 cm depth), Trench 3 (184-186 cm, dated
7650 ± 80 yr BP), Trench 4 (Late-glacial deposit at
315-340 cm depth) and Trench 5 (Gault Clay at
525-535 cm; calcareous clay at 385-390 cm; and
organic bed at 340-345 cm, dated to 9760 ±
100 yrBP).
(c) Methods
Undisturbed air-dried samples were impregnated
with Crystic polyester resin under vacuum, slices
were cut from the hardened blocks with a diamond
saw, mounted on glass slides and then reduced in
thickness to approximately 30 Illll by grinding and
70
finally polishing with fine abrasive powders. The
thin sections were examined with a polarizing
microscope.
The bulk samples were air-dried at room tem-
perature and gently ground to pass a 2 mm mesh.
They were decalcified with acetic acid buffered at
pH 4.0, treated with 100-volume hydrogen perox-
ide to remove organic matter and dispersed by
overnight shaking in dilute sodium hexametaphos-
phate solution. Particle size distribution of the
<2 mm material was then determined at 0 intervals
(0 =-log2 mm) by the combined use of sieving and
the pipette sampling technique. Fine sand (63-250
Illll) and coarse silt (16-63 Illll) fractions for min-
eralogical analysis were separated from the
dispersed samples by sieving and repeated settling
in aqueous suspension. Percentages of individual
minerals were calculated from counts of >500
grains identified from each fraction using a petro-
logical microscope.
Calcium carbonate content of oven-dried
(105°C) <2 mm samples was determined with a cal-
cimeter of the type developed by Bascomb (1961),
and organic C by wet oxidation using the Tinsley
III method of Kalembasa and Jenkinson (1973).
(d) Results: particle size distribution,
mineralogy and sediment
provenance
The bulk samples were all strongly calcareous
(27.7-90.1% CaC0 3 , Tables 3.1-3.3), mainly
because of incorporated chalk fragments, although
the tufa in the Main Section probably comprises
mainly precipitated carbonate (cf. Section 2.2
below). Amounts of organic C were <1.0% in most
of the samples (fables 3.1-3.3), but were much
larger in the interstadial organic layer
(420-430 cm) in Trench HV (13.7%), the early
Post-glacial organic layer (340-345 cm) in Trench 5
at Horseshoe Spring (12.7%) and the organic hori-
zon at 175-200 cm in Deep Trench 2 of the Main
Section (4.9%). Other buried soil horizons, such as
the 'Aller0d' and Post-glacial soils in the Main
Section, were not appreciably enriched in organic
C, probably because the organic matter they once
contained has been partly removed by slow oxida-
tion since burial.
The decalcified residues of the bulk samples
were composed mainly of clay «211m), which
formed 42.8-73.7% by weight (Tables 3.1-3.3).
Amounts of sand (63-2000 Illll) ranged from 0.0 to
4.9% and silt (2-63 Illll) from 23.2 to 54.7%. The
 Table 3.1 Particle size distribution (carbonate-free basis) and chemical composition of sediment and soil samples from Holywell Coombe: Main Section (Series 1) and
Deep Trenches 1 and 2 (see Fig. 3.11). Percentages of Gault Clay and loess are maxima; see text for method of calculation
~
Deep Deep ;t
Main Section Trench 1 Trench 2
~
solifluction soliflucdon 'AllenJd' 'AllenJd' hillwash hiIlwash Holocene tufa Holocene hillwash Holocene hillwash basal 175-200 70-75
deposit deposit soil son 5b(East) 5h son 6 son 7c son 7a 20 em em em
~
~
4 5d 5c(East) 5c 5a 7d 7b
Particle size
~
distribution
~
1000-2000 f.Lm 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.1 0.0 0.2 1.5 0.1 0.0 ~
500-1000 f.Lm 0.4 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.0 0.3 0.5 0.2 0.4 0.2 0.1 0.1
sand 250-500 f.Lm 1.9 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.1 1.6 1.4 0.8 1.4 0.4 0.3 0.1 ~
---J 125-250 f.Lm 1.2 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.1 0.5 0.1 1.2 0.8 0.6 0.8 0.8 0.6 0.2 ~
...... 63-125 f.Lm 0.4 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.4 0.3 0.1 0.6 0.7 0.4 0.5 1.4 1.3 0.4 ~
~
32-63 f.Lm 2.5 0.5 4.0 4.1 2.8 4.6 3.9 1.0 14.4 3.3 2.1 2.3 7.3 5.5 3.2 ~
16-32 f.Lm 1.9 6.1 7.2 5.5 6.6 8.9 8.0 4.0 4.1 11.7 8.6 8.4 15.6 6.9 9.8
silt 8-16 f.Lm 4.9 12.1 9.7 9.1 6.9 9.0 6.2 4.7 2.7 14.6 9.5 8.5 13.6 7.9 10.4 ~
4-8f.Lm 6.5 10.7 10.3 9.3 7.8 7.9 11.3 5.5 5.6 12.2 7.4 8.5 7.9 5.8 10.1 ~
2-4f.Lm 9.2 7.3 10.6 3.9 6.8 8.9 10.8 7.5 6.7 11.7 4.7 8.3 6.0 5.0 6.0 ~
~
clay <2f.Lm 70.3 62.6 57.9 67.8 68.3 59.3 58.7 76.5 62.1 42.8 65.1 60.5 45.3 66.5 59.7 ~
"'t
%CaC03 86.3 74.0 58.3 61.8 83.4 69.0 53.5 85.4 71.5 63.7 52.5 65.9 81.4 63.6 36.6
% organic C <0.1 <0.1 0.3 0.3 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.7 0.7 0.8 0.8 1.0 4.9 1.1 ~
~
% Gault Clay 13.0 25.0 35.0 35.0 16.0 28.0 36.0 13.0 19.0 27.0 37.0 27.0 15.0 25.0 50.0
% loess 1.0 10.0 3.0 1.0 3.0 6.0 1.0 1.0 9.0 8.0 9.0 6.0 1.0 6.0 11.0
....~C
 Table 3.2 Particle size distribution (carbonate-free basis) and chemical composition of sediment samples from Holywell Coombe: Trench HV. Percentages of Gault
Clay and loess are maxima; see text for method of calculation
TrenchHV
Late-glacial Holocene
calcareous organic bed calcareous calcareous calcareous Humic tufa Tufa Tufa Hillwash ~
clay clay clay clay ~
450-460 em 420-430cm 400-410cm 355-365 cm 265-275 cm 160-165cm 130-135cm 80-90cm 35-45 em §.
~
Particle size distribution ~
1000-2000 !Lm 0.6 1.5 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.2
C
500-1000 !Lm 0.1 0.5 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.3 0.4 C'
sand 250-500 !Lm 0.3 0.4 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.0 0.0 1.8 1.9 ~....
125-250 !Lm 0.4 0.4 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.0 0.0 0.8 1.3
---l
N 63-125 !Lm 0.6 3.1 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.0 0.1 0.4 1.1 £
32-63 !Lm 4.1 6.7 5.2 5.1 5.3 3.0 2.8 4.6 2.9 ....
16-32 !Lm 8.2 6.5 15.4 9.3 9.0 9.4 5.8 6.8 12.7 ~
silt 8-16 !Lm 11.8 7.9 13.8 10.2 9.3 14.3 9.3 7.6 10.8 ~
-
4-8 !Lm 9.6 5.1 9.5 8.8 11.2 11.7 18.7 4.3 8.7 ~
2-4 !Lm 6.0 6.8 6.7 7.4 6.7 9.2 16.5 6.0 6.2 ~.
""'"
clay <2!Lm 57.7 60.4 47.7 58.2 57.1 51.6 45.2 67.2 57.8 ~
~
%CaC03 73.8 42.6 79.4 80.9 84.7 88.4 90.1 82.2 65.5 O·
% organic C 0.7 13.7 0.5 0.1 0.1 1.0 ~
% Gauit Clay 22.0 30.0 16.0 15.0 12.0 9.0 8.0 14.0 24.0
% loess 3.0 7.0 4.0 4.0 3.0 2.0 1.0 3.0 9.0
• insufficient sample for analysis.
 Petrography of sediments and buried soils

Table 3.3 Particle size distribution (carbonate-free basis) and chemical composition of sediment samples.
Holywell Coombe: Trenches 3, 4 and 5 (Horseshoe Spring). Percentages of Gault Clay and loess are maxima;
see text for method of calculation
Trench 3 Trench 4 Trench 5 (Horseshoe Spring)
Organic Late-glacial Gault Clay Early
Calcareous Tufa
slltin tufa calcareous clay
Holocene
clay organic bed
184-186cm 315-340 em 525-535cm 385-390cm 340-345 em 115-120 em
Particle size distribution
lOoo-2000/LID 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.3 0.5 0.0
500-1000 /LID 0.1 0.1 0.0 0.5 0.5 0.0
sand 250-500 /LID 0.2 0.3 0.1 1.1 0.6 0.0
125-250 /LID 0.3 0.4 0.1 1.8 0.7 0.1
63-125/LID 0.4 1.0 0.5 2.3 0.8 0.1

32-63/LID 5.2 7.2 7.8 5.0 2.4 4.0

16-32 /LID 13.0 10.3 8.2 8.3 5.4 3.1
silt 8-16/LID 8.6 12.1 8.3 7.1 6.3 1.5
4-8/LID 8.9 9.8 8.4 8.7 8.8 12.6
2-4 /Lffi 6.5 6.1 10.3 5.4 6.4 4.4

clay <2/LID 55.8 52.1 55.7 58.3 67.0 73.7

%CaC03 44.6 76.0 27.7 73.4 52.1 89.8
% organic C 0.7 0.8 12.7 0.5
% Gault Clay 38.0 22.0 100.0 22.0 25.0 8.0
% loess 16.0 2.0 0.0 3.0 5.0 1.0
• insufficient sample for analysis.

sand fractions were mainly fine (63-250 11m) and
were composed of quartz with subsidiary tIint frag-
ments (2-48%), alkali feldspar «1-7%) and traces
of muscovite, glauconite, charcoal, other organic
remains, various iron oxides and other heavy min-
erals (fables 3.4-3.6). The flint is obviously derived
from the Chalk, whereas the quartz and most of the
other minerals are probably derived from the Gault
Clay and the 'Glauconitic Marl'. The coarse silt
(16-63 1lID) was also composed mainly of quartz
(60 -90%) with subSidiary alkali feldspar (3-14%)
and flint (<1-8%), with traces of iron oxides and
other heavy minerals (Tables 3.7-3.9). As the
coarse silt fraction of the Gault Clay (Trench 5,
525-535 cm depth) contains only 3% alkali feldspar
and a more restricted range of heavy minerals than
most of the Quaternary samples, an additional
source for the silt component of the latter is
implied. The most likely candidate is loess, which
is known to have been deposited over almost the
whole of SE England in the Late Devensian, approx-
imately 15000 yr BP (Catt, 1978). As the Late
Devensian loess in England has a characteristic size
distribution, with a mode in the coarse silt (16-63
1lID) usually accounting for about 50% of the sedi-
ment by weight, and also a characteristic suite of
minerals in the same size fraction, it is possible to
estimate the amount of loess in the <2 rom compo-
nent of each sample analysed. This is calculated as
a proportion of the total calcareous sediment by
the following steps:
(1) subtracting the percentage CaC03, which is
attributed entirely to a chalk-derived compo-
nent;
(2) if the coarse silt fraction of the decalcified sed-
iment is mineralogically similar to that in the
Devensian loess (Le. is mainly quartz but also
contains 15% or more alkali feldspar and has a
wide range of non-opaque heavy minerals), it
can be assumed to be derived entirely from
loess;
(3) the loess percentage in the calcareous sedi-
ment is then calculated by mUltiplying the
percentage of non-calcareous material (100 -
%CaC03) by twice the percentage of coarse
silt in the decalcified sediment;
(4) if the coarse silt contains <15% alkali feldspar
and has a more restricted suite of non-opaque
heavy minerals, then the amount calculated at
step (3) is multiplied by % alkali feldspar/15.
The remainder of the sediment (not derived from
chalk or loess) was assumed to come from other

73
 Table 3.4 Mineralogical composition of fine sand (63-250 /-Lm) fractions of samples from Holywell Coombe: Main Section (Series 1)
Deep Deep
Main Section Trench 1 Trench 2
solifluction solifluction 'Allet'0d' 'Allet'0d' Holocene Holocene Holocene
deposit deposit soil soil hillwash hillwash soil tufa soil hillwash soil hillwash basal 175-200 70-75 ~
4 5d 5c(East) 5e 5b(East) 5b 5a 6 7d 7c 7b 7a 20 em em em ~
Quartz % 86 45 85 85 40 55 89 40 86 63 56 66 28 41 83
....
Flint + chert % 12 48 5 5 51 38 4 10 5 17 2 5 38 10 3
~
~
Alkali feldspar % <1 4 5 3 4 4 4 4 <1 1 1 5 <1 5 7 ~
Muscovite% <1 <1 1 1 1 <1 1 <1 1 3 2
Glauconite % <1 1 <1 <1 2 1 2 1 8 8 12 <1 0'
Organic remains % <1 1 1 <1 <1 1 35 2 1 5 2 15 25 4
Charcoal % <1 2 2 1 1 2 3 4 3 22 3 4 ~
Umonite% 1 1 1 <1 <1 <1 4 1 8 12 <1 <1
-....I
-§.
~ Haematite % <1 <1 1 <1 1 2 3
Magnetite % <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 2 <1 <1
Leucoxene % <1 <1 <1
....
~
-
Pyrite % 5 3
Zircon % <1 <1 <1 <1
Tourmaline % <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 ~
.....
Epidote % <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 ~.
Yellow rutile % <1 <1 <1 ~
Garnet % <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 .........
Staurolite % <1 C
Green hornblende % <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 ~
Clinoptilolite % <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 (;)
 ~
Table 3.5 Mineralogical composition of fine sand (63-250 I-lm) fractions of samples from Holywell Coombe: Trench HV ~
Deep Deep ~
Main Section Trench 1 Trench 2 ~
solifluction solifluction 'Aller0d' 'Aller0d' Holocene Holocene Holocene
"6-
deposit deposit soil soil hillwash hillwash soil tufa soil hillwash soil hillwash basal 175-200 70-75 ~
4 5d 5c(East) 5c 5b(East) 5h 5a 6 7d 7c 7b 7a 20 em em em
Quartz % 72 59 39 50 48 75 64 62
~
~
Flint + chert % 18 2 30 42 45 4 7 6 ~
Alkali feldspar % 5 7 6 2 5 5 2 2 ~
Muscovite % 1 <1 <1 §.
---l Glauconite % 1 <1 <1 <1 <1 2
VI
Organic remains % 2 22 ~
31 <1 7 12 3
Charcoal % 2
~
9
Umonite % <1 <1 3 5 21 ~
Haematite % 8 ~
Magnetite % <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 ~
Leucoxene % <1 ~
Pyrite % <1 <1 <1 <1
~
Zircon % <1 ;:
Tourmaline % <1 <1 <1 ""t
Epidote % <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 ~.
Yellow rutile % <1
~
Garnet % <1 <1 <1
~
Staurolite % <1
Green hornblende % <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1
Clinoptilolite % 1 <1
....0~
Augite % <1
* insufficient sample for analysis.
 Sedimentological investigations

Table 3.6 Mineralogical composition of fine sand (63-250 fLm) fractions of samples from Holywell Coombe:
Trenches 3,4 and 5 (Horseshoe Spring)
Trench 3 Trench 4 Trench 5 (Horseshoe Spring)
Organic Late-glacial Gault Clay Calcareous Early Tufa
slltin tufa calcareous clay Holocene
clay organic bed
184-186cm 315-34ocm 525-535 cm 385-390cm 340-345cm 115-120cm
Quartz % 75 28 34 13 8 61
Flint + chert % 3 32 24 5 5 8
Alkali feldspar % 4 2 1 1 7
Muscovite % 2 <1 <1 <1
Glauconite % <1 6 40 73 2 1
Organic remains % 15 18 81 22
Charcoal % 2
Limonite % <1 <1 <1 <1
Haematite% <1
Magnetite % <1
Leucoxene% <1
Pyrite % <1 12 <1 7
Zircon % <1 <1 <1 <1
Tourmaline % <1 <1 <1 <1
Epidote % <1 <1 <1
Yellow rutile % <1
Gamet % <1
Staurolite % <1
Green hornblende % <1 <1

bedrock formations (Gault Clay and 'Glauconitic
Marl'). As the Gault Clay and loess both contain a
little calcium carbonate, the assumption that all the
carbonate derives from chalk must inevitably cause
underestimation of their input. However, the cal-
culated amounts of loess (Tables 3.1-3.3) are
surprisingly small (1-16%) compared with other
Late-glacial and Post-glacial deposits in southern
England (Catt, 1978). Generally they are also less
than the calculated amounts of Gault Clay (8-50%).
The samples richest in both loess- and Gault-
derived material are the Post-glacial hillwash
sediments and intercalated soil horizons.
(e) Results: micromorphology and
soil development processes
The micromorphological features seen in thin sec-
tions of soils under a petrological microscope
provide good evidence for processes involved in
soil formation and development (Plate 3). These
include the origin and extent of heterogeneity of
the soil parent material, the accumulation and
incorporation of organic matter, weathering of
mineral grains, leaching of soluble constituents by
percolating water, mobilization and redeposition of
iron and manganese oxides by fluctuations in the
soil water content (gleying), development of soil
structure (aggregates of mineral particles separated
by fissures), and down-washing of clay particles
from topsoil to subsoil horizons (clay illuviation or
lessivage). These processes in turn have various
environmental implications. For example, weath-
ering, leaching and clay illuviation are all typical of
humid temperate climatic conditions. Also, as most
soil development processes are fairly slow and take
centuries or even thousands of years to produce
recognizable features, the preservation of fossil
soils implies episodes of land surface stability, with
little or no erosion or deposition. The approximate
length of such episodes can often be estimated
from the extent of soil development, though with
buried soils allowances must be made for any trun-
cation of the soil profile by erosion before burial
and for possible changes in soil properties after
burial (e.g. loss of organic matter by oxidation).
Buried soils of various ages (Late-glacial to late
Post-gIacial) were encountered in the excavations
at Holywell Coombe. They have been dated by
radiocarbon assay of various soil components
(shells, bones, charcoal and organic matter or
humus), with generally consistent results (preece,
1991; Switsur and Housley, this volume). However,
they are only approximate estimates of the ages of
the soils; however accurate they are, they merely
give a single date for some time during the soil
development episode and cannot indicate the
beginning and end of that episode. Because of the
continual cycling of carbon through plants and

76
 Table 3.7 Mineralogical composition of coarse silt (16-63 f.Lm) fractions of samples from Holywell Coombe: Main Section (Series 1) ~
Main Section Trench 1 Trench 2 ;t
soHfluction soHfluction 'Aller!IJd' 'A11er0d' Holocene Holocene Holocene ~
deposit deposit son son hillwash hiIlwash son Tufa son hiIlwash son hiIlwash basal 175-200 70-75 ~
4 5d 5c(East) 5c 5b(East) 5h 5a 6 7d 7c 7b 7a 20 em em em
Quartz % 83 86 84 85 84 90 84 85 85 85 85 86 82 60 87 ~
Flint + chert % 5 1 2 2 3 <1 1 1 <1 2 1 1 <1 <1
Alkali feldspar % 10 12 13 12 12 8 14 13 14 12 13 12 4 10 10 ~
Muscovite % 1 1 1 1 1 1 <1 1 1 2 2 1
Glauconite % <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 6 3 <1 ~
Umonite% 1 <1 <1 <1 <1 1 <1 <1 1 1 1 1 <1 1 ~
Pyrite % <1 22 ~.
-....I
-....I Zircon % <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 ~
Tounnaline % <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 ~
Epidote % <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1
Zoisite % <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 ~
Chlorite % <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 ~
Biotite % <1 <1 <1 ~
Green hornblende % <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 ~
Tremolite% <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 ~
Brown hornblende % <1 <1 ~
Garnet % <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 ~
Yellow rutile % <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1
Brown rutile % <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 i:
Anatase % <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 ~
Brookite % <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 0
Staurolite % <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 .....
Kyanite % <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 ~
 Table 3.8 Mineralogical composition of coarse silt (16-63 !-Lm) fractions of samples from Holywell Coombe: Trench HV
TrenchHV
Late-glacial Holocene
calcareous organic bed calcareous calcareous calcareous humic tufa tufa tufa hillwash
clay clay clay clay ~
450--460 cm 420--430 cm 400--410 cm 355-365 cm 265-275 cm 160-165 cm 130-135 cm 80--90 cm 35-45 cm ~
.....
Quartz % 80 73 83 72 78 85 87 85 84 ~
Flint + chert % 2 5 2 8 4 <1 <1 1 ~
Alkali feldspar % 10 10 8 13 13 13 11 12 12 ~
Muscovite % 2 2 2 2 1 1
Glauconite % 2 3 3 <1 <1 <1
C
Limonite % 2 <1 1 2 <1 <1 <1 <1 0'
<1 8 <1 <1 <1
()q
Pyrite % <1 .....
~
Zircon % <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1
00 Tounnaline % <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 ~
.......
Epidote % <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 .....
Zoisite % <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 ~
Chlorite % <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 ~
Biotite % <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1
Green hornblende % <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1
~
.,.....
Tremolite % <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 ~.
Brown hornblende % <1 <1 <1 ~
Gamet % <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 :t
Yellow rutile % <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 C
Brown rutile % <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 ~
Anatase % <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 to.)
<1
Brookite % <1 <1 <1
Staurolite % <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1
Kyanite % <1 <1 <1 <1
Opal phytoliths % <1 <1
Organic remains % <1
 Petrography of sediments and buried soils

Table 3.9 Mineralogical composition of coarse silt (16-63 11m) fractions of samples from Holywell Coombe:
Trenches 3, 4 and 5 (Horseshoe Spring)
Trench 3 Trench 4 Horseshoe Spring
Organic Late-glacial Gault Clay Calcareous Early Tufa
silt in tufa calcareous clay Holocene
clay organic bed
184-186cm 315-340cm 525-535 cm 385-390cm 340-345cm 115-120cm
Quartz % 86 78 90 76 78 86
Flint + chert % <1 <1 <1 1 <1
Alkali feldspar % 12 5 3 8 12 12
Muscovite % 1 1 3 1 2 1
Glauconite % 4 4 6 1 <1
Limonite % <1 <1 <1 <1 4 <1
Pyrite % 10 <1 7 <1
Zircon % <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1
Tounnaline % <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1
Epidote % <1 <1 <1 <1 <1
Zoisite % <1 <1 <1
Chlorite % <1 <1 <1 <1 <1
Biotite % <1 <1 <1
Green hornblende % <1 <1 <1 <1 <1
Tremolite % <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1
Brown hornblende % <1
Garnet % <1 <1 <1 <1 <1
Yellow rutile % <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1
Brown rutile % <1 <1 <1 <1 <1
Anatase % <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1
Brookite % <1 <1 <1
Staurolite % <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1
Kyanite% <1 <1 <1
Organic remains % <1 <1

animals, the soil, the atmosphere and back into the
living organisms, the date obtained from buried soil
constituents usually precedes the time of burial
(termination of the soil-forming episode), but by an
unknown amount.
The various buried soils studied are discussed in
approximate order of age, starting with the oldest
Late-glacial soils. The micromorphological terms
used are defined by Bullock et al. (1985).
1. The organic horizon in Trench HV,
420-430 cm depth
The radiocarbon date of 12280 ± 140 yr BP from a
scapula of aurochs (Bas primigenius) from this
horizon makes it one of the earliest Late-glacial
organic sediments found on the site. It is a dark cal-
careous peaty depOSit, shelly and crudely layered
with more and less organic laminae. The organic C
component of 13.7% suggests a mean organic
matter content of only 25% at the most, which
agrees with the sum of the other (inorganic) con-
stituents, namely 30% Gault Clay, 7% loess and 43%
chalk (Table 3.2). In thin section the more organic
layers are reddish brown in colour and contain
approximately equal amounts of recognizable plant
remains (leaf and stem fragments with clear cellular
structure) and amorphous, partly decomposed
humus. The less organic layers consist partly of
angular quartz silt, with calcium carbonate con-
centrated in less pigmented areas, such as infilled
voids, to give a crystallitic fabric. The very organic
nature of the layer and the abundance of sedge
remains (part Five (1)) indicate that it accumulated
under wet conditions with a water-table at or near
the ground surface for most of the year. The land
surface was stable, but perhaps only for a short
period of no more than a century.
2. The Late-glacial buried soil (SP1, SP2)
exposed in the Cut-&-cover Section
The large continuous sections exposed during con-
struction of the cut-and-cover tunnel revealed a
well-developed buried soil preserved in a hollow
about 20 m across, cut into the coombe deposits
on the eastern flank of the interfluve below Round
Hill. Two profiles through this soil, one on the
margin of the hollow (SPl) and the other in the
central part (SP2), were studied in detail (see Table
3.10 for descriptions). The differences between the
two profiles can be attributed to slightly different

79
 Sedimentological investigations
Table 3.10 Field descriptions of SP! and SP2. The terms used in profile descriptions are defined by Hodgson
(1976). Depths are measured from the top of each profile
Profile SPI (margin of hollow)
0-25 cm Dark yellowish brown to brown (10YR 4/4-5/4)
calcareous sandy clay; few to common small rounded
chalk fragments, sand fraction mainly glauconite;
strong medium and coarse subangular blocky and
prismatic structure; moderately permeable; very
plastic and sticky; common areas of pale secondary
carbonate coating and infilling old root channels.
Bt horizon.
25-40cm Olive (5Y 5/4) calcareous sandy clay loam; moderate
coarse prismatic and subangular blocky structure;
moderately permeable; very plastic and moderately
sticky; common chalk and flint fragments; few large
Greensand fragments; common pink calcareous clay
coats on structure surfaces and also lining rare root
channels. Bt horizon.
40-80cm Green (5G 4/2) calcareous sandy loam to sandy clay
loam with common coarse strong brown (7.5YR 5/8)
mottles and common pink clay coats; weak sub-
angular blocky structure; stoneless; moderately to
very permeable. Cug horizon.
80cm+ Light grey (10YR 7/2) calcareous clay with common
fine yellowish brown (lOYR 6/8) mottles; moderate
medium angular blocky structure with shiny
slickenside faces; slightly porous; very plastic and
sticky. 2Cug horizon.
parent materials and differences in drainage
between the margin and base of the hollow; in
addition, the marginal profile (SP1) was probably
truncated by erosion before emplacement of the
overlying coombe deposits.
In profile SP! the lowest horizon (2Cug at
80 cm+) contains much more clay (57%) and cal-
cium carbonate (38%), but less sand (4%), than the
three higher horizons and is probably slightly
weathered Gault Clay. The overlying horizons con-
tain 20-30% clay, 19-24% calcium carbonate and
32-60% sand; the two upper horizons (0-40 cm
depth) contain chalk fragments and are probably
weathered (partly decalcified) coombe deposits
containing some Glauconitic Marl, whereas the
green loamy horizon (40-80 cm) is either a weath-
ering product of, or a solifluction deposit derived
mainly from, the Glauconitic Marl.
Two thin sections were examined from profile
SP1, one from 30 cm depth and the other from
50 cm. The first (Plate 3A) showed that the
25-40 cm horizon has a total porosity of about
25%. The voids include (a) channels 2-3 mm across
80
Profile SP2 (centre of hollow)
0-12 cm Greyish brown to light greyish brown (10YR 5-6/2)
very calcareous silty clay, humose in places; few very
fine chalk and charcoal fragments; almost structure-
less but cracked to very coarse (-20 cm) blocks;
very plastic and very sticky; common root channels
lined with browner silt and clay and secondary
carbonate. Ah or AB horizon.
12-90 cm Grey (10YR 6/l) very calcareous silty clay with
common coarse brownish yellow (lOYR 6/8)
mottles; moderate coarse subangular blocky or
prismatic structure; few small chalk and rare flint
fragments; very plastic and very sticky; slightly
porous. Bg horizon.
90-220 cm Brownish yellow (lOYR 6/6) very calcareous silty
clay loam with many coarse very pale brown (10YR
7/3) mottles; many small rounded and subrounded
chalk fragments; rare flint fragments; moderate
medium and thin platy structure; moderately porous;
firm; very plastic and moderately sticky. BCg horizon.
220-250 cm Chalk rubble containing fragments of Greensand,
Gault Clay and flint. Cu horizon.
250 cm + Light grey (10YR 7/1) calcareous silty clay with
common coarse brownish yellow (10YR 6/6)
mottles; angular blocky structure in places; very
plastic and very sticky; slightly porous. 2Cug
horizon.
between the prismatic and subangular blocky peds
and (b) rounded pores (vughs) 2-3 mm across
within the structural units (peds). Within the peds
the coarser particles (green glauconite grains,
about 10% of which are weathered brown and
almost opaque, angular quartz silt and small chalk
fragments) are set in a groundmass of fine silt and
clay (porphyric distribution). This is mainly crys-
tallitic because of deposition of secondary
carbonate, but shows a (non-calcareous) stipple-
speckled b-fabric in the centre of some peds. The
voids are commonly lined with a mixture of cal-
cium carbonate, clay and a little (2-4%) fine silt.
The stipple-speckled b-fabric suggests that after
weathering and decalcification of the originally cal-
careous parent material, some clay was washed
down into this horizon from above, redeposited in
voids and then incorporated into the soil matrix by
some process of disturbance such as cryoturbation.
The composition of the void coatings and the crys-
tallitic groundmass of many peds suggests that after
some further clay illuviation the soil was suffused
with calcium carbonate in both particulate form
 Petrography of sediments and buried soils
and as secondary carbonate redeposited from solu-
tion. This probably came from the overlying
coombe deposits after the soil had been truncated
and buried.
The second thin section (50 cm depth) shows
less total porosity (-15%); the fissures between
subangular peds are 0.5-4 mm across, but there
are few vughs within the peds. The groundmass of
the peds is similar in composition and fabric to that
in the horizon above, except that there are a few
large diffuse concentrations of ferruginous or man-
ganiferous material (Plate 3B). The fissures often
have compound coatings composed of yellowish
birefringent clay layers overlain by carbonate-rich
material (plate 3C) and some of the wider fissures
have been filled with grey calcareous silt and clay.
The total amount of illuvial clay (interpedal and
intrapedal accumulations) is about 4%; this is suffi-
cient to designate this as an argillic B (or Bt)
horizon and the whole profile as an argillic brown
earth. The compound nature of the fissure coatings
supports the history of decalcification, clay illuvia-
tion and recalcification after burial inferred from
the thin section of the overlying horizon. The fer-
ruginous/manganiferous concentrations probably
coincide with the strong brown mottles observed
in the field (Table 3.10) and result from slight gley-
ing by brief winter waterlogging. The profile is
therefore a stagnogleyic argillic brown earth
(Avery, 1980).
In profile SP2, near the centre of the hollow, the
lowest horizon (2Cug at 250 cm+) is similar in
composition to the Gault Clay, but the overlying
horizons contain more sand (18-33%) or more car-
bonate (61-68%) than the Gault and the presence
of chalk and flint fragments suggest they are
derived from coombe deposits. Four thin sections
were examined from this profile from depths of
10, 50, 125 and 260 cm. Charcoal and shell frag-
ments of Arianta arbustorum from the uppermost
(Ah or AB, 0-12 cm) horizon gave radiocarbon
dates of 11 370 ± 150 and 11 430 ± 110 yr BP,
respectively (preece, 1991; Part Four).
The thin section from 10 cm depth (Plate 3D)
showed channels up to 5 mm across between
coarse angular blocks and a few vughs up to 1 mm
across within the blocks, giving a total porosity of
about 20%. The chalk fragments have been
rounded and the small amount of sand present is
mainly glauconite grains, often with strongly
weathered margins. These are set in a finer dark
grey groundmass (porphyric distribution) of mixed
clay, fine silt and organic matter, which is suffused
81
with fine carbonate to give an essentially crystal-
litic b-fabric, though there are some areas of
stipple-speckled b-fabric. Irregular areas of coarser
secondary carbonate up to several millimetres
across also occur. A few of the channels are filled
with black organic matter and some have mixed
coatings of carbonate, clay and fine silt. Large red-
dish brown ferruginous concentrations are
common, indicating that even the surface horizon
of the profile was seasonally waterlogged.
At 50 cm depth (Bg horizon) the micromorpho-
logical features are similar to those at 10 cm,
except that there is less sand, the total porosity is
less (-10%) and the channels (cracks) are much
narrower « 0.2 mm across). At 125 cm depth
(BCg horizon) the porosity is still about 10%, but
there is much more sand (mainly glauconite) and
almost all the soil is coloured reddish-brown by fer-
ruginous and manganiferous concentrations (plate
3E), indicating intense gleying. Some of the chan-
nels and vughs contain grey carbonate coatings or
infillings; a few channels are filled with black amor-
phous organic matter. Rare patches of birefringent
clay occur within the peds, suggesting that a little
clay was illuviated into voids in this subsoil hori-
zon, but was subsequently incorporated into the
matrix by cryoturbation.
The thin section of weathered Gault Clay at
260 cm depth showed a porosity of approximately
15%, mainly channels up to 0.5 mm wide but also
some small vughs concentrated near the margins
of the peds. Some of the voids are infilled with
unlayered mixtures of fine silt, carbonate and non-
birefringent (non-illuvial) clay. Black, reddish-
brown and orange manganiferous and ferruginous
concentrations are common at the margins of the
peds and as thin 'stringers' and areas 1-2 mm
across throughout the soil mass.
Profile SP2, less truncated than SPI, shows a cal-
careous gley soil with considerable pedological
reorganization. Nevertheless it is of a similar devel-
opment history to SPI. Its Ah horizon reveals
extensive incorporation of humus, some gleying
and evidence of decalcification and mineral weath-
ering. The subsoil (Bg and BCg) horizons are more
strongly gleyed, but like those of SPI contain evi-
dence for weak clay illuviation and show deep
development of soil structure. The more intense
gleying in SP2 results from the poorer drainage
near the centre of the hollow. Like SPI, profile SP2
was strongly suffused after burial with secondary
carbonate derived from the overlying coombe
deposits.
 Sedimentological investigations
3. The sheared Late-glacial buried soil at
Cherry Garden
The temporary section dug for emplacement of the
Cherry Garden water-main exposed a Late-glacial
soil that had been cut by a low-angle reverse fault
or landslip shear plane and was thus stacked upon
itself (Fig. 3.26). Thin sections were prepared of
both the upper and lower units, although in reality
they are lateral equivalents of the same soil hori-
zon. Charcoal and shell fragments of the land snail
Arianta arbustorum from the soil gave radiocar-
bon dates of 11 580 ± 100 and 11 430 ± 100 yr BP,
respectively (preece, 1991; Part Four); these indi-
cate that the soil is the lateral equivalent of SP2 in
the Cut-&-cover Section.
Both units had a medium to coarse angular
blocky structure with 10-15% porosity (mainly fis-
sures but also some vughs and chambers up to
5 mm across). The parent material is mostly Gault
Clay as the soil is composed predominantly of cal-
careous clay with some quartz silt and about 10%
sand (mainly glauconite). Shells of land snails and
fragments of charcoal were seen in both thin sec-
tions, and were probably incorporated during the
period of soil development. The peds show a por-
phyric distribution of particles larger than 20 IJlll
across in the silty clay groundmass, which has a
crystallitic b-fabric because of the abundance of
carbonate. Some of the fissures in the upper unit
are lined with grey carbonate, which was probably
introduced after burial beneath the overlying
coombe deposits. Weak gleying is indicated by
yellow or reddish-brown diffuse ferruginous con-
centrations, which occupy about 5% of the soil and
are often associated with fissures. The very dark
greyish brown (lOYR 3/2-3) colour of the soil indi-
cates incorporation of humus into the upper few
centimetres over a fairly long period of soil devel-
opment, probably a few centuries. Because of the
evidence for gleying and the absence of a B hori-
zon, the soil is classified as a stagnogleyic
pararendzina (Avery, 1980).
4. Early Post-glacial organic soil at
Horseshoe Spring
The calcareous organic horizon at 340-345 cm
depth in Trench 5 near Horseshoe Spring gave a
radiocarbon date of 9760 ± 100 yr BP. It contains
12.7% organic C (approximately 20% organic
matter) and in thin section most of the organic
matter occurs as reddish-brown pigment intimately
mixed with fine mineral material (mainly chalk and
82
Gault Clay); only 5% of the organic material has any
recognizable cellular structure. This extent of
humification suggests rapid accumulation of
organic matter in an area that was predominantly
wet, though with a seasonally variable water-table
allowing aerobic conditions at intervals during the
year. The total porosity is 10-15% and includes
vughs and channels up to 1 mm across, some of
which are lined with opaque humified organic
matter. The soil probably formed in a short period
of about a century.
5. Post-glacial soils in the Main Section
Three Post-glacial buried soils were visible in the
Main Section: an early Post-glacial soil (layer 5a,
131-135 cm depth) developed in hillwash (5b) and
overlain by tufa (6); a mid-Holocene soil (7d,
106-112 cm depth) containing artefacts of various
ages and with different radiocarbon dates of 5620 ±
90 and 4470 ± 90 yr BP on charcoal and shell
(Arianta arbustorum), respectively; and a late
Post-glacial soil (7b, 70-80 cm depth) developed in
hillwash and overlain by hillwash, and with con-
cordant radiocarbon dates of 3515 ± 80 and 3430 ±
90 yr BP on charcoal and shell (Arianta arbusto-
rum), respectively. The two different dates from
the mid Post-gIacial soil can be explained if pedo-
genesis extended over a period of at least 1200
years, and this is perhaps supported by the mixed
assemblage of artefacts, which range from a
Mesolithic microlith at the base of the soil to
Neolithic pottery and flint-work and even early
Bronze Age decorated pot-sherds in upper parts of
the soil (part Six). However, in a soil developed in
hillwash, which was probably derived from older
soils upslope, it is likely that some constituents
(e.g. the microlith) came from the earlier soils,
whereas others might have been introduced by
later disturbance (e.g. Bronze Age cultivation).
In thin section all three soils show similar fea-
tures: a generally pale colour, though with many
reddish-brown to black ferruginous and manganif-
erous concentrations, crystallitic micro fabrics
resulting from the abundance of calcium carbonate
(Table 3.1), and coarse fractions (> 20 /lm) con-
taining chalk fragments, charcoal, quartz sand and a
little loess. However, there are several distinguish-
ing features. The youngest soil is browner, contains
more charcoal and chalk fragments and has a
greater porosity (-30%) and better developed struc-
ture. The oldest soil is more strongly weathered, as
its chalk fragments are small and rounded and glau-
 Petrography of sediments and buried soils
conite has been decomposed to such an extent that
none remains in a sieved fine sand fraction (Table
3.4). This soil also has larger and more diffuse fer-
ruginous and manganiferous concentrations. In the
younger soils they become progressively smaller
and more sharply differentiated from the ground-
mass. In the youngest soil many of them seem to
be hardened ferruginous concretions, which sur-
vive dispersion and sieving to contribute to the
'limonite' recorded in the fine sand (Table 3.4).
These differences suggest that the oldest soil was
exposed to weathering and gleying on the land sur-
face longer than those above. However, it is
possible that all these soils were subject to slow
continuing erosion during their development and
thus never achieved properties commensurate with
long periods of pedogenesis. This would help
explain the wide range of dates from one of the
soils, whereas different erosion rates could explain
the slightly different extents of profile develop-
ment. The larger charcoal content of the youngest
soil suggests greater human influence than in the
two earlier periods of land surface stability. All
three soils are stagnogleyic rendzinas (Avery, 1980).
(f) Discussion and conclusions
The oldest organic sediments recognized at
Holywell Coombe are calcareous sedge peats, such
as the horizon at 420-430 cm depth in Trench HV
near the head of the coombe. These formed in
perennially wet marshy areas on the Gault Clay,
perhaps close to springs rising near the base of the
Lower Chalk. The extent of humification of the
organic horizon in Trench HV suggests that the cli-
mate was warm enough for fairly extensive
decomposition of the peat as it accumulated.
However, it is likely to represent a period of no
more than a century. This probably began about
12200 radiocarbon years BP, approximately 14 300
calendar years before present (part Four) and was
preceded and followed by cooler and probably
wetter conditions in which fine calcareous clays
accumulated in the marshy areas. Subsequent fur-
ther deterioration in the climate by about
11 800 yr BP (preece, 1992a), or 13 650 calendar
years ago, is indicated by increasing abundance of
angular, frost shattered chalk fragments in the cal-
careous clay, which would have been introduced
by solifluction from unvegetated chalk upslope.
The calcareous peaty sediments therefore repre-
sent the brief (no longer than 500-1000 years)
early (B0lling) phase of the Late-glacial Interstadial
83
and therefore formed soon after the climatic opti-
mum (Part Five (4)). The paucity of solifluction
deposits between the interstadial sediments and
the bedrock beneath suggests that the main Late
Devensian cold period at Folkestone was so severe
as to result in thorough scouring of the coombes
by solifluction and that the transition to the inter-
stadial was so rapid that no period of less energetic
solifluction intervened.
Following a brief period of fairly intense solifluc-
tion and formation of coombe deposits, there was
an important episode of land surface stability, lead-
ing to development of the 'Aller0d soil', which
varies in character according to its position in the
landscape. In poorly-drained valley-floor sites over
Gault Clay it is a calcareous gley soil (e.g. SP2); on
lower valley sides, where it is developed in
coombe deposits over Gault Clay, it is a stagnog-
leyic argillic brown earth (e.g. SP1); on slightly
steeper slopes on the Gault Clay it is a stagnogleyic
pararendzina (e.g. Cherry Garden); on steeper
slopes on chalk, as at Dover Hill and Castle Hill
(Kerney, 1963), it is a rendzina.
These catenary variations are similar to those of
surface soils formed during the Post-glacial in SE
England. The Post-glacial soils are commonly rendz-
inas and pararendzinas where they occur on slopes
cut in chalk and calcareous Gault Clay respectively.
One reason for the relatively weak development of
soils on the slopes is the continual removal of the
weathering products that would have been
retained on flatter sites; a similar explanation prob-
ably applies to the differential preservation of the
'Aller0d soil'. The other type of 'Aller0d soil' occur-
ring on a slope, the stagnogleyic argillic brown
earth (profile SPl), was also truncated by erosion,
but this probably occurred when even the gentle
slopes became unstable with the deterioration in
climate at the end of the 'Aller0d' phase. The trun-
cated remains of SP! provide some indication of
the maximum soil development at this time.
Although the upper part of the profile was origi-
nally calcareous coombe deposit derived from
chalk and Glauconitic Marl, decalcification to a
depth considerably in excess of 40 cm was proba-
bly necessary before clay illuviation could have
reached the lowest horizons. The extent of devel-
opment of this profile is less than that of most
similar Post-glacial soils in SE England, but is greater
than that recorded in any other buried Late-glacial
soil in NW Europe. Van Vliet-Lanoe (1990) sug-
gested that most of the clay illuviation in unburied
soils developed on Weichselian loess in NW
Europe occurred during the Late-glacial period,
 Sedimentological investigations
rather than in the Post-glacial as assumed by most
other workers, but hitherto this has not been sup-
ported by evidence of clay illuviation in buried
Late-glacial soils. Profiles SPI and SP2 show that
clay illuviation did occur locally in Late-glacial soils,
but to a much lesser extent than that typical of
unburied Post-glacial soils, so they only partly sup-
port Van Vliet-Lanoe's suggestion.
Assuming the coombe deposit contained
60-70% carbonate before 'Allerod' pedogenesis
began in profile SPI (the same carbonate content
as in layers 4 and 5d of the Main Section, Table
3.1), decalcification to 40 cm depth would have
involved removal of 3600-4200 tonnes CaC0 3 per
hectare (assuming a mean bulk density of 1.5 for
the coombe deposits). Modern rates of calcium car-
bonate loss from arable topsoil in SE England,
estimated from the amounts of chalk required to
maintain particular pH values in field experiments
on two contrasting soil types (Bolton, 1977), reach
a maximum of about 1 t!ha/yr at pH 8 and decrease
to approximate values of 0.5 and 0.4 t!ha/yr at pH
7 and 6 (or less), respectively. These rates suggest
that it would take 3600-4200 years to decalcify
profile SPI to 40 cm depth, that is to lower its pH
over this depth from a value of 8 (the usual pH of
chalky soil material) to a value of 7 (most carbonate
removed) or less. This is probably an underestimate
for the following reasons: (a) modern rates are
probably greater than they would have been under
natural Late-glacial conditions, because of the
greater acidity of modern rain; (b) decalcification
of subsoil horizons is probably greater than the sur-
face soil rates quoted above and; (c) at pH values
between 7 and 8 the rate of loss is less than the 1
t!ha/yr rate at pH 8. However, evidence from radio-
carbon dating indicates that it is overestimated by
at least 3000 years. The eight radiocarbon dates
from the 'Allerod soil' in and near Holywell
Coombe cluster tightly between 11 370 ± 150 and
11 810 ± 120 yr BP (preece, 1991); the soil cannot
have begun development before about 11 800 yr BP
(13650 calendar years ago), when cold conditions
prevailed at Holywell Coombe and there was active
erosion from the hillsides (preece, 1992a). The soil
is overlain by chalky solifluction gravels, which
started to accumulate around 11 200 yr BP (13 200
calendar years ago). This suggests that the rate of
decalcification in the 'Allerod phase' was at least
five times greater than in modern arable soils.
Possible reasons for this are (a) the presence of
Betula woodland rather than arable crops, (b)
greater rainfall, and thus greater leaching, and (c)
a higher mean annual temperature than at present,
84
but as there are no measured soil decalcification
rates for these different conditions, it is impossible
to speculate further.
The 'Allerod soil' remnant that did not suffer sig-
nificant erosion, because it was on the floor of the
hollow (SP2), was not as well-drained and conse-
quently not as strongly decalcified as SPI.
However, it is quite strongly developed and does
contain evidence of fairly extensive humus incor-
poration, deep structural development, gleying and
localized clay illuviation, all of which suggest for-
mation over at least 1000 years, assuming modern
soil-forming rates. Consequently this supports the
suggestion of rather more rapid soil development
during the 'Allerod' than in the late Post-glacial.
Burial beneath the chalky coombe deposits of
the Younger Dryas (Loch Lomond) Stadial between
11 200 and 10 000 yr BP led to recalcification of the
previously decalcified upper horizons of the vari-
ous types of 'Allerod soil'. Initially this was
accomplished by a wet muddy mixture of finely
divided chalk, clay, silt and organic matter being
washed into cracks and other major voids, but at a
later stage carbonate dissolved from younger (post-
glacial) soils was precipitated from solution to
suffuse much of the earlier soil matrix. The preser-
vation of extensive remnants of 'Allerod soil' even
on quite steep slopes beneath coombe deposits of
the Younger Dryas suggests that the solifluction
during this final Late-glacial episode was less severe
than during the main Late Devensian cold period,
and that the transition from the fairly stable land
surface conditions of the 'Allerod phase' to
Younger Dryas instability was quite slow.
Early in the Post-glacial an organic deposit accu-
mulated in a marshy hollow over Gault Clay close
to Horseshoe Spring (Trench 5); this resembles the
early Late-glacial deposit (HV 420-430 cm) and
probably represents a similarly short period of time
(- 100 years). Ifthis is so, the greater humification
of the later deposit suggests either that the mean
annual temperature was higher at 9700 yr BP than
at 12 200 yr BP (cf. Part Five (4)) or that a more
strongly seasonal distribution of rainfall resulted in
seasonally drier and more aerobic soil conditions.
Following deposition of a thin early Post-glacial
chalky hillwash on the floor of Holywell Coombe
(exposed in the Main Section), another early Post-
glacial soil (5a) developed here before accumulation
of the tufa. Compared with two similar but younger
(mid and late Post-glacial) buried soils exposed in
the Main Section, this early Post-glacial stagnogleyic
rendzina could represent a slightly longer period of
land surface stability because its chalk fragments
 Petrology of the tufa
and glauconite grains are more weathered.
However, like the 'Aller0d' and unburied rendzinas
of the chalk landscape, all three could represent
fairly long periods of simultaneous pedogenesis
and gentle erosion, in which case the slightly
greater weathering in the earliest buried Post-
glacial rendzina can be explained by less severe
contemporaneous erosion than during develop-
ment of the two later soils. Most of the Post-glacial
erosion leading to formation of hillwash occurred
after formation of the early Post-glacial tufa, and
probably resulted from early human activities such
as deforestation and soil cultivation. The two
buried soils 7 d and 7b represent episodes of
greater (but not necessarily complete) land surface
stability, probably resulting from periods of tem-
porary abandonment and revegetation of the site.
(2) PETROLOGY OF THE TIJFA
H.M. Pedley
(a) General comments
As revealed by the borehole data, tufas form thin
spreads around the lower slopes of Holywell
Combe and across the valley floor. Although they
reach a maximum thickness of about 3.5 m near
Horseshoe Spring (Figs 3.3, 3.3b and 3.4b), they
are generally much thinner, averaging about 1.5 m.
From the borehole logs and the studied sections it
is clear that welllithified tufa is uncommon, most
of the material consisting either of friable micrite
or a mixture of micritic and lithoclastic material,
such as marl and chalk. Oncoids (cyanoliths) are
present at random levels within the sheet-like tufa
beds, particularly in their lower parts.
(b) Fabric analyses
Representative samples of various lithologies were
studied in thin section. Petrological descriptions
are given below.
(i) Pbytoberm tufa (Pedley, 1990); Trencb 5,
65-70 em
The formation of tufa in situ is demonstrated by
the occurrence of well cemented stems (forming
mouldic porosity) of both bryophytes and liver-
worts. The cement is mainly micritic, but with rare
isopachous low-magnesium calcite palisade spar
fringes (fringe width 100-200 11m). The general
dominance of micrite over spar suggests optimum
85
summer growth conditions, as sparry cements are
generally considered to form predominantly in
winter. Filamentous moulds with diameters of 1-4
/lffi, present within the spar fringes, are similar to
cyanobacteria such as Schizothrix or Phormidium.
Much of the framework fill consists of peloids
aO-100 /lffi diameter).
(ii) Oncboidal (Cyanolitb) tufa
(Fig. 3.29, a-b.); Trencb 5, 33fkJ40 em
Oncoids in this sample, and in many others, are
generally oblate spheroids (10-25 mm diameter),
although cylindrical oncoids (>30 mm long and
5-10 mm diameter) have developed where phyto-
clasts (e.g. small twigs) form nuclei. Internally the
oncoids consist of thrombolitic micrite, which in
some areas is clearly formed around indeterminate,
micrite-coated, straight and unbranched cyanobac-
terial filaments (5-8 11m diameter). Discrete
peloids (- 70 11m diameter) are enmeshed in the
filamentous areas. Figure 3.29a shows the interior
of a typical oncoid, illustrating the characteristic
micritic composition and typical absence of sparry
calcite fringe cement. Figure 3.29b is a detailed
illustration of the same oncoid; the fine acicular
calcite crystal development of the micrite should
be noted. This is lublinite calcite, which com-
monly occurs in the final stage of tufa diageneSiS,
being commonly associated with vadose condi-
tions.
The flattened form and small size of the oncoids
is indicative of sluggish flow conditions and shal-
low water depth.
(iii) Microdetrital tufa
Many samples showed a dominance of fine micrite
(grains 1-4 11m diameter) or a mixture of micrite
and fine-grained calcite clasts (> 12 11m diameter).
It was impossible to determine the origin of this
material, but the coarser grains appeared to be
detrital.
In addition to micrite, many samples contained
small (10-20 /lffi long, 0.7-1.0 /lffi wide) spicules
of carbonate, often in great numbers (Fig. 3.30a-b).
Most of these show a distinct groove that runs
along the longitudinal axis of the crystal (Fig.
3.30c-d). Such structures have been noted in many
other British tufas, such as those at Wateringbury,
Kent, and Caerwys, Clwyd (preece, 1978). These
seem unlikely to be inorganic crystals (cf. lublinite
calcite) and probably have a biogenic origin.
 Sedimentological investigations
Figure 3.29 Scanning electron micrographs of tufa. (a)
Interior of oncoid from Trench 5 (330-340 cm) showing
the characteristic micritic composition and absence of
sparry calcite fringe cement. (b) Detail of the same
oncoid. Note the fine acicular calcite crystal development
on the micrite. This is a variety called lublinite and com-
monly occurs as the final diagenetic stage in tufas, being
associated with vadose conditions.
(c) Depositional environments
The distribution of the tufas reveals their origins in
perched springs at the base of the Chalk, where it
overlies the impermeable Gault Clay, and their
extension into marshes on the valley floor (cf.
Ordonez and Garcia del Cura, 1983). Carbonate-
rich water issuing from these springs would have
trickled down the gentle gradients through a lush
growth of semi-aquatic mosses and liverworts,
encrusting and progressively cementing them with
newly deposited tufa. This would have led to the
development of small freshwater vegetation reefs
(phytoherms), especially on the slopes.
86
Abundant micrite production is characteristic of
hummock tufa sites (Pentecost and Lord, 1988)
associated with paludal settings, the carbonate
being precipitated on the stems and leaves of damp
vegetation. Much of this is subsequently shed,
either as polycrystalline intraclasts or as micritic
sediment. This process is likely to have provided
much of the detrital micrite dominating the
Holywell Coombe tufas.
Oncoid development would have taken place
primarily in small pools a few centimetres deep,
especially in marshes in the valley bottom. These
'quiet water' oncoids contrast markedly with the
more spherical forms developed under active flu-
vial conditions (cf. Pedley, 1987). Palaeosols within
the tufas may record phases of reduced carbonate
deposition during drier episodes, especially where
present in valley bottom situations.
Such paucity of sparry calcite fringe cements is
unusual in British tufas. Generally these fringes are
thought to develop preferentially under cold con-
ditions, which encourage slow well-ordered crystal
lattice development. Mediterranean tufas, on the
other hand, seldom show this type of fabric, with
prevalent micrite being produced instead under the
prevailing warmer conditions (pedley et at., 1996).
(3) MINERAL MAGNETIC PROPERTIES
OF VALLEY-FILL SEDIMENTS:
IMPIJCATIONS FOR PROVENANCE
AND WEATHERING HISTORY
MJ. Sharp andJ.A. Dowdeswell
(a) Introduction
As part of the broader palaeoenvironmental inves-
tigation of valley-fill sediments at Holywell
Coombe, studies were made of their mineral mag-
netic properties. Mineral magnetic measurements
can be used to characterize sediments in terms of
the concentration, mineralogy and grain size of
magnetic minerals contained within them
(Thompson and Oldfield, 1986). They can thus be
applied in studies of the provenance and weather-
ing history of sediments, and may also be useful for
stratigraphic subdivision and correlation.
In sediments such as solifluction depOSits, which
are derived by mass movement of unconsolidated
bedrock and surface regolith, often with little or no
hydrodynamic sorting, mineral magnetic measure-
ments may provide a rapid means of establishing a
link between sediments and their bedrock source.
This may prove useful in assisting interpretation of
 Mineral magnetic properties of valley-jill sediments

Figure 3.30 Scanning electron micrographs of spicules in the tufa. Note the groove along the mid line.

the architecture of the valley infill and its develop-
ment over time.
Processes of weathering and pedogenesis may
alter the concentration, mineralogy and grain size
of magnetic iron oxides within the regolith (Le
Borgne, 1955; Mullins and Tite, 1973; Ozdemir and
Banerjee, 1982; Maher, 1986; Maher and Taylor,
1988). Concentration of magnetic iron oxides can
occur as a result of removal of diamagnetic com-
ponents of the sediment (such as calcium
carbonate) by leaching, while dilution may result
from the addition of other diamagnetic compo-
nents (such as organic matter). Topsoil may
undergo magnetic enhancement by deposition of
atmospheric pollutants (Maher, 1986; Taylor et at.,
1987), biogenic synthesis of magnetite (Blakemore,
1975), the transformation of fine-grained, non-fer-
rimagnetic iron oxides to ferrimagnetic phases in
the magnetite-maghaemite compositional range as
a result of burning (Mullins, 1977; Longworth et
at., 1979) and by authigenic precipitation of mag-
netite by oxidation of Fe 2+ solutions (Taylor et at.,
1987; Maher and Taylor, 1988). Alternatively, dis-
solution and eluviation of fine-grained ferrimagnetic

87
 Sedimentological investigations

Local Erosion
Lithology Soils organics episodes
o ""1TTTrrnTTTTTTT'ITTTn
111111111111111111111

-...
Q.
en
2

>- 3
~ Olllliillllllllllill
III
Ol
C(
4
11111111111111111111 1 I
5

6 T T
I
T
7 T T
108"·
a
9

I
10

11
11111Iilll""1111111
12 I

13

~ HIIIW.Sh ~Ch.lky
~colluvlum

~ TUf.

Figure 3.31 Schematic summary of the succession at Holywell Coombe showing episodes of stability (reflected by
buried soils and organic deposits) and erosion (slope deposits and hillwash).

minerals in association with processes of gleying
and podsolization can reduce the concentration of
such minerals in the eluvial horizons of certain
types of soil (Maher, 1986). Mineral magnetic mea-
surements may therefore be used to assist
recognition of horizons affected by weathering and
pedogenesis, and they may also contribute to
understanding of spatial and temporal patterns in
the character of these processes and the extent to
which they have modified the parent sediments.
Recognition of spatially persistent soils and weath-
ering horizons may be of value in the subdivision
and correlation of stratigraphic sequences.
In this section we (a) describe the methods used
to characterize the magnetic properties of sedi-
ments from Holywell Coombe and provide a guide
to the interpretation of the magnetic parameters
measured; (b) describe the magnetic characteristics
of the various types of bedrock exposed in
Holywell Coombe and of the sediments and soils
occurring within the valley-fill sequence; (c) dis-
cuss the origin of the magnetic mineral
assemblages that characterize each type of sedi-
ment and each major soil horizon; (d) describe and
account for the mineral magnetic stratigraphy of
each of the major sections exposed in the valley-
fill sequence and (e) discuss the value of mineral
magnetic measurements as a tool for the litho-
stratigraphic and chronostratigraphic subdivision
of the sedimentary sequence.

88
 Mineral magnetic properties of valley-fill sediments
(b) The sediment infill of Holywell
Coombe
The geometry and stratigraphy of the valley-fill sed-
iments of Holywell Coombe are described in detail
elsewhere in this volume. The composite stratig-
raphy is, however, summarized in Fig. 3.31. It
consists essentially of a tripartite sequence, in
which middle to late Post-glacial hillwash overlies
early to middle Post-glacial tufa, which in turn
overlies Late-glacial solifluction deposits.
Palaeosols have been identified within the hillwash
(radiocarbon-dated to 3515 ± 80 (OxA-2090) and
5620 ± 90 yr BP (OxA-2091), although on archaeo-
logical grounds possibly somewhat younger than
these dates suggest), and within the Late-glacial
sediments (radiocarbon-dated at several sites to
around 11 500 yr BP). Other organic sediments
occur in the latter part of the Late-glacial and early
Post-glacial, but dating is inconsistent from site
to site, suggesting that these represent only
local accumulations of sediment. In Trench 4,
however, organic silts that accumulated between
13160 ± 400 (OxA-1751) and 11830 ± 140 yr BP
(OxA-1974) may be of more general palaeoenvi-
ronmental Significance.
Bedrock within the valley consists primarily of
Lower Chalk, which overlies the Gault Clay. In
places, the two are separated by a thin transitional
unit, often referred to as the 'Glauconitic Marl'
(Smart et at., 1966). Units of 'greensand' also
occur in the Upper and Lower Gault Clay (see Part
Two (3)). Valley-fill sediments will have been
derived primarily from these source rocks,
although there may also be minor amounts of
exotic materials derived from a former loess cover
(Section 2(1) above). Primary bedrock-derived
iron-bearing minerals include glauconite and pyrite
(Gault and Lower Chalk) and marcasite (Lower
Chalk); the Gault Clay also contains ironstone
nodules. In addition, limonite, haematite and mag-
netite have been identified in small quantities in
the fine sand and coarse silt fractions of valley-fill
sediments (Section 2(1».
(c) Sampling and measurement
procedures
Sampling of sediments for mineral magnetic analy-
ses was carried out as a secondary procedure after
sampling for molluscan analysis. At the primary
89
sampling stage, samples were collected as 5, 10 or
20 cm thick slices from stratigraphic profiles
exposed in open section or in excavated trenches.
Secondary sampling involved removal of 10 cm 3
subsamples from these slices, drying of the sedi-
ment at 40°C in a plastic sample holder and
determination of the dry weight of sediment and
weight of the sample holder.
The following profiles were sampled (described
in detail in Part Three): Main Section, Trench HV,
Trench 3, Trench 4, Trench 5 (Horseshoe Spring)
Trench 6, Cut-and-cover and Cherry Garden (Figs
1.4 and 2.2). Samples from each of these profiles
were analysed for their low frequency magnetic
susceptibility (Xlf) , and samples from the Main
Section, Trench HV and the Cut-&-cover were
analysed for a wider range of mineral magnetic
parameters (see below). The latter profiles were
selected for more detailed analysis on the basis of
the wide range of sedimentary materials exposed
within them. Bedrock samples were collected from
exposures in the Cut-&-cover Section, sawn into
blocks which would fit into 10 cm3 sample pots
and analysed in the manner described for the full
range of magnetic parameters. Susceptibility mea-
surements were made in the Department of
Geography, University of Cambridge; other para-
meters were measured at the Institute of Earth
Studies, University College of Wales, Aberystwyth.
The mineral magnetic parameters measured are
summarized below, along with the measurement
technique and units of measurement. A brief expla-
nation of each parameter and its Significance is also
given. The range of parameters measured should
permit characterization of sediments in terms of
the dominant magnetic mineral phase and the con-
centration and grain size of magnetic minerals
present.
Low frequency magnetic susceptibility (XII:
Units 11m3 kg- l
Obtained using a Bartington Instruments single
sample magnetic susceptibility meter, this parame-
ter measures the ease with which a sample can be
magnetized and is proportional to the concentra-
tion of ferrimagnetic minerals (e.g. magnetite,
maghaemite) in a sample. All susceptibility mea-
surements are given on a weight specific basis,
corrected for the diamagnetic properties of the
sample container.
 Sedimentological investigations
Frequency dependent susceptibility (Xf ,):
Units %
This parameter is measured using a Bartington
Instruments dual frequency (l and 10 kHz) suscep-
tibility meter. It measures the extent to which
susceptibility varies with the frequency of the
applied magnetic field and is defined as:
where Xhf is the high frequency susceptibility. ~d
records the presence of fine magnetite grains at the
stable single-domain/superparamagnetic boundary
(c. 0.05 1Jll1). Such grains are commonly produced
during pedogenesis (Maher and Taylor, 1988).
Saturation isothermal remanent
magnetization (SIRM): Units A m 2 kg- l
Measured using a pulse magnetizer and fluxgate
magnetometer, this is the maximum remanent mag-
netization that can be induced in a sample with
available equipment. SIRM measures the volume
concentration of magnetic minerals in a sample,
but can also be influenced by the magnetic grain
size. In samples containing only magnetite, peak
SIRM is associated with stable single-domain grains
around 0.11Jll1 in size.
Ratio SIRM/XV Units A m-l
On a graph of XIf against SIRM, naturally-occurring
sediments plot along the diagonal corresponding to
the ratio SIRM/X1f = 10 kA m- l , reflecting the fact
that, in natural samples, magnetite has an average
effective grain size of 5 11m (Thompson and
Oldfield, 1986). Samples containing magnetite alone
will plot to the right of this diagonal if they contain
finer-grained magnetite (higher SIRM/XIf)' and to
the left if they contain coarser-grained magnetite
(lower SIRM/XIf). However, very fine-grained, super-
paramagnetic magnetite also has low SIRM/Xlf
ratios, so it may be difficult to distinguish between
coarse multi-domain magnetite and mixtures of
stable single-domain and superparamagnetic grains.
The ratio is also influenced by magnetic mineralogy,
so that samples containing unusual amounts of anti-
ferromagnetic minerals (e.g. haematite) can have
ratios approaching 1000 kA mol.
90
Magnetic hysteresis parameters
Magnetic hysteresis properties of sediments are
measured by growing SIRM in a forward field and
then removing it by subjecting the sample to back
fields of progressively increasing intensity. It is then
possible to draw a curve showing how the isother-
mal remanent magnetization (lRM), expressed as a
proportion of the SIRM (lRM/SIRM), varies with the
back field. The shape of such a curve will depend
upon the magnetic mineralogy of the sample and
on the magnetic grain size. Several parameters can
be derived from such curves, which are useful in
characterizing sediments:
Remanence coercivity ((BJaJ: Units mT
This is the back field which reduces the IRM to
zero. For samples composed primarily of mag-
netite, this is a sensitive indicator of grain size,
varying from less than 10 mT for coarse multi-
domain grains to almost 100 mT for small elongate
grains (Thompson and Oldfield, 1986). Antiferro-
magnetic minerals, such as haematite, show
unusually high remanence coercivities (over 300
mD· Plots of SIRM/X1f against (B~CR are useful in
distinguishing mixtures containing superparamag-
netic grains, because such grains contribute to
susceptibility, but not to SIRM, and they do not
affect remanence coercivity. They thus have rather
low SIRM/X1f to (B~CR ratios.
Remanence ratios (IRMISIRM)
Remanence ratios can be used to describe various
aspects of the shape of magnetic hysteresis curves.
For instance, the ratio IRM_2omT/SIRM measures the
loss of remanent magnetization at low back fields
at which multi-domain magnetites would be
expected to approach saturation, while the ratio
IRM_30omT/SIRM measures the loss at high back
fields at which haematite might still not have
reached saturation.
(d) Results: mineral magnetic
assemblages
(i) Bedrock source materials
Samples of Gault Clay, Glauconitic Marl and Lower
Chalk were collected for analysis, along with iron-
stone and marcasite nodules. Glauconitic Marl and
ironstone nodules contain the highest concentra-
tions of magnetic minerals (X1f =0.18 to 0.24 and
0.29-0.30 1Jll13 kg- l respectively) and there are also
 Mineral magnetic properties of valley-fill sediments
0.3
•
............
I 0.2
OJ
~
('I)
E
:l.
'-"
....
x 0.1
-'
0.0 + 8 i ! ! k - - - - . - - - - - - - r - - - - - - r - - - - - - .
0.0 0.4
o Gault Clay
• Glauconitic Marl
Figure 3.32 Plot of XIf versus SIRM for samples of bedrock source materials.
significant amounts in the marcasite nodules
(0.06-0.1 11m3 kg'l), while those in the Lower
Chalk are insufficient to mask the diamagnetic
properties of the calcium carbonate (negative sus-
ceptibilities) that comprises the bulk of the rock
(Fig. 3.32).
Bedrock source samples display two distinct
types of mineral magnetic behaviour. Marcasite
nodules are characterized by relatively high
SIRM/Xlf ratios (9-25 kA m'l) and remanence coer-
civities (over 300 mn, and by very 'hard' hysteresis
behaviour (Fig. 3.33) in which IRM/SIRM decreases
only slowly with increasing back field intensity.
The marcasite nodules thus display behaviour typi-
cal of an antiferromagnetlc mineral. In contrast, the
other source materials show behaviour typical of
magnetite (SIRM/Xlf less than 5 kA~; (BO)CR =
37-58 mT; relatively 'soft' hysteresis behaviour
(Fig. 3.33)). Within the latter group, the observed
remanence coercivities and SIRM/Xlf ratios suggest
an assemblage of fine-grained, single-domain mag-
0 0
•
•
0.8 1.2 1.6
Lower Chalk
e,. • Marcasite
o Ironstone nodule
netite (Fig. 3.34). The Glauconitic Marl and iron-
stone samples have relatively high susceptibilities
for their SIRM values, suggesting a minor compo-
nent of either superparamagnetic grains or
paramagnetic minerals (e.g. pyrite, biotite, epi-
dote), such as are known to occur in the valley-fill
sediments (Section 2(1) above).
(ii) Solifluction deposits
Concentrations of magnetic minerals in solifluction
deposits vary depending upon the bedrock source
from which they are derived. Thus, very low or
negative magnetic susceptibilities are characteris-
tic of colluvium derived from the Lower Chalk (as
at the Main Section), while higher values occur
when the source is Gault Clay (base of Trench HV;
c. 0.04 11m3 kg'l) or Glauconitic Marl (Cut-&-cover;
0.05-0.16 1lffi3 kg'l) (Fig. 3.35).
Mineralogically, the solifluction deposits all dis-
play magnetite-type behaviour, although it is
91
 Sedimentological investigations

1.0

0.8

0.6

0.4

~
0.2
c:
Ci5 0.0
"'
~
c:
-0.2

-0.4

-0.6

-0.8

-1.0
-300 -260 -220 -180 -140 -100 -60 -20
Field (mT)
o Ironstone -Marcasite o Gault • Glauconitic Marl 6. Lower Chalk
Figure 3.33 Plot of isothermal remanence (IRM) versus backfield for samples of bedrock source materials.

possible to distinguish sub-groups that reflect vary-
ing admixtures of diamagnetic, paramagnetic and
antiferromagnetic components. Sediments from the
Main Section and the upper part of the solifluction
deposits at Trench HV have very low values of XIf,
SIRM and SIRM/X (Fig. 3.36), indicating the pre-
dominant influence of diamagnetic components
derived from Lower Chalk bedrock. Samples from
the base of the sequence at Trench HV, which
seem to be derived primarily from Gault Clay, are
distinguished by their greater concentration of
magnetic minerals, but particularly by their higher
SIRM/Xif ratios (up to 171 kA mol) (Figs 3.35 and
3.36). These indicate a relatively fine magnetic
grain size, perhaps with a small antiferromagnetic
contribution in some samples. The relatively 'soft'
hysteretic behaviour of these sediments suggests
that magnetite is the dominant magnetic mineral
phase. In contrast, samples from the base of the
Cut-&-cover Section show relatively 'hard' hys-
teretic behaviour (lRM-30omT/SIRM = -0.54 to
-0.92 (Fig. 3.37) and low SIRM/Xlfratios indicative
of a significant paramagnetic contribution (Figs
3.35 and 3.36). This is consistent with a
Glauconitic Marl source for these sediments.
Remanence coercivities of solifluction deposits fall
in the same range as those of bedrock source mate-
rials (43-72 mT) and suggest that the magnetite is
of single domain type (Fig. 3.36). Values for Lower
Chalk-derived colluvium tend to be lower (43-54
mT) than those for Gault and Glauconitic Marl-
derived colluvium (55-72 mT), suggesting a slightly
coarser assemblage in the chalk-derived sediments.
Thus the mineral magnetic properties of solifluc-
tion deposits are broadly comparable with those
of bedrock source materials. Differences from
bedrock sources arise primarily because the
solifluction deposits comprise mixtures of different
source materials and because they may have expe-
rienced a certain amount of hydrodynamic sorting
by nival processes.

92
 Mineral magnetic properties of valley-fill sediments

"'" 30
'E
<
~
......
v
:(8)+PM
o
~
x..... Elongated
~ Isingle-domain
~
UJ 10 I
I + I 0
l(8) PM
Pseudo
single-domain

I
I +
I (8) PM
Multi-
domain
I •
1 I
I
•• Gault Clay •
Glauconitic Marl 1).
+
(8)PM Lower Chalk •
Ironstone A
Marcasite nodule 0

0.1

-1.68
-2.44 ••
0.01+-----~--~~~~~~~----~--~-r-.-.""
10 100 1000
(BO)CR(mT)

Figure 3.34 Plot of SIRM/Xif versus (BJ CR for samples of bedrock source materials. To assist interpretation, areas
of the diagram in which common magnetic mineral phases and grain sizes would plot are highlighted (after
Thompson and Oldfield, 1986: Figure 4.13). MD - multi-domain magnetite; PSD - pseudo single-domain magnetite;
ESD - elongate single-domain magnetite; H - haematite; (S)PM - (super)paramagnetic grains.

93
 Sedimentological investigations

0.2

•
• • Main section
o Section HV
• Cut and cover

M
-
";"

~
C'l
0.1
E
~
!!::
X

• 0
0
'0 110
0
0
0.0
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0
2 -1
SIRM (mAm kg )

Figure 3. 35 Plot of Xlf versus SIRM for samples of slope deposits from the Main Section, Trench HV and the Cut-&-
cover Section.

(iii) Tufa (iv) Late-glacial soils

The magnetic properties of the Post-glacial tufa are
essentially what would be expected given its origin
as an authigenic calcite precipitate. Concentrations
of magnetic minerals are virtually zero (as indicated
by very low or negative magnetic susceptibilities
and SIRMs; Fig. 3.38) except where the tufa has
been contaminated by bioturbation, resulting in
incorporation of overlying hillwash sediments (e.g.
Trench HV). These negative susceptibilities indi-
cate the predominance of diamagnetic minerals
(e.g. calcite or organics) in the sediment.
The magnetic characteristics of the Late-glacial
palaeosols vary depending on the setting in which
they have formed. On interfluve sites, such as the
Cut-&-cover Section, the soil contains quite high
concentrations of magnetic minerals (Xlf up to 0.29
11m3 kg-I; SIRM up to 1.62 rnA m 2 kg-I; Fig. 3.39),
while on valley floor sites (e.g. Trench HV, 325 cm
depth) they are much lower (Xlf = 0.01 11m3 kg-I;
SIRM = 0.04 rnA m 2 kg-I; see below). This presum-
ably reflects a difference in the frequency of
waterlogging of the sites and hence in the

94
 Mineral magnetic properties of valley-fill sediments

Haematite
x
"~ ,1
a:: ,
en
+
1 (S) PM
I
Elongated
1 single-domain

1
10 + I
I(s) PM
Pseudo
single-domain
,
.... ,
l(S)+PM
....
....
Multi- t
,domain
~
.... .... Main section
1 1
• Cut and cover
1 .........
........

+
(S) PM •
•

0·1+------r---r--r-~~~~----~--~--~
10 100 500
(BO)CR(mT)

Figure 3.36 Plot of SIRM/X1f versus (BJCR for samples of slope deposit from the Main Section, Trench HV and the
Cut-&-cover Section. To assist interpretation, areas of the diagram in which common magnetic mineral phases and
grain sizes would plot are highlighted (after Thompson and Oldfield, 1986: Figure 4.13). MD - multi-domain mag-
netite; PSD - pseudo single-domain magnetite; ESD - elongate single-domain magnetite; H - haematite; (S)PM -
(super)paramagnetic grains.

95
 Sedimentological investigations

1.0

0.9
0 ... Cut and cover
o Trench HV
0
0 • Main section
0.8
~
• •
0

--
a:
en 0
• •
l- 0.7 o.• o.
.0•
E
0
C\II
.......
0116
•
~
a: •••
0
•
0 0
0.6 o •
0
0 0
0 0
0

0
0.5

0.4+-----~---r----~--~r---------~---------r----~---,----------,
-1.2 -1.0 -0.8 -0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0.0
IRM (-300mT)/SIRM

Figure 3.37 Plot of IRM_ 20mT/SIRM versus IRM_300mT/SIRM for samples of slope deposits from the Main Section,
Trench HV and the Cut-&-cover Section.

tendency for dissolution of fine-grained ferrimag-
netic minerals (Maher, 1986). This is consistent
with the results of micromorphological investiga-
tions of the soils, which suggest frequent or
semi-permanent waterlogging of valley-floor sites
and better drainage on interfluves, particularly
where there is a substrate of Glauconitic Marl (Catt
and Staines, this volume).
Samples from the 'Allerod soil' exposed in the
Cut-&-cover Section are distinguished from under-
lying parent materials by increased concentrations
of magnetic minerals, indicated by elevated Xlf and
SIRM values (Fig. 3.40), and by a finer magnetic
grain size indicated by higher SIRM/Xlf values and a
Significant frequency-dependent susceptibility (up
to 13%). These changes are responsible for diluting
the paramagnetic component of the sediments and
softening their hysteresis behaviour, as indicated
by lower IRM/SIRM ratios for back fields of both 20
and 300 mT (Fig. 3.40). Remanence coercivities in
the range 50-60 mT suggest a magnetic grain size
of less than 0.063 /lm (Thompson and Oldfield,
1986, fig. 4.10).
Catt and Staines (this volume) identify the cut-
and-cover palaeosol (SP1) as a stagnogleyic argillic
brown earth and suggest that it displays a greater

96
 Mineral magnetic properties of valley-fill sediments

0.03

0.02 •
•
-
..., 0.01
~
('t)

E 0

-;t
0
•
::!::
X 0.00 Main section
0 Trench HV

0.1 0.2 0.3

Figure 3.38 Plot of Xlf versus SIRM for samples of Post-glacial tufa from the Main Section and Trench HV.

degree of pedogenesis than any other buried Late-
glacial soil in north-west Europe. These conclusions
are supported by the results of mineral magnetic
analyses. The mineral magnetic changes associated
with the formation of this soil (magnetic enhance-
ment due to the formation of fine-grained
magnetite) are consistent with those described
from contemporary brown earth soils in the British
Isles by Maher (1986) and Maher and Taylor
(1988). The extent of magnetic enhancement is at
least comparable with that displayed by the Post-
glacial soils in the Main Section and greater than
that observed in Trench HV (see below).
(v) Post-glacial hiUwash and soils
The hillwash and associated palaeosols exposed in
the Main Section and in Trench HV, which are
stagnogleyic rendzinas (Section 2(1) above), are
characterized by relatively high concentrations of
magnetic minerals, as indicated by Xlf values of up
to O.181lffi3 kg- 1 and SIRM values of up to 2.15 rnA
m 2 kg- 1 at the Main Section (Fig. 3.41).
Concentrations tend to be higher in the palaeosols
than in intervening hillwash materials although, in
the Main Section, peak values of Xlf and SIRM occur
in the sample immediately overlying the upper
palaeosol (Fig. 3.41). This suggests that the high

97
 Sedimentological investigations

0.3

o.o+---------~--------~--------------------,---------~---------,
o 1 2 3
SIRM (mAm 2 kg- 1 )

Figure 3.39 Plot of Xlf versus SIRM for samples of the 'Aller0d soil' in the Cut-&-cover Section and Post-glacial hill-
wash and palaeosols in the Main Section and Trench HV.

concentrations are a product of pedogenic greater proportion of superparamagnetic grains in

enhancement of topsoil, but that erosion and rede-
position of topsoil may lead to local inversions of
the stratigraphy. If this process is widespread, it
may contribute to an explanation of the apparent
discrepancy between radiometric and archaeologi-
cally-based estimates of the ages of the soils.
Samples from the Post-glacial soils all display
magnetite-type behaviour, but these soils have
higher SIRM/Xif ratios (up to 22 kA m- 1) and lower
remanence coercivities (less than 45 mT) than the
Late-glacial soils (Fig. 3.42). Frequency-dependent
susceptibilities reach 11 % in the Main Section (Fig.
3.41) and are thus slightly lower than in the Late-
glacial soil. These characteristics suggest a slightly
the Late-glacial soil, which is perhaps consistent
with the suggestion that it is better developed than
the Post-glacial soils.
The magnetic properties of the Post-glacial
soils and hillwash thus indicate significant mag-
netic enhancement by pedogenic formation of
fine-grained magnetite in the stable single-
domain/ su perparamagnetic grain-size range.
Since this enhancement affects the whole of the
hillwash, the lower parts of this may be derived
from erosion of magnetically-enhanced soil mater-
ial formed during the early Post-glacial and no
longer present in the stratigraphic record at
Holywell Coombe. It also appears that the soils

98
 Mineral magnetic properties of valley-jill sediments

150
0

0
0

·
o

0
'

0
OxA-2089

• 11,370 ± 150
)
Q
Q
Q 0

200
o Q
0
.
o • Q

V
0

250
0
0

o 0.1 0.2 0.3 0 1 2 0 5 10 0 1 -1 0 -1 0 -20 -10 0 10

XII (~m3kg-1) SIRM (mAm 2kg- 1) SIRMiXlf (kAm- 1) IRMs S ratio IRMh Xld (%)

Figure 3.40 Stratigraphy and profiles of mineral magnetic properties for the 'Aller0d soil' in the Cut-&-cover Section.

may themselves have been eroded during subse- deposits contain assemblages that are similar in
quent periods, although it is not clear whether concentration, mineralogy and grain size to those
such erosion was confined to hillslopes or also found in primary bedrock source materials. Such
affected valley-floor sites. assemblages are detrital in origin and reflect only
minimal modification of bedrock during mass
transport and subsequent deposition. They consist
(vi) Summary and discussion
primarily of single-domain magnetite, with varying
On the basis of the above results, the mineral mag- admixtures of diamagnetic, paramagnetic and anti-
netic assemblages found in valley-fill sediments at ferromagnetic minerals, although the diamagnetic
Holywell Coombe can be classified as either detri- component is dominant in solifluction deposits
tal, authigenic or pedogenic in origin. Solifluction derived from the Lower Chalk. The diamagnetic

• OxA-3558
2850 ± 70
.OXA-2090
3515 ± 80
100 .OxA.2091
5620 ± 90

. 0
Q
_ OxA·2353
11,520±90
0

200 Q

QQ'

o • Q

·
• Q •

Q 0 •

0 0

• 0

300 0

Q
0
Q

o 0.04 0.08 0.12 0.16 0.20 0 1 2 0 10 20 30 -1 0 1·1 0 0 2 4 6 8 10

Xlt (~m3kg-l) SIRM (mAm2kg- 1) SIRMiXlt (kAm- 1) IRM-20/SIRM IRM-300/SIRM ~d ('!o)

Figure 3.41 Stratigraphy and profiles of mineral magnetic properties for the Main Section.

99
 Sedimentological investigations

-- 100
'I
E
0:(
......
~

x==
.......
::t
a::
(/)

Pseudo
single-
domain

Main section
10
I +
I (8) PM
I

I +
I (8) PM
Multi-
domain

1+-------.---._~-.-.~,-r+~~L-;_--_.--._._._OT ..
1 10 100
(BO)CR(mT)

Figure 3.42 Plot of SIRMIXIf versus (BJCR for samples from the 'Aller0d soil' in the Cut-&-cover Section, and Post-
glacial hillwash and palaeosols in the Main Section and Trench HV. To assist interpretation, areas of the diagram in
which common magnetic mineral phases and grain sizes would plot are highlighted (after Thompson and Oldfield,
1986: Figure 4.13). (S)PM - (super)paramagnetic grains.

properties of Post-glacial tufa reflect the fact that
it is composed of relatively pure calcite of authi-
genic origin. Post-glacial hillwash and palaeosols
of both Post-glacial and Late-glacial age show the
effects of magnetic enhancement of topsoil by
pedogenic formation of fine-grained magnetite in
the stable single-domain/superparamagnetic grain-
size range. Mineral magnetic measurements thus
offer a relatively rapid means of confirming the
presence of palaeosols in a stratigraphic
sequence. Enhancement is, however, less marked
in Late-glacial soils developed on valley-floor sites,
where waterlogging and gleying have probably
resulted in dissolution of fine-grained ferrimag-
netic minerals. The 'Allenad soil' developed on
interfluve sites shows a degree of magnetic
enhancement equal to or greater than that of the
Post-glacial soils, presumably indicating a pro-
longed period of pedogenesis and stable ground
surface. Since this soil did not develop during the
warmest part of the Late-glacial (Part Five (4)),
this stability is presumably related to the develop-
ment of a more complete vegetation cover at this
time than during the earlier, warmer period (part
Five (1)). The lack of better-developed Post-glacial
soils appears to reflect the erosion of soil cover
developed during the early Post-glacial, coupled
with the effects of persistent disturbance of the
land surface by human activity in the late Post-
glacial.

100
 Mineral magnetic properties of valley-fill sediments

T T
100
T T

T T

T T
".,',' ,I

T T

T
200 T

T T

300
0,," • OxA-2345
',:;:"'~": - 11,530 ± 160

400
OxA-1752
.12,280 ± 140

500

.(l.04 0 0.04 0.08 0 2 -100 200 0 1 -1.5 -1 .(l.S 0

XI! (j.lm3kg-1) SIAM (mAm 2kg- 1) IRM-20/SIAM IAM-300/SIAM

Figure 3.43 Stratigraphy and profiles of mineral magnetic properties for Trench HV.

(e) Results: stratigraphical analyses
Results of the stratigraphic analyses are presented
as a series of figures (Figs 3.40, 3.41, 3.43-3.46).
Brief descriptions of the salient points relating to
each profile are given below. The potential of min-
eral magnetic measurements to provide a basis for
stratigraphic subdivision and correlation of
sequences of valley-fill sediments is then discussed.
(i) Main Section
The sequence can be divided into two main parts
(Fig. 3.41). Below 1.25 m, the sediments (tufa and
calcareous solifluction deposits) have low suscep-
tibilities, SIRM values and SIRMIXIf ratios, and show
relatively 'hard' hysteresis behaviour in comparison
to the hillwash, which occurs above 1.25 m (espe-
cially apparent on the plot oflRM_2omriSIRM). The
plot of IRM-300mT/SIRM suggests a greater compo-
nent of paramagnetic minerals in the depth range
1.25-1.8 m than lower down in the profile. This is
consistent with the suggestion that the contribu-
tion of Gault Clay to these sediments is greater
(25-35%) than lower in the profile (12-15%) (Catt
and Staines, this volume). The Aller0d soil (1.75 m)
shows only limited magnetic enhancement, consis-
tent with formation in a waterlogged valley-floor
site. In contrast, palaeosols (stagnogleyic rendzinas)
developed within the hillwash show strong
enhancement associated with the formation of fine-
grained magnetite (see discussion above). The
hillwash is relatively sandy (15-25% coarser than
150 ~m) in comparison to the sediments in which

101
 Sedimentological investigations

em
0

T T

T T

T T
100 T T

T T

T T

T T
200 T T

T T

T T OxA-2088
• 9460± 140
T T

T T
300 T T

T T
0-2721
• 9760± 100

400

/
/
/

500

-0_01 0 0_2

Figure 3.44 Stratigraphy and profiles of mineral magnetic properties for Horseshoe Spring (Trench 5).

the 'Aller0d soil' is developed (2% coarser than 150
/lffi). It may therefore be better drained, explaining
the contrast in pedogenic style. The lowermost of
the two Post-glacial palaeoscls is developed within
hillwash materials, indicating a phase of erosion
prior to the formation of this soil.
(ii) Trench HV
This section can be subdivided into four parts on
mineral magnetic grounds (Fig. 3.43):
(1) 0-0.8 m: hillwash distinguished by relatively
high concentrations of magnetic minerals and
high SIRM/Xlf ratios;
(2) 0.8-2.35 m: diamagnetic tufa. This is contam-
inated at the top with high susceptibility
material derived from hillwash. Frequencies
of the burrowing snail Cecilioides acicula
begin to increase upwards at the 0.9-0.95 m
level, suggesting that this is a product of bio-
turbation (part Four (3));
(3) 2.35-4.3 m: calcareous solifluction deposits
and included organic layers containing very
low concentrations of magnetic minerals. The
'Aller0d soil' occurs within this unit (3.25 m),
but shows minimal magnetic enhancement,
again indicative of formation in fine-grained
sediments (4.7% coarser than 150 11m) under
waterlogged conditions. Below 3.3 m, the

102
 Mineral magnetic properties of valley-fill sediments

em

100
o o·
o 0

200
• 0

OxA-1974
300 -11,830 ± 140

OxA-1751
-13,160 ± 400

400

Figure 3.45 Stratigraphy and profiles of mineral magnetic properties for Trench 4.

IRM_300mT/SIRM plot shows very similar
behaviour to that seen at 1.25 to 1.8 m depths
in the Main Section;
(4) 4.3-5.15 m: Gault Clay-derived solifluction
deposits containing much greater concentra-
tions of magnetic minerals than the overlying
sediments.
(iii) Trench 5 Horseshoe Spring
Only Xlf was measured for this profile. The results
(Fig. 3.44) reveal the following:
(1) 0.3-0.6 m: contamination of the upper part of
the tufa with magnetically enhanced material
derived from the overlying soil profile. The
presence of Cecilioides acicula in sediments
above 0.7 m again suggests bioturbation (part
Four (3»;
(2) 0.6-3.4 m: diamagnetic tufa. Susceptibility
increases downwards below 3.2 m, suggest-
ing that inwash of slope-derived sediment to
valley-floor sites continued after the initiation
of tufa deposition at 9760 ± 100 yr BP (Q-
2721);
(3) 3.4-3.8 m: relatively organic sediments
(4.8-20.9% loss-on-ignition at 550°C) of mod-
erate susceptibility, which probably reflect a

103
 Sedimentological investigations
Upper soil
XII (pm 3 kg-') ~D(%)
0038 0.046 0.054 0.0620.070 -6 -4 -2 0 2
o
10
E 20
.3
.C-
o.
t3 30
40
50
Figure 3.46 Stratigraphy and profiles of mineral magnetic properties for the sheared 'Aller0d soil' at Cherry Garden.
significant input of material derived from the
Gault Clay (Section 2 (1) above);
(4) 3.8-4.2 m: high susceptibility solifluction
deposits, probably derived from Glauconitic
Marl 03% glauconite in the fine sand fraction;
Section 2(1)).
(iv) Trench 3
On the basis of magnetic susceptibility measure-
ments, this section can be subdivided into two
parts (Fig. 3.15). Above 1.6 m, high susceptibility
hillwash shows the effects of pedogenic magnetic
enhancement, with a clearly-developed palaeosol
at 1.2 m depth developed in relatively sandy sedi-
ments (22% coarser than 150 f.lm). Below 1.6 m,
tufa and calcareous solifluction deposits have very
low susceptibilities. There is a slight increase in sus-
ceptibility in the black organic clay at 1.85 m and a
larger increase at 2.8 m, which is not explicable
given present data.
(v) Trench 4
The section 2.8-3.9 m was analysed for suscepti-
bility only (Fig. 3.45). Susceptibility rises
progressively downwards from values typical of a
Gault Clay source to values more typical of a
Glauconitic Marl source. Loss-on-ignition results
suggest a coincident increase in organic matter
content and decrease in carbonate content, which
seems consistent (Section 2 (2) above).
Lower soil
Xtl (pm 3 kg-' ) XFD( %)
4 0.031 0.039 0.047 -20 -12 -4 0 4 8
U
nOXA - 2242
11,580 ± 100
(vi) Trench 6
Susceptibility, the only parameter analysed,
increases progressively downwards to values typical
of a Gault Clay source (which underlies the profile)
(Fig. 3.20). This trend is consistent with decreasing
inputs of clastic material as organic sediments began
to accumulate at the Late-glacial/Post-glacial transi-
tion. Particularly low susceptibility values in the
organic silty clay at 0.47 m may reflect dissolution
of fine-grained ferrimagnetic minerals under water-
logged conditions.
(vii) Cut-&-cover Section
The main features of the Late-glacial soil exposed
in this section have already been described (Fig.
3.40). The soil is a stagnogIeyic argillic brown earth
and shows magnetic enhancement resulting from
pedogenic formation of fine-grained magnetite.
Underlying Glauconitic Marl parent materials have
a relatively high paramagnetic content, as indicated
by the plot ofIRM-30omT/SIRM
(viii) Cherry Garden
Two palaeosol layers, the upper one dated to
11 580 ± 100 yr BP (OxA-2242), were exposed at
Cherry Garden. Both show similar magnetic prop-
erties (Figs 3.39 and 3.46). In the upper soil,
susceptibility increases upwards from 0.04 to 0.07
f.lm 3 kg-lover a distance of 0.45 m. In the lower
soil, the increase is from 0.037 to 0.048 f.lm 3 kg- 1
104
 Mineral magnetic properties of valley-fill sediments
over 0.3 m, but in this case the increase is associ-
ated with Xfd values of up to 8%, indicating
pedogenic formation of fine-grained magnetite.
From a magnetic point of view, these soils seem to
be slightly less well developed than the soil at the
Cut-&-cover Section, which is consistent with the
results of micromorphological investigations
(Section 2 (1) above), in which they were identi-
fied as stagnogleyic pararendzinas. Stratigraphical
evidence suggests that the two layers result from
the overthrusting of a single soil horizon (Section
1 (1) above), an interpretation consistent with the
palaeomagnetic data.
(0 Discussion
The above results suggest that mineral magnetic
measurements from valley-fill sediments may be of
considerable lithostratigraphic value. Such mea-
surements permit a subdivision of stratigraphic
sequences which is consistent with visual stratigra-
phy, facilitating the detection of changes in
sediment provenance that are confirmed by more
detailed mineralogical studies. In particular, they
are useful in characterizing the boundaries
between adjacent lithostratigraphic units and in
determining whether these are sharp or transi-
tional. In the case of transitional boundaries,
mineral magnetic measurements help to determine
whether the cause is a gradual shift in the balance
of different sedimentary processes or contamina-
tion by bioturbation. In cases where sediments
have been weathered or subjected to pedogenesis
under aerobic conditions, mineral magnetic mea-
surements allow rapid identification of weathering
horizons. They are less successful in this respect
where waterlogging and gleying have occurred,
105
because dissolution of fine-grained ferrimagnetic
minerals then limits the extent of magnetic
enhancement.
Although mineral magnetic measurements have
been used extensively for chronostratigraphic cor-
relation of lake sediments (see review in
Thompson and Oldfield, 1986), it seems unlikely
that they will be of equal value in studies of valley-
fill sediments. At Holywell Coombe, the major
changes in magnetic mineral assemblages reflect
(a) variations in the provenance of detrital sedi-
ments such as solifluction deposits, (b) the switch
from detrital sedimentation to authigenic calcite
precipitation that occurred at valley-floor sites in
early Post-glacial and (c) the change from
unweathered to weathered source materials for
detrital sediments which occurred between Late-
glacial and mid to late Post-glacial time. Although
such changes may have chronological signifi-
cance, there is no a priori reason for assuming
that this should be the case, particularly since
they may also be associated with erosion breaks
or periods of non-deposition.
Identification of spatially extensive palaeosols
with common mineral magnetic properties offers
perhaps the best prospect of using mineral mag-
netic measurements for chronostratigraphic
purposes. Even this is problematic, however,
because palaeosols evidently show catenary varia-
tion in their magnetic properties, variation which
may be at least partly linked to spatial variations in
the granulometric and hydraulic properties of their
parent materials. It is not, therefore, safe to attempt
stratigraphic correlation of the basis of measure-
ments of the mineral magnetic properties of
valley-fill sediments in the absence of independent
radiometric dating evidence.
 PART FOUR

Radiocarbon Dating
V.R. Switsur and R.A. Housley
 Physical and chemical treatment
(1) INTRODUCTION
Radiocarbon ages should never be considered in
isolation. The nature of the sample material, its envi-
ronment and history, as well as the measurement
techniques all playa part and need to be evaluated
carefully in the interpretation of the ages. The car-
bonaceous material on which the radiocarbon
isotope concentration measurements are made is
the final product of photosynthesis of contempo-
rary atmospheric carbon dioxide preserved in the
sedimentary sequence. Its position in the strati-
graphical column in normal circumstances allows
the relative ages of the stratigraphical units to be
assessed. The determinations are made on the
assumption that the samples measured are related
directly or indirectly to some event the age of
which is required in the investigation. Rarely is it
that the age of the material itself is of intrinsic inter-
est. It is therefore most important that the
provenance of the sample is thoroughly examined
and the manner in which the material reached the
situation in which it was discovered is important.
The subsequent possible disturbance of the sample
and particularly the possibilities of its being conta-
minated by one or more carbon-bearing materials of
different age must be assessed. In particular the geo-
logical and geochemical conditions of the sample
environment are of critical importance in leading to
a correct age interpretation. The environment of
the carbonaceous samples from Holywell Coombe
is unusual and extreme because of the highly cal-
careous nature of the deposits. This is an important
consideration in the evaluation of the ages obtained
and for this reason is discussed further.
The constant waterlogging of the site provided
the anoxic conditions that preserved the many
organic substances such as wood, pollen, seeds,
bones and insects that are normally rare in such
chalkland contexts. Hence, these special condi-
tions allow the possibility of dating important
biostratigraphical boundaries. It is significant that
such materials above the water-table had been
completely oxidized and so were not preserved in
the deposits. However, the more robust shells of
land snails were, in fact, well preserved. Because
of this abundance of shelly material it was relatively
easy, using molluscan biostratigraphy, to correlate
the various sections that were available for study
(Kerney et at., 1980; Part Five (3)).
Calcareous tufa, a calcium carbonate precipitate
from spring water, forms an important matrix
109
material at the site and is itself potentially datable,
although it does not conform to the basic require-
ments of the radiocarbon theory developed by W.
F. Libby, so that ad hoc assumptions must be made
in order to estimate the age. The precipitate con-
tains only a portion of its carbon from the
contemporary atmosphere and hence some 14C,
but the relative amounts of this and 'dead' carbon
from the limestone, which contains zero 14C, are
not known. It is possible that, under some condi-
tions, the ratio of these forms of carbon may be a
constant factor and hence allow a simple correc-
tion factor to be applied in the radiocarbon
concentration measurements and hence an age to
be assigned to the tufa. Dates of this sort have been
obtained from the Holywell Coombe tufas (preece,
1991); their interpretation is problematic and will
be the subject of a separate report.
The present report is concerned with the details
of the radiocarbon dating of the organic and shell
samples obtained from the deposits, by both con-
ventional beta-particle measurement and AMS
techniques, together with a consideration of the
resulting chronologies.
(2) PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL
PRETREATMENT
In order to obtain a reliable estimate of its age,
every sample for radiocarbon dating requires a
thorough and appropriate preparation and the
technique employed may have a bearing on the
results obtained. The purpose of physical and
chemical pretreatment of samples for radiocarbon
age determinations is to remove the carbon-con-
taining material in the sample that is believed to be
of a different radiocarbon age from the carbon that
is to be dated. The appropriate chemical treatment
has to be selected on the basis of the known or
assumed chemical nature and properties of the
sample and those of the suspected contaminants.
These in tum, as mentioned above, are highly
dependent on the nature of the site and the condi-
tions under which the samples have been
preserved. As in other methods of dating, such as
thermoluminescence (TL) and electron spin reso-
nance (ESR), a complete study of this aspect of
provenance is essential for reliable radiocarbon
dating procedures. In the case of the Holywell
Coombe sample determinations, the following pre-
treatment techniques were used (for the
 Radiocarbon dating
procedures and quality control techniques used at
Cambridge, see Switsur (1987, 1990a and 1990b)
and for full details of the methods used at Oxford
see Hedges et al. (1989).
(a) Cambridge
Wood
Chemically, wood consists of numerous fractions
of different nature and includes resins, sugars,
lipids, hemicelluloses, lignins and cellulose. Some
of these undergo alteration and may disappear as
the wood slowly decomposes in anoxic deposits.
The last two substances are frequently the most
stable compounds and in this work the cellulose
fraction was extracted and used in the age deter-
minations. A hammer mill was used to convert the
wood to a powder, which was then repeatedly
heated with 0.5 M sodium hydroxide to remove
soluble humic materials. Next the lignin material
was oxidized with repeated additions over several
hours of hot acidified sodium chlorite solution.
After thorough washing the cellulose produced
was further purified to alpha-cellulose by heating
with 17% sodium hydroxide solution. After acidifi-
cation to expel any absorbed carbon dioxide the
alpha-cellulose was washed thoroughly and dried.
Bone
The bone sample was prepared by extracting the
organic collagen fraction. The bone, after prelimi-
nary cleaning to remove adherent materials, was
chilled in liquid nitrogen and crushed to a powder.
This was rinsed in dilute alkali to remove humic
acids and other soluble impurities. Following thor-
ough washing the inorganic bone hydroxyapatite
was dissolved at laboratory temperature with 8%
hydrochloriC acid. After filtration to remove the sol-
uble calcium salts and further washing the residual
organic material was stirred into a large volume of
acidulated near-boiling water at pH 3. The mixture
was kept hot for several hours to hydrolyse the col-
lagen to gelatine, which dissolved in the hot water.
At this stage any acid-insoluble humic impurities
were removed by filtration and the gelatine recov-
ered by evaporating the water.
Silt
The organic content of the silty material was quite
small and of unknown nature. A standard pretreat-
110
ment was used, which involved thorough washing
with distilled water and heating with 8%
hydrochloric acid to destroy excessive carbonate
material.
(b) Oxford
Charcoal
These samples were pretreated with an acid wash
(to remove carbonates), followed by an alkali wash
(to remove humic acids) and a further acid wash
before rinsing in distilled water. The process is
more one of purification than a specific extraction
for charcoal. In the case of one of the samples from
the Main Section (169-172 cm), a second 'humic'
fraction was removed from the charcoal for com-
parative dating purposes.
Bone
This was rarely encountered in the Folkestone sed-
iments and the Bos scapula from Trench HV was
the only such sample dated by AMS. Extraction of
the protein collagen followed by purification by
means of gelatinization and ion-exchange (Law and
Hedges, 1989; Hedges and Law, 1989; Hedges et
al., 1989) was the process used to pretreat this par-
ticular sample.
Wood and plant remains
These represent cellulosic material, which tend to
survive in waterlogged deposits where bacterial
attack is negligible. The dense fibres in plants are
prone to oxidative and other forms of attack and
rigorous pretreatment is often possible where the
non-cellulosic components, such as lignins or
humic contaminants, can thus be oxidized. The
process adopted for the Holywell Coombe samples
involved an acid-base-acid wash. In the case of well-
preserved wood samples this was followed by a
sodium hypochlorite 'bleach'. The macrofossils
were, in general, too delicate for this treatment.
Mollusc shells
These contain only a small amount of protein and
so the ages were obtained from the shell carbonate.
Radiocarbon ages on carbonate is straightforward,
although careful selection of specimens is advisable
if contamination by recrystallized carbonate is to
be avoided. The pretreatment involved mechanical
 Sample preparation and isotopic measurement
cleaning and acid etching of the outer surface
before dissolving the remainder in 90% phosphoric
acid; the evolved carbon dioxide gas was then col-
lected in a liquid nitrogen trap.
(3) SAMPLE PREPARATION AND
ISOTOPIC MEASUREMENT
(a) Conventional measurement in
Cambridge
The concentration of radiocarbon in the samples
was measured by precise liquid scintillation spec-
trometry. The wood and bone samples were
oxidized quantitatively using high pressure oxygen
in a combustion bomb (Switsur, 1972; Switsur et
al., 1973), but the silt samples were placed in a
quartz tube heated by an electric furnace and oxi-
dized by a stream of pure oxygen. In each case the
combustion gases were purified from electronega-
tive substances such as water vapour, oxygen,
sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxides to produce
pure carbon dioxide. A minute equilibrium sample
of the carbon dioxide in the gas phase was taken
for stable isotope ratio mass spectrometric assay
of the 13C/12 C ratio for isotopic fractionation cor-
rection. The remaining carbon dioxide was heated
with an excess of lithium metal to form the inter-
mediate lithium carbide (Li 2C2), which was
reacted with tritium-free water to generate acety-
lene gas (C 2H2). The acetylene was finally
converted to benzene (C 6H&> by trimerization on
a chromium-activated catalyst. The overall conver-
sion efficiency from carbon dioxide to benzene
was normally in the range 98 to 99%. The benzene
(92.3% carbon), containing all the 14C from the
original sample, was made into a scintillation cock-
tail with butyl-PBD and the radioactivity measured
in the scintillation spectrometer. The measure-
ments were normally made in 100 minute runs and
the data from twenty to thirty runs were combined
to achieve the statistical precision required.
The conventional radiocarbon ages were all cal-
culated using the 5568 years half-life for the 14C
isotope, by comparison of the net activity of the
sample with that of the international standard NBS
oxalic acid and intercomparisons with the labora-
tory standards of 1850 oak and AND sucrose
correcting for isotopic fractionation. The uncer-
tainties of the ages quoted were calculated by
combining in quadrature the one standard devia-
tion statistical errors in the multiple measurements
of the sample, background and NBS oxalic acid
111
standard. The stability of the system was checked
by a continuous quality control procedure (Switsur,
1990b).
(b) AMS measurement in Oxford
The first samples (OxA-175 1, -1752, -1974, -2088 to
-2091) were dated using an iron-graphite ion-
source. The samples were oxidized by heating with
pure copper oxide, whilst a modification of the
'Vogel' catalytic process (Vogel et al., 1987) was
used to produce graphite. The carbon dioxide was
reduced by zinc to CO, which, in the presence of
iron at 650°C disproportionates to carbon and CO2,
In this method, the carbon is catalytically deposited
as graphite on the iron, which when compressed
becomes a target in the ion-source of the accelera-
tor. For three samples the isotopic fractionation
was not measured and assumed 313C values of -21
per mil for the Bos bone (OxA-1752) and -26 per
mil for the Betula fruits (OxA-1751 and OxA-1974)
were used. The 313C values for the other four sam-
ples were measured using a stable isotope mass
spectrometer.
All the other Holywell Coombe samples were
dated after the AMS system had been modified for
operation with a carbon dioxide ion-source (Bronk
and Hedges 1989, 1990). The target preparation
process was modified to allow for this. The sample
was wrapped in tin-foil and burnt by flash combus-
tion in a stream of pure oxygen in a CHN analyser.
A small aliquot of the gas was removed for the 313C
measurement, the remainder being collected in
ampoules for injection into the ion-source.
The radiocarbon ages are measured by the
14C/13C ratio (rather than the 14C/12C ratio, which
is normal in other radiocarbon laboratories) by
comparison with NBS Oxalic Acid Standard (Oxalic
II) (Stuiver, 1983) and are expressed in radiocarbon
years BP using the 5568 half-life in accordance with
the international convention (Stuiver and Polach,
1977). The measured ratios are based on weighted
averages from several targets (in the case of stan-
dards) and several runs (only for the iron-graphite
targets). A correction has been made for the
known addition of about 0.5% modern 14C conta-
mination during the sample preparation process.
For a full discussion of operational details see
Hedges et ai. (1989).
The uncertainties are quoted as one standard
deviation, providing an estimate of the total error
in the system, including the sample chemistry. This
estimate includes the statistical precision from the
 Radiocarbon dating
number of 14C nuclei detected, the reproducibility
of the mass-spectrometric measurements between
different targets and the uncertainty in the estimate
of the contamination background. This background
level is taken to be 0.5 ± 0.3% of the oxalic stan-
dard and is obtained from measurement of 14C-free
material.
(4) RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
There are several important criteria to be consid-
ered when assessing the quality of a suite of
radiocarbon ages. The measurement accuracy and
precision ultimately depends on strict laboratory
procedures. However, the value of an otherwise
accurate date will depend on the relation between
the measured 14C concentration in the sample and
the event to which the sample is meant to relate,
that is the closeness of association. Only if the
carbon is contemporaneous with the episode being
investigated will the age be both technically cor-
rect and applicable to the event in question.
Therefore processes that affect the relationship
between a sample and the event need to be con-
sidered. Reservoir and contamination effects,
whether through long-lived material like wood or
through incorporation of 14C depleted carbon (for
example in molluscan shells), need to be discussed.
Biostratigraphical consistency has been an impor-
tant consideration at Folkestone and has been used
to assess many of the radiocarbon ages, a full list of
which appears in Table 4.1.
(a) Radiocarbon dating of colluvial
sequences
There have been a number of important studies of
dry valley sediments in Britain; e.g. Kerney et al.
(1964) at Brook in Kent; Evans (1966) at Pitstone
in Buckinghamshire; Bell (1981, 1982, 1983) from
sites within the South Downs. Many of the previ-
ous studies have concentrated on sediments dating
from the latter part of the Post-glacial, where much
of the sedimentation derives largely from later pre-
historic farming practices. The problem of dating
such colluvial sediments derives in part from the
mixing and reworking of residual material and from
the intermittent nature of the accumulation
processes. Although such deposits frequently lack
organic materials, they are sometimes rich in
Mollusca, which can provide a detailed biostratig-
raphy. Often though, radiocarbon dating is asked
112
to provide both the absolute time-frame and to
locate non-depositional phases in a sequence.
At Holywell Coombe the study of multiple sec-
tions and trenches from different localities in the
valley has required accurate correlation, based on
molluscan biostratigraphy and radiocarbon dating,
in order to build up an overall picture of the sedi-
mentary history. The decision to locate Trench 3 as
near as possible to the original type section (pit 1
of Kerney et al., 1980) provided an opportunity to
test the ability of these methods to precisely corre-
late adjacent profiles. Preece (Part Five (3» has
shown how the molluscan assemblages from
Trench 3 closely parallel those described by
Kerney 20 years earlier. In the original study three
conventional radiocarbon dates were obtained,
whereas in this study three further samples were
analysed. The results are shown in Table 4.2.
In Trench 3 it was possible to replicate exactly
the stratigraphical positions of two of the three
original samples (the uppermost and the lower-
most), although the third came from a slightly
different horizon. The relations of these samples to
the molluscan zonation was described by Preece
(1991). Comparison of the dates shows extremely
good correlation, despite the fact that three differ-
ent laboratories undertook the measurements using
two techniques of radiocarbon dating. Once the
difference in the stratigraphical position between
the two middle dates is taken into account, the
pairs of dates show remarkable agreement and are
statistically indistinguishable.
(b) Radiocarbon dating of the shells
of land snails
Another problem addressed in this study is the reli-
ability of carbonate from land snails as a material
for radiocarbon age determination. As other
research has shown (Goodfriend, 1987; Goodfriend
and Hood, 1983; Goodfriend and Stipp, 1983;
Preece, 1980a), dating such material can be prone
to bias, either from post-depositional diagenesis, or
from the uptake of quantities of inorganic carbon,
devoid of 14C, from geological sources when the
snail was still alive. Burleigh and Kerney (1982)
noted the latter effect when attempting to date
shells from a Neolithic soil since the carbonate
results tended to over-estimate the age by about
5-10%. They went on to predict that this tendency
would apparently be proportionately less impor-
tant if the shells were older. Rubin and Taylor
(1963) and Rubin et al. (1963) quantified the
 Results and discussion

Table 4.1 Radiocarbon ages from shell, charcoal, seeds and bone from Holywell Coombe and neighbouring
sites
Main Section (MS)
Lab. Ref Depth (em) Material l)13C (%0) Age (yrBP)
OxA-3558 50-60 shell (H. aspersa) -7.9 2850± 70
OxA-209O 70-80 charcoal -26.8 3515 ± 80
OxA-3223 70-80 shell (Arianta) -8.8 3430± 90
0xA-2091 106-112 charcoal -25.8 5620± 90
OxA-3224 106-112 shell (Arianta) -8.3 4470± 90
OxA-2352 169-172 humic acids -36.5 11600 ± 100
OxA-2353 169-172 'reduced carbon' -27.6 11 520 ± 90
OxA-2479 169-172 shell (Arianta) -11.1 11810 ± 120

Deep Trench 2/Sump 3

Lab. Ref Depth (em) Material l)13C (%0) Age (yrBP)
Q-2719 66-72 organic silt -27.32 9240± 90
Q-2720 185-190 organic detritus -27.82 11820 ± 140

Midden
Lab. Ref Depth (em) Material l)13C (",60) Age (yrBP)
Q-2713 Midden Boscollagen -21.84 3650± 50
TrenchHV
Lab. Ref Depth (em) Material l)13C (0/00) Age (yrBP)
OxA-3868 235-245 shell (Arianta) -8.0 11490 ± 100
OxA-2345 322-327 seeds (Sctrpus/Carex) -25.9 11 530 ± 160
OxA-1752 420-430 bone (Bos) (-21) 12280 ± 140

Trench 3
Lab. Ref Depth (em) Material l)13C (%0) Age (yrBP)
OxA-2347 150-155 charcoal -26.4 3980 ± 70
Q-2716 184-186 organic silt -26.44 7650± 80
OxA-3232 184-186 shell (Arianta) -7.2 9080 ± 100
OxA-2157 200-205 wood -28.9 8630 ± 120
OxA-3280 200-205 shell (Arianta) (-8) 10110 ± 100
Q-2710 255-265 wood (Salix) -25.99 9230 ± 75
OxA-3233 255-265 shell (Arianta) -8.3 11 220 ± 100
Trench 4
Lab. Ref Depth (em) Material l)13C ("/00) Age (yrBP)
OxA-1974 290-295 Betula fruits (-26) 11830 ± 140
OxA-1751 355-360 Betula fruits (-26) 13160 ± 400
Trench 5 (Horseshoe Spring)
Lab. Ref Depth (em) Material l)13C (0/00) Age (yrBP)
OxA-20SS 250-255 charcoal -26.7 9460 ± 140
Q-2721 340-345 detritus -26.58 9760± 100
OxA-3234 340-345 shell (Arianta) -8.3 10570 ± 150
0xA-3973 385-390 shell (Arianta) -8.0 11660 ± 105
Trench 6
Lab. Ref Depth (em) Material l)13C (%0) Age (yrBP)
Q-2711 35-40 Salix wood -25.81 9530± 75
OxA-2346 60-70 Juniperus fruits -26.0 9820± 90
OxA-2606 100-110 Salix wood -29.1 9900 ± 100
OxA-2608 100-110 (repeat) -27.4 10160 ± 110
Section 'Be1ow Sugarloaf' Hill (BS)
Lab. Ref Depth (em) Material l)13C (%0) Age (yrBP)
Q-2712 sample 4* Betula wood -27.11 12150 ± 110
Cut and cover pa1aeosol
Lab. Ref Depth (em) Material l)13C ("/00) Age (yrBP)
OxA-2089 150-160 charcoal -26.4 11 370 ± 150
OxA-2158 150-160 shell (Arianta) (-8) 11 430 ± 110
Cherry Garden pa1aeosol
Lab. Ref Depth (em) Material l)13C (0/00) Age (yrBP)
OxA-2242 10-20 charcoal -27.4 11580 ± 100
0xA-2159 10-20 shell (Arianta) (-8) 11 430 ± 100
Note: The 813C values in brackets are assumed, not measured, values. The Oxford 8 HC measurements are accurate to within ±0.5-1.0 per mil relative to POB;
the Cambridge measurements are accurate to ±0.05 per mil relative to POB.
* see Fig 3.24

113
 Radiocarbon dating

Table 4.2 Comparison of radiocarbon dates obtained from Pit 1 of the original study (Kerney et al., 1980)
with the new dates from comparable levels in Trench 3, located only metres away. For Trench 3 the date in
brackets is an imprecise stratigraphical match (see text)
Pit 1 (1969)
(Kerney et aL, 1980) Trench 3 (1988)
Material Depth (em) Lab. ref. Radiocarbon dates (yr BP) Lab. ref. Depth (em)
organic silt -91-94 St-3410 7500 ± 100 7650 ± 80 Q-2716 184-186
wood (+ nuts) 135-140 St-3411 8980 ± 100 [8630 ± 120 OxA-2157 200-2051
wood (+ nuts) 175-180 St-3395 9305 ± 115 9230 ± 75 Q-2710 255-265

uptake of inorganic carbon using tracers and con-
cluded that the shells were taking up levels of
inactive carbon in the order of 10-12%, rendering
them unsuitable samples since they would
inevitably give rise to serious over-estimation of
age. In another study, Goodfriend and Stipp (1983)
made radiocarbon measurements on shells from
limestone and non-limestone localities in Jamaica
and critically compared differences between rock-
scraping species and litter-feeding taxa. They
observed that snails from non-limestone regions,
particularly the non-rock-scraping species in such
localities, were generally suitable for radiocarbon
assay, but that virtually all taxa from limestone
areas contained varying quantities of inactive
carbon and hence were not suitable samples.
12
¥ ing species (Grime and Blythe, 1969). Second, it
10
a::CD 8
'"
.>t.
'"
III
(;j
6
"0
Qi 4
.J::.
en • trials (Yates, 1986a, 1986b) had yielded results sug-
2 incorporate 'radioactively dead' carbon.
The problem of post-depositional diagenesis of
shell carbonate, such as the recrystallization of cal-
cite, can, to some extent, be overcome by detailed
investigation before dating. Both X-ray diffraction
and the scanning electron microscope are useful in
the selection of non-recrystallized material (yates,
1988).
As a sequel to the work of Burleigh and Kerney
(1982), a single species of shell was selected from
various stratigraphical levels where it was also pos-
sible to obtain associated charcoal. It was then
possible to compare the radiocarbon content of dif-
ferent materials from the same horizon and age and
thus to ascertain whether this shell carbonate was a
reliable material for dating measurements. The
species chosen at Holywell Coombe was Arianta
arbustorum, a snail present in the valley from the
Aller0d onwards (Part Five (3)). A. arbustorum
was chosen for four reasons. First, it is a litter-feed-
was the largest species in the assemblage and
hence easy to clean during pretreatment and a
single age could be obtained without combining
several shells. Third, shell fragments of this species
are readily identifiable on account of their charac-
teristic pattern of breakage and diagnostic
microsculpture (Preece, 1981). Fourth, previous
gesting that this species did not significantly

4 6 8 10 12
Charcoal/wood dates (ka BP)
Figure 4.1 Plot of radiocarbon dates based on charcoal
or wood versus those based on the shells of the land
snail Arianta arbustorum from the same stratigraphical
levels. Note the excellent concordance ofthe dates from
the 'Aller0d soil' and the magnitude of the age anomaly
for the shell dates from the early Post-glacial tufa.
Although there is excellent agreement again with the
youngest pair of dates, these are both older than the
archaeological evidence would suggest.
(c) Comparison of radiocarbon ages
from shell carbonate and organic
materials
Figure 4.1 shows a plot of the ages obtained from
shell carbonate versus those from organic material
from a single stratigraphical level. It will be observed
that although there is a general agreement between
the two types of sample, there is a tendency for the
age from the shell to exceed that from the organic
material. With the assumption that the samples are

114
 Results and discussion
sensibly coeval within the limits of the precision of
the method of dating, it may be deduced that the
shell contains a smaller concentration of 14C than
the organic material, probably as a result of incorpo-
ration of ancient, 14C-free carbon, possibly
originating from the limestone on which the living
snails grazed. Since the difference between the ages
is not constant, the proportion of limestone incor-
porated presumably varied from shell to shell. The
incertitude of this quantity introduces an additional
uncertainty to the age determinations when using
this material. From the age differences it may be pos-
sible to deduce a 'matrix effect' analogous to, but
different from, the 'reservoir effect' for marine
shells. The point on the graph (Fig. 4.1) where the
organics are older than the shell carbonate (Main
Section 106-112 cm) almost certainly results from a
different factor, possibly the presence of older resid-
ual charcoal that has become associated with
younger Arianta shells. It is tempting to quantify
tentatively the difference between the shell carbon-
ate and organic ages, since from the graph they are
visually well correlated throughout the period. Least
squares regression analysis confirms this and indi-
cates a correlation coefficient (r) of 0.86. The shell
ages may thus be related to the ages of the organic
materials by the equation:
Shell age = 0.4 X Organic age + 6.97 Kyr
(d) Radiocarbon dating of the
'Aller0d soil'
Radiocarbon dating of fossil soils is fraught with dif-
ficulties (Geyh et at., 1983; Gilet-Blein et at., 1980;
Scharpenseel, 1972; Tate, 1972). This problem may
be approached in two distinct ways. One is to
attempt the determination of the radiocarbon age
of the carbonaceous substances contained in the
soil matrix directly, which is often perfectly possi-
ble, although because of the complex chemical
nature of soil carbon, with numerous contributory
carbon sources, the interpretation of such mea-
surements may be far from straightforward (Head
et at., 1989; Kigoshi et at., 1980). Another way is to
determine the radiocarbon age of the organic inclu-
sions contained within the soil profile, making the
assumption that the contents of a buried soil are
contemporaneous with the period of its formation.
In the case of Holywell Coombe the latter
approach was used.
As described elsewhere, there are a number of
115
buried soil profiles within Holywell Coombe
which, on the basis of their molluscan assemblage
(Trichia hispida, Abida secate and Arianta arb us-
torum) , may be aSSigned to the 'Allefj3d phase'.
This proved an excellent opportunity both to test
whether this molluscan assemblage represents one
period and to investigate the age of the material
that accumulated on the soil surface before the
horizon was buried by solifluction in the Younger
Dryas. The samples available for 14C measurements
included wood charcoal and fruits of
Carex/Scirpus (Table 4.3). As will be seen, the ages
obtained range from 11 810 ± 120 to 11 370 ±
150 yr BP. The general consistency, not only
between paired shell/charcoal samples but also
between sections, is remarkable, especially given
that the processes of pedogenesis is likely to have
occurred over several centuries.
The earliest date of about 11 800 yr BP for the
start of the Aller0d compares closely with many
well-dated sequences on the Continent (Mangerud
et at., 1974). As the date (OxA-2479) is on an
Arianta shell, there is the possible danger of
uptake of 14Cfree carbon from the chalk, but as
discussed above, this species may not suffer from
this effect and the result is in good agreement with
other localities. The youngest date for the 'AUer0d
soil' at Holywell Coombe is about 11 370 yr BP, sug-
gesting that soil formation ceased at, or more likely
sometime after, this time. The beginning of the suc-
ceeding Younger Dryas (Loch Lomond) Stadial has
been put conventionally at 11 000 yr BP ( Mangerud
et at., 1974; Rose, Switsur and Lowe, 1988).
Radiocarbon dating of Late-glacial marine Mollusca
from Scottish waters (peacock and Harkness, 1991;
Housley, 1991) has shown that the change from
temperate to polar water around the British Isles
probably occurred between around 11 250 and
10 850 yr BP.
( e) Possible calibration of Late-glacial
radiocarbon ages
The question of the duration of 'Aller0d soil' pedo-
genesis at Holywell Coombe introduces the
problem of calibrating Late-glacial radiocarbon ages
to calendar dates. One problem is to decide
whether, in fact, the ages attempt to measure the
same region of time, i.e. whether the differences in
age result from measurement uncertainties or
whether the ages of the materials are significantly
different. Another problem involves estimating the
absolute length of the period in terms of calendar
 Radiocarbon dating
Table 4.3 Radiocarbon measurements on various components from the 'Aller0d soil' at different locations in
Holywell Coombe and the neighbouring valley
Lab. ref. Depth (em)
Main section
OxA-3252 169-172
OxA-2353 169-172
OxA-2479 169-172
Cut and cover palaeosol
OxA-2089 150-160
OxA-2158 t 150-160
Cherry Garden palaeosol
OxA-2242 10-20
OxA-2I59 t 10-20
TrenchHV
OxA-2345 322-327
* Acid and base insoluble residue (solid); [-8] = assumed value.
t Determinations for OxA-2I58 and OxA-2I59 differ slightly from the values quoted by Preece (1991) because more realistic assumed ol3e values
have been used.
years. These two questions will now be considered
briefly.
Radiocarbon years are not, in general, the same
length as calendar years, as a result of temporal
variations in the concentration of atmospheric
radiocarbon. This variation, in turn, may result
from one or more of several causes, including (a)
changes in the flux of ionizing radiation incident
upon the Earth's atmosphere, possibly because of
the variation of solar output with time; (b) the vari-
ation of the Earth's magnetic field, which would
deflect differing proportions of the incident radia-
tion at different periods; (c) the dilution of
radiocarbon activity brought about by changing
oceanic circulation; (d) abrupt changes in biomass
resulting from sudden climatic change and leading
to differences in atmospheric carbon dioxide con-
centration. The effect of all this on conventional
radiocarbon determinations within the later Post-
glacial is now well documented through the
measurement of radiocarbon activity of tree-rings
of known age. The internationally agreed, double-
checked, calibration of radiocarbon time covers the
period 2500 Be to AD 1950 (Stuiver and Pearson,
1986; Pearson and Stuiver, 1986). These authors
have now published corrections and extensions to
these data covering the period 500 Be-AD 1950 and
6000-2500 BC (Stuiver and Pearson, 1993). Other
calibration studies, but not double checked, have
also been published, reaching back to 5000 Be, as
well as isolated older segments from the period
9400 - 7200 Be and dendrochronologies ranging
back to 11 000 yr BP (Radiocarbon vol. 35, 1993).
It is for the Late-glacial period that atmospheric
radiocarbon concentrations are the least well
Material 14C dates
(yr BP)
humic acids -36.5 11600 ± 100
'reduced carbon'· -27.6 11 520 ± 90
shell (Arianta) -11.1 11 810 ± 120
charcoal -26.4 11 370 ± 150
shell (Arianta) [-8] 11 430 ± 110
charcoal -27.4 11 580 ± 100
shell (Arianta) [-8] 11 430 ± 100
Carex/Scirpus fruits -25.9 11 530 ± 160
known. An important contribution (Bard et at.,
1990) in this portion of the time-scale used high
precision mass spectrometric uranium-thorium
ages of the corals Acropora palmata and Porites
asteroides from Barbados (Caribbean) to calibrate
the AMS radiocarbon ages of the same samples.
The mass spectrometric measurements were
demonstrated to agree well with high precision
dendrochronological calibration within the Post-
glacial and the assumption was made that
extrapolation to 27 000 years would be valid, thus
allowing an idea of the calibration of radiocarbon
ages throughout this time range. These measure-
ments, and additional ones from Mururoa (pacific),
have been thoroughly checked using TIMS (ther-
mal ionisation mass spectrometry) and AMS
radiocarbon ages (Bard et al., 1993), which both
confirm the previous indications that in the period
prior to 9000 yr BP, radiocarbon ages are systemati-
cally younger than uranium-thorium ages, with a
maximum difference of about 3500 years at ca.
20 000 yr BP. Despite the high precision of the
U!Th ages and pooling of the multiple AMS deter-
minations, the statistical errors of the radiocarbon
ages remain much greater than those of conven-
tional high-precision radiocarbon ages used in the
dendrochronological calibration. Moreover, there
are relatively few published determinations
between 27 000 and 6000 yr BP, so that the tempo-
ral resolution of this calibration is comparable only
with that of the Bristlecone pine curve of 1964 for
the late Post-glacial and many more measurements
are necessary for this type of calibration to be
dependable and useful for detailed analysis.
Nevertheless this is an important guide within a
116
 Results and discussion

period that was previously uncalibrated and the minations on the 'Aller0d soil' at Holywell Coombe
part relevant to the Holywell Coombe project is are concerned, the value for chi-squared for the
given in Table 4.4. eight radiocarbon ages given in Table 4.3 is 5.689.
The assumption made for the null hypothesis Ho is
Table 4.4 Radiocarbon calibration against UraniuID- that the ages are coeval. Entering the chi-squared
Thorium distribution using seven degrees of freedom indi-
Radiocarbon age yr BP Uranium-Thorium age yr BP
cates a value of 14.07 for a 5% probability that the
8750 ± 240 9730±50
value would not be exceeded. Hence there is no
9690 ± 320 11 090 ± 70
statistical evidence to doubt the consistency of the
9730 ± 400 11530 ± 70
9760 ± 380 11590 ± 60 determinations. Thus they may be combined to
10 320 ± 320 12260 ± 90 give a pooled age of 11 555 ± 45 yr BP for the
11540 ± 280 13220 ± 110 'Aller0d soil'. Calibration of this pooled age, making
11630 ± 260 13700 ± 170 use of the coral data from Bard et al. (1993), pro-
11 720 ± 400 13800 ± 140 duces a calibrated range of ca. 13600 to 13200
12240 ± 260 14235 ± 100 cal. BP (fable 4.4 and Fig. 4.2). If the mean age for
12000 ± 420 14600 ± 160 the soil is used instead, the calibrated range
12910 ± 340 14700 ± 100
becomes ca. 13940 to 12970 cal. BP. In this region
After Bard et at., 1993. Note that the statistical error is quoted to two
standard deviations and not the more usual one standard deviation.
what appears to be a short plateau in the calibra-
tion curve is encountered, so that, at this stage, it
The problem as to whether the radiocarbon ages would not be prudent to attempt a more precise
obtained from the 'Aller0d soil' at Holywell interpretation of the findings; nevertheless, this is
Coombe are measuring the same region of time believed to be the first attempt at obtaining a cali-
may be addressed by a statistical analysis to assess brated age-range for the 'Aller0d soil'.
the consistency of the age determinations. It must
be remembered that soil formation is not instanta-
neous. Furthermore, dated material incorporated in (0 Radiocarbon plateaux
a soil will have an independent radiocarbon history
and this might be significantly different from the One particular feature of the radiocarbon time
history of the pedogenic processes. There is thus scale calibration that has affected studies of certain
no a Priori reason why such material should form periods is the presence of plateaux, that is periods
a statistically consistent group. As far as the deter- of time when the atmospheric radiocarbon con-
centration remained almost constant for several
centuries. Thus samples representing events widely
separated in time produce conventional radiocar-
14000,-----------------,
bon ages that are closer together. Such plateaux are
well documented from more recent periods; one at
ca. 2450 yr BP (pearson and Stuiver, 1986) is prob-
13000
ably the best known and causes great problems in
£'
E9. 12000
dating part of the Iron Age. By way of example, a
OJ radiocarbon age of 2450 ± 100 yr BP, upon calibra-
1f tion, yields a date range of 800 to 400 cal. Be at the
a 11000
normal 68% probability; if the 95% probability level
~ 10000
is chosen, the calibrated range is extended to 840
~ to 275 cal. Be, a range of 565 calendar years (the
9000 normal 2 sigma band for the radiocarbon age
would be 400 radiocarbon years). If instead of a
regular radiocarbon age, a 'high precision' radio-
8009000 10000 11000 12000 13000 14000 15000
U{Th Age (BP)
carbon age of 2450 ± 20 yr BP were to be obtained,
this would yield upon calibration a date range of
695 to 425 cal. Be (68% probability) or 765 to 410
Figure 4.2 'Calibration' plot of radiocarbon ages (AMS) cal. Be (95% probability), in the latter case a range
of corals against uranium/thorium ages of the same sam- of 355 calendar years compared with the 80 radio-
ples (after Bard et at., 1993). carbon years from the 2 sigma band. Thus

117
 Radiocarbon dating
high-precision radiocarbon ages are of little help in
such a situation and two samples giving the same
age could in reality be from dates three and a half
centuries apart. Such a plateau can therefore cause
severe dating problems. The past few years have
witnessed a systematic study of these effects,
which has now been extended to include earlier
examples. Evidence has now emerged for several
important plateaux that appear to coincide broadly
with periods of rapid climatic change, such as
occurred in the Late-glacial and the early Post-
glacial. Implications for archaeology have been
discussed by Mellars (1990). Three potential
plateaux are recorded: one around 9550 yr BP,
another at 10000 to 9950 yr BP (Becker and
Kromer, 1987; Becker et al., 1991) and yet another
at about 12700 yr BP (Ammann and Lotter, 1989).
The evidence for such plateaux arise from den-
drochronological studies on pine remains
recovered from Late-glacial and Post-glacial river
terrace deposits in southern Germany and northern
Italy. The most extensive of these plateaux appears
to be centred about a radiocarbon age of 9650 yr BP
and extends for some 500 calendar years, whereas
the 10 000-9950 yr BP plateau is thought to repre-
sent a period of some 250 calendar years. The
cause of these aberrations has been speculated
upon but no firm evidence has yet been evinced.
They could reflect changes in the overall radiocar-
bon production rate in the upper atmosphere or,
more reasonably, they could result from major
changes in oceanic circulation patterns, bringing
about the upwelling of ancient carbon and its
exchange with the atmosphere. Such changes
could be accompanied by rapid increases in bio-
mass, locking up radiocarbon for relatively long
periods. These effects would inevitably be reflected
in any closely stratified sequence of radiocarbon
determinations covering the period. It is likely that
this phenomenon occurs beyond the limit of the
present dendrochronological record, but the rather
poor resolution of the uranium-thorium calibration
does not yet allow occurrences to be confirmed,
though the situation is changing rapidly. It is thus
not pOSSible, at the present time, to discover
whether the close radiocarbon ages for the 'AUer0d
soil' at Holywell Coombe indicate the presence of a
plateau.
(g) Late-glaciaVPost-glacial boundary
There are good estimates for when the Late-glacial
came to an end and the Post-glacial began.
118
Probably the most reliable is based on the new evi-
dence from the German Post-glacial oak
chronology and the Late-glacial/early Post-glacial
pine chronology (Becker et aI., 1991). This
chronology extends to 11 597 BP (calendar years
before 1950) based on oak back to 9970 BP and on
a 1921-year Preboreal pine chronology and is based
on fossil trees found in the alluvial deposits of the
rivers Main, Rhine and Danube in southern
Germany (Kromer et al., 1995). There are no pines
north of the Alps covering the Younger Dryas
event; they appear to have died out after 11 000
radiocarbon years BP. These oak and pine chronolo-
gies may not be cross-dated in the normal manner
since different tree species are involved, neverthe-
less convincing 'wiggle-matching' has been
achieved using high-precision radiocarbon ages and
numerous stable carbon and hydrogen isotope
determinations. This chronology stretches further
back in time than either the Bristlecone Pine or
Irish oak chronologies and covers the Late-
glacial/Post-glacial boundary. Comparison with
other phenomena exhibiting annual variations
(Hajdas et al., 1995), such as lake varves from
Switzerland (Lake Soppensee), Germany (Lake
Holzmaar), Poland (Lake Gosciaz) and Sweden,
corals and Greenland ice cores (GRIP and GISP)
(Bard and Kromer, 1995) indicates that there is a
discrepancy in calibrating the period 10 000 to
11 000 radiocarbon years BP, but nevertheless an
agreement to within 200 years or less can be found
between these complementary time indicators.
From this work it would appear that the Younger
Dryas began between 12 900 and 12 500 dendro
years BP and ended between 11 600 and 11 000
dendro years BP.
(h) Conclusions
The radiocarbon age determinations reported here
provide the chronological framework for the
palaeoenvironmental work undertaken in Holywell
Coombe. The dates form a stratigraphically consis-
tent series, with conventional and AMS
determinations from the same profiles dove-tailing
well together.
In some cases multiple age determinations have
been obtained from different materials extracted
from the same horizon. For example, paired dates
on shell carbonate (using Arianta arbustorum)
and charcoal from identical levels within the
'Aller0d soil' were found to be statistically indistin-
guishable. On the other hand, dates from Arianta
 Results and discussion
shells recovered from tufa were invariably older
than those derived from wood or charcoal from the
same stratigraphical levels. A detailed investigation
into the validity of radiocarbon dates from the tufa
at Holywell Coombe will be presented elsewhere.
When assessing the abruptness of biotic
responses to environmental changes, it is impor-
tant to remember that radiocarbon plateaux existed
at several periods relevant to the present study.
The timing and magnitude of these has been dis-
119
cussed and some calibrated ages suggested. A mean
pooled age of 11 555 ± 45 yr BP (calibrated range
12970-13940 cal. BP) has been calculated for the
'Allen"d soil', whereas the Late-glacial itself must
have ended by at least 10970 dendro yr BP. The
plateaux at 9550 and 9950-10 000 yr BP, reported
from elsewhere, are probably the cause of the
apparent abruptness of changes at the Late-
glacial-Post-glacial transition and the assumed
brevity of early Post-glacial biostratigraphical zones.
 PART FIVE

Biostratigraphy and Palaeoecology

 Chapter 1
Palaeobotany
KD. Bennett and R. C. Preece
(l)INTRODUCTION
The extreme south-east of England has always been
seen as a key area for the history of vegetation
since the end of the last glacial period, since it is
that part of the country nearest to the continent.
Sea-levels were low enough until about 8000 years
ago for there to have been continuous dry land
connecting Britain with France and Belgium.
Although this was probably not the last surviving
connection with the continent (see Fig. 2.4), it is
likely that most of the British and Irish native flora
spread into these islands across this land connec-
tion in the early Post-glacial and hence arrived first
in south-east England (cf. Rose, 1972). However, so
far the paucity of sites with relevant palaeobotani-
cal information has precluded confirmation that
this was the case. The excavations at Holywell
Coombe have provided a unique opportunity to
investigate in detail the Late-glacial and Post-glacial
vegetational history of south-eastern England and
to obtain a dated record.
Apart from its key biogeographical location,
Holywell Coombe is of additional importance in
that it provides a palaeobotanical record from the
Chalk escarpment of the North Downs and can
therefore contribute directly to our sparse knowl-
edge of the history of chalkland vegetation. The
Chalk and its associated landscape are characteris-
tic features of much of southern England, from
Dorset to east Yorkshire, yet the history of Post-
glacial vegetation anywhere on this landscape is
poorly known. Investigation of the deposits at
123
Holywell Coombe thus provides an opportunity to
contribute to understanding of chalkland ecosys-
tems and, in particular, to the active debate on the
origin of the Chalk grasslands, a subject of great
controversy (Bush and Flenley, 1987; Bush, 1989,
1993; Thomas, 1989).
Nomenclature for vascular plants follows Flora
Europaea (rutin et al., 1964-1980) and for mosses
follows Smith (1978).
(2) METHODS AND RESULTS
(a) Pollen (analysed by S.M. Peglar)
Samples were collected at intervals of 5 cm
through the sections in Trenches 3, 4, 5, 6 and HV.
Each sample was processed using method B of
Berglund and Ralska-Jasiewiczowa (1986) to con-
centrate the pollen and counted on a transmitting
light-microscope at a magnification of x400 for
routine identifications and X 1000 for critical iden-
tifications. All pollen and spores encountered were
identified as precisely as possible using the refer-
ence collection in the Department of Plant
Sciences, University of Cambridge, and the keys
and descriptions in published works such as Faegri
and Iversen (1975) and Moore et al. (1991).
Results are presented in diagrams of pollen per-
centages against depth for each of the five analysed
sequences in Figs 5.1.1-5.1.5 and in a composite
diagram summarizing the palynological record at
Holywell Coombe (Fig. 5.1.6).
 Trees and shrubs Herbs
. .:\- .;;

Radiocarbon ~
I & $
o ~
.~ t!#~~
o
..§ ~rr,
~
~
&# ~ ~ 1 &
0
~
~~~.
$' ~
$&./
~
"" .;;
~:.§>
"''' ~
~
.If
,;>

'b
jates (yr BP)
! # ~! &~~'§ /# I~ c~ ~~..§: -If
,!!> J'? .If
,i§ f? ; t~ ~(jf ~ #~iI j"#'l~ fli $~
:/b":>
Q..~
~ IIIfff t,1f I$~ I ~
",'" 4 l$ cf V;C ~~~~$.:::;~ ~cfi~~Q.r::J:::..rri(jG~~~cf(J$ Q." ~ $ LP ~/§&~ ;;:Qi
em "'~ 'v
171
11530 ± 160- 186

340 Po 147

360

241
Ep 324
380
308

e 1+ 310
400
vea N 401 I ,)

342
420
12280 ± 140- 151 1 "0
209
440
1681 >f:::::=::::::::
164
460
172

Gil 1+ U 1 1 Il 1 >-------I 1-1 1 175

'+'+'+' I UI+ '+

rrrrr rr r r"'T'r ['"
20 20 20 20 40 20 40 o 0 0 0 0 200000000000000 0000000 20 o 0 20 40 60 0 20 40 60 80 100
: ll: I l: Il:1 l: x10 3 grains cm'3
% Total land pollen (LP) Ep Epilobium Ca CampanuJa G Geranium N Nuphar H Hippophae rhamnoides I lP + 1 pterid'l l lAqs % Total land pollen
Sp Hystrich Pre·Q Ind
+ single grain C Caryophyllaeeae V VicialLathyrus Po Polypodium vulgare E Ericales P Pices

Figure 5.1.1 Pollen diagram from Trench HV. Note the decline inJuniperus frequencies before 12280 ± 140 yr BP and sustained minima thereafter. All these spectra
have been assigned to the Betula-Gramineae assemblage zone.
 ,Trees and shrubs ~/ Herbs Aqu.
Jf
! '"
<>~
<\'
"" Jf ~
;2'
~ t ~$ ~
! $
Radiocarbon ! q, $~ ·SZ ~i ~ Pollen assemblage
~ ~.§i~
~& ~"r;~~ &~ ft ~~
" ~Jf Ql>'" ~
dates (yr BP)
em
a ()" 0
r
~
$' ~~ ~ ~~ f
Q.$fv;1i';:ff ~ $
$
, 1
,,~
..
-P&
;§
~If
Q.S!f ~-{§ rP ~&~
378
~
'v
q;
::
F"==F=====i1 Juniperus communis -
zone

0"0"0
250 -i VOO \ II
r1 1 1
I'
1
\ II 1 ~ 1 Gramineae
1 1 1 1 1 1
~:~o ~o
t
\
1
J f - - - --jl-I I
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 I
.. \ 1 1 II 1 1 I
\
1 1 II 1 1 I
---I , 150
1 1 '1 1 \
r'1
\ 1
1 1 1 II \ f \
f
I \ 1 I \ f I ,
f I
,
11 830 ± 140 ----I "\ ,
300 -=:::" ~
v ,/'
E I E
Betula· Gramineae
~
;;
:::::::", , ~
-.! PI
---..... , LP B
...':i ,
350 r J
./ R
13160 ± 400 ---I \ , s
...---
u u
f1
Mh
I' " I'" I' 'rr"'T"r,T'H'r I'" I' "I' " I' " I' , "rrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrr rr i'j'"rrr]r I' , , I' " r r"'l 154;:.r--r--r--r-,
20 40 0 0 20 o0 0 20 20 40 0000000000000000000000 o0 20 o 0 20 o 20 40 60 80 0 20 40 60 80100
,
x10 grains em
., % Total land pollen
E Ericales 8 Botrychium L Unum catharticum 5 Succisa
% Total land pollen (1:P) Il: IlP + LAqs IlP + Dln08 Il:1 l:
V Viburnum PI Plantago fanceo/ata R Rumex crispus type M Myriophyllum verticillatum
+ single grain 1 PI. Pre.Q Ind

Figure 5.1.2 Pollen diagram from Trench 4. Note the rise in the frequency of Cyperaceae pollen above 320 cm, indicating the return to more marshy conditions, a con-
clusion supported by molluscan evidence (Figure 5.3.12).
 ~-------- Trees and shrubs !~ -----,~ Pteridophytes
-'?
.£;
~ ~ ~ ~ .:;
i:f i!' ~
~
. ~# '" Pollen assemblage
*~ ·~~; ! ~{b' ~
$ q;:: ~ ~ ~ -$I' l!j
'" .$ I .$'& ~ ~ ~ q;: <f?'" .£; zone
~s ~ ~
~ f ~
'QjiQ.~ v;~ ~# ;! <vcs. LP ~ §tf ~ of
<:f c3'
It"J~ iS~ .I
c '" '"
n ~ 169
"l ~Vq 7 ~ V"'~ 225 Cory/us avellana - U/rr; us

- -
\-- . . 395
~
1 U -4
PI 147

~ \ V P 272 I - -
~ Cory/us avellana
J RU. . 227 r---!,
/ ~t ~ :
::
No pollen :
, ,
: , ,
L.---' c.! L..! 96 '----
r r"'lr" I ' , ' [ " r' I " ' l f"'T'r' [ " r'T' r' r' r' r' I ' , I 'r r' r' I"'T' 1'1'1'1'1'1'1'11
o 0 20 40 60 80 20 0 0200000 20 40 0 20 o 20 40 60 80 100120 20 40 60 80 100
A Acer U Umbelliferae Pt Pteridium aquilinum I IP + I Pteridophyte. I I: I I: I I: x10' grains em"' % Total land pollen
% Total land pollen (1:P)
J Juniperus communis P Plantago R Rumex acetosa
+ single grain Sp Din Ind
C Cruciferae

Figure 5.1.3 Pollen diagram from Trench 3. Spectra are dominated by pollen of Cory/us avellana; remains of hazel-nuts were also common below 220 cm (Figure
3.16).
 ~~~~~~~~- Trees and shrubs II Herbs )~
§'
~
~ ~ ~
If .. §' .;>
Radiocarbon ~ .§ $# &l' ~
.§' G :§~ ,g>
!';! l# Pollen assemblage
dates (yr BP) -i5i'li ! ,~~!i~~ j~'sr ~~ ~ zone
~
'" 8- § ~~
<Ii $~R f!i .§' "" ~ i?~~f rj~~f: q,~ .fJ' .If
em ,i!
,"" ~ ~ '" ~ ~
'<>~ Q.~ ~ ~~ ~ .. '"
0,'" <t'tr-S
~J & 4.~ ;:;S1.f§()~V
-i' G- 1:P ~§ '-; ;;
200
T ,
T T 16
T \ "J
T T 61
T Corylus avel/ana
T T ~ / ,
T 75
,T .1' I ,
P.T·, 67
9460 ± 140 ----I 250 \
T T
T ~ f---.-- ~ P~ 46
T J
,'f ,
T'T
It- l ---- ~
L ----
[:
T
T T
300 T No pollen Betula - Pinus sylvestris
T T
T
T T
T
T T
9760± 1 0 0 - 0
350 "7 1~~A§I
c 'rJ 144
,/ 159
Juniperus communis -
~P ~ ,
t7 67 Gramineae
Pa 54
/~~~ ~V
[~ "'~ ~
400 ~~ , 67
rrrrrr'I'" I'" I~I'" I'" I'" I" 'f'l'" I'" I'" I'" I 'r f"'l I'" I'" I" 'r"rrrf"rrrrrrrr rl'" I'" I'" I'" I rr r f"'lr f'TTl !TTl I I I I I I
~ r ~:
o 20 0 20 20 0 20 40 60 0 0 20 40 60 800 0 20 0 20 40 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 00 0 0 0 0 20 40 60 0 0 0 0 20 0 0 20 X 10 3 020406080100
·3
IP + I Pteridophytes grains em % Total land pollen
% Total land pollen (~P) P Plantago major C Caryophyllaceae V Va/eriana dioica Pa Parnassia palustris o Ophiog/ossum vulgatum I I: II:I I: II:I I:
~ Aqs Sp Dinos pre-Qlnd
+ single grain

Figure 5.1.4 Pollen diagram from Trench 5. Note the rise in frequency ofJuniperus pollen before 9760 ± 100 yr BP and the dominance of Corylus avellana after 9460
± 140 yr BP. No pollen was recovered from the basal levels of the tufa, which was coarser in texture and less silty than the levels above 260 cm. Here the pollen record
resumed, only to be lost again at about 205 cm, the level of the water-table. The unit between 255-340 cm has been assigned to the Betula-Pinus sylvestris pollen
assemblage zone, identified in the nearby Trench 6 (Figure 5.1.5), even though most of this unit failed to produce any pollen in Trench 5.
 ,----- Trees and shrubs 11'---------
Pollen assemblage zone
~
Radiocarbon If ;!
~ ~
G &
dates (yr BP) ',l> ~
~ .f ~ .. .
is
em -I .;.~ ()! ~I :!
-S' '<'~ 'v 'v
40

Betula - Pinus sylvestris

50

60
9820 ± 90

1 70 P.MCn

R Juniperus communis
- Gramineae
80 PaPbCrArl

273

90 S' , I I I I I 1....-.....1 I J...I '168

rrrrrrrr>r'r' rnr r rrrrf' r rn r-r-,-...--r-,
20 20 400 200 20 4000 20 400 20 000 000000000000000 002000000 20 020406080100 0 20406080100
H Heracleum type A Alnus glutinosa Pm Plantago maritima R Rumex acetosella type rp Irpi rp
Pa Pamassia palustris r: X10 S grains cm' s % Total land pollen
PI Plantago lancealata C Comus sueciCB Ps Poterium sanguisorba Irp • rpterldOPhyte.1 rAq. • • •
% Total land pollen (:EP) Cr Cruciferae P Prunus type S Scrophulariaceae Pb Polygonum biBtorta type Dlno. Pre-Q Ind
+ Single grain M Mentha type G Geranium type en Centaurea nigra type Ar Aretium type
B Botrychium Se Selaginefla selaginoides T Typha lati/olia

Figure 5.1.5 Pollen diagram from Trench 6. No pollen was recovered between 90-110 cm, although a macrofossil record rich in arctic-alpine taxa, dating from the end
of the Younger Dryas, was obtained (fable 5.1.7). Note the rise in frequency ofJuniperus pollen before 9820 ± 90 yr BP and its sudden decline thereafter, cOinciding with
an increase in the frequency of Pinus. Pollen preservation was inferior in the humified silts (40-60 cm), reflected in increases in the frequency of indeterminable taxa and
resistant palynomorphs (e.g. Filicales) and fall in the pollen sums.
 Trees and shrubs 71 Herbs h'" §
Radiocarbon .J§
....
dates (yr BP) ~
~
~ J ~ '"if
em
~
qf ~ ~ ~.!l> ~t'" ~ ,~
.;;~
q;j Q.~ .§ ~~ c8" ~
~r:J ~ 'v ~
T Trench 3
7650±80 - - - Corylus avellana - Ulmus
8630 ± 120 _ _ _ 200

250 Corylus avellana

~ f::l Trench 5

946' ±'40 --"oi~ TrenCh6

9530 ± 75 ____ Betula - Pinus sylvestris

1~
" " ± ,, ______ 50
:§ Juniperus communis - Gramineae

11530±160 _

11830±140 _
300
Betula - Gramineae

350
13160 ± 400 - - - +
+
+
1"'1"'1"1"'1' "II'" rrrrrn I'" I" 'I" 'I" 'I"
o 20 40 0 20 0 0 20 0 20 40 60 80 40 %
% Total land pollen (EP)
+ single grain

Figure 5.1.6 Summary pollen diagram (simplified) from Holywell Coombe reconstructed from five critical sections.
 Palaeobotany

(b) Macrofossils (analysed by M.E.
Pettit)
At intervals of, typically, 5 cm through each of the
sections in Trenches 3, 4, 5, 6, BS and HV, bulk
samples (200 g) were taken for macrofossil analy-
sis. These were subjected to standard pretreatment
methods to disaggregate the sediment (e.g. Birks
and Birks, 1980) and the macrofossils picked out.
Macrofossil identifications were made to the lowest
taxonomic level possible using the reference col-
lection in the Department of Plant Sciences,
University of Cambridge. Authorities for plant
names follow Flora Europaea, except Arenaria
ciliata agg. (Godwin, 1975), Carex nigra group
(Jermy and Tutin, 1968) and Thalictrum minus
agg. (Bell, 1968).
Results are presented in tabular form (Tables
5.1.1-5.1.6) for each of Trenches HV, 3, 4, 5, 6 and
Section BS.
(c) Wood and charcoal (analysed by
R. Gale)
Charcoal fragments were fractured to expose
clean, flat surfaces in the transverse, tangential lon-
gitudinal and radial longitudinal planes, which
were then examined by epi-illuminating light
microscope at magnifications of up to x400. Thin
sections were taken from waterlogged wood,
mounted in glycerol, and examined under a trans-
mitting light-microscope, again at magnifications of
up to x400. Identifications of charcoal and water-
logged wood were authenticated by comparison
with reference material.
Results are presented in tabular form (Tables
5.1.1-5.1.3 and 5.1.5-5.1.7) for each of Trenches
HV, 3, 4, 5, 6 and Section BS. Identifications of
charcoal and wood fragments from Late-glacial soil
horizons in Holywell Coombe and Cherry Garden
are given in Table 5.1.4 and charcoal identifications
from the hillwash in the Main Section are given in
Table 5.1.8.
(d) Mosses (analysed by CR.
Stevenson)
Techniques used for moss isolation and identifica-
tion followed Dickson (1973) and Birks (1980).
Specimens were extracted from the macrofossil
samples and immersed in a 1% solution of propy-
lene phenoxytol, a preservative. They were
examined under a dissecting microscope and sorted
into distinguishable types before identification. The
abundance of species in each sample was estimated
on a relative scale, except where the number of
fragments was small enough to be counted.
Results are presented in tabular form (Tables
5.1.1-5.1.3 and 5.1.5-5.1.6) for each of Trenches
HV, 3, 4, 6 and Section BS.

Table 5.1.1 Plant macrofossils from Holywell Coombe: Trench HV. + =present; +++ =numerous
Depth(cm)
380-390 390-410 400-410 410-420 420-425 425-430 470-480 490-505
Taxon Fossil type
1. Vascu1ar plants
Betula sp./spp. cone scale 5
fruit 156 127
wood +
Carex cf. rostrata nut 40
Carex cf. paniculata/
appropinquato nut 15
Carexspp. nut 90
Cyperaceae nut 37
Compositae achene 1
Salicaceae capsule 1
cf. Salicaceae woodlbark 4
Valeriana sp. fruit
2. Mosses
cf. Calliergon cuspidatum 8
Calliergon cuspidatum 20 +++
Cratoneuron commutatum/filicinum 6
Cratoneuron commutatum 17 +++
Homalotbecium lutescens/nitens 10 +++

130
 Table 5.1.2 Plant macrofossils from Holywell Coombe: Trench 4. +++ =numerous
Depth(cm)

280-290 290-295 295-300 300-305 305-310 310-315 315-320 320-325 325-330 330-335 335-340 340-345 345-350 350-355 355-360
Taxon Fossil type
1. vascular plants
Angelica sylvestrls fruit
Angelica sp. fruit
Betula pubescens cone scale 2 6 4 3 2 2 10 3 6
fruit 3 1
Betula cf. pubescens cone scale 6 9 1 3 8
fruit 6 1 5 1
Betula sp./spp. cone scale 14 24 15 5 14 5 68 53 38 36 41 24 20 5
fruit 100 98 67 37 27 36 197 128 173 153 114 54 60 29
cf. Betula sp bud scale 6 15 12 5 3
Carex cf. nigra group nut 4 6 9 11 11 4
Carex riparia nut 2
Carex rostrata nut 2 7
Carex cf. rostrata nut 15 3
Carexsp. nut 2 10 16 6 4 16 28 29 31 27 24 17 5 ~
utricle ~
embryo C
Cyperaceae embryo 3
nut 54 7 ~
..... Caryophyllaceae seed ~
UJ
..... Cerastlum cf. aroense seed ~
Cerastlum sp. seed ~
cf. Cerastlum sp. seed
Cerastlum fontanum ~
~
ssp trlvlale seed 1 1 ;:!
Cbaenorbinum minus seed 3 3 ;:;0
Compositae achene t.oi
Cruciferae seed
Dtplotaxis tenuifolia seed 2
cf.Dryas leaf 2
cf. Equisetum stem 1 1
Gramineae caryopsis 5 14 6 10 6 3 4 2 2
spikelet
Juncussp. seed 2 3 2 2 8 28 35 47 55 55 37 24
Juniperus communis seed
leaf 2
Unum catbartlcum seed 8 5 8 18 9 3 4 13
Origanum vulgare nut
Papaver Sect Scapillora seed 2
Plantago sp. fruit capsule 2
Potentilla sp. achene
Ranunculus sg Ranunculus achene
cf. Salix sp. catkin scale
catkin
Scirpus Sect Pterolepis nut 6 35 151 77 59 8
 Table 5.1.2 Continued
Depth (an)

280-290 290-295 295-300 300-305 305-310 310-315 315-320 320-325 325-330 330-335 335-340 340-345 345-350 350-355 355-360
1. Vascular plants continued
Scirpus spp. nut 69
Silene vulgaris agg. seed 3 4 4 5 2 6
ct. Silene sp. ~
Thalictrum sp. achene ~
Thalictrum cf. minus agg. achene ~
....
u.>
Umbelliferae fruit C
N Valeriana sp. fruit 2 4 2 ~
Viola sp. seed 2 C
Unidentified bud scale 5 2 20 11 20 11 4 2 ~
seed 1
2. Mosses ~
ct. Amblystegium riparium 2 6 12
ct. Calliergonella cuspidatum 10
Calliergonella cuspidatum 30 +++ +++
Campylium stellatum +++ +++ +++ 32 3 6 5 10 +++ 7 10 17 +++
Cratoneuron commutatum 25 +++ 25 +++ 30 4 21 30 +++ +++ 11 21 +++ +++ 20
ct. Cratoneuron filicinum 8 2 5
Cratoneuron filicinum 3 7 +++ +++
Loeskypnum badium 24 +++ 13 25 6 29 +++ +++ +++ +++ 25 +++ +++ 13
 Vegetational history

Table 5.1.3 Plant macrofossils from Holywell Coombe: Section below Sugarloaf Hill (BS). + =present
Sample number (see Fig. 3.24) 1 2 3 4 5 6
Taxon Fossil type
1. Vascular plants
Arabls d. blrsuta seed 1
Betula pubescens cone scale 12 3
fruit 8
Betula sp./spp. cone scale 27 2
fruit 23 108 122 2
wood 1 6 1
Carex d. rostrata nut 52
Carexspp. nut 14 3 23 18
utricle 6
Cbaenorbinum minus seed 3
Cyperaceae nut 6
Diplotaxts tenuifolta seed 5
Bplloblum sp. seed
Gramineae caryopsis 3 6
Heltantbemum d. canum leaf 3
Juniperus communis seed
leaf 2
Ltnum catbarttcum seed 2
Papaver Sect. Scapiflora seed 2
Salix sp. capsule 13
d. Salix sp. leaf 1
Salicaceae wood 3
Sllene vulgaris agg. seed 10
d. Sllene sp. seed 1
Tbalictrum sp. achene 1
ValBriana sp. fruit
Viola sp. seed 2
Unidentified bud scale 4 23
leaf 2
seed
2. Mosses
Cratoneuron commutatum 6 + + +
Campylium sp. 2
Amblysteglum rlparlum 31
Amblystegium serpens 15 2
Amblystegtum varlum ?5
Calliergon cuspidatum
Homalotbecium serlceum 30
Homalotbecium lutescens/nitens 15
d. Brachytbecium mlldeanum +

Table 5.1.4 Charcoal from the 'Aller!IJd soil' in the Cut-&-cover Section in Holywell Coombe
Betula sp. SaJicaceae Other
Cherry Garden
'upper soil' 0-10cm small fgts
10-20cm 5
20-30cm 1,3 d.
30-40cm +1
'lower soil' 10-20cm
30-40cm
Holywell Coombe
'Cut-and-cover soil' 4
Main Section 169-172 cm small fgts
Sump 3 175-185 cm 5 +woodfgts
1 The diagnostic characters visible in these samples were lintited but they rule out the possibility of Betula, Salix or Juniperus.

(3) VEGETATIONAL HISTORY jective interpretations of both pollen and macro-

For convenience of description and discussion, the
succession, reconstructed from the five sequences
analysed for pollen (Figs 5.1.1-5.1.6), has been
divided into six assemblage zones, based on sub-
fossil records. Attention is drawn to the salient
characteristics of individual pollen diagrams in the
appropriate figure captions. The composite suc-
cession of zones will now be described in
stratigraphical sequence.

133
 Palaeobotany

Table 5.1.5 Plant macrofossils from Holywell Coombe: Trench 3. ++ =several, +++ =numerous
Depth (em)
16~165 17~175 20~205 22~225 235-245 255-265
Taxon Fossil type
1. Vascular plants
Betula sp. fruit
Carexsp. nut 1
Comus sanguinea fruit stone 3
Corylus avellana nut 2 3
wood
cf. Corylus aveUana nut
Menyantbes trlfoliata seed
cf. Populus sp. bud scale 5
PotentiUa sp. achene
cf. Prunus sp. wood 2
Salicaceae capsule
cf. Salicaceae wood 10
Scirpus sp. nut 2
Urtica dioica fruit 1
Unidentified bud scales ++ 5
2. Mosses
Cratoneuron commutatum 3
Eur!:Jyncbium striatum 5
cf. Eurbyncbium swartzlt 4
cf. Homalotbecium sericeum 7
Tbamnobryum alopecurum +++

Zone 1: Betula-Gramineae assemblage zone
Occurrence: Trench 4,260-370 cm; Trench
HV, 325-485 cm; Section BS (samples 1-6)
Age: older than 13 160 ± 400 yr BP (near base
of Trench 4), extending to 11 530 ± 160 yr BP
(identified in Trench HV)
Pollen spectra from this zone are dominated by
herbs, especially Gramineae and Cyperaceae.
Pollen concentrations vary in the range 5-60 X
103 grains cm-3 , with highest concentrations in the
central part of the zone (e.g. Trench 4 and Trench
HV). Indeterminable pollen and spores con-
tributed up to 10% of the total. Trees and shrubs
are represented by Betula, with Salix and
Juniperus, but the sum of tree and shrub pollen
rarely exceeds 60% of the total land pollen. Other
pollen found includes a wide range of types from
groups which, in Britain, are entirely herbaceous
(e.g. Compositae, Umbelliferae, Caryophyllaceae).
Taxonomic resolution in these groups is unfortu-
nately poor, but the genera Helianthemum,
Filipendula, Epilobium, Thalictrum, Geranium,
three species of Plantago, Valeriana dioica, and
Succisa pratensis have all been identified, along
with spores of Lycopodium selago and Botry-
chium. These identifications, together with the low
proportion of tree pollen, suggest that during the
time represented by this zone, the landscape was
incompletely forested. The woodland that did exist
was dominated by birch, with substantial minority
representation of willow and juniper. Part of the
landscape, possibly about 40%, was unforested,
with herbaceous vegetation.

Table 5.1.6 Plant macrofossils from Trench 5 (Horseshoe Spring). + =present

Depth (em)
25~255 33~60 34~45 345-350 355-360 36~65
Taxon Fossil type
vascular plants
Juniperus communis wood 5
cf. Juntperus communis wood 2
Populussp. bud scale
cf. Salicaceae wood +
TYPba sp./spp. seed 14
Urtica dioica fruit 18 5

134
 Table 5.1.7 Plant macrofossils from Holywell Coombe: Trench 6
Depth (em)
35-40 40-45 45-50 50-55 55-60 60-70 70-80 80-90 90-100 100-110
Taxon Fossil type
1. Vascular plants
Arenaria ciliata agg. seed 1
Betula nana cone scale 1
fruit 1
leaf
Betula cf. nana fruit
cone scale
Betula pubescens cone scale 3
fruit 4
Betula sp./spp. cone scale 5 lO
fruit 69 154 lO 2
cf. Betula sp. fruit 2 1
Callitricbe sp. drupelet
Carex paniculata/appropinquata nut lOOO+ 161
~
Carexspp. nut 3 12 21 ~
Ctrsium palustre/arvense achene 1 ~
Diantbus cf. deltoides seed
~
Diplotaxis sp. seed 1 C·
...... Dryas octopetala leaf 11
\.).l 9 ~
VI Epilobium sp. seed 5 ~
Eupatorium cannabinum achene 64
Filipendula ulmaria achene 7 ~
Gramineae caryopsis 2 1 2 ~.
Hellantbemum cf. canum seed
leaf
1 2
1 2
-
C
capsule valve 2 ~
Hellantbemum sp. capsule valve 1
Hieracium sp. achene 1
Juncussp. seed 1 8 2 2 2 2
Juniperus communis seed 2 7 6
Moebringia trinervia seed 2
Onobrycbis viciifolia pod
Papaver Sect Scapiflora seed 2
Pedicularis palustris seed
cf. Polygonum sp. fruit
Populus cf. tremula catkin bract 5
Populussp. bud scale 75 2
cf. Populus sp. bud 2
Ranunculus (Aconitifolii) achene
Salicaceae catkin
cf. Salicaceae wood 2
Salix sp. capsule 1
cf. Salix sp. leaf 4 2
cf. Saxifraga sp. seed 2 1
Saxifraga opposttifolla shoot
cf. Scabiosa Columbraria fruit
 Table 5.1.7 Continued
Depth (em)
35-40 40-45 45-50 50-55 55-60 60-70 70--80 80-90 90-100 100-110
Taxon Fossil type
1. VascuIar plants continued
cf. Silene sp. seed
Silene vulgaris agg. seed 2 4 4 7
Sonchussp. achene ~
Typhasp. seed ~
cf. Typha sp. seed ~
....
UJ Umbelliferae fruit 0
0\ Urtica dioica fruit \:S'"
Valeriana sp. fruit 2
0
Viola sp. seed ~
Unidentified bud scale 5 6
bud 3 ~
leaf 2 6
seed
2. Mosses
Amblystegium riparium 12
Campylium stellatum 2 2
Cratoneuron commutatum 37 6
Cratoneuron filicinum 3
cf. Hypnum sp. 7
Tbamnobryum alopecurum 4
 Vegetational history

Figure 5.1.7 Scanning electron micrographs of selected plant macrofossils from Holywell Coombe. la-c. Arenaria
ciliata (seed), Trench 6 90-100 cm, scale bar 0.1 mm. 2a-b. Scirpus (nut), Trench 4305-310 cm, scale bar 0.1 mm.

The macrofossil remains add to this picture with
additional detailed identifications. Numerically, the
most abundant macrofossil remains are from birch
and various types of sedges (Cyperaceae), includ-
ing Scirpus (Fig. 5.1.7), with seeds ofJuncus (the
pollen of which is not normally preserved).
Specific identifications include Helianthemum
(Cistaceae, probably H. canum) (Fig. 5.1.8),
Angelica sylvestris (Umbelliferae), Cerastium
fontanum and Silene vulgaris (Caryophyllaceae)
(Fig. 5.1.9), Linum catharticum (Linaceae) (Fig.
5.1.8), Origanum vulgare (Labiatae), Diplotaxis
muralis (Cruciferae) and Chaenorhinum minus
(Scrophulariaceae) (Fig. 5.1.8). Fruits and scales of
the tree birch Betula pubescens also occur. In
Britain Chaenorhinum minus has been recorded
previously only from Late-glacial sediments at
Brook, Kent (Kerney et al., 1964). The moss

Table 5.1.8 Charcoal from the hillwash at the Main Section

Depth (em)
'Midden'
140-145* 106-112 100-106 80-90 70--80 50-60 30-40 Sq 29 20A
Acer sp.
Betula sp.
Corylus sp. ?1
Fraxinus sp. ?l 30
Prunussp. 3 2 61
Maloideae ?2 50
Quercus sp. ?1 2 ?1 6
Taxussp. 2
Ulmussp. ?1

The numbers refer to each identifiable fragment. Note Maloideae, subfamily of Rosaceae includes Crateagus (hawthorn), Malus (apple), Pyrus (pear),
Sorbus (whitebeam, rowan and wild service tree) .
• = below hillwash.

137
 Palaeobotany

Figure 5.1.8 Scanning electron micrographs of selected plant macrofossils from Holywell Coombe. 1a. Ranunculus
Section Aconitifolii (seed), Trench 6 90-100 cm, scale bar 0.5 mm. lb. Higher magnification of the same specimen,
scale bar 0.1 mm. 2. Moehringia trinervia (seed), Trench 650-55 cm, scale bar 0.1 mm. 3a-b. Dianthus cf. del-
to ides (seed), Trench 6 90-100 cm, scale bar 0.1 mm. 4. Chaenorhinum minus (seed), Trench 4 355-360 cm, scale
bar 0.1 mm. 5. Papaver Section Scapiflora (seed), Trench 6 90-100 cm, scale bar 0.1 mm. 6. Linum catharticum
(seed), Trench 4 355-360 cm, scale bar 0.1 mm. 7. Eupatorium cannabinum (cypsela), Trench 6 40-45 cm, scale
bar 0.5 mm. 8. Dryas octapetala (leaf fragment), Trench 6100-110 cm, scale bar 1 mm. 9. Helianthemum canum
(leaves), Section BS 1390 cm, scale bar 1 mm. 10. Populus (bud scale), Trench 6 40-45 cm, scale bar 1 mm. 11.
Filipendula ulmaria (achene), Trench 655-60 cm, scale bar 0.5 mm. 12. Hieracium (achene), Trench 6 90-100 cm,
scale bar 0.5 mm. 13. Onobrychis viciijolia (pod), Trench 6 70-80 cm, scale bar 0.5 mm.

138
 Vegetational history

Figure 5.1.9 Silene vulgaris (seed), Trench 4310-315 em

Scale bars: la-b. 0.5 mm; Id. 1Ollm; Ie-g. 0.1 mm.

records include Loeskypnum badium (Fig. 5.1.10),
the first time that this species has been recorded
from the British Isles (preece and Stevenson, 1993).
Collectively, the macrofossil finds suggest a mix-
ture of open landscapes supporting a variety of
herbs, with woodland dominated by birch,
together with some willow and juniper.
Remains of beetles from within this zone
(Coope, this volume) include a bark beetle
(Scolytus ratzeburgz) that today feeds almost
exclusively on birch trees and a weevil (Micrelus
ericae) known to feed only on flower heads of the
ericaceous shrubs Calluna vulgaris and Erica
tetralix. Birch remains were abundant (see tables),
but the record of ericaceous shrubs is sparse, con-
sisting of individual pollen grains in Trench HV and
Trench 4. Both Calluna vulgaris and Erica tetralix
are widespread in the British Isles today, including
south-east England, and their presence in Kent
during the Late-glacial, as suggested by the occur-
rence of M. ericae, is quite plausible.

139
 Palaeobotany
Figure 5.1.10 Loeskypnum badium. 1. Portion of stem
of living plant (x7.5) collected just north of Kall,
Jamtland, Sweden, August 1966 (Crundwell and
Nyholm). 2. Leaves of fossil material (x24) from Trench
4 340-345 cm, Holywell Coombe. 3. Leaf cells from
fossil material. The scale bar represents 35 11m. (NB Cell
width of both fossil and living material is only about half
(3.5 Ilffi) that quoted by Nyholm a-811m).
Zone 2: Betula nana-Dryas octopetala
assemblage zone
Occurrence: Trench 6,90-110 cm
Age: after 11 530 ± 160 yr BP (Trench HV),
including dates of 9900 ± 100 and 10 160 ±
110 yr BP (dates from same piece of wood)
and ending before 9820 ± 90 yr BP.
This zone is unpolleniferous, but does contain a
rich assemblage of macrofossil and bryophyte
remains. All birch macrofossils identifiable to
species level are from the dwarf birch (Betula
nana) rather than tree birch species. Macrofossils
from trees and shrubs include a seed ofJuniperus
communis and various parts of Salix species.
Herbaceous taxa include Arenaria ciliata
(Caryophyllaceae) (Fig. 5.1.7), Ranunculus sect.
Aconitifolii (Ranunculaceae), Papaver sect.
Scapiflora (papaveraceae), Hieracium (Compositae),
the arctic-alpine species Dryas octopetala (Fig.
5.1.8), which dominates the assemblage, and
Saxijraga oppositijolia, as well as plants with
140
widespread or southerly distributions (in Britain),
such as Dianthus cf. deltoides (Caryophyllaceae)
(Fig. 5.1.8). This assemblage suggests an open herb
and dwarf shrub community, probably completely
lacking forest or woodland elements. The dates
indicate that this community existed at the end of
the Younger Dryas.
A rich plant macrofossil assemblage was recov-
ered from organiC sediment, Sample A, collected in
1968 from the original site in Holywell Coombe
(Kerney et al., 1980). This lacked pollen but con-
tained fruits and seeds of many of the plant species
found in this zone. Betula nana, for example, was
common, although there was no trace of Dryas
octopetala, but nevertheless there seems little
doubt that Sample A belongs to this zone.
Additional species present in Sample A, but not
recovered during the present study, include
Arctostaphylos uva-ursi, Empetrum sp., Armeria
maritima, Silene cf. acaulis, Taraxacum offici-
nale, cf. Conopodium majus, Anthriscus
sylvestris, Chrysanthemum leucanthemum and
Stellaria neglecta. The last three species were new
records for the British Late-glacial.
Zone 3: Juniperus communis-Gramineae
assemblage zone
Occurrence: Trench 4, 245-255 cm; Trench 5,
340-400 em; Trench 6, 60-90 cm
Age: after 9900 ± 100 and 10 160 ± 110 yr BP
(dates from same piece of wood from Trench
6), including date of 9820 ± 90 yr BP (Trench
6) and ending at about 9760 ± 100 yr BP
(Trench 5)
The palynological record of this zone is dominated
by pollen of Juniperus, Gramineae and
Cyperaceae. Pollen concentrations vary in the
range 5-60 X 103 grains cm-3 and up to 10% is
indeterminable. Trees and shrubs account for
about 60% of the total land pollen, including a
single grain of the northern dwarf shrub Cornus
suecica near the base of Trench 6. As in zone 1, a
variety of herbaceous pollen and spore types are
present, within the same categories. Overall the
analyses suggest that the birch woodland of the
previous zone had been replaced by juniper scrub,
but there was little change in the nature of the
herbaceous vegetation of the non-forest communi-
ties.
The macrofossil record adds further detail. As in
zone 2, all the birch macrofossils identifiable to
species level are of the dwarf birch (Betula nana)
 Vegetational history
rather than tree birch species. A bud scale of
Populus was recovered from this zone in Trench
5. Other tree and shrub macrofossils include seeds
ofJuniperus communis. Herbaceous taxa include
Onobrychis viciifolia (Leguminosae) (Fig. 5.1.8)
and a tentative identification of a Saxifraga, as well
as plants with widespread or southerly distribu-
tions (in Britain), such as the stinging nettle (Urtica
dioica). This assemblage confirms the presence, as
indicated by the pollen, of juniper scrub and herba-
ceous communities.
Zone 4: Betula-Pinus sylvestris assemblage
zone
Occurrence: Trench 6, 40-55 cm; Trench 5,
260cm
Age: after 9760 ± 100 yr BP (Trench 5),
including date of 9530 ± 75 yr BP (Trench 6)
and ending at 9460 ± 140 yr BP (Trench 5)
Pollen spectra from this zone are dominated by
Pinus sylvestris and Betula, with Salix, Gramineae
and Cyperaceae. Concentrations vary in the range
10-80 X 103 grains cm-3 and the proportion of
indeterminable pollen is typically less than 10%.
The shrubs Viburnum, and the Rosaceous group
Prunus-type are represented. Tree and shrub
pollen accounts for up to 80% of the total. Spores
of Filicales (undifferentiated) are also abundant.
Herbaceous pollen includes a range from several
large palynological groups.
The macrofossil record is dominated by
Cyperaceae and Betula fruits; all the fruits identifi-
able to species level were from the tree Betula
pubescens. Remains of Populus (probably P. trem-
ula) were also found in quantity (Fig. 5.1.8), as was
Salix wood, but Juniperus seeds were common
only at the extreme base of the zone. Additionally
Kerney et al. (1980) reported the discovery of fruit-
stones of Prunus padus in sediments equivalent in
age to this zone. Amongst the herbs, finds from
Trench 6 included three seeds of Moehringia
trinervia (Caryophyllaceae) (Fig. 5.1.8), achenes of
Eupatorium cannabinum (Compositae) (Fig. 5.1.8)
and Filipendula ulmaria (Rosaceae) (Fig. 5.1.8).
These results suggest that woodland had devel-
oped at Holywell Coombe by shortly after
9700 yr BP, probably comprising almost equal
amounts of birch and pine, with a variety of other
shrubs. Predominantly herbaceous communities
occupied a small proportion of the area and were
characterized by taxa that might be found growing
in the area today.
141
Zone 5: Corylus avellana assemblage zone
Occurrence: Trench 5, 205-250 cm; Trench 3,
200-250cm
Age: from 9460 ± 90 yr BP (base of zone in
Trench 5) to 8630 ± 120 yr BP (top of zone in
Trench 3)
The pollen record of this zone is completely domi-
nated by Corylus avellana, accounting for up to
80%. Concentrations vary in the range 5-120 X 103
grains cm-3 . The proportion of indeterminable
pollen and spores is about 15% in Trench 5, but less
than 5% in Trench 3. Other trees and shrubs present
include Betula, Pinus sylvestris, Salix, and small
amounts of Ulmus and Quercus, especially towards
the top of the zone. Trees and shrubs account for
nearly all the pollen identified, with the record of
herbaceous types especially sparse. These spectra
can only mean that the valley was now occupied
completely by hazel-dominated woodland.
The macrofossil record is also sparse, but adds
Corn us sanguinea to the list of shrubs.
Zone 6: Corylus avellana-Ulmus assemblage
zone
Occurrence: Trench 3, 180-190 cm
Age: younger than 8630 ± 120 yr BP (top of
Zone 4) and including date of 7650 ± 80 yr BP
(within zone in Trench 3)
Amongst the pollen from this zone, Corylus avel-
lana is again dominant, but there is also up to 20%
of Ulmus. Concentrations vary in the range 10-60
X 103 grains cm-3 and the proportion of indeter-
minable types increases upwards to about 20% of
total pollen and spores. Quercus frequencies have
also increased slightly from the previous zone, but
are still low. The uppermost level in the zone
includes over 20% of Tilia, with Alnus glutinosa
also represented. Betula is scarce or absent and
herbaceous taxa continue to be sparse.
Macrofossils include wood that is probably from a
species of Prunus.
These results establish the increasing diversifica-
tion of woodland in Holywell Coombe. Hazel
remained dominant, but elm and lime were becom-
ing more important by the end of the available
record.
Later records: charcoalfrom the hillwash
Occurrence: Main Section 30-112 cm and
'Midden'
 Palaeobotany
Age: dates on the charcoal range from 5620 ±
90 yr BP to 3515 ± 80 yr BP
The pollen record did not extend into the oxidized
sediments above the water-table, but charcoal frag-
ments were present in the hillwash, some of which
were used for the radiocarbon determinations that
date this unit. A single fragment from 140-145 cm,
in a chalky silt just below the hillwash, was identi-
fied as Betula (Table 5.1.8), which was not found
in the hillwash. Most of the identifiable fragments
came from the 'Midden' (Part Six), amongst which
Prunus, Maloideae and Fraxinus were particularly
common, with subordinate records of Acer, Taxus
and, possibly, Wmus (Table 5.1.8). These records
indicate further additions to the range of woodland
species present in the area.
(4) NOTABLE PLANT RECORDS
Juniperus communis
Pollen and macrofossil evidence indicate that
juniper was common throughout the early part of
the Late-glacial, but pollen frequencies fall at about
12 280 ± 140 yr BP and remain in negligible
amounts until sometime after 10 160 ± 110 yr BP.
The presence of juniper in the Younger Dryas,
however, is confirmed by two leaf fragments in
Sample A (Kerney et al., 1980) and by a seed in
Trench 6 (90-100 cm). These records support
Iversen's (1954) now widely accepted hypothesis
that juniper was abundant in Younger Dryas vege-
tation, at least in a non-flowering state, so that it
was able to respond immediately and flower freely
with the onset warm conditions at the beginning
of the Post-glacial. At Holywell Coombe, pollen fre-
quencies at this time rose sharply to values
exceeding 40% shortly before 9760 ± 100 yr BP and
macrofossils of juniper became frequent (the
Juniperus communis-Gramineae p.a.z.), but all
trace of it had vanished by 9530 ± 75 yr BP. This
pattern of occurrence is in keeping with its history
elsewhere in Britain, although there are no other
well-dated sites with it in south-east England
(Tipping, 1987).
Arenaria ciliata
Bell (1968) studied seeds of a range of species of
Arenaria by scanning electron microscopy and
showed that they could be distinguished by their
epidermal cell patterns. Several seeds from
Holywell Coombe (Trench 6) examined in this way
(Fig. 5.1.7) all proved to have cell patterns almost
142
identical with those in Bell's photographs of A. cil-
iata from a wide range of geographical localities.
Papaver sp (Section Scapiflora)
This taxonomically complex group of poppies
covers not only the widespread species P.
alpinum of the Alps and central Europe and P.
radicatum of the Scandinavian mountains and the
Arctic, but also a whole range of species endemic
in isolated regions. No representatives of this
group are native today in the British Isles. The
fossil seeds from Holywell Coombe (Fig. 5.1.8)
resemble reference material of P. radicatum, but
an insufficient range of seeds from other species
was available for comparison. Macrofossils were
present in the early part of the Late-glacial (Trench
4,300-305 cm), as well as from the Younger Dryas
(Trench 6,90-100 cm; Sample A, Kerney et al.,
1980). There are a few other records from the
Middle Devensian and one other from the British
Late-glacial (Kerney et al., 1980).
Ranunculus Section Aconitifolii
This includes R. aconitijolius, which occurs in
montane areas of central Europe, where it grows in
marshes and by streamsides, R. platanijolius 1.,
from South and Central Europe, Belgium and
Fennoscandia, and R. seguieri Vill., from the Alps,
the Cordilliera, Cantabrica, the Apennines and S.W.
Yugoslavia (Tutin et al., 1964-1980). R. aconiti-
folius has been recorded from several Middle
Devensian floras (Godwin, 1975), and was listed as
a new British Late-glacial record from Holywell
Coombe in the original study (Kerney et al., 1980).
However, it has not been possible to make critical
comparisons with seeds from the alternative species
in Section Aconitifolii, so the fossils from Holywell
Coombe (Fig. 5.1.8) are best referred to this undif-
ferentiated aggregate group. None of the species in
this group occur today in the British Isles.
Pedicularis palustris (Red rattle)
This is a widespread plant throughout the British
Isles and Europe that extends beyond 69°N. At
Holywell Coombe, a macrofossil record was recov-
ered from the Younger Dryas (Trench 6,
90-100 cm). Kerney et al. (1964) also reported this
species from the Late-glacial sediments at Brook and
there are other records from the Middle Devensian
(Godwin, 1975).
 Discussion
Onobrychis viciifolia (Sainfo~
Pollen records of this species from the early part of
the Late-glacial (Trench 4) are supplemented by a
macrofossil record from the Juniperus-Gramineae
zone of the pod, which is very resistant to decay
and leaves an easily recognizable vascular skeleton
(Fig. 5.1.8). Godwin (1975) listed one Middle
Devensian and two Late-glacial occurrences, but
there are no other British Post-glacial records for
this strongly calcicole plant.
Loeskypnum badium
This moss occurs widely in Fennoscandia in wet
and moist habitats and also in submerged pools,
particularly in calcareous districts. Its most striking
features are the concave, falcate leaves, which have
a markedly incrassate and porous aereolation
throughout (Fig. 5.1.10). At Holywell Coombe, it
was common in the early part of the Late-glaCial,
occurring throughout the humic silts in Trench 4
(Table 5.1.2). Although long anticipated as a British
fossil (Dickson, 1973), these specimens from
Holywell Coombe constitute its first record (preece
and Stevenson, 1993), although it has since been
found as a fossil in Scotland (Huntley, 1994).
(5) DISCUSSION
(a) Taphonomy and preservation
With the considerable diversity of sediments at
Holywell Coombe, variation in the taphonomy and
preservation of the plant fossils would be antici-
pated. Concentrations of pollen and spores are
within the normal range, but show fluctuations that
almost certainly result from lithological differences
between the sediments, affecting preservation,
rather than from varying frequencies of plants in
the surrounding landscape. Preservation of pollen
and spores is less than ideal and it is likely that
there has been some loss of those types least resis-
tant to corrosion and decay. The relative resistance
of pollen grains and spores to degradation in soils
of different types has been investigated by Havinga
(1984), who showed that, in general, spores such
as Lycopodium and Polypodium are most resistant,
followed by pollen of the trees Fagus and Quercus.
Tilia, Betula and Pinus are moderately resistant,
while Alnus and Corylus are easily degraded. There
do not appear to have been any relevant experi-
ments in tufas, although Kerney et al. (1980)
suggest that pollen of Corylus avellana may be rel-
143
atively resistant to corrosion in such sediments.
Pollen of Populus is rarely preserved under any
conditions so that its absence at Holywell Coombe
in sediments that include macrofossil remains of
this tree is not surprising and is consistent with
observations elsewhere. Oxidation has a similarly
destructive effect on plant macrofossils but,
although organic material rarely survives, beautiful
impressions of plant remains are common in the
tufa (Fig. 5.1.11). The only organic plant materials
to survive oxidation are the achenes of hemp agri-
mony (Eupatorium cannabinum), which are
common throughout the mid Post-glacial tufas.
Despite these preservational biases, the overall
sequence of both micro- and macrofossils is clear
enough to make statements about the likely com-
position and history of the surrounding vegetation.
However, the unsuitability of many of the sedi-
ments for preserving plant remains and the
resultant problems in interpretation introduce a
degree of uncertainty in the comparison of this site
with others.
(b) Comparison with other
sequences in south-east England
Previous work in Holywell Coombe
The only previous study at Holywell Coombe, by
Kerney et al. (1980), failed to recover any pollen
from either the Late-glacial or the very early Post-
glacial sediments, shortcomings made good in the
present investigation. Only two pollen assemblage
zones were identified, which were attributed to V
and VI of the standard Godwin zonation. A direct
correlation can be made between zones V (Corylus
dominant) and VI (dominated by Corylus, but with
high frequencies of Ulmus) and the zones
described here as 5 (Corylus avellana) and 6
(Corylus avellana-Ulmus) respectively, although
the concordance of their notation is purely coinci-
dental. Radiocarbon dates of 8980 ± 100 yr BP and
9305 ± 115 yr BP, from pollen zone V in the original
study fall, within the range of dates from zone 5.
Macrofossils reported by Kerney et al. (1980) add
Crataegus monogyna to the shrubs known from
the Corylus avellana zone.
Work at other sites
Godwin (1962) reported the results of pollen and
macrofossil investigations at two sites in east Kent,
Frogholt, west of Folkestone (Fig. 2.2), and
Wingham, east of Canterbury. Both sequences
 Palaeobotany

Figure 5.1.11 Scanning electron micrographs of impressions of plant macrofossils preserved in calcareous tufa.
la-b. Betula (fruit), Trench HV 215-220 cm, scale bar 0.5 mm. 2a-b. Unidentified specimen, Trench HV
365-370 cm, scale bar 0.5 mm 3a-c. Stem of higher plant, Trench HV 210-215 cm, scale bar 1 mm (3a), 0.5 mm
(3b). (4) Moss (cf. Calliergon cuspidatum), Trench HV 225-230 cm, scale bar 0.5 mm. (5) Unidentified specimens
from the Late-glacial tufa, Trench HV 327-335 cm, scale bar 0.25 mm. (6) Moss (cf. Calliergon), Trench HV
140-145 cm, scale bar 0.25 mm. (7) Bryophyte impression, Trench HV 215-220 cm, scale bar 0.25 mm.

144
 ,-----Trees and shrubs /I Herbs - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - , AQ.
. . o -ff
~ ~ & f$"§- $
. . Q.I ~~(fjf$!!~ig'$ ~~~ f$ b
Radiocarbon ,g> 'Zb' ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~
~
&rri~~.~$~~ ~
dates (yr BP)

11170±70 -~
em
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CJ~
!f
~ ;:;~
$iff·#.ff~$
~~(J~§()'I1~
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~ "'~
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51
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280 66

93

290 41

12190 ± 30-~ 2528

Me 693 (
300 Po 277
,- '-1 ----,- ---'-1
20 40 o 0 0 10 20 60 20 20 0 o 0 o 20 40 60 80 tOO
1:P 1:P+
% Total land pollen (LP) U Urtica A Armeria B Bolrychium E Ephedra P Porentilla type Me Menyanthes IE Plerid. I E Aqs % Total land pollen (EP)
V Va/eriana offinicalis M Matricaria type S Sphagnum L Labiatae Ls Lycopodium se/ago Po Potamogeton type
+ single grain

Figure 5.1.12 Pollen diagram from Brook (Borehole III). Replotted from data in Kerney et at. (1964). The radiocarbon dates are from Preece (1994).
 Palaeobotany
proved to be dominated by tree pollen, especially
Corylus, Alnus and Quercus, with a wide variety
of herbaceous taxa. At Frogholt, pollen of Fagus,
which is unrepresented at Holywell Coombe, is
present throughout the record. Radiocarbon dates
indicate that these profiles are both late Post-glacial
in age (3000-2000 yr BP) and therefore provide an
insight into the vegetational history for a part of the
record missing at Holywell Coombe.
Kerney et al. (1964) analysed a sequence from
Brook, 16 km north-west of Folkestone. Their
results show a pollen record dominated initially by
Gramineae and Cyperaceae, replaced upwards by
a dominance of Pinus. A conventional radiocarbon
date of 11 900 ± 160 yr BP was obtained from the
transition, supported by two new AMS dates of
12 185 ± 50 yr BP and 12 235 ± 50 yr BP that can be
combined to give a pooled mean age of 12 190 ±
30 yr BP (preece, 1994; Fig. 5.1.12). The two parts
of the sequence might be correlated with zones 1
(Betula-Gramineae) and 4 (Betula-Pinus sylvestris)
as defined here. Such a correlation implies that
Holywell Coombe zone 3 (Juniperus communis-
Gramineae) either did not occur at Brook, was not
recognized there because of poor sample resolu-
tion, or was missing as a result of non-deposition.
Preece (1994) pointed out that the dramatic rise of
pine pollen at Brook coincides with a change in
lithology to less organic sediments and that the
pollen sum obtained by Kerney et al. (1964) fell
sharply in these upper pine-dominated levels. He
therefore concluded that these pollen spectra were
strongly biased in favour of more resistant paly-
nomorphs (that would include Pinus) and doubted
whether these data can be used as evidence of
local pine woodland.
Kerney et al. (1980) analysed a sequence from
Wateringbury, south-west of Maidstone. The pollen
record there was divided into three pollen zones,
N, V, and VI of the Godwin scheme, which may be
correlated broadly with Holywell Coombe zones 4
(Betula-Pinus sylvestris), 5 (Corylus avellana) and
6 (Corylus avellana-Ulmus) respectively. Zone N
at Wateringbury has a tree pollen record domi-
nated by Betula and Pinus sylvestris, but the
former is more abundant than the latter, unlike the
situation at Holywell Coombe (this study and
Kerney et al., 1980) or Brook (Kerney et al., 1964).
The macrofossil record at Wateringbury includes
Quercus in zone VI and pollen of Cornus suecica
(found in zone 3 at Holywell Coombe) occurs in
zoneN.
Another useful comparison can be made with a
pingo infill at Elstead, Surrey (Seagrief and Godwin,
146
1960; Carpenter and Woodcock, 1981), that has a
record extending back at least as far as the Younger
Dryas. Situated on Folkestone Beds (Lower
Greensand) rather than on Chalk, this site shows a
greater prominance of Pinus throughout than is
seen at Holywell Coombe and is thus reminiscent
of Brook, although there this has been attributed to
differential preservation (see above). The high fre-
quency of pine at Elstead probably records genuine
vegetational characteristics related to the sandy
substrate. The lack of a radiocarbon chronology
from Elstead unfortunately precludes detailed com-
parisons with other sites.
Scaife (1982, 1987), who has studied valley
bottom bogs on the Isle of Wight, provides useful
reviews of the Late-glacial and Post-glacial vegeta-
tional history of southern and south-eastern
England. Bennett (1988) reviews the comparable
successions in East Anglia and sets them in a wider
British context.
(c) Timing of the arrival of trees in
Britain in the early Post-glacial
The radiocarbon dates from Holywell Coombe
make it possible to estimate the times of arrival of
the main forest trees and shrubs. Because sedimen-
tation rates are unlikely to have been constant, no
attempt has been made to interpolate ages
between dated horizons. Estimates are as follows:
Betula (tree birches)
These were probably present throughout the
sequence. No appearance time can be established
from the pollen data because of the possibility of
confusion with the dwarf shrub Betula nana.
There is an increase of Betula pollen between
9820 ± 90 yr BP and 9530 ± 75 yr BP, which may
mark the arrival and establishment of early Post-
glacial forest with a substantial tree birch
component. This timing is consistent with the
isochrone pattern indicated by Birks (1989).
Pinus sylvestris
Pine appeared between 9820 ± 90 yr BP and 9530 ±
75 yr BP, slightly earlier than Birks (1989) indicated,
but this is in accord with recent data from East
Sussex (Waller, 1993). It supports Birks's (1989)
contention that pine spread into the British Isles
initially from the south-east. The extensive Late-
glacial sequence from Holywell Coombe with little
 Discussion
pine pollen makes it unlikely that pine reached
even the extreme south-east of England during the
Late-glacial Interstadial (cf. Kerney et al., 1964;
Bennett, 1984; Preece, 1994).
Populus tremula
Macrofossil evidence demonstrates that trees of
Populus, presumably this species, were present at
Holywell Coombe during the Late-glacial and later,
possibly as a significant component of the wood-
land. However, the poor pollen record ofthe type
means that the time of its arrival cannot be estab-
lished.
Cory Ius avellana
Hazel appeared at about 9460 ± 140 yr BP, which is
consistent with dating elsewhere in eastern Britain,
although slightly later than at sites on the fringe of
the North Sea basin (Birks, 1989).
Quercus
Oak appeared between 9460 ± 140 yr BP and 8630
± 120 yr BP, which is again consistent with dates at
other sites (Birks, 1989).
Ulmus
Elm appeared between 9460 ± 140 yr BP and 8630
± 120 yr BP, possibly just after Quercus. This is
slightly later than indicated by Birks (1989), but is
in accord with recent data from East Sussex
(Waller, 1993). Wmus increased to its highest fre-
quencies after 8630 ± 120 yr BP but before 7650 ±
80 yr BP.
Tilia
Lime appeared at 7650 ± 80 yr BP. This is one of the
earliest available dates for Tilia in Britain and is
consistent with Birks's (1989) suggestion that it
migrated to the British Isles from the south-east
before 7500 yr BP. However, recent data from East
Sussex suggests that Tilia has been present from as
early as 8500 yr BP (Waller, 1993).
Alnus glutinosa
Alder appeared after 7650 ± 80 yr BP. The pattern
of arrival and spread of alder in the British Isles is
varied in time and space (Bennett and Birks, 1990).
The timing at Holywell Coombe is intermediate;
147
both later and earlier dates are known, including
an exceptionally early date of before 9000 yr BP in
East Sussex (Waller, 1993). This suggests that it is
unlikely that the extreme south-east of England was
the first region to be occupied by alder.
(d) Nature of early Post-glacial
vegetation on chalk
Data from Holywell Coombe clearly indicate com-
plete forestation during the early Post-glacial. There
is no suggestion from the palaeobotany of any per-
manent open ground, although there would have
been the range of temporary open habitats found
in any forested landscape (Pigott and Walters,
1954). This conclusion is supported by several
Post-glacial fen sequences on the Isle of Wight
(Scaife, 1982, 1987). The notion that complete
forestation is normal for chalklands during inter-
glacials is also suggested by a Middle Pleistocene
record from a do line infill at Denham,
Hertfordshire (Gibbard et al., 1986).
However, other sequences of Post-glacial sedi-
ment from the chalk landscapes of southern and
eastern England have suggested that there were
periods of more open vegetation during the early
Post-glacial. These include the valley sites of
Willow Garth, in east Yorkshire (Bush and Flenley,
1987; Bush, 1993), Winnall Moors, near
Winchester, Hampshire (Waton, 1986), and valley
infills in Sussex (Thorley, 1981). None of these
sequences has a complete Post-glacial record and
all have complex stratigraphies. Under these cir-
cumstances, it is difficult to be sure that high
frequencies of non-tree pollen, as for example at
Willow Garth (Bush, 1993), record the growth of
herbaceous communities on upland soils, rather
than fen or aquatic communities at the site itself
(Thomas, 1989).
There is thus no evidence from the early Post-
glacial palaeoecological record in southern England
to support the notion that Chalk grassland vegeta-
tion (more or less as seen today) is a consequence
solely of geology and climate. There must be other
factors involved and given the existence of this veg-
etation in the late Post-glacial, prime among those
factors must be human activity, principally through
grazing animals. The palaeoecological record is
sparse and incomplete, but if Chalk grassland was a
natural vegetation type, then all records should
have significant non-arboreal components. The fact
that sites like Holywell Coombe indicate complete
tree cover during the early Post-glacial makes it
 Palaeobotany
probable that, in the absence of human pressures,
the chalk escarpments would be forested during
temperate episodes. The high non-tree pollen fre-
quencies in some chalkland sedimentary sequences
must result from local factors (e.g. dominance in the
pollen rain of fen or spring vegetation), taphonomiC
factors, or early anthropogenic clearance with or
without grazing pressures.
Asholt Wood, on the escarpment around
Holywell Coombe (Part Seven), is dominated by
oak stands with an ash-haZel coppice. The early
Post-glacial woodland of the region appears to have
been dominated by hazel (see above). It is thus
likely that this woodland fragment has been exten-
Sively managed, enhancing the oak component at
the expense of hazel, in particular. On the other
hand, the erstwhile Biggins Wood, south of the
escarpment, was dominated by ash and hazel. This
composition is much nearer to that indicated by
the palaeoecological record and may therefore
have been nearer to a pre-anthropogenic condition.
(6) CONCLUSIONS
The present investigation at Holywell Coombe has
Significantly enhanced the palaeobotanical story
from the site, which now provides the most
detailed vegetational record from south-east
England. Six assemblage zones are now recognized,
including, for the first time, pollen from the Late-
glacial. Although pollen and macrofossils have been
recovered from much of the early part of the Late-
148
glacial, the record remains thin for the later part,
particularly the Younger Dryas. Pollen from this sta-
dial has yet to be discovered at the site, although a
macrofossil assemblage, previously noted to be rich
in arctic-alpine plants, was rediscovered and addi-
tional taxa recorded. A pollen record from the
earliest Post-glacial has also now been added. Still
no part of the site has yielded unoxidized sedi-
ments that would extend the pollen sequence later
than about 7500 yr BP, although identifiable char-
coal fragments have now provided a glimpse of the
character of the vegetation during the late Post-
glacial.
The record from Holywell Coombe now pro-
vides a valuable insight into the flora and
vegetation of the extreme south-east of England,
filling a gap in knowledge of late Quaternary
palaeobotany and biogeography. The combination
of pollen and macrofossil evidence complement
each other, with the pollen providing information
on the likely nature of the prevailing units of vege-
tation in the landscape and the macrofossils
contributing details of the species of bryophytes
and vascular plants represented. The pollen record
broadly confirms previous understanding of the
pattern of Late-glacial and early Post-glacial vegeta-
tional change in south-east England and indicates
that the normal temperate-climate plant cover of
chalk soils is woodland. The macrofossil and
bryophyte record is unusually rich, confirming the
legume Onobrychis viciifolia as a native member
of the British flora and adding the first record of the
moss Loeskypnum badium.
 Chapter 2
Fungal spores and other
microfossils
IJ Blackford
(1) INTRODUCTION: QUATERNARY
PAIAEOMYCOLOGY
Fungal remains from a range of depositional envi-
ronments have been used in stratigraphy and
palaeoecology. A variety of fungal parts, including
mycelium, hyphae, fruit-bodies and spores are pre-
served as fossils in anaerobic environments, in
much the same way as pollen grains. Despite the
fact that fungal remains can outnumber pollen
grains in Quaternary palynological samples, they
have received considerably less attention, although
the work of some authors has demonstrated the
potential of palaeomycology (for reviews, see Van
Geel, 1986; Pirozynski, 1989; Traverse, 1990). Part
of the reason for this apparent neglect relates not
to properties of the fungi themselves, but to a lack
of available information. For budding pollen ana-
lysts there are a number of identification keys,
reference collections and a wealth of training
expertise; for a potential palaeomycologist none of
these exist. A further hindrance is that many fungal
remains, even if they can be identified, their use in
environmental interpretation is limited because
little is known about their ecology. This lack of
information acts as a strong disincentive to
Quaternary palynologists who might otherwise
branch out into fungal analysis (most will exclaim
'Oh yes! I've seen thousands of those!' when pre-
sented with a picture of a distinctive spore).
Against this background some authors have col-
lected, enumerated and thoroughly published
149
information on fungi and other non-pollen micro-
fossils. In Europe, this has been led by Van Geel
and co-workers, whose data present the best start-
ing point for the analysis of fungal remains. What
is known of the environmental significance of
many types of fungi is based on their occurrence
as fossils, rather than from studies of contemporary
ecology. The technique used has been to record all
the unidentified but distinctive objects in a palyno-
logical sample, including fungal, algal and animal
remains, as numbered 'Types'. When a 'Type' is
finally identified, its affinities can then be discov-
ered retrospectively (Van Geel, 1986). An example
is the microfossil first recorded as Type 35 from
mesotrophic peat deposits and ombrotrophic bogs
(Van Geel, 1972). This 'Type' was recorded in
many samples from different sites before being
identified as fragments of dinoflagellate cysts, pos-
sibly of Peridinium (Van Geel et at., 1989).
Alternatively, by constant association with other
palaeoecological indicators, a 'Type' may be used
as a palaeoenvironmental indicator without specific
identification. This requires that accurate descrip-
tions and photographs are used to allow
comparison between sites, in which the context
and the recording format described by Coles
(1990) is useful.
Ideally, all the fossil remains in a deposit should
be analysed and used in interpretation. With fungal
remains, however, this is rarely possible because of
the high proportion of unidentified microfossils
and the dearth of ecological information. More
common is an approach using indicator species
 Fungal spores and other microfossils
(Birks and Birks, 1980), whereby individual taxa
with known affinities are used in interpretation.
In general, three categories of fungal remains
have been recognized:
(1) identified fungi of known or partIy-known
affinities;
(2) unidentified fungal remains with previously
recorded distributions; and
(3) unidentified fungal remains not previously
recorded.
Categories 2 and 3 are assigned Type numbers,
until identification is possible. In addition, a fourth
category is often included:
(4) microfossils other than fungal remains. These
often include fragments of algae, animals,
higher plants and other non-pollen micro-
fossils.
Given the relative youth of Quaternary palaeomy-
cology, it is possible that the fungal records from
Holywell Coombe will add as much to our knowl-
edge of the Types themselves as they will to the
palaeoecology of this site.
(2) METIIODS: PREPARATION AND
ENUMERATION
Eleven samples of organic-rich sediment from a
range of stratigraphical levels were selected for
fungal analysis. Subsamples (1 cm3) , measured by
displacement, were prepared using conventional
pollen-analytical techniques, using KOH, HCL, HF,
acetolysis and alcohol washes (cf. Moore et at.,
1991). A known quantity of Lycopodium grains
was added in order to determine concentration
levels. This caused a slight problem, as fossil
Lycopodium spores were present in small num-
bers. In a comparison of extraction techniques,
Clark and Coles (1992) found that the treatments
used here did not change the form or numbers of
fungal remains. Residues passing through a 160 Jl1l1
mesh, were examined, thereby excluding fruit-
bodies. Slides were prepared using silicon oil (the
medium used may alter the size of some spores)
and were counted by scanning under magnifica-
tions of X200, X400 and X 1000. The proportion
of the total sample counted was estimated using
the Lycopodium grains (after Stockmarr, 1971),
allowing the number of spores/remains cm-3 to be
calculated.
150
(3) RESULTS
Of the eleven samples, that from the 'Allen'ld soil'
in the Cut-&-cover Section (No. 11), contained
almost no fungal remains and has been excluded.
In constrast, the sample from T6 40-45 cm con-
tained over 100 000 fungal fragments cm-3 ,
although this is still relatively sparse in comparison
with the 2 X 106 fungal fragments cm-3 in some
slow-growing peats.
The results show distinctive differences between
the samples analysed, as well as some particularly
interesting indicator species. The microfossil Types
found are listed below, following an interpretation
of what they reveal regarding the palaeoenviron-
ments of Holywell Coombe.
(4) FUNGI, ALGAE AND OrnER NON-
POLLEN MICROFOSSns
(a) Identified fungi of known or
partly-known affinities
Anthostomella
Ascospores of Anthostomella have been identified
from a variety of peat and other organic sediments
(e.g. Van Geel, 1972, 1978; Pals et at., 1980;
Blackford, 1990). Studies that also included analy-
ses of fungal fruit-bodies have identified A.
fuegiana specifically (Van Geel, 1978). Francis
(1975) isolated A. fuegiana from a number of host
species, including Cladium mariscus and
Eriophorum vaginatum. Van Geel (1978) consid-
ered Eriophorum the most likely host, so that the
occurrence of fruit-bodies and ascospores of this
fungus can be taken as evidence for the presence
of this sedge. In a study of blanket peats (Blackford,
1990), Anthostomella reached its highest values in
samples where Cyperaceae pollen were most abun-
dant, although the species of sedge involved were
not distinguished. At Holywell Coombe, small
quantities of Anthostomella spores were present
in T4 340-345 cm and T6 25-30 cm, perhaps hint-
ing at the presence of Eriophorum or more likely
the presence of Carex spp., macrofossils of which
were freqent in these samples (Tables 5.1.2 and
5.1.7).
Gaeumannomyces
In a study of Late Pleistocene deposits, Pals et al.
(1980) and Van Geel et al (1983) recognized a con-
 Fungi, algae and other non-pollen microfossils

Figure 5.2.1 Non-pollen microfossils (including fungi) from HoJywell Coombe. A. Sordariaceae (Cercophera type),
X 1000. B. Type HC I, X 1000. C. Type HC 2, X1250. DI. Type HC 3, X 1000. D2. Type HC 3, X1750. E. Type HC 4,
X 1000. F. Type HC 5, X1750. G. Type HC 6, X 1350 (with Lycopodium clavatum spore for size comparison). HI.
Type HC 7, X 1000. H2 Type K9 (HC 7? cf. Closterium didymotocum), X 1000. See text.

nection between Gaeumannomyces, possibly G. ilar spores. However, the relationship between the
caricis, and Carex; indeed, at Usselo, The spores identified and Carex appears to be univer-
Netherlands, this fungus was also most abundant in sal (Van Geel et at., 1989), even if the specific
levels rich in macrofossils of Carex. Pirozynski et identification is uncertain.
at. (1988) suggested that two other fungi, Two samples (Section BS sample 4, (see Fig.
Clasterosporium and Buergeneruta, produce sim- 3.24) and HV 425-430 cm) contain

151
 Fungal spores and other microfossils
Gaeumannomyces spores, suggesting that Carex
was locally present, which was confirmed by
macrofossil evidence.
Gelasinospora
The distinctive spores of Gelasinospora have been
recorded from several Post-glacial sites and are
found in a variety of contemporary environments
that indicate associations with burnt material, dung
and decayed organic matter (Van Geel1972, 1978,
1986; Blackford, 1990). Spores resembling G. retic-
ulispora (Type 2) were found in sample T4
340-345 cm.
Glomus fasciculatum (Type 207)
Type 207, comprising spherical fungal spores
with a characteristic thick wall and a hyphal
appendage of variable length, was described and
illustrated from Usselo by Van Geel et al. (1989),
and identified as the chlamydospores of Glomus
jasciculatum, a mycorrhizal fungus associated with
a variety of host species. At Usselo, a relationship
between Glomus and the roots of a local stand of
Betula was considered probable. Anderson et al.
(1984) attributed peaks in the Late-glacial abun-
dance of Glomus to high rates of soil erosion into
Gould Pond, Maine (USA), in which the spores
were recorded. Spores were present in five of the
Holywell Coombe samples analysed and most abun-
dant in T4 340-345 cm. Betula fruits were one of
the most common macrofossils in this sample.
Puccinia
Distinctive teleutospores of Puccinia have been
found in T6 40-45 cm. Ellis and Ellis (1985)
described a number of species, often but not exclu-
sively associated with Gramineae. Domsch and
Gams (1972) noted that Puccinia are often air-
borne, a fact that must be taken account of during
interpretation.
Sordariaceae (Cercophera-type)
These spores are distinguished by a sub-apical
pore, thin septum and tapering form (Fig. 5.2.1).
The spores from Holywell Coombe exactly match
Van Geel's (1978) description and illustration of
Cercophera. Many species of Sordariaceae are fim-
iculous (dung fungi), or are common in the dung
of various animals (Van Geel et al., 1983;
152
Pirozynski et al., 1988). The frequency of
Sordariales spores rises with increasing abundance
of animals (pals et al., 1980; Van Geel et al., 1983;
Ralska:Jasiewiczowa and Van Geel, 1992) and the
occurrence of these spores in T6 25-30 cm and
40-45 cm might reflect the presence of vertebrates
(cf. Lister and Stuart, this volume). Not all members
of the Sordariaceae, however, are found exclusively
in dung or dung-enriched environments (Cain and
Groves, 1948).
(b) Unidentified fungal remains with
previously recorded distributions
Fungi diversi
This is the category used to describe spore,
mycelium or other fungal material that is either
incomplete or undiagnostic. As such, this cate-
gory has little value for palaeoenvironmental
interpretation.
Fungal hyphae
Septate and sometimes branched fungal hyphae
can often be distinguished in pollen preparations.
They are indeterminate, except where found
joined to identified spores, but are usually most
abundant in aerated, dry sediments, although it is
possible that some may be aquatic in origin.
Hyphae were present in most of the samples
analysed and were very abundant in T6 40-45 cm,
along with Sordariaceae and Type 201. High fre-
quencies were also recorded, however, in Section
BS (,Moss layer'), in sediments deposited in a wet
environment.
Type 5
Van Gee! (1972, 1978) recorded these hyaline,
tubular conidia or chlamydospores from horizons
that indicated dry phases of peat growth. Their
occurrence in T6 40-45 cm also suggests a rela-
tively dry depositional environment.
TypeK2/12
Small (8-10 Mm), spheroidal, dark brown spores,
with one or more thin spots in the wall or very
small pores, were described as Type K2 by
Blackford (1990). Type 12 spores (after Van Geel,
1972), characterized by a similar spheroidal cell,
but with attachments or the markings left by
 Fungi, algae and other non-pollen microfossils
former attachments, may be included in this cate-
gory. Type K2 and Type 12 have previously been
recorded from relatively dry peat horizons and
their recognition together with other peat-indica-
tors in sample T4 340-345 cm supports this.
Type 86
These microfossils, approximately 15 /..1m in
diameter, hyaline, with 2 /..1m long irregular pro-
truberances, were described from ombrotrophic
peat by Van Geel (1978). Similar microfossils have
been recorded from blanket peats in the British
Isles (Blackford, 1990). Type 86 microfossils were
present in three samples from Holywell Coombe,
in association with a variety of fungi, but as yet no
indicator value can be assigned.
Type 90
These fungal spores (ascospores?) were recorded
from the Netherlands in ombrotrophic peat (Van
Geel, 1978). They were present in two samples
from Holywell Coombe but have no clear ecologi-
cal affinity.
Type 96
These conidiophores could represent a number of
dematiaceous fungi. Examples identical to those
recorded by Van Geel (1978) and Blackford (1990)
are present in small numbers from three samples at
Holywell Coombe where other fungal remains are
relatively infrequent. Unfortunately no indicator
value can as yet be assigned, although examples
from Wietmarscher Moor peat were found on
leaves of Oxycoccus palustris (Van Geel, 1978).
Type 200
These spores identified by Van Geel et al. (1989)
consist of clusters of up to 8 spheres of different
size and thickness. They have been found to be
associated with Equisetum fluviatile, Phragmites
and Carex rostrata and with the first phase after
drying out of pools (Van Geel et al., 1989). At
Holywell Coombe they were most common in T4
340-345 cm and HV 425-430 cm, both of which
accumulated in marshes about 12 200 yr BP. In
Trench 4, macrofossils of Equisetum and C. ros-
trata occurred (Table 5.1.2) and Carex
macrofossils were abundant in HV 425-430 cm
(Table 5.1.1), strongly supporting the interpreta-
tion inferred from their occurrence at Usselo.
153
Type 201
Examples of these polyseptate fungal remains (pos-
sibly conidia), designated Type 201 by Van Geel et
al. (1989), have been recorded from T6 40-45 and
T6 55-60 cm. Previously Types 200 and 201 have
been found together in association with damp envi-
ronments, but at this site Type 201 was most
abundant in sediments laid down under relatively
dry conditions, with few pyrite spherules and fre-
quent hyphae.
Type 202
These are irregular shaped, single-pored, brown
fungal spores (Van Geel et al., 1989). Small num-
bers of spores, 14-16 /..1m long, resembling Type
202 were found in T6 40-45 cm. The presence of
large numbers of hyphae, and the lack of pyrite
spherules in this sample, suggest terrestrial condi-
tions, supporting the interpretation from Usselo,
where Type 202 was first recorded.
Type 203
Fungal remains, presumably ascospores, resem-
bling Type 203 as described and photographed by
Van Geel et al. (1989), were recorded from T6 and
HV. Their flattened surface makes them similar to
Type HC4 (below), but they are distinguished by
having a single pore at one end. Type 203 appears
to be most common in terrestrial conditions.
Type 206
These spores are similar in size, colour and shape
to Type 203, but are slightly more curved and have
small pores in both ends (cf. Van Geel et al., 1989).
They were restricted to the first phase of sedge-fen
development at Usselo and at Holywell Coombe
they were present in HV 425-430 cm, T6
40-45 cm and T4 300-305 cm, showing occur-
rence in a range of habitats.
(c) Unidentified fungal remains not
previously recorded
TypeHC1
These are dark brown, ovaloid, smooth-walled
fungal spores, 15-16 /..1m long X 8-9 /..Iffi wide, with
a single, 1 /..1m pore on one side. Type HCl spores
were present, along with Type HC4, in various
samples and as yet no significance can be attached
to changes in their frequency.
 Fungal spores and other microfossils
TypeHC2
These are hexagonal objects, 15 11m in diameter,
with hyaline, 'glossy' walls, varying in thickness
from 2 11m in the centre of each facet to 1 IJffi near
the changes in angle. Type HC2 are of unknown
origin, but cannot be siliceous as they survived
treatment with HF. They occurred only in sedi-
ments representing wet conditions.
TypeHC3
The brown fungal spores (possibly ascospores),
18-22 11m long and 12-14 IJffi wide, designated as
Type HC3, are similar to the ascospores of Type 82
(Van Geel, 1978), but are more homogeneous.
Direct comparison is not possible because the fruit-
bodies were not observed in this study. They were
most abundant in Section BS (,Moss layer'), a
sample with high frequencies of spherules and
fungal remains, but their ecological affinity is uncer-
tain. The most abundant macrofossils in this sample
were remains of the mosses Cratoneuron commu-
tatum and Amblystegium serpens (see Table 5.1.3
for full list of associated plant macrofossils).
TypeHC4
These are fungal spores, 10-15 11m long and oval-
oid or ellipsoid, lacking apical pores. They mayor
may not have lateral apertures and vary in colour
from light brown to dark reddish-brown. Some of
the spores resemble those of Coniocbaeta (Type
6), although some are smaller and some more elon-
gated, and they can lack the lateral germ slit. Type
HC4 probably includes more than one species,
indistinguishable on the basis of spores alone, pos-
sibly including Coniocbaeta spp. Recorded in most
samples, they show no obvious affinities. In previ-
ous studies Coniocbaeta have been recorded from
peat deposits (Van Geel, 1978; Blackford, 1990).
TypeHC5
Two-celled fungal spores with one cell larger,
darker and thicker-walled than the other, these
have a total length of 20 11m. At one end a hyaline,
irregular attachment is sometimes present, sug-
gesting that HC5 may be conidia. No pores were
observed, but lighter-coloured spots of thin wall
are irregularly distributed on the larger cell. Type
HC5 were present in T4 340-345 cm, in associa-
tion with other fungi (Glomus, Types 12,96,200,
HC4 and HC6). Types HC5 and Hc6 appear to
prefer terrestrial conditions.
154
TypeHC6
These are fungal spores, triseptate (four-celled),
sharply ovaloid, with the outermost, tapering cells
lighter coloured, longest axis 16 11m, width 6-7
1Jffi, with each cell approximately equal in length.
Type HC6 has a similar distribution to Type HC5.
Type HC7 (=Type K8? Closterium
didymotocum?)
Smooth, hyaline, spherical spores, 12-15 IJffi in diam-
eter, with walls of variable thickness (mean 1 1Jffi)
were recorded by Blackford (1990) and Chambers et
al. (1995), and tentatively identified as Closterium
didymotocum (after Starr, 1958). Similar microfossils
were recorded from Holywell Coombe, where they
occurred in T6 55-60 cm in clusters of up to 12
spores. Previous records show that some spores split
into two hemispherical parts, remaining attached;
this has not been recorded from Holywell Coombe
and so a separate Type number (HC7) has been
assigned. Type K8 spores were previously recorded
from the wettest horizons of peat bogs and from
interstadial deposits laid down in shallow pools. High
frequencies of Type HC7 from T6 55-60 cm might
suggest a preference for small pools.
(d) Microfossils other than fungal
remains
Debarya (Type 214)
Algal spores (zoospores) of Debarya species have
been recovered from a number of different envi-
ronments (e.g. Van Gee} and Van der Hammen,
1978) and indicate open water conditions,
although they are able to survive in small, tempo-
rary pools. Small quantities of Debarya were
recorded from T6 90 -100 cm and Section BS
(,Moss layer'), associated with high frequencies of
pyrite spherules.
Spirogyra (Type 211)
Algal spores of Spirogyra have been tentatively
linked to ephemeral shallow pools, often with
macrofossil and palynological evidence of a sedge-
fen environment (Van Geel and Van der Hammen,
1978; Van Geel et at., 1981; Brinkkemper et at.,
1987; Van Geel et at., 1989; Chambers et at., 1995).
The presence of Spirogyra in T4 300-305 cm con-
forms with this suggestion even though other algae
are absent and spherules are infrequent.
 Sample interpretations
Peridinium (Type 35)
Described from peat as Type 35 (Van Geel, 1972;
1978), this form can be recognized even in a disin-
tegrated condition as thin, yellow, hexagonal platy
sections. Van Geel et al. (1989) suggested that
these are plates of Peridinium-type dinoflagellate
cysts (cf. Bint, 1983). Bakker and Van Smeerdijk
(1982) found Type 35 in wet peat conditions; they
are present in low frequencies in blanket peats and
in the Late-glacial at Usselo they were restricted to
meso- and oligotrophic peats (Van Geel et al.,
1989). They were present in T4 340-345 cm and
Section BS (sample 4 and sample 6).
Pyrite spherules
Black-coloured pyrite spherules, 15-25 fJlll in diam-
eter, have been recorded from a number of
samples. Vallentyne (1963) and Wiltshire et al.
(1994) reported pyrite spherules from lake deposits
and some waterlogged archaeological sites, finding
them to be present in varying quantities in virtually
all fine-grained, sulphur-reducing sediments. They
are indicative of standing water. Spherules were
found in most samples from Holywell Coombe,
most significantly in T6 90-100 cm and Section BS
(,Moss layer'). In addition, smaller, 6-8 fJlll diame-
ter, irregular microfossils, possibly composed of
pyrite, have been recorded from T4 300-305 cm
and HV 425-430 cm. The significance of these
smaller forms is unknown.
Athyrium distentifolium Tausch ex Opiz.
(Athyrium alpestre auct. non Clairv.)
Spores of Athyrium distentifolium (Alpine lady-
fern) were found in T6 40-45 cm, indicating the
presence of relatively dry land. The current range
of A. distentifolium in the British Isles is restricted
to the Scottish Highlands, to areas of consistent
moisture availability and to altitudes mostly
between 550-1100 m, where the summer maxi-
mum temperature does not exceed 27°C (Page,
1988). It also shows a preference for sites where
snow patches melt late, presumably because this
provides shelter and moisture in spring.
(5) SAMPLE INTERPRETATIONS
The following interpretations are based on the
microfossils described and discussed above.
155
1. Trench 4 300-!305 em
This sample contained low frequencies of fungal
remains, the dominant being Type 206, along with
very low frequencies of other fungi. Pyrite
spherules were more abundant than any fungal
Type, suggesting open water at the sampling site.
Type HC7 spores could also be indicative of open
water conditions, if the correlation with previous
records of similar Type K8 spores is valid.
2. Trench 4 340-!345 em
In contrast to the one described above, this sample
contained high concentrations of fungal remains.
The frequencies of hyphae and Type K2/12 suggest
dry, peat-forming conditions. Types HC4, HC5 and
Hc6 were well represented and although no inter-
pretation can be made from Types first recorded
from this site, they appear, by association, to prefer
dry conditions. Anthostomella ascospores, possi-
bly A. !uegiana, were present, indicating the
occurrence of sedges. Type 200, formerly recorded
in the first dry, peaty sediments following the infill
of a sandy pool, together with Glomus fungal
spores, possibly associated with Betula, were also
well represented.
3. Trench 625-!30 em
This sample contained a diverse range of non-
pollen microfossils, but with none particularly well
represented. The record of Anthostomella
ascospores suggests the presence of sedges,
whereas a range of other fungi (Types K2/12, 96
and HC 4), along with fungi diversi, suggests a ter-
restrial depositional environment. However, the
presence of spherules and the low concentration
of hyphae suggest wetter conditions. The occur-
rence of Cercophera-type (Sordariaceae) spores in
significant numbers might be an indication of dung
and therefore the presence of vertebrates. Glomus
spores were also recovered, tentatively suggesting
the occurrence of Betula, although the mycorrhizal
fungal evidence alone is not proof of presence at
that time, as the spores could represent later pene-
tration by Betula roots.
4. Trench 640-45 em
Fungal remains are abundant in this sample, espe-
cially hyphae, fragments of mycelium (fungi
diversi) and Type 201. The ecological indicator
value of Type 201 is not well known, but it was
 Fungal spores and other microfossils
previously recorded from the initial stages of sedge-
fen development at Usselo. The high frequencies
of hyphae could indicate aerated conditions, but
this could be caused by a brief drying-out of the
sediment surface. Spores of Type 202 were pre-
sent, suggesting terrestrial conditions. Cercophera
(Sordariaceae) also occurred, indicating the pres-
ence of animal dung. Spores of the fern Athyrium
distentifolium suggest summer maximum temper-
atures not exceeding 27°C.
5. Trench 655-60 cm
The fungal remains were sparse in this sample, with
only Glomus !asciculatum, perhaps suggesting the
presence of Betula, and Type 201 identified. High
concentrations of Type HC7 and the presence of
pyrite spherules suggest some standing water.
6. Trench 690-100 cm
A range of microfossils from this sample, namely
spherules, Type HC7, and Debarya algal spores,
suggests a wet environment. Type HC2 microfos-
sils, of unknown origin, were also present as were
Type 86 spores, hyphae and Type 203. The last
two suggest drier conditions.
7. Section BS Sample 2 ('Moss layer'). See Fig.
3.24for location of samples
This sample contained high frequencies of fungal
remains, especially hyphae and unidentified frag-
ments. The abundance of pyrite spherules and the
occurrence of Debarya algal spores suggest some
open water. Types HC7, HC4 and 200, indicators
of terrestrial peat conditions, were also present,
although in small numbers. No conclusions can be
drawn from the high concentrations of Type HC3
as its ecology is unknown.
8. Section BS Sample 4
Fungal remains were abundant in this sample, with
high frequencies of hyphae suggesting aerated
conditions. Glomus spores suggest the local occur-
rence of Betula and records of Gaeumannomyces
indicate that species of Carex were present, both
suggestions confirmed by macrofossil evidence.
Types 90 and 96 have previously been recorded
from peat deposits, but no further interpretation is
possible. Types 202, HC4 and HC5, along with rela-
tively low frequencies of spherules and the absence
of algal spores, suggest terrestrial conditions.
156
9. Section BS Sample 6
A wide range of non-pollen microfossils was
recorded from this sample, although at low frequen-
cies and often poorly preserved; the fungi diversi
category contained corroded and fragmented spores.
Type HC7 is the only type present that is associated
with pool conditions, whereas a number of the
fungi (Type 12, Type 202, Glomus and
Gaeumannomyces) are indicative of drier condi-
tions. The occurrence of Betula and Carex is
again suggested by records of Glomus and
Gaeumannomyces respectively. Type HC2 micro-
fossils are at their most abundant, but have no known
indicator value. The assemblage of non-pollen micro-
fossils recorded is similar to that from T6 25-30 cm.
10. Trench HV 425-430 cm
This was yet another sample in which pyrite
spherules and Type HC7 remains indicated open
water and in which the presence of Carex was sug-
gested by the spores of Gaeumannomyces, giving
the impression of a sedge-fen environment. Types
90, 96, 206 and HC4 are more suggestive of drier
environments, however, pointing to a mixture of
habitats. The assemblage generally resembles that
from Section BS (associated with wood), with
Glomus spores again suggesting that birch trees
were growing locally.
(6) CONCLUSIONS
(a) Comparison with Usselo
The microfossil assemblages recorded from
Holywell Coombe are remarkably similar to those
from the classic Late-glacial site at Usselo, The
Netherlands (Van Geel et al., 1989). Thirteen out of
the 27 organic types distinguished from Holywell
Coombe were also present at Usselo, and others
may be included in Type HC4.
(b) Summary
(1) A number of fungal spores have been identi-
fied that indicate the presence of host species
or genera of higher plants.
(2) A number of unidentified Types help to
describe the nature of the depositional envi-
ronment. This analysis is aided by the records
of algal spores and of pyrite spherules.
 Conclusions

(3) Other unidentified Types show more tenuous (4) A small number of previously unrecorded
associations with certain host plants, other microfossils have been distinguished, but not
non-pollen microfossils or sediment charac- as yet identified.
teristics. The data from HolyweU Coombe will
enhance the usefulness of these remains in
future research.

157
 Chapter 3
Mollusca
R.C. Preece
(1) INTRODUCTION
The analysis of the shells of land snails from cal-
careous sediments has been shown to be of
enormous palaeoenvironmental importance and a
particularly valuable technique for geologists and
environmental archaeologists working in limestone
regions (e.g. Evans, 1972). Two factors enable pre-
cise habitat reconstructions from the study of fossil
land snails. First, in contrast to many paly-
nomorphs, the vast majority of specimens can be
identified to species level. Second, in certain low-
energy depositional environments it is possible to
recover assemblages that are unmixed both spa-
tially and temporally, thus providing a clear picture
of the composition of individual communities. In
tufas and buried soils, for example, molluscan
analyses can give very precise local environmental
information, sometimes conflicting with the more
regional signal derived from pollen analysis (e.g.
Dimbleby and Evans, 1974). Where sediments have
been completely oxidized, molluscs are often the
only fossils to be found. Indeed, at Holywell
Coombe they were the only group that occurred in
any numbers throughout the full stratigraphical
range, including those sediments now found above
the present water-table. In addition to providing a
strong local signal of changing conditions, it is
often possible to discern a more regional picture of
colonization and succession superimposed on
these local events. It has therefore proved possible
to use molluscan biostratigraphy to correlate indi-
158
vidual sections and to provide a temporal frame-
work for the sedimentary infill.
The shells of individual land snails themselves
constitute a valuable source of palaeoenvironmen-
tal information (see Goodfriend (1992) for an
excellent review). It is now possible to date indi-
vidual shells directly using various techniques.
During this study AMS radiocarbon dates from the
shells of land snails could be compared with other
dates based on charcoal and wood from the same
stratigraphical levels (Preece, 1991; Housley and
Switsur, this volume). Isotopic studies of the
carbon and oxygen in the organic and carbonate
component of shell can be used to derive palaeo-
climatic information, such as the amount and
composition of past rainfall and possibly tempera-
ture. Some stable isotope studies were
consequently undertaken from fossil Arianta shells
from Holywell Coombe (Warrington, 1990). These
results proved to be equivocal, with variation in
values from identical stratigraphical levels often
proving to be greater than the differences between
adjacent horizons. Nevertheless, a weak trend
towards more depleted 013C values through time
was discernible and this has been tentatively linked
with increasing forest cover during the early Post-
glacial. The isotopic analyses are fully discussed by
Warrington (1990) and will not be considered fur-
ther here. Attention is instead focused on
biostratigraphical and palaeoecological reconstruc-
tions derived from quantitative analyses of
assemblages through the sequences.
 Sampling and laboratory analysis

(2) SAMPLING AND LABORATORY
ANALYSIS
All the samples analysed were taken from open
trench faces or from sections created during the
construction of the cut-and-cover tunnel. None of
the borehole samples have been analysed quantita-
tively. In the laboratory each sample, once dried,
was wet sieved and all molluscs greater than
0.5 mm carefully extracted and counted, taking the
usual precautions to avoid counting broken speci-
mens more than once (i.e. by counting only
gastropod apices or umbonal hinge fragments of
bivalves). Some of the more clay-rich samples were
disaggregated by using a small quantity of hydro-
gen peroxide (100 vol.). Fine fractions
(0.25-0.5 mm) were kept solely for ostracod analy-
sis (Part Five (6». Nomenclature and taxonomic
order follow Walden (1976) and Kerney (1976a)
for the land and freshwater taxa respectively.
Over 77 000 shells were analysed in this way
from more than 200 samples taken from the ten
studied profiles (Tables 5.3.3-5.3.12). The results
are presented as graphs of percentage frequency,
similar in form to pollen diagrams (Figs
5.3.8-5.3.16). Crosses indicate single shells. For
Pisidium, the numbers of individual valves were
halved before calculation. The subterranean snail
Cecilioides actcula has been excluded from the
main totals since it is impossible to know to what

Table 5.3.1 Measurements of Cochlicopa populations from a series of stratified samples from Holywell
Coombe, Folkestone
Shell breadth (mm) Shell height (mm)
n range x sd n range x sd
1. Late Post-gJaclal hillwash
«5000 yr BP). Main Section
Cochltcopa lubrica 43 2.33-2.91 2.53 0.13 32 5.33-6.75 5.86 0.36
Cochltcopa lubricella 1 2.25 1 5.33
2. Early Post-glacial tufa
(9-9300 yr BP). Trench 3
Cochlicopa lubrica 40 2.33-2.75 2.50 0.10 30 5.08-6.33 5.72 0.28
Cochltcopa lubricella 6 1.91-2.33 2.16 0.17 3 5.08-5.33 5.19 0.12
3. 'Aller0dsoil'(-11500yrBP)
Cut-and-cover Section
Cochltcopa lubrica 18 2.41-2.75 2.58 0.10 5 5.91-6.66 6.21 0.27
Cochlicopa lubricella 6 2.00-2.16 2.06 0.06 5 4.08-5.41 4.82 0.51
4. 'B0l1lng Interstadial'
(-12-13000 yr BP). Organic muds
(i) Trench 4 (290-360 em)
Cochltcopa nitens 2 2.91-3.16 2.79 0.27 2 6.25-7.16 6.70 0.64
Cochltcopa lubrica 4 2.50-2.66 2.48 0.15 3 5.66-5.91 5.80 0.12
(ll) 'Moss layer',
Section Below Sugarloaf Hill
Cochlicopa nitens 9 2.83-3.08 2.92 0.07 4 6.33-6.58 6.47 0.10
Cochlicopa lubrica 20 2.33-2.66 2.50 0.09 17 5.08-6.50 5.93 0.32
Cochltcopa lubricella 49 1.91-2.41 2.11 0.11 40 4.75-5.91 5.18 0.26
(iii) Trench HV (420-430 em)
Cochltcopa nitens 25 2.91-3.16 3.02 0.G7 17 6.50-7.16 6.82 0.18
Cochltcopa lubrica 20 2.25-2.75 2.55 0.10 12 5.58-6.66 6.13 0.27
Cocblicopa lubricella 43 2.00-2.33 2.14 0.09 18 4.66-5.50 5.14 0.24

Table 5.3.2 Measurements of populations of Cochlicopa nitens (Gallenstein) from central Europe shown
alongside composite data (i.e. all C. nitens measurements) from Holywell Coombe, Folkestone. Calculated
from data given by Nilsson 1956a , Lozek, 1958b and Hudec, 1961 c . n.g. =not given
Shell breadth (mm) Shell height (mm)
n range x sd n range x sd
Holywell Coombe, Folkestone 36 2.83-3.16 2.99 0.09 23 6.25-7.16 6.75 0.25
Hildesborg (Schonen)a 38 2.9-3.2 3.06 0.08 38 6.25-7.25 6.76 0.31
Geniste der Gail near Villach 60 2.7-3.2 2.94 0.10 60 6.10-7.50 6.80 0.35
(Austria~
Dvorce near Lysa (Bohemia)b 10 2.81-3.07 2.94 0.G7 10 6.22-7.01 6.52 0.25
Velke, Jazero near Hrhov 5 2.84-3.10 3.02 0.10 5 6.51-7.50 7.03 0.38
(Slovakia)b
Hodonin to Mikulcice, 21 2.9-3.1 n.g n.g. 21 6.8-7.0 n.g. n.g.
(Czechoslovakia),

159
 Table 5.3.3 Mollusca from the Main Section (series 1) in Holywell Coombe. + = present [ 1 = intrusive
N N ...
Q,,d Q,,d
27.5m
East of
El ~~ ~~ datum
N 0'\ 0 ... N
~ QI) o ~ ~ I'- \:l \:l '" 0 .,., ~ g o o o
depth/em
'" ~~ '" '" '" ;; '" .,.,.... ......
~ l ~ 'J, ~ 'J, 'J, 1 rL
....
J0 ~
.9'S<II \:l
~ ~ .,.,.... ~ ~ ~ ~.,.,
.... ....~ ...~ ...~ \:l.... \:l... ....'" ....'" "".... ... ....,., .... ... ~.... ~ ~ '"
dry mass of sample/g 250 500 500 500 500 500 500 500 500 500 500 500 500 500 500 500 500 500 500 500 500 500 500 500

Pomatias elegans (Miiller) shells 2 36 16 22 9 20 22 6 7 5

opercula 4 4 3 2 4 2
Acicula fusca (Montagu) 6 2 6
Carychium minimum Miiller 2 17 7 4 21 13 251
Carychium tridentatum (Risso) 11 179 347 27 78 33 8 13 52 5 2
Lymnaea truncatula (Miiller) 5 7 5 2 2 1
Catinella arenaria (Bouchard-Chantereaux) 26
cf. Oxyloma pfeifferi (Rossmassler) 1 5 18 3 2 2 1 2 2 1
Cochlicopa spp. 30 129 4 20 6 2 1 3 7 7 18 37 3 23 26 11 10 16 15 10 4
Columella columella (Martens) 2 11 10
Columella edentula (Drapamaud) 2 3 12
Vertigo pusilla Miiller 2 11 15
Vertigo antivertigo (Drapamaud) 4 11 2
Vertigo substriata (Jeffreys)
...... Vertigo pygmaea (Drapamaud) 10 2 3 3 6 10 5 4
~~
~ Vertigo genesii (Gredler) 32 8 2
Vertigo geyeri lindholm 4 ~
Vertigo spp. 93 3 47 11 2 1 2 4 8 4 ~
Abida secale (Drapamaud) 1 8 5 9 1 7 4 864
Pupilla muscorum (Unne) 63 165 3 7 7 3 6 7 14 7 5 3 8 4 3 4 5 2
Lauria cylindracea (da Costa) 1 1
Vallonia costata (Muller) 34 94 10 3 3 3 6 11 7 15 14 46 68 72 31 51 36 30 11 3
Vallonia pulchella (Muller) 17 57 2 2 2 1 2 1 1 3 2 3 2
Vallonia excentrica Sterki 7 9 8 10 3 3 4 1
Vallonia pulchella/excentrica 62 217 9 15 20 2 5 11 7 8 7 12 1 43 51 29 35 24 22 12 17 17
Acanthinula aculeata (Miiller) 1 5 17 1 10 9 4 6
Spermodea lamellata (Jeffreys)
Ena obscura (Miiller) 2 4 [?1]
Punctum pygmaeum (Drapamaud) 71 170 4 16 10 5 5 3 366 3 2 4 3 3 2
Discus ruderatus (Ferussac) 2
Discus rotundatus (Miiller) [?1] 1 11 78 16 30 20 8 20 2
Vitrina pellucida (Miiller) 16 14 2 5 4 5 3 323 3 2
Vitrea crystallina (Muller) - [?1] 1 1 4 48 54 4 1
Vitrea contracta (Westerlund) 6 11 18 6 5 7 13 9 9 4
Nesovitrea hammonis (Strom) 3 6 4 4 8 12 9 1 1
Aegopinella pura (Alder) 8 16 5 17 6 4 4 7
Aegopinella nitidula (Drapamaud) [1] 2 5 74 114 23 68 26 21 18 13 9 3 3
0xychilus cellarius (Miiller) 11 10 4 2 1 2
Uxychilus alliarius (Miller) 2
 Table 5.3.3 Continued
N N ...
Q..c: Q..c: 275m
Q.-5 East of
~~ ~~ ~~ datum ~
0 It'I It'I It'I N 0\ 0 It'I 0 It'I 0 It'I N \t) 0
0\ «l 0 «l r-- r-- \t) \t) It'I It'I ~ ~ 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
t:S
... ...
depth/em "" "" .......
:x l ~ ~ ~ ~
«l
...
:xr--
... ~~.., \t) \t) It'I It'I
:xr-- r--~ d: l :x l :x l :x 1 .......-L l l l ~
... ... ... ... ... ... ""... ""... ... ... ... ... ... ~ 0 0 0\ «l ~ \t)
l
It'I ~
.s....
dry mass of sample/g 250 500 500 500 500 500 500 500 500 500 500 500 500 500 500 500 500 500 500 500 500 500 500 500
"" ~
~
Zonitoides nitidus (Muller) 1 5 ~
Milaxspp. 1 4 29 7 52 78 60 52 32 37 26 12 4 ~
Deroceras/Limax spp. 19 78 20 61 42 7 7 14 17 17 58 62 6 103 62 46 47 103 116 95 74 45
.... Euconulus fulvus (Miiller) agg. 6 48 8 11 8 2 2 1 1 3 1 ~
0\ Cecilioides acicula (Muller) 2 9 4 2 16 20 16 15 16 17 61 47 40 ~
.... Cochlodina laminata (Montagu) 1 0
Macrogastra rolphii (furton) 1 1 ;S
Clausilia bidentata (Strom) 21 14 3 9 2 3 4 4 4 4 2
Balea perversa (Linne) C
Helicella itala (Linne) 2 4 4
Monacha cartusiana (Muller) 3 3 2 3 5 1
~
Monacha cantiana (Montagu) 5 14 ~
Trichia spp. 14 20 20 15 48 108 100 27 82 95 14 150 132 97 67 101 130 61 49 40 ~
Helicigona lapicida (Linne) 1 1 1 1 1 ~
Arianta arbustorum (Linne) + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + ~
Arianta/Cepaea spp. 6 11 10 2 2 2 3 2 12 25 2 27 15 14 15 11 6 3 5 2 ~
Cepaea spp. ~.
+ + + + + + + + + + +
Helix aspersa Miiller 1 1 1
Pisidium tenuilineatum Stelfox 1 5 16
Pisidium spp. (exc!. P. tenuilineatum) 2 8 7 17 5
 Table 5.3.4 Mollusca from the Main Section (series 2) in Holywell Coombe. + = present
Series a Series b
I

~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ N ~ \C Q ~ Q
depth/em J,
l
~
~
~
1
~
~
N
l
~
~
~
~
~
~
~
d l
~ \C
!~
! ~
N ~
l
~
~ ~
~ ~ ~ ~ ~
"" ~
dry mass of sample/g 500 500 500 500 500 500 500 500 500 250 500 500 500 500 500 500 500 500
Pomatias elegans (Milller) shells 7 12 8
opercula 6 7 2
Acicula fusca (Montagu) 4 15
Carychium minimum Milller 2 3 ?1 9 69 62 115 64 23 27 14
Carychium tridentatum (Risso) 31 39 36 315 487 491 256 360 340 229
Lymnaea truncatula (Milller) 4 4 4 1 10 4 1 2 2 1 3
cf. Oxyloma pfeifferi (Rossmass!er) ?1 1 1 1 4 6 12 3 2 3
Cochlicopa lubrica (Milller) 1 4 6 5 18 23 16 12 9 10 8
Columella columella (Martens) 20 21 36 2
Columella edentula (Draparnaud) 2 15 14 20 15 16 3 8
Vertigo pusilla Milller 5 2 3 26 26 9 16 3 3 7
Vertigo substriata Oeffreys) 2 5 27 4 1 2
Vertigo pygmaea (Drapamaud)
.... Vertigo moulinsiana (Dupuy) 4
~
;:::
0\ Vertigo alpestris Alder 2
N
Vertigo angustior Jeffreys ~
Vertigo spp. 6 5
Abida secale (Draparnaud) 2 6 14 50 4 £
Pupilla muscorum (Linne) 3 17 35 6 ?1
Leiostyla anglica (Wood) 5
Lauria cylindracea (da Costa) 2 22 3 8
Vallonia costata (Muller) 2 2 11 8 7 4 38 18 15
Vallonia pulchella (Milller)
Vallonia pulchella/excentrica 3 2 9 1 1
Acanthinula aculeata (Milller) 1 2 16 31 49 21 32 22 12
Spermodea lamellata Oeffreys) 12 10 12 41
Ena obscura (Milller) 1 1 ?1 1
Punctum pygmaeum (Draparnaud) 2 3 6 3 2 14 8 20 10 11 9 7
Discus ruderatus (Ferussac) 7 2
Discus rotundatus (Muller) 72 164 81 89 162 172 189
Vitrina pellucida (Milller) 2 1 1 5 1 4 1 3
Vitrea crystallina (Milller) 2 3 21 77 69 65 39 42 40 35
Vitrea contracta (Westerlund) 12 23 6 8 7 ?1 ?1 16 11 3
Nesovitrea hammonis (Strom) 9 5 7 7 7 7 2 7 4 5
Aegopinella pura (Alder) 3 4 9 9 50 37 24 36 25 37
Aegopinella nitidula (Draparnaud) 11 26 41 139 113 147 180 144 133 153
Oxychilus cellarius (Muller) 27 59 65 60
Uxychilus alliarius (Mlll"r) 13 1 7 3 5
Zonitoides nitidus (Milller) 3 7 1 2
Milaxspp. 4 5 12 8 35 16 19 72 59
 ~
Table 5.3.4 Continued ~
Series b
A
Series a
r

depth/em
~
~
0
~
~
~
0
~
~
N
0
~ ~ ~ N
j
~ \C o
J,
~ o
--.
~
~
~~ ~
~
1
~
~
N
~~ ~
~ ~ ~
~ ~ ~ ~ ~
m
J
N ~
~
~
~ ~ ~
~ ~ ~ ~ ~
~ ~
...... dry mass of sample/g 500 500 500 500 500 500 500 500 500 250 500 500 500 500 500 500 500 500 ~
0\ ~
u.> Deroceras/Limax spp. 22 19 5 22 17 22 26 22 13 22
Euconulus fulvus (Muller) agg. 1 2 17 6 9 3 4 4
C
3 3
Cecilioides acicula (Muller) 4 13 10 12 24 ~
Cochlodina laminata (Montagu) 1 2 2
Clausilia bidentata (Strom) 9 18 3 8 25 10 18 8 6 9
0-
Balea perversa (Linne) 2 4 4 453 ~
Trichia spp. 2 20 34 72 22 16 45 26 17 26 66 56 45
~
Helicigona lapicida (Linne) 1 1
~
Arianta arbustorum (Linne) + + + + + + + + + + + + ~
Arianta/Cepaea spp. 3 8 12 4 4 15 20 22 32 28 20 21
Cepaea spp. + + + + + + + + + + ~
c,j
Pisidium spp. 5 17 54 36 36 100 6 9 36 ~.
 Mollusca

Table 5.3.5 Mollusca from Trench HV in Holywell Coombe. + = present [ 1 = intrusive t = including one sinistral shell
0
'" 0 0 0 0 0 0
'" 0

'"J J 12.~ '"~ ""''"~ ~ ~ ....'"~ '"~

....0 0 0 0 t-- N

1
~
N 0 t--
'" N N 00 N N 0

~ ~ ~ '" ~ ""' ~ ~
~

depth/em ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~
.... ~ ....
'" '" '"""' ?f, ""' ""' ""'""' ""' ""' ""' ""' '"
0 N N 0 t-- \f) N N 0
~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ N

dry mass of sample/g 500 1500 1000 1500 1000 500 500 500 500 500 1500 1500 500 1000 500 500 500 500 500 1000 1000 1000
Pomatias elegans (Miiller) shells
opercula
Acicula fusca (Montagu)
Carychium minimum Muller
Carychium tridentatum (Risso)
Lymnaea truncatula (Miiller) 6 27 15 11 8 10
Catinella arenaria
(Bouchard-Chantereaux) 20 1 5 19 4
cf. Oxyloma pfeifferi (Rossmiissler) 2 15 8 4 ?1 16 35 6 11 1
Cochlicopa spp. 12 6 6 13 30 70 20 7 5 12 10 25 21 8 41 4
CochUcopa lubricella (Porro) + + + + + + +
Columella columella (Martens)
Columella edentula (Drapamaud)
Vertigo pusilla Miiller
Vertigo antivertigo (Drapamaud)
Vertigo substriata (Jeffreys)
Vertigo pygmaea (Draparnaud)
Vertigo moulinsiana (Dupuy)
Vertigo alpestris Alder
Vertigo genesii (Gredler) 11 56 3 18 39 8 4
Vertigo geyeri Lindholm 4
Vertigo angustior Jeffreys
Vertigo spp. 7 4 11 27 31 114 25 4 15 10 46 119 18 36 28
Abida secale (Draparnaud)
Pupilla muscorum (linne) 21 7 6 9 4 11 20 100 44 4 6 17 29 9 9 17 6
Leiostyla anglica (Wood) [1]
Lauria cylindracea (da Costa)
Vallonia costata (Miiller) 16 8 17 I 8 16 33 I
Vallonia pulchella (Miiller) 6 7 12 3 28 6 7 5
Vallonia excentrica Sterki
Vallonia pulcbella/excentrica 38 16 13 23 6U 76 127 40 33 8 24 20 51 50 21 17 42 4
Acanthinula aculeata (Milller)
SPermodea lameflata (Jeffreys)
Ena obscura (Miiller)
Punctum pygmaeum (Drapamaud) 34 9 II 6 6 7 21 61 209 61 15 13 29 32 21 20 11 10 4 8
Discus ruderatus (Ferussac)
Discus rotundatus (Muller)
Vitrina pelluclda (Miiller) 11 21 4 7
Vitrea crystallina (Milller) [1]
Vitrea contracta (Westerlund)
Nesovitrea hammonis (Strom) 6 8
Aegopinella pura (Alder) [1]
Aegopinella nitidula (Drapamaud)
Oxychilus cellarius (Milller)
Oxychilus alliarius (Miller)
Zanitoides nitidus (Milller)
Mllax spp.
Deroceras/Limax spp. 9 8 6 7 8 3 5 22 25 12 12 5 6 4 24 7 40 12 44 8
Euconulus fulvus (Milller) agg. 8 4 4 4 11 18 13 10 6 9 19 15 9 25
Ceciliaides acicula (Muller) [I]
Cochlodina laminata (Montagu)
Clausilia bidentata (Strom)
Balea perversa (Linne)
Helicella itala (Linne)
Manacha spp.
Trichia hispida (Unne) ?I
Trichia striolata (Pfeiffer)
Helicigona lapicida (Linne)
Arianta arbustorum (Linne) + + + + + + + + +
Arianta/Cepaea spp. 2 1 7 2 3 2
Cepaea spp.
Helix aspersa Milller
Pisidium casertanum (polO 12
Pisidium tenuilineatum Stelfox

164
 Sampling and laboratory analysis

4 2 6 2
8 3 1 2
6 2
44 100 27 35 51 40 17 13 9 15 21 12 10 13 22 19 9 12 10 18 7 2
- 120 174 67 86 213 165 89 42 43 75 155 236 268 102 238 110 116 155 118 66 113 10
8 2 1 1

1 5 2 2 1 2
4 4 15 14 20 9 8 17 14 4 4 10 10 23 12 17 3 4 5 12 4 3 4
+ + + + + + + +
14 3 ?1 [I]
27457321 3 6 5 34 16 15 5 7 12 9 4 7
7 10 4 8 6 14 6 2 12 13 8 10 4 2 1 5 4
1
7 2 2 1
[2] 8 6
11 11 11 11 11 - 11 11
1

9 4
3 6 3
4 60 1
14 41 4 1 4 4 4 4
[I] 2 56 2 2
3 7 13 3 3 7 29 4 4 2 6 4 2 3
4 4 11 4 4 37 36 4 24 5 8 37 47 9 9 7 28 19 15 4 16 16 25 23 14
7 6 3
[I] 8 16 19 1
3 7 4 [I] 4 18 30 24 14
3 7 4 11 36 11 19 7 10 15 19 12 21 1
3 4 20
1 2 - 11
8 8 4 14 9 61 1841717 4 3 7 4 8 53 16 17 11 13 11
4
2 24 61 122 236 42 99 32 50 56 68 54 109 12 7
4 2 4 4 11 2 1 2 3 1 2 3 4 3 1
65 118 28 41 74 28 28 12 8 17 29 44 37 29 18 20 10 18 22 15 10
2 11 7 5 20 51 6 32 5 6 24 7 7 6 2
11 11 6 7 40 14 5 4 13 5 8 7 5 2 5 3 3
10 3 4 12 9 1 1 3 1 1 14 12 6 18 15 5 14 9 8 10
79 53 15 15 48 29 19 8 11 16 31 63 74 28 56 48 49t 37 37 29 62 4 4 4
3 6 5 7 9 15 12 10 16 7 4 4
2 1 5 3 2 25
15 1 3 4 2 1
1 2 9 4 3 4 8 7 21 40 19 19 12 29 14 18 4 19 21 28 27 12
2 3 4 29 41 27 19 8 26 16 6 4 5 8 8 23 45 5 9 6 4 6 18 53 46 52 62 51
5 2 3 2 6 6 8 3 3 2 1 2 2 2 7 8
4 68 97 57 77 60
1 11 1
12 2 10 8 4 8 21 39 7 2 7
1 6 3
[I] 4 6
6 3
3 4 26 15 68 23 9 25 4 4 20 28 68 69 26 34 18 31 26 21 16[2] 49 48 67 54 75
+ + + +++++++++ + + +
1
+ + + ++++++++++ ++ ++ ++ +++ + + ++ ++++
2 1 1 1 14 8 2 4 3 7 3 6 4 3 6 8 22 5 14 16 22 17 10 14 10 8 2 2
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + +
1 1 1
42410 42
5

165
 Mollusca

Table 5.3.6 Mollusca from Trench 3 in Holywell Coombe. + = present t = including one sinistral shell [ 1 = intrusive

III
N ...o III
o
depth/em ~
N
~
o
~
o
N N N

dry mass of sample/g 500 500 500 500 500 500 500 500 500 500 500 500 500
Pomatias elegans (Milller) shells
opercula
Acicula fusca (Montagu)
Carychium minimum Milller ?1 ?1 8 23 24 24 23 76 113 92
Carychium tridentatum (Risso) 30 28 78 81 62 51 94 368 668
Lymnaea truncatula (Miiller) 2 14 11 7 15 14 6 3
Succinea oblonga Drapamaud
cf. Oxyloma pfeifferi (Rossmassler) 1 3 10 12 7 11
Cochlicopa spp. (mostly lubrica) 3 4 16 11 7 6 19 39 44
Columella columella (Martens)
Columella edentula (Drapamaud) 2 14 9 18 2 13 15 39
Vertigo pusilla Miiller 6 11 15 15 8 9 16 31
Vertigo antivertigo (Drapamaud) 1 2 1 2
Vertigo substriata (Jeffreys) 2 2 3 2 4 13 19 14
Vertigo pygmaea (Drapamaud)
Vertigo moulinsiana (Dupuy) 4 2
Vertigo alpestris Alder 3 5 2
Vertigo angustior Jeffreys 4 4 5 7 5
Vertigo spp. 3 5 20 15 17 9
Abida secale (Drapamaud) 3 2 1 2 9 6 4 10
Pupilla muscorum CUnnI') 2 3 2 4 8 12 6 3 2
Leiostyla anglica (Wood) 1
Lauria cylindracea (da Costa) 9 1 13 12 10 8 9 4 5
Vallonia costata (Miiller) 2 4 6 33 46 23 20 15 9 10
Vallonia pulchella (Miiller) 1
Vallonia excentrica Sterki
Vallonia pulchella/excentrica 4 2 2 8 6 2 4 2
Acanthinula aculeata (Miiller) 4 3 2 6 9 15
Spermodea lamellata (Jeffreys)
Ena obscura (Miiller) 1
Punctum pygmaeum (Drapamaud) 3 14 13 9 14 9 24 23
Discus ruderatus (Ferussac) 3 ?l
Discus rotundatus (Miiller) 1 1 10 94
Vitrina pellucida (Miiller) 1 2 2 5
Vitrea crystallina (Miiller) [1] 19 13 67 51 41 34 51 142 208
Vitrea contracta (Westerlund) 1 14 30 16 7 1 24 27
Nesovitrea hammonis (Strom) 8 5 12 13 10 13 10 IS 32
Aegopinella pura (Alder) 2 7 14 10 10 10 26 36
Aegopinella nitidula (Drapamaud) 8 13 17 25 22 12 29 81 182
Oxychilus cellarius (Miiller)
Oxychilus alliarius (Miller) 4 18 27
Zonitoides nitidus (Miiller) 4 3 6 6 5 5 6 6 6
Milaxspp. 7 13 12
Deroceras/Limax spp. 3 2 3 3 28 6 10 5 6 17 25 26
Euconulus fulvus (Miiller) agg. 2 4 4 7 9 6 15 23
Cecilioides acicula (Miiller)
Cochlodina laminata (Montagu)
Clausilia bidentata (Strom) 2 5 9 12 5 3 6 11
Balea perversa CUnnI')
Helicella itala (Linne)
Monacha cartusiana (Miiller)
Monacha cantiana (Montagu)
Trichia spp. 2 4 8 14 32 48 25 32 22 17 33
Helicigona lapicida (Linne)
Arianta arbustorum CUnnI') + + + + + + + + + + +
Arianta/Cepaea spp. 1 1 3 8 9 3 4 6 7 8
Cepaea spp. + +
Helix aspersa Miiller
Pisidium casertanum (poll) 6 5 28 31 8 18 26 16 8
Pisidium personatum Maim 7 23 139 116 94 134 157 60 28
Pisidium obtusale (Lamarck) 2
Pisidium milium Held 4 14 13
Pisidium subtruncatum Maim 2 12 37 13 5 2
Pisidium tenuilineatum Stelfox 2 6 12 24 13 36 22 6 3

166
 Sampling and laboratory analysis

'"
'"
0
'"
o
""
0
N ...o
J J
...~ ~... ...N ...... ...~
100 500 500 500 500 500 500 500 500 500 500 500 500 500 500 500 500 500 500
1 11 8 10 15 32 33 24 17 11 8 14 9 4 4 5 2 5
1 1 3 2 2 2 3 2 2
21St 14 4 1
13 4 4 1 2
88 80 138 62 44 37 19 41
592 2 5
4 3
3 11 8 11 4 3 2 11 1
7 16 18 13 8 18 31 38 12 5 3 6 2 3 6 2 4 2

1 2
4
1 2
2 4 2
4 2 4 5 3 3 9 9 4 6 10 4

5 2 3 2 7 7 4 5 2 4
11 1 1
4 2 16 26 3 5 2 6 8 7 4 7 3 3 2
6 11
1
5 17 12 58 200 87 23 11 8 21 27 9 1 8 5
4 11 7 2 6 3 5 6 2 5 3 3
2 5 14 15 10 2 5 2 3 3 11 6 17 2 2
1 2 5 2 5 27 19 51 66 30 38 28 18 37 26 21 40 29 25
5 3 11 10 6 5 5 6 4
18 34 23 7 11

4 8 6 2 3 2 3 2

39 59 114 91 52 23 13 15 5
4 2 1
28 12 21 4 5
3 12 4 4 6 4 2 6 1 2 3 5 3 3 10 4 9
6 3 2 3 2
5 17 23 22 13 2 5 6 2 1
85 154 136 67 58 41 28 27 15 6 11 3 6 4
5 26 50 13 7 9 2 7 2 2 3 7 2 4 7 2 2
11

3 25 41 37 34 40 43 51 44 48 36 42 23 21 14 19 10 11 5
2 35 121 77 54 51 79 158 109 133 146 149 147 101 75 91 98 87 77
5 5 11 2 1 1
4 1 15 4 10 11 7 5 49 59 31 27 25 12 20 13
3 3 2 2 2 2 2 1 1
7 10 16 5 4 4 4 7 4 4 7 2 3

2 2 11 3 5
2 1
15 5 7 7 13 8 7
14 35 44 44 60 109 169 208 136 104 88 82 66 65 53 45 62 63 53

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
9 24 44 24 12 10 13 29 20 17 11 2 6 2 8 3 2
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
1
2 2 4
8 3

4 1
12 3
5

167
 Table 5.3.7 Mollusca from Trench 4 in Holywell Coombe

0 0 0 0 11"\ 0 11"\ 11"\ 0 11"\ 0 11"\ 11"\ 0 11"\ 0

0\ IX) t-- >a 11"\ 11"\ '<I' ~ ~ ~ N N .... ....0 0 0 0\ 0\
depth/em ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~
IX) t-- >a 11"\ 11"\ '<I' '<I' ~ ~ N N .... .... 0 0 0\ 0\ IX)
~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ N N N

dry mass of sample/g 500 500 500 500 500 500 500 500 500 250 500 500 500 500 500 500 500 500
Lymnaea truncatula (Milller) 47 59 48 100 149 169 94 136 68 51 147 99 22 109 10
Catinella arenaria (Bouchard-Chantereaux) 2 10 13 28 24 19 20 15 2 ?1 4 8 2 11 4
cf. Oxyloma pfeifferi (Rossmassler) 1 4 3 1 4 3 7
.... Cochlicopa spp. 6 2 4 21 16 13 12 8 2 ~
0\ Vertigo antivertigo (Drapamaud) 3 3 4 5 5
;::::
00 Vertigo pygmaea (Drapamaud) 1 2 2 2
;:
~
Vertigo genesii (Gredler) 2 3 2
Vertigo spp. 11 4 6 18 23 20 12 22 3 2 5 2 ~
Pupilla muscorum (Linne) 6 3 3 22 12 24 20 21 6 1 2 10 6
Vallonia costata (Muller) 1
Vallonia pulchella (Milller) 3 3 4 15 17 22 12 11 2 1
Vallonia pulchella/excentrica 27 20 38 98 107 106 90 71 11 6 6 3 21 26
Punctum pygmaeum (Drapamaud) 1 2 2 4 1 3
Vitrina pellucida (Muller) 1
Deroceras/Limax spp. 3 3 1 5 6 12 5 9 1 3 2
Euconulus fulvus (Muller) agg. 6 7 5 12 11 3 2 2 6 9
Pisidium casertanum (Poli) 4 6 23 24 79 82 57 104 74 97 142 67 20 15
 Notes on identification
extent the shells recovered are contemporary with
the deposits (see Part Three).
(3) PRESERVATION
The preservation of shells varied with the lithology
of the matrix, although it was generally good.
Preservation was best in the organic layers within
the tufa, such as the basal levels (220-265 cm) of
Trench 3, where it was common to find shells,
especially bivalves, with the periostracum intact. In
the pure tufa horizons the surface microsculpture
of most shells was preserved in exquisite detail,
although the periostracum was usually lacking. In
some of the coarser Late-glacial sediments and in
the hillwash, preservation was inferior to that in
the tufa and some shells were not only abraded but
also showed signs of corrosion. Some of these
shells have obviously been subject to transporta-
tion and weathering.
The most poorly preserved shells were recov-
ered from certain waterlogged organic layers (such
as Trench 5, 340-345 cm, and the basal organic
deposit in Sump 3). Here anoxic reducing condi-
tions had caused the groundwater to react with
iron sulphides (pyrite and marcasite) to form car-
bonic acid, which had then attacked the shell
carbonate to form gypsum and iron hydroxides as
follows:
4FeS 2 (s) + 16CaC03 (5) + 1502 (g) + 30HP (aq) yields
pyrite/ shell oxygen water
marcasite carbonate
4Fe(OH)3 (s) + 16HC0"3 (aq) + 8Ca2+ (aq) + 8CaSOi2HP) (s)
iron bicarbonate calcium gypsum
hydroxide
Not all shells from these horizons were affected in
this way. Indeed, the preservation ranged from
extremely good (Fig. 5.3.1,la) to specimens show-
ing significant damage, with portions of shell
missing and the internal cavity filled with iron
hydroxide (Fig. 5.3.1,lb, 2, 5), to internal moulds
completely lacking any traces of shell (Fig. 5.3.1,
Ib, 3, 4). There seems to be little or no correlation
with depositional environment; despite an expec-
tation that more acid conditions in marshes might
have led to greater damage to wetland species,
those from dry-ground habitats were found to be
just as badly affected. This suggests that these dia-
genetic changes are post-depositional. Indeed,
gypsum crystals were common in these levels and
must have formed in situ; they cannot have been
169
detrital. Many occurred as beautiful rosettes of
aggregated crystals (Fig. 5.3.2) that would not have
survived transportation.
(4) NOTES ON IDENTIFICATION
In addition to problems caused by poor preserva-
tion, a number of further difficulties of identification
were encountered. These are discussed below.
Succineidae
All identifications should be regarded as tentative.
Fig. 5.3.3 illustrates a typical growth series of the
species encountered.
Cochlicopa
A detailed biometric study of the fossil Cochlicopa
from Holywell Coombe has been undertaken
(preece, 1992b). This showed that in the early part
of the Late-glacial three species, C. lubrica, C.
lubricella and C. nitens were present, whereas
only the first two were present subsequently. The
occurrence of C. nitens is particularly noteworthy,
because hitherto it had not been reported from the
British Late-glacial and it is today a scarce species
known only from a few scattered localities in cen-
tral and eastern Europe (Kerney et al., 1983). It can
be distinguished from the other species of
Cochlicopa on account of its much broader
(2.83-3.16 mm) and more darkly coloured shell
(Fig. 5.3.4). The full biometric data from the
Folkestone Cochlicopa are reproduced in Tables
5.3.1 and 5.3.2 and plotted graphically as Figs 5.3.5
and 5.3.6. These data can be compared with those
recently published by Armbruster (1995) for some
modem continental populations.
Columella
All specific determinations of Columella were
checked by Dr e.R.e. Paul, who has made a special
study of this genus (paul, 1975).
Vallonia
Since the juveniles of V. pulchella and V. excen-
trica are indistinguishable, the procedure adopted
for the diagrams was to divide and assign all imma-
ture shells exactly in proportion to the numbers of
identifiable adults present in each sample. The raw
data are listed in the tables.
 Mollusca

Table 5.3.8 Mollusca from Trench 5 (Horseshoe Spring) + = present [ 1intrusive

'" "'" " '" '"

'"~ '"~ '"~ ~ ...~ ~
'"~ ""'"~ ""~
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

deptWcm
0\ IX) IX)

~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~
\0 \0
'"~ N N N 0

'" "" "" '" ...

'" "'" "'" '" '" '"
QO QO \0 \0 N N N 0 0\

dry mass of sample/g '" 500

1000 '"
500 500 500 500 500 '" '" '" '" '" '" '" '" 500
500 500 500 500 500 500 500 500 '" 500 N

Pomatias elegans (Miiller)

Carychium minimum Miiller 2 3 5 39 19 34 54 34 59 107 40
Carychium tridentatum (Risso)
Lymnaea truncatula (Miiller)
Succinea ohlonga Draparnaud
cf. Oxyloma pfeifferi (Rossmassler) 2 2 6 7
Cochlicopa lubrica (Miiller) 2 3 7 11 5 27 24 9 25 15 28 22 12 23
Cochlicopa lubricella (porro)
Columella columella (Martens) 7 14 22 7 21 21 32 21 21 9
Columella edentula (Drapamaud) ?1 2 2 8 11 24 19 .., 35 17
Vertigo pusilla Miiller 1 17 8 8 18 9 8 5
Vertigo antivertigo (Drapamaud) 2
Vertigo substriata Oeffreys) 3 7 2 2 5
Vertigo pygmaea (Drapamaud)
Vertigo moulinsiana (Dupuy) 2 3 24 12
Vertigo alpestris Alder
Vertigo geyeri Lindholm
Vertigo angustior Jeffreys
Vertigo spp. 3 1 4 5 4 51 32
Abida secale (Drapamaud) 5 13 26 6 14 35 29 21 42 7 3 1
Pupilla muscorum (Linne) 7 8 31 9 19 15 28 22 35 3 1 3
Lauria cylindracea (da Costa)
Vallonia costata (Miiller) 2 2 2 2 26 47 3 73 24 6 22 40 9 10 2 2
Vallonia pulchella (Miiller) 1 1 3 3 2 20 9 2 6 8 1 6
Vallonia pulchella/excentrica 2 2 15 11 6 68 54 8 26 21 6 3 9
Acanthinula aculeata (Miiller)
Ena obscura (Miiller)
Punctum pygmaeum (Drapamaud) 2 9 105 86 22 84 20 7 20 33 22 31 49 25
Discus ruderatus (Ferussac)
Discus rotundatus (Miiller)
Vitrina pellucida (Miiller) 2 7 4 8 6 2 4 2 10 2 5 1
Vitrea crystallina (Miiller) 11 20 27 19 10 12
Vitrea contracta (Westerlund)
Nesovitrea hammonis (Strom) 2 2 5 2 11 11 42 14 19 39 13 3 4 6
Aegopinella pura (Alder)
Aegopinella nitidula (Drapamaud) 27 12 2
Oxychilus alliarius (Miller)
Zonitoides nitidus (Miiller) 2 12 24 5 3 5 4
Milax spp. 1
Deroceras/Limax spp. 2 2 4 5 14 3 22 19 5 5 10 9 4 2 6
Euconulus fulvus (Miiller) agg. 2 19 23 1 15 9 5 9 15 9 5 10
Cecilioides acicula (Miiller)
Clausilia bidentata (Strom)
Balea perversa (Linne)
Trichia spp. 22 29 47 22 29 55 79 42 74 18 4 12 13 4
Trichia striolata (Pfeiffer)
Arianta arbustorum (Linne) + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
Arianta/Cepaea spp. 2 2 6 1 5 7 15 3 7 4 3 5 13 11 6 6 3
Cepaea spp. (mostly hortensis (Miiller))
Pisidium casertanum/personatum 12 7 2

170
 Notes on identification

'"'" '"'" Q
N ...
Q
Q

~ ~ ~... ~ ~
N '"
N ... ...
Q
'"
500 500 500 500 500 500 500 500 500 500 500 500 500 500 500 500 500 500 500 500 500 500 500 500 500 500

83 51 142 85 83 74 131 73 28 18 8 6 9 22 34 14 3 13 27 20 10 8 5 28
?1 22 31 182 311 312 152 132 90 73 190 140 339 53 8 20 19 68 141 187 36 98 102 254
1 6 1 3 2 1 2

4 112 12 1 1 1
8 6 22 18 23 26 37 41 24 25 20 14 18 22 60 11 6 7 8 20 24 48 14 17 2 23
+ + + + +

9 8 14 7 3 15 12 31 4 3 5 7 8 10 22 5 6 10 2 11 11 14 3 10 5 10
4 12 34 3 5 7 5 15 6 17 7 16 22 12 31 8 4 3 5 16 36 10 17 6 33

12 6 16 6 4
[1]
3
?1 3 ?1 2 5 ?1 4 ?3 2 ?1 ?3 ?1 3

29 105 36 31 69 114 76 12 2 2 4
831 1
494 1 ?l
15 2 16 2 3 4 1
11 11 14 1 6 8 3 5 16 8 1 11 1 3 2 10
7 16 69 29 33 133 240 201 84 34 67 139 92 106 264 17 5 11 13 48 5 10 21 73
5 194 632 1 1
15 9 45 21 12 9 13 2 2
4 1 5 10 5 6 6 11 8 24 2 3 5 7
1 2 1 322 3 1 1
32 16 26 21 22 35 31 33 22 24 18 22 33 43 113 9 7 7 3 18 20 33 4 4 13
1 ?1 1 1 2 ?1 1
1 8 7 49 74 93 12 23 33 113
1 4 1 3 5 4 15 1 6 2 9 2 1 2 2 5 3 7 2 1 1
18 15 88 37 48 69 103 89 57 30 17 17 17 13 38 14 2 2 3 9 8 2 8 6 18
4 27 11 17 6 107 57 72 88 58 141 6 16 7 41 60 109 5 19 29 63
3 10 7 16 14 9 10 4 13 122 2 1 1 1
25 43 9 3 3 5 14 4 2 5 14 2 3 14 62
3 11 6 10 34 46 52 31 34 17 30 45 29 46 20 2 6 5 13 23 37 6 16 23 75
1 1 5 12 6 6 3 2 7 2 6 7 17 325
6 8 3 274 2 6 4 5 4 6 6 2 1 4 4 16 2 2 4
10 12 5 2 9 9 16 2 4 1 4 12 3 5 4 10
2 7 12 2 22 7 23 3 10 13 3 4 4 2 1 5 4 10 127
6 3 11 11 11 34 24 12 8 12 3 5 6 3 20 2 3 4 4 2 1 3
1 1 2 1 7 11
16 10 19 6 6 988 2 2 5 13 16 5 2 5 21
1 2 1 2 11 448
3 7 7 19 21 18 40 27 58 34 36 68 9 2 3 4 4 20 38 13 10 6 25
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
2 5 6 4 3 7 14 16 14 9 6 4 2 5 12 4 2 2 6 5 16 4 5 8 10
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
11 10 10 2 10 2 9 4 3 4 1 3

171
 Table 5.3.9 Mollusca from Trench 6 in Holywell Coombe. + =present
depth/em 100-110 90-100 80-90 70-80 60-70 55-60 50-55 45-50 40-45 20-25 10-20 0-10
dry mass of sample/g 1000 1000 1000 1000 500 500 500 500 500 500 500 500
Carycbium minimum Milller 77 184 237 87 7 27 121
Carycbium tridentatum (Risso) 79 106 616
Lymnaea truncatula (Milller) 6 9 9 11 12 19 4 2 1
Catinella arenaria (Bouchard-Chantereaux)
cf. Oxyloma pfeifferi (Rossmassler) 4 3 11 5 7 9 3 1 2
Cocblicopa spp. 2 2 3 156 141 66 23 9 4 28
Columella columella (Martens) 3 2 2
Columella edentula (Drapamaud) 27 36 61 17 10 13 20
Vertigo pusilla Milller 4 15 36 12 12 12 29
Vertigo antivertigo (Drapamaud) 3
Vertigo substriata Oeffreys) 3 63 35 5 14 8
Vertigo pygmaea (Drapamaud) 1
Vertigo moulinsiana (Dupuy) 1 2 3
Vertigo genes;; (Gredler) 3 7 2 2
Vertigo angustior Jeffreys 5 27 19
Vertigo spp. 11 4 8 11 9 36 15 4 3 2
Abida secale (Drapamaud) 4 10 7 30 28 1 ?1
Pupilla muscorum (Unne) 5 4 4 6 18 54 4
Leiostyla anglica (Wood) 35 30
Lauria cylindracea (da Costa) 4 6 ~
.... Vallonia costata (Milller) 1 2 50 77 27 6 22 2 4 ;:::::
---l Vallonia pulcbella (Muller) 1 1 4 44 29 12 1 1 1 ;:
N
Vallonia pulcbella/excentrica 4 5 5 5 16 186 193 58 11 1 ~
Acantbinula aculeata (Milller) 3 5 32
Ena obscura (Milller) 1 £
Punctum pygmaeum (Drapamaud) 2 2 4 22 20 80 69 47 8 10 9 31
Discus rotundatus (Milller) 8 21 66
Vitrina pellucida (Milller) 3 10 15 9 9 6 3 1 1
Vitrea crystallina (Milller) 4 24 18 ?1 14
Vitrea contracta (Westerlund) 4 26 28 84
Nesovitrea bammonis (Strom) 2 121 169 48 42 7 4 11
Aegopinella pura (Alder) 2 6 20
Aegopinella nitidula (Drapamaud) 5 27 18 84
Oxycbtlus alliarius (Miller) 6 18 16
Zonitoides nttidus (Milller) 6 37 67 24 2
Milaxspp. 4 21
Deroceras/Limax spp. 5 7 9 101 54 16 8 3 9 32
Euconulus fulvus agg. (Milller) 2 5 4 8 45 73 43 17 6 10 18
Clausilia bidentata (Strom) 2 9 15
Helicella itala (Unne) ?1 5 ?1
Tricbia spp. 25 29 9 23 22 27 21 9 13 3
Arianta arbustorum (Unne) + + + + + + + + + + +
Arianta/Cepaea spp. 1 2 5 5 13 18 11 9 6 6 14
Cepaea spp. + + +
Pisidium casertanum (poll) 47 73 46 25 4 5
Pisidium obtusale (Lamarck) 10
Pisidium milium Held 35 70
Pisidium subtruncatum Maim 1 8
Pisidium tenuilineatum Stelfox 3
 Notes on identification

Table 5.3.10 Mollusca from the Cut-&-cover Section in Holywell Coombe. [ 1= intrusive
depth/em 170-180 165-170 160-165 155-160 150-155 140-150 130-140
dry mass of sample/g 500 500 500 500 500 500 500
Carychium minimum Muller 4 13 17 5
Cochlicopa spp. 2 12 18 18 27 5
Vertigo geyeri Lindholm
Vertigo spp. 2
Abida secale (Drapamaud) 5 7 6 19 20 12
Pupilla muscorum (linnI') 4 23 26 26 19 9
Vallonia costata (MUller) 7 14 30 82 111 37
Vallonia pulchella (MUller) 3 14 24 34 34 9
Vallonia pulchella/excentrica 5 39 54 III 132 49
Punctum pygmaeum (Drapamaud) 2 5 9 22 28 11
Vitrina pellucida (MUller) 19 34 36 22 15
Nesovitrea hammon is (Strom) 3 1 1 14 13 5 1
Deroceras/Limax spp. 11 23 35 31 48 20 4
Euconulus fulvus agg. (MUller) 6 3 6 2 1
Cecilioides acicu/a (MUller) [1]
Helicella itala (Linne) ?2 2 2
Trichia hispida (Linne) 5 4 6 30 34 15 2
Arianta arbustorum (Linne) 2 3 2

Table 5.3.11 Mollusca from the Section below Sugarloaf Hill in Holywell Coombe. See Fig. 3.24 for prove-
nance of samples
Sample (see Fig. 3.24) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
dry mass of sample/g 500 500 500 500 500 500 500
Carychium minimum MUller 1 20
Lymnaea truncatula (MUller) 18 6 4 7
Catinella arenaria (Bouchard-Chantereaux) 10 3 3 ?1 17
cf. Oxyloma pfeifferi (Rossmassler) 2 2
Cochlicopa spp. 17 9 17 5 68 43
Vertigo antivertigo (Drapamaud) 1
Vertigo pygmaea (Drapamaud) 1
Vertigo genesii (Gredler) 4 30
Vertigo geyeri Lindholm 2
Vertigo spp. 10 49 22
Abida secale (Drapamaud) 1
Pupilla muscorum (Linne) 45 21 22 2 98 19
Vallonia costata (Milller) 29 8 9 2 25
Vallonia pulchella (MUller) 8 1 6 32 5
Vallonia pulchella/excentrica 36 16 26 12 175 72
Punctum pygmaeum (Drapamaud) 33 24 43 9 38 23
Vitrina pellucida (MUller) 17 9 5 3
Nesovitrea hammonis (Strom) 19 20
Deroceras/Limax spp. 17 13 6 22 45
Euconulus fulvus agg. (MUller) 8 2 16 4 37 21
Trichia hispida (Linne) 7 17
Arianta arbustorum (linnI') 2 15
Pisidium casertanum (poll) 5 2 ?1

173
 Table 5.3.12 Mollusca from the section at Cherry Garden
'Lower soil' 'Upper soil'
depth/em 30-40 20-30 10-20 0-10 40-50 30-40 20-30 10-20 0-10
dry mass of sample/g 500 500 500 500 500 500 500 500 500
Carychium minimum Miiller
Lymnaea truncatula (Miiller) 2 1 2
cf. Oxyloma pfeifferi (Rossmass!er) 2 3 1 3 3 2 1 1
Cochlicopa spp. 15 7 27 17 25 15 15 23 11
Vertigo antivertigo (Drapamaud) 1 1 1 1 2 1 3 1
Vertigo pygmaea (Drapamaud) 1 2
Vertigo genesif (Gredler)
.... Vertigo geyeri Lindholm 1 ~
....... Vertigo spp. 3 5 3 1 1 4 3
;:::
~
Abida secale (Drapamaud) 3 3 22 21 6 14 14 24 20 ~
Pupilla muscorum CUnni!) 27 24 21 33 28 22 21 20 16
Vallonia costata (Miiller) 13 39 64 48 36 40 34 32 29 ~
Vallonia pulchella (Miiller) 7 27 32 18 14 27 22 13 15
Vallonia pulchella/excentrica 37 65 111 92 70 86 63 94 53
Punctum pygmaeum (Drapamaud) 6 19 16 19 26 11 22 3 7
Vitrina pellucida (Miiller) 36 35 16 6 20 15 10 14 12
Nesovitrea hammonis (Strom) 1 12 14 19 5 15 4 14 16
Deroceras/Limax spp. 8 19 26 14 15 18 16 16 10
Euconulus fulvus (Miiller) agg. 1 1 2 2 1 1
Helicella itala CUnni!) 3 22 27 9 19 13 25 23
Trlchia hispida CUnni!) ?1 1 6 25 1 1 1 7 2
Arlanta arbustorum CUnni!) 1 3 1 2 3 2 5
 Notes on identification

Figure 5.3.1 Scanning electron micrographs of selected shells from the organic horizon in Trench 5 (350-370 cm)
showing stages in the diagenetic replacement of shells. Such preservation was observed in other waterlogged organic
levels. la-c. Carychium minimum. 2a-c. Vallonia costata. 3. Vallonia sp. 4. Euconulus julvus. 5. Nesovitrea
hammonis.

175
 Mollusca

Figure 5.3.2 Rosettes of gypsum crystals from Late-glacial organic layer exposed in Sump 3 (dated to 11 820 ±
140 yr BP). Similar structures were recovered from other waterlogged organic horizons.

Vertigo internal shell has an asymmetrical nucleus (Fig.

With the exception of V. substriata, dextral apices
or juveniles of this genus are virtually impossible to
identify. The frequencies plotted represent the
summation of adult shells with the number of juve-
niles derived by direct apportionment. Again, the
raw data are listed in the tables.
Euconulus
The totals refer to Euconulus fulvus aggregate.
Both E. fulvus seg. and E. alderi were present, but
separate totals are not given since they cannot be
distinguished as juveniles.
5.3.7, 2-3). However, this distinction between the
two groups of slugs is by no means clear-cut, espe-
cially in juveniles.
Trichia
Both T. hispida and T. striolata were present
throughout much of the Post-glacial. Although it
has been possible to record their stratigraphical
ranges by examining the occurrence of mature and
semi-adult shells (shown by crosses on the tables),
it has proved impossible to give separate totals or
to plot individual curves.

Milax Arianta and Cepaea

Well grown internal plates of milacid slugs are dis-
tinctive by reason of their central nucleus and
bilateral symmetry (Fig. 5.3.7, la-g) and an attempt
has been made to plot these separately from curves
for limacid slugs (Deroceras, Limax), in which the
It has proved impossible to separate apices quanti-
tatively. The presence of either or both of these
genera is, however, usually clear from shell frag-
ments bearing characteristic microsculpture
(preece, 1981).

176
 Notes on identification

Figure 5.3.3 Growth series of Succineidae from Holywell Coombe. la-c. Succinea oblonga, Trench 3 80-90 cm;
large shell (70-80 cm). 2a-e. Catinella arenaria, Section BS, 'Moss layer'. 3a-d. Oxyloma pfeifferi, Section BS, 'Moss
layer'.

177
 Mollusca

Figure 5.3.4 Scanning electron micrographs of Late-glacial Cochlicopa from Holywell Coombe (Trench HV
420-430 cm). 1. Cochlicopa nitens (a) adult shell (b) juvenile (c) close-up of the minute rasp-like denticles on the col-
umellar lip. 2. Cochlicopa lubrica (a) adult shell (b) juvenile (c) close-up of the minute rasp-like denticles on the
columellar lip. 3. Cochlicopa lubricella (a) adult shell (b) juvenile.

178
 Notes on identification

(d) (c)

7.0 7.0

AA
AAA lubrica
AAA
E
.s 6.0 AftA A 6.0 A lubrica
:cOl iA A Ai
·w
tt
.e AA~
(jj
.e
• ~:
•• A
(/)
lubricella
5.0 5.0
lubricella

4.0 -f---r--..---.-----.r-----r----.-- 4.0 -t---r--..----,r-----.--...---.--

1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
Shell breadth (mm)
Shell breadth (mm)

(a)
(b)

-----
7.0

-.- 7.0

-----
A

.
All. nitens

E
.s 6.0 AI~ ll.
~
- 6.0
3 lubrica

:cOl
•
• •• A~A
.Qj lubrica

•••
.e

•
(jj

••••A·
.e
••
(/)

5.0 •••
••• •
••••
••
5.0
•
• lubricella
• lubricella

4.0 -t---.--"""T----...---..---.....--....- •
4.0 -t---r--....--r--,...---r--,...--
1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
Shell breadth (mm)
Shell breadth (mm)

Figure 5.3.5 Graphs plotting the measurements of shell height against shell breadth for a series of Cochlicopa from
stratified samples from Holywell Coombe. (a) 'B0lling Interstadial' (12-13000 yr BP) (b) 'Aller0d soil'
(-11-11 500 yr BP) (c) Early Post-glacial tufa, Trench 3 (9-9300yrBP) (d) Late Post-glacialhillwash, Main section,
30-112 cm «5000 yr BP).

179
 Mollusca

D Cochllcopa nitens
45
Total population IZa Cochlicopa lubrlca
All ages
40 tssJ Cochlicopa lubricella
35
30
n=285
n 25
20
15
10
5

Hillwash

~:j
< 5000 BP
n=44

~~~~I77z-n_
n
_.
15 Trench 3; 220-260 cm

n 1:~~s~9~'O~~~-_9~:~~~:~~~S~~~~LL~~~~__ n__=_4_6_____________

10 Cut-&-cover palaeosol, 150-170 cm

11,500 BP n=24
n 5

20 T7, 'Moss layer'

>12,100 BP
51 Trench 4, 290-360 em
12-13,000 BP
n 6=
n 15
L-~V:C~~z~ZZZ~Z~IL-__-L~==L-__~c=d==~_______

10 n=77
5

Trench HV, 420-430 cm

-12,300 BP
15 n=88
n 10
5

1.75 1.95 2.15 2.35 2.55 2.75 2.95 3.15 3.35

mm
Figure 5.3.6 Graphs plotting the breadths of Cochlicopa from a series of stratified samples from Holywell Coombe.

180
 Analysis offaunal change through the sections

Figure 5.3.7 Slug remains from Holywell Coombe. la-g. Milax spp. Main Section 50-60 cm. 2a-g.
Deroceras/Limax. Trench 3 220-265 cm. 3. Limax sp. Trench 3 220-265 cm.

(5) ANALYSIS OF FAUNAL CHANGE
THROUGH THE SECTIONS
(a) Main Section: Deep Trench 1 and
Sump 3 (Series 1)
A measured drawing of the Main Section showing
where the samples were taken is shown in Fig.
3.11. The following succession was recorded (Fig.
5.3.8, Table 5.3.3).
Basal samples (zone y)
Two samples of the organic detritus mud near the
base of the east face of Sump 3 (Fig. 3.11) yielded
an impoverished marsh assemblage dominated by
Vallonia, Pupilla, Cochlicopa and Punctum pyg-
maeum. Arctic-alpine species such as Vertigo
genesii and Catinella arenaria were also present.
The assemblage clearly formed during the early
part of the Late-glacial, a conclusion supported by
the radiocarbon date of 11 820 ± 140 yr BP (Q-
2720).
145-210 em (zone z)
Immediately overlying the organic detritus mud was
a chalk gravel, which was not sampled at this spot.
Laterally equivalent samples were taken from the
north face of Deep Trench 1, but these yielded vir-
tually no shells except towards the top, where the
gravels passed into a fine chalk mud devoid of
clasts. The lowermost sample (200-210 cm) was
taken from the top of the open trench, whereas the
rest came from the north face of the Main Section
(Fig. 3.11). A large step, with a tread of about 1 m,
therefore separated the top of the lowermost
sample from the base of the upper series. Between

181
 CD en Co> o.:I:J
en III III
o
'" ~ -0.
,+ o
'" '"o
'" en .. _.
,+ ,+ ,+ tn 0
~n
CD CD CD -elll
o
-... o o o
~c-
...,0
"0 "!1
(1) ...
-"
<>
1 <.n <.n 3
o o o o
~~(1)
g
~ ~ l~ 1
~ \.A
tIQ. \j·:t~m " '..,~~ ! '~ .' : '0 '
(1) v- " 0' t'. '0,~ "" ',0 ,~", . "
o 11J 0>
,.." Oloo co N ......
<:Ow......O> ...... c:oo ...... -.J0l+>- W ........ N I'\)
.... :::: "'~
",,,, ....... OltOWWN O)OOWW<:ON<:OW Ol
000> CD ON ....... ...,. W 01 I'\) .f>o. WWI\,)(O(J1COOlW Co) Total number of shells
~o + 0-::1 + - + +
o a= U'J
Lymnaea truncatula
5' 0-::1 Pisidium spp.
s-~
(1) ~
<£ 0-::1 Pisidium tenuilineatum
'"' ::l ~ o-::J + - Oxyloma pfeifferi
~ o--:J
~.
o::::0.. Catinella arenaria
- 0-::J_
I:~ Vertigo antivertigo
t:
V> '"'
~
0--=1 • Vertigo genesii
QS 0--=1
0-::1 _ Vertigo geyeri
Vertigo pygmaea
~s- Pupilla muscorum
0
o::t '"'
(1) t:
0] II
~~ 01 r- Vitrina pellucida
g. So 01- Euconulus fulvus
::l(1)
Punctum pygmaeum
~
~.
::::~
0] II
s- s·
.... [fJ
01_ Cochlicopa
::r(1) DeroceraslLimax
(1) n
'"0 O. :~
o 0
I: ::l
(1)
::l
~
V>

r-,
[fJ
(1)
::I. 011
.. Vallonia pulchella
V> (1)
(1) V>
01_ Vallonia costata
S ...
O"~
0-::1 CepaealArianta
g;a
(1) (1) 01 Nesovitrea hammonis
~ ::j> Abida secale
::l (1) 01
~>@ 0-::1 Columella columella
~. (1)
V> ::l Trichia
V> n
::r'<i
o 0
~ .....
::l ....
o ~
::l 0"
(1)
s-t:a
:l
0-::1
0-::1
Carychium minimum
Columella edentula
0-::1 Vertigo substriata
'S'~
"' ~. 0-::1 Vitrea crystallina
~.Jg
::rv> Vertigo pusilla
.... ::l Milax spp.
o
:] _
g,~
Carychium tridentatum
s-~
(1) ~
~;::
tIQ 0-
~ ~. Aegopinella nitidula
!'b ~

:i0]
l:)
'" 0-::1
~
Acanthinula aculeata
0-::1 Oxychilus alliarius
§. 0-::1 Clausilia bidentata
~ 0] Discus rotundatus
[ 0-::1 Aegopinella pura
0-::1 Ena obscura
~ 0-::1
(1) Lauria cylindracea
::l 0-::1
Vitrea contracta
n 0-::1 Zonitoides nitidus
0-::1 Discus ruderatus
~ 0-::1 Pomatias elegans
0-::1 Oxychilus cellarius
i 0-::1 Acicula fusca
0.. 01 Vallonia excentrica
s· 0-::1 Helicigona lapicida
0-::1 Spermodea lamellata
~
(1) 0-::1 Helicella itala
0-::1 Monacha cartusiana
0-::1 Macrogastra rOlphii
0-::1 Cochlodina lammata
0-::1
i
q
_
Helix aspersa
Monacha cantiana
~ 01
~ Ceciloides acicula
o~
;ji
C'
'< N CD
;:;- I Mollusc zone
 CD
a.;u
II> III
N -a.
CD _ •
....
o "'0
~n
1+ -<II>
Series b :g Series a
;a-
.,,0
_:::s
g H °'" ° C")
L..I 3
O~
o "0 0 o. -t-t-t-t-l
010' -1-1 --I -t -1-1 -t --I-I -1-11
e ,
~f
i3 \.II o
o
N
0
1\.)(1) ..... ....0.0
,J:o. ....... (,,)0U't
~C;~ ,J:o. (X) U1CD(DJ\Xn
~y.
- '" +:--+-
Total number of shells
+ 0-=1 Lymnaea truncatula
Q.\Q
rIO Pisidium spp.
(11 s:::
::1.0 Columella columella
~ a: f :1-=1
-
O"'~ = '"
§'~
°
i3 e: Abida secale
°1 Pupilla muscorum
~1 °1
0-=1 + Vallonia pulchella
~§ OJ Carychium minimum
'§I~ 0-=1
• Punctum pygmaeum
~ So 0-:::j Euconulus fulvU5
... (1)
0-=1 Cepaea/Arianta
'0 s::: 0-=1 Vallonia costata
~ S· Trichia
~ ~
til (")
Jg. :1
OJ Deroceras/Limax
0'8
i:l ~ 0-=1 Nesovitrea hammonis
e:~
til ...
0-=1 Cochlicopa
0-=1 Oxyloma pfeifferi
0-=1 Vitrina pellucida
(11
f~::r Vitrea crystallina
':-'tl OJ
g'-;'; OJ Vitrea contracta
s-~ 0-=1 Vertigo pusilla
til 'r1
(11 clQ. 0-=1 Clausilia bidentata
~. ~
til (11 °
-=I Acanthinula aculeata
(")
s· UJ. Aegopinella nitidula
...
.ao ~
:1 Aegopinella pura
~i Carychium tridentatum
s-~
(11 (11
o e-
Qa'O :]
e. ].
(")~ 0-=1 Vertigo angustior
~~ 0-=1 Discus ruderatus
fr ~. 0-=1 Oxychilus alliarius
0-=1 Ena obscura
~ 0
Q.'"" 0-=1 Milax spp.
I>l til
0-=1 Vertigo alpestris
~! 0-=1 Vertigo spp.
til
o~n 0-=1 Zonitoides nitidus
1+ I>l 0-=1 Lauria cylindracea
\Or! 0-=1 Columella edentula
0 ...
~.g 0] Discus rotundatus
I:Ij r!til I
:-<'
0-=1 Vertigo substriata
~
Q.
0-=1 Balea perversa
+
g 0-=1 Cochlodina laminata
0-=1 Pomatias elegans
~ 0-=1 Oxychilus cellarius
rIO
(11 0-=1 Vertigo moulinsiana
~. 0-=1 Spermodea lamellata
til
+-
I>l 0-=1 Leiostyla anglica
0-=1 Acicula fusca
++
[ 0-=1 Helicigona lapicida
+
0-=1 Vertigo pygmaea
0-=1 + """"CJ Cecilioides acicula
If.
N r:r n a. Mollusc zone
 Mollusca
169 and 172 cm, a well developed grey soil (the
'AIler0d soil') had formed within the chalk mud.
Charcoal from this soil yielded a radiocarbon date
of 11 520 ± 90 yr BP (OxA-2353). An AMS date using
the shells of Arianta arbustorum produced a com-
parable age (Switsur and Housley, this volume).
The molluscan assemblage from these levels was
also clearly Late-glacial, but was more diverse than
from the underlying deposits. Trichia hispida had
become dominant, reaching frequencies of -60%.
Arianta arbustorum, Abida secale, Nesovitrea
hammonis, Carychium minimum and Columella
columella were also present. Marsh conditions
continued but drier habitats are suggested by the
occurrence of xerophiles such as A. secale.
112-145 em (zone b/c)
The white chalk muds above the soil became
darker as they approached the base of the tufa.
There was a huge rise in the abundance of shells in
these upper levels and an increase in the frequency
of calcitic granules (Fig. 3.13). These facts, together
with a progressive rise in magnetic susceptibility
values, suggest that the surface of the chalk muds
had been weathered. The assemblage from the
lower part of the chalk mud above the soil dif-
fered markedly from that from the upper part.
The frequency of Trichia hispida declined to
values of -15% and a whole range of other taxa,
characteristic of the early Post-glacial, appeared.
The expansion of Carychium tridentatum,
Aegopinella nitidula and, at a slightly higher
level, Discus rotundatus, was characteristic of this
period. The occurrence of Discus ruderatus
between 131 and 135 cm is also noteworthy (see
below). The fauna from the tufa was very similar to
that from the underlying chalk muds. A moist
shaded environment is indicated. The transition
from the Late-glacial to the Early Post-glacial (the
lower boundary of this zone) occurred within the
chalk muds.
60-112 em ( zone e)
In the hillwash there was a marked decline in the
proportion of shade-demanding species (Carychium
tridentatum, Aegopinella spp. and Discus rotun-
datus) and an increase in the frequency of species
of open ground (Vallonia excentrica, Pomatias
elegans, Helicella itala, Monacha cartusiana).
Two soil horizons were discernible within the hill-
wash. A basal one (100-112 cm) and a less
prominent upper horizon (70-80 cm). It is note-
184
worthy that the frequencies of shade-demanding
taxa, particularly C. tridentatum, Acanthinula
aculeata, Discus rotundatus and Acicula fusca,
showed slight but significant increases at these two
horizons, implying that the period of stability
reflected by the soil was accompanied by the
regeneration of scrub.
30-60 em (zone f)
Open conditions continued and the proportion of
shade-demanding taxa fell to negligible levels. New
arrivals included Helix aspersa and Monacha can-
tiana.
(b) Main Section: Deep Trench 2
(Series 2)
A short distance west of the first profile (above),
towards the valley axis, the tufa thickened to nearly
70 cm. Here its texture was much finer and less
iron-stained than in the first profile. An organic silt
separated the base of the tufa from the underlying
solifluction deposits (Fig. 3.11). Two adjacent sets
of samples were taken in order to sample the
organic silt at its thickest point and to sample the
finer sediments at the top of the solifluction
deposits. The following succession was recorded
(Fig. 5.3.9, Table 5.3.4).
70-175 em, Series b (zone z)
Mollusca were virtually absent from the coarse
solifluction deposits and were only recovered in
any numbers from finer sediments towards their
upper surface and only these are plotted on Fig.
5.3.9. The assemblages, dominated by Trichia hisp-
ida, Columella columella, Pupilla muscorum and
Abida secale were unmistakably Late-glacial in
character and are attributable to zone z.
51-72 em, Series a (zone b)
The organic silt dated to 9240 ± 90 yr BP was sam-
pled in two places, about 1 m apart and, although
the species compositions were virtually identical,
there were slight differences between the propor-
tions of certain taxa. Where the silt overlay the
fossiliferous Late-glacial muds, it contained higher
frequencies of typical Late-glacial taxa (Trichia,
Abida, C. columella), which might imply some
derivation. However, all these taxa persist into the
early Post-glacial so it is also possible that these
 (j) a:s E ~ E .~ E <'Il ~ <'Il !!! tU S S
-g:2 ~ ~.!!!"-=: 8, a:s E <J) % )( ~ ~ @ ~S ~ ~ ~ ~ '- ~ co CI) ~ a:s:g .~,~ ~ ~ :2 ~~ ttl ~~ ~ -3 ~
Radiocarbon o g "C; ~ ~ ~ §, .E ~ ~ .~.§:S ~ ~ ~.5!~~~~ ~&~E.~.~~ ~~~ a:s '~]3 (tS<'Il:§"G 2 Pollen assemblage
:=J <J) Q) Q) U Q ~ l:) QJ - <I)
~;:gr::: <I:>~~:~ <1,);::: E
~ (;)~ -2:::... ,.:J t)
~a:s..c:~ E <:I Ct')!::::
~ l:):-==::::. 2: '-s ""o;z -::;:::::: c ~a:s a:s
~!ij~ ~-
Qj- c: (.)!!:! <..> ta a:s
dates (yr BP) em ~; ~ ~:~ ~ &~ ~ ~ t -2 ~ g. ~ ~ 3 ~ ~ ~ .§ ~~8:.§ ~ ~~2.~~~~ ~~~~~~~ g~~~~ ~~: ]~~ .~~~~ ~ zone
~ ~ ~ ~~t ~ ~ ~ ~~.~ ~ ~ ~ ~ j j i'~ i ~ ~ j~~ ~ .~ ~j~la~ ~'~'§~~a ~~i~i~~j~tj ~~~~ ~
.§.5- J:. O:~b ~ ~ ~ ~ a: s ~ a: <3 ~ ~ ~ l3 ~ ~ ~ c3 8~~ ~ ~ G8~~~6$ ~~~~~b6 stZ~8C;&c%~ ~~~ ~~~~ :E
195
50 266
282
241 ~_______________ -----.I_~_ Hiatus
643
313
100 . 422
! T 481 409

(f 346
T 660
150 T T 365
T 1~~;
T 414
TTT ~~~11S+
200
TTT 373~~~
T T 28°238 t
T 688 520 + Hiatus
.-,' 338
250 ~<o 75
• 0 85
60
o
01
300 61
?
79 +
11530 ± 160--- 253
131 132 +
350
375 281 II
89
96 I
400 42 +

12 280 ± 140 ---- Betula - Gramineae

450
:;;:;:+~.: ~ ~ ~, + l~1
500
169 I ~I
550
: '" I.rr
['TT r' r' r' r' I'TTT r' r' r'l roT r' rrT' f'T'T' I'T'T r' r' r' r' r' f'T'l r' r' r' I iii I I fl fl fl fl fl fl r' fl fl fl fl fl fl r'l fl fl fl fl fl fl fl r' fl fl r'f1 flflfl f'T'l
o 20 0 0 0 0 0 20 o 0 0 o 20 0 0 20 0 20 o 0 0 0 0 0 20 0 0 0 0 20 40 o0 0 0 0 0 0 00 00 00 0 0 00 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 000 0 0 20 40 %
+ Single shell

Figure 5.3.10 Molluscan diagram through Trench HV. Note the faunal differences between the early and later parts of the late-glacial (zones y and z). The assembages
from the chalk rubbles between 245-325 cm, which probably accumulated rather rapidly, may contain elements re-worked from the 'Aller0d soil' (see text). The fine silts
between 235-245 cm yielded an assemblage containing Columella columella, Carychium minimum and Vertigo substriata, suggesting an age close to the Late-
glacial-Post-glacial boundary. The dramatic faunal change seen in the immediately overlying tufa (235 cm) suggests a period of non-deposition, resulting in the absence
of zone a. A similar hiatus occurs at the base of the hillwash, here resulting in the absence of zone e.
 .., 0> ..,. ..,..,
N ..,
'" <l.%)
.., o 0>
o 1+ o !.~
1+ CD_.
1+
'"'"o1+
..,. .. 0
..,. N 0> ~ ()
o o o -Coo
~a­
...'" . ~ .3!g
on
'" '" on on
rl 0.. '!:I
~ ~ ° °° ° °° ° fJ
i5 s~
... •
"0 ~ '1
'< 0.. r!I
0.. VI
s· C> <D -.../ CD-.../ o ~ ~ ~ w cD Total number of shells
o ~ ~~~~~~*~~~ -..t -..I --.L -..I W N m ~ ~ ~
C (JQ iJ.l
0"'] Lymnaea truncatula
s· '"' ;. .
(JQ ~ ...
•
Pisidium spp.
So ~ ~ ~ o~
~ ~ 0 '"~ °'"
;;ro.:= '" 0] Carychium minimum

• -.
(b ::1. ~ 0"'] _
~ <Jo rl
~ ~ ~ 0"']

- .------+ Zonitoides nitidus

Oxyloma pfeifferi
<Jo;:to.. 0"'] Vertigo angustior
o ~ ..... 0"'] Vertigo moufinsiana
g: ::r ~ 0"']
;:t ~ ..., Vertigo antivertigo
..... ..0 I::
o C ::l Vitrea crystallina
g '"'
0=3 • • I
0"'] fuconulus lulvus
0"'] • NeSDvitrea hammonis
C
aQ. 8 0"'] Vitrina pellucida
o(JQ
....,;:t Punctum pygmaeum
~::;l Cochlicopa
-. ~
:~
0"'] _
: ~ ::td +j=+ +=l=-:.:-___ Vitrea contracta
8- CepaealArianta
~. g.0 Deroceras/Limax
<Jo \.)oJ
"0'
'? z
o :~
-•
~ (b 0"'] Clausifia bidentata
:::::'"'
o ;:t Aegopinella nitidula
;::: ~ OJ ••
~. g. 0"'] Aegopinella pura
>0 ~
Carychium tridentatum
"O~
. ~
~ ~. :~ I
0.. 0 Ena obscura
tl'"'
<':l ?f
0"']
0"']

.1 _ Acanthinula aculeata
Vertigo pusilla
d rl
<'l 0 0"'] Columella edentula
<':l S 0"'] Vertigo substriata
i:l"O 0"'] • Lauria cyfindracea
,,5;
N ..... 0"']
Vertigo alpestris
0"']
§. so Balea perversa
0"']
Oxychilus alliarius
0"'] Discus ruderatus
6
~..... ....,
Discus rotundatus
o '"' o~
'"'
;:t~;:t
0"'] Oxychifus cellarius
~ ~ 0"']
Pomatias elegans
.§ 0 0"']
"0 0 Spermodea lamellata
0"']
~ e: Leiostyla anglica
..., ~ 0"']
Acicu/a fusca
0"'] Cochlodina laminata
~ 0..
0"']
~ S' Helicigona lapicida
tii"C Trichia
o....,~0
'"' <Jo :~
?f~ 0"'] Abida secale
.... ~ 0"'] Pupilla muscorum
~~
•0\ Vallonia costata
<Jo VI
C 0
gg
~
1+
00
:~
0=3
-- Vallonia pulchella
;4 0
s·
(JQ'<
..., Vallonia excentrica
0=3
~ sg
0] Vertigo pygmaea
s ~
~ 5, 0"'] Helicella itala
0"'] Succinea oblonga
'"' ~
0"']
Monacha cartusiana
~§" 0"']
Monacha cantiana
s· So 0"'] Helix aspersa
(JQ ~
o 0.. 0=3 Milax spp.
....,~
'"' rl Cecilioides acicufa
?fs- :j
C' Q. CD
~
o
s·
<Jo Mollusc zone
e:~
~ 0..
'"
~ ~
5,ry ~ ~ !:!.
"
~ ~ i'D
:::J
"<ii "<ii oo
CD
..'"
~ ~ 3
C"
ii>
cc
CD
N
t o
:::J
CD
 Analysis offaunal change through the sections
differences result from genuine faunal heterogene-
ity. The molluscan fauna from the silt was virtually
identical to that from the overlying tufa and both
clearly formed during the early Post-glacial. Species
of open-ground declined and Discus ruderatus
occurred throughout these levels. Damp open
woodland is indicated.
20-51 em, Series a (zone e)
Discus ruderatus was replaced by D. rotundatus, a
change that defines the base of zone c. D. rotun-
datus rapidly reached frequencies of -10% of the
fauna and Carycbium tridentatum became domi-
nant. Damp woodland conditions continued.
0-20 em, Series a (zone d)
A whole range of additional species appeared,
including Oxycbilus cellarius, Spermodea lamel-
lata, Leiostyla anglica and Acicula fusca. The
frequency of D. rotundatus increased to values of
- 20%. Closed forest conditions are suggested.
(c) Trench HV
This deep trench, cut with a Hymac excavator, was
situated in the western part of the valley near the
edge of the field adjacent to the present stream
(Fig. 3.1). The following succession was recorded
(Fig. 5.3.10, Table 5.3.5).
327-520 em (zone y)
The basal sediments, which vary considerably in
lithology, yielded an impoverished molluscan
fauna. Dominant species included Vallonia pul-
cbella, Punctum pygmaeum and Pupilla
muscorum (large form). Arctic-alpine species, such
as Catinella arenaria, Vertigo genesii and V.
geyeri, were also present. At some levels (between
420-425 and 365-370 cm), v. genesii reached
values of -40% and completely dominated the
fauna. A detailed biometric study of the Cocblicopa
species from the organic horizon at 420-430 cm
has demonstrated that C. nitens was present,
together with both C. lubrica and C. lubricella (see
Figs 5.3.4-5.3.6). Towards the upper levels,
Arianta arbustorum and Nesovitrea bammonis
first appeared. A base-rich marsh is indicated. The
presence of shade-intolerant species, such as
Vertigo genesii and V. geyeri, suggest that the veg-
etation cannot have been dense throughout the
187
marsh and there must have been more open areas
of bare ground, possibly around spring-fed flushes.
235--i327 em (zone z)
The sediments within this zone were predomi-
nantly chalk gravels containing fewer fossils. An
organic deposit at the base (322-327 cm), from
which a date of 11 530 ± 160 yr HP was obtained,
and a stone-free silt (235-245 cm) at the top of the
chalk gravels, yielded reasonable number of shells
including Carycbium minimum and Columella
columella respectively. Several other species, such
as Tricbia bispida and Abida secale, first appeared
at the base of this zone. Vallonia costata now out-
numbered V. pulcbella and obligate hygrophiles
virtually disappeared. These changes indicate a
shift towards drier conditions.
80-235 em (zones b--d2)
Abrupt faunal changes at the base of the tufa indi-
cate a substantial hiatus at the beginning of the
Post-glacial. It appears that the whole period from
about 10 000-9500 yr HP, from which zone a
assemblages would have been expected, was
unrepresented in this section. A whole suite of new
arrivals appeared and some, such as Carycbium tri-
dentatum, C. minimum, Aegopinella nitidula and
Vitrea crystallina, became dominants. Shade-
demanding taxa predominated and open-ground
species, such as Pupilla muscorum, Abida secale
and Vallonia pulcbella, became rare or vanished
entirely. The expansion of Vertigo substriata, V.
angustior and Zonitoides nitidus in the lower part
of the tufa is indicative of damp conditions. At
210 cm Discus ruderatus was replaced by D.
rotundatus, marking the base of zone c. Vitrea
contracta and Oxycbilus alliarius also appeared at
about the same level and C. tridentatum increased
to values of over 40%. Higher in the sequence
Oxycbilus cellarius, then Pomatias elegans and
finally Spermodea lamellata, Leiostyla anglica and
Acicula fusca appeared, the first marking the base
of zones d 1 and the last three the base of d 2 ,
although this division of zone d cannot be distin-
guished in other records from Holywell Coombe
(see below). Closed woodland is suggested
throughout.
30-80 em (zone f)
The assemblage from the hillwash (Fig. 5.3.10)
reflects a major reversion to open-ground. At the
 <n
CD E E
.r:::. ~ ::s
::s .;:: 0 c::
<n E <n Q) .~ .2
cu ~ cu
Q)
><
cu cu
2 .l).! Q) cu ~ ~ S....
'0 0 ~ S E .c:: c:: cu Q)
:~ <> Q)
.l).! ~ .§ c::
Q; <> <> E ::. Q)
::s ::2 ~ Q ~ ~ c:: 0.. o:::!
.c ::s :::: Q.. ::s cu cu Q.. ~ ~ Q) 0..
'"cu<>
Q) Q..
Radiocarbon E '" '"0<> Q.. cu <n
.scu
::::I
E Q.. -§'" E cu '"~ Q) E
Q)
~ ~
<= cu .!!! .!!! <> E 0 0 0
"" 0 cu ::s
dates (yr BPj em ..1
cu c:: .2 c:: c:: :.::: Q) 0 .~ ,g> .~ <> c::
(ij :::Q.. 0 <> g g .c:: :§
<> c:: <> "t::: ~ .... "t::: Q)
0 cu
::s ::s ::s
e §.
;§ Q.. IJJ Cl.. ~ ~ (.) (.) a~ ~ ~ ~ ~ a -.I
:Ss: ~
0

0
'"
4711
185
11 830 ± 140 _ _ ~ /, /'0 I
43 + + + +
300 0 / 169 I +
, ,/
237 +
~I +
• , ~
102 + +
, , / 135
f +
~I +
410 + +
/ /
, , 317
/ 454 r
, 407 +
~ ,
<l
331 + +
/ 136
350 108
ti r
+
t +
j +
13160 ±400 112 + +
• • I
I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I
r-r-r-r I ' I ' IT I ' I I I rr I " " I ' I ' rr r-r I " " rr I I I I
0 0 0 0 0 0 20 40 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 20 40 60 0 20 40 %

+ Single shell

Figure 5.3.12 Molluscan diagram through Trench 4. Note the increase in the frequencies of Lymnaea truncatula and Pisidium casertanum above 320 cm, suggesting
the development of wetter conditions (see also Figure 5.1.2). The assemblages belong in their entirety to zone y.
 ~ E
~~ E "2 19.2
~ '" '" ~ (l)ct:l!.!:!
'" '< ;:: '"EE o "'
~~ ~ ~ ~ - ~-5~ ~~ "' ~~ ~ ~ ~.~ .g ~ ttl
'" c:::_~
0'"' ~ ~~E '" '"
'" "'''' .§ ~ ~ ~ :~ (j)~::::: ~ ~ ~:g ~ ~ 2.~ ~ ~.§
"" '"
.0
Q> _2 .!!! ~ Q) E ~ ~ ~~~ ~
~8 j '"''''''''
::=rnCl.. "''"" :g .~ ! ~~ J
"§ ~o.. ~ ~.!:: <1>0",
~
I ~0.. "'-'" ~~~ '" ~'" ~E §~~.9.~: ~~
~'" Ell '"0.. '"'" 2. ~ § <u Q) C ~V,) O)Ctl E :::
E '" E~ '" '" .S .~ S.~ ~ ttS ~2 Q) e
~ .~ .~ ~~ o Q) :c: o~(,) (l)ooEo .S
'" '" 0
Radiocarbon ~ ~ ~~~ ~ ~ O').E CtI ~~ Jg ~ ~
- '" ~§ ~ ,g'" g '" 0 '"' "'" 0
g ~~ ~ ] ~ :;:;:"- Q)
~~ .~~'~.~-g~ ~~ ~ '8~
"'"
.:
dates (yr BP) ~ '" ~ ~:e :et:e & :e <5
em -E~
~ ..... ~8 ~ ~
« ~ ~ ~ ~~ 'o"' "''" ~~~ '"
:s l0} }
l'" ~~s: ~~ ~o ~ ~ ~ ~~ ~~ ~~~~ ~~~~ ,,-U)l)
0'" '" :; Pollen assemblage zon
l} '"
50
883 + I I I _ I I .1 + I 1 _ ••
282
•• + I I I I I I
• _II I_ .+
275 I + • I • + _ 1 1 II I.
• I I •
• •••
157 + I • I + - I I
+ I I ••
•• •• • I
••
I • I • I
••
804 I• II I• I
100
497 I • I I I • I I • I -
+ -
I I I
+ I II
1+_
I_
•• • • I _
310 I .1 I I I I I I - + I
--
74
•
I I •
• I I
• I
• - I ••
crusts 97
56 • + I • I • • +
..T.. 208
• I I I
- I I
• ••
• I • • I •
•
+ + + I
•
T' l' 1281 + I • I I I I I • I I I
- I.
-_I -- -
TTT
,T..
562.
638
·
-
- II.
I.
- -+ ••
•
I +
I.
I.
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
- + -
I
I
I
I • +
I
I
T';T 518 + I
200
T
T
T 370
580
_II.
-II.
I

I
•
I_
I.
I.
I•
I
II
I
I•
•
I
I
-
- - ••• •
• - +
I I
I
•
I I
I
I + I +
b
• I I I +
\
T T 1122
T 525'
- • I I •
I
I •
I I
I I •
• .1 - - • I
+ I-
+ I
• I
I
I
I + Corylus avellana
- III • ••
9460 ± 140 _____ 250 • •• I
~
I;. :·;. 1m
T 't 237 I I
- ,--.
T 216 I _I I I • I +
•
T T 339
b •~
300 I I
1 _- _ I I I I I I I-I Betula· Pinus sylvestris
T
T T 204
r II-rL t ~ ~u · • I .1 1- I
.- a
T 262 • • I
• •
T T m •
112
•I •r -
304
9760 ± 100 -350 517
~r
Juniperus communis·
~!I'
140 z Gramineae
~~ .
400
['TTl ['TTl rrrrf1 rr rrrrrr' rn rrn r r I I I I II I I I rn rn rrrrrrr' r r rrn r r r r rrrrl rn rrn r rrrrl r J'TTTTT' r r r r r r r rrn r r r
000 20 0 20 0 0 0 20 0 o 0 0 20 20 0 0 0 o 0 000 o 0 o 0 20 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 000 %
+ Single shell

Figure 5.3.13 Molluscan diagram through Trench 5 (Horseshoe Spring), showing a detailed succession from the beginning of the Post-glacial until just after about
8000 yr BP. The humic silts below the tufa (390-345 cm) show rising values ofJuniperus pollen (Figure 5.1.4), suggesting climatic amelioration at the beginning of the
Post-glacial. The zone z assemblages here are therefore likely to belong, at least in their upper part, to the early Post-glacial (see also data from Trench 6).
 Mollusca
base of the hillwash there is second hiatus in this
profile, as a result of which zone e, spanning the
Neolithic and Bronze Age, is missing. The three
Vallonia species by now accounted for -30% of
the fauna and Trichia had expanded to frequencies
of -20%. Pupilla muscorum and Vertigo pygmaea
had both returned and were joined by Helicella
itala. Shade-demanding species had declined or dis-
appeared by the the beginning of this zone. The
introduced Mediterranean snail Helix aspersa,
which is the indicator species of zone f, and
Monacha cantiana, presumably also introduced
(cf. Kerney, 1966), appeared for the first time in
these levels.
(d) Trench 3
This trench was situated near the valley axis (Fig.
3.1) very close to the location of Pit 1 of Kerney et
al. (1980). In comparison with this earlier record, an
identical lithostratigraphy was apparent and the bios-
tratigraphy, described below, was reassuringly
similar. The basal Late-glacial sediments did -yield a
molluscan fauna but the numbers were too low to
plot. Significantly both Trichia hispida and Abida
secale, indicative of zone z, were represented. The
following succession was recorded from the overly-
ing Post-glacial sediments (Fig. 5.3.11, Table 5.3.6).
184-265 em (zones b and c)
The fauna from these levels was a mixture of dry
ground, marsh and aquatic species. Freshwater
taxa, principally Pisidium spp., were particularly
common and included species of swampy ground
(P. casertanum and P. personatum) and more per-
manent water (P. milium, P. subtruncatum, P.
tenuilineatum). Marsh taxa were also common,
especially towards the top of this division. Bulk
samples of the organic tufa below 220 cm also
yielded the occasional specimens of Vertigo gene-
sii and Columella columella, survivors from the
Late-glacial, together with Nesovitrea petronella
(see section (6), below). Most of the dry ground
species recorded suggest a thin woodland cover.
Carychium tridentatum, Aegopinella spp.,
Vertigo pusilla, V. substriata, Lauria cylindracea
and Discus ruderatus are important elements of
this fauna. Vallonia costata occurred at frequen-
cies of 5-10% and Pupilla muscorum and Abida
secale also occurred in low numbers. All of these
will live in patches of broken stony soil in dry open
woodland and it is perhaps significant that obliga-
190
tory grassland species, such as Vallonia excentrica
and Helicella itala, did not occur. D. rotundatus,
the indicator fossil of zone c, appeared at
205-210 cm, a level dated at 8630 ± 120 yr BP and
in which D. ruderatus appeared for the last time.
155-184 em (zone d)
Swampy conditions continued, although the purely
aquatic element declined markedly, as did some of
the marsh taxa (Carychium minimum, Zonitoides
nitidus, Vertigo moulinsiana and V. angustior).
Aegopinella nitidula increased to values of - 20%
and D. rotundatus, then Oxychilus cellarius,
Spermodea lamellata, Leiostyla anglica and
Acicula jusca became important elements, at least
during much of the early part of this division.
Carychium tridentatum remained a dominant
species at values of - 20%, falling from maximum fre-
quencies of -40% at the end of the previous zone.
Open-ground species (Abida secale and Pupilla
muscorum) virtually disappeared and Vallonia
costata declined significantly. All this suggests the
development of a more closed forest cover.
Towards the top of this zone there was a reversal
in some of these trends. Woodland species such as
A. nitidula, C. tridentatum and D. rotundatus
declined and others (S. lamellata, L. anglica and
A. jusca) almost vanished. Conversely Pomatias
elegans, Vallonia costata and Trichia spp. became
more common. Cochlodina laminata and
Helicigona lapicida also became consistent mem-
bers of the fauna. This suggests that the woodland
was thinning and the environment was becoming
drier and more open.
100-155 em (zone e)
The trends initated in the upper levels of the tufa
continued into the buried soil at the base of the
hillwash. Trichia now accounted for nearly 30% of
the fauna. Slug remains ascribable to both
Deroceras/Limax and Milax were also abundant.
Pomatias elegans remained frequent, Vertigo pyg-
maea appeared and Vallonia excentrica joined the
two other species of this genus. Shade-demanding
taxa persisted, but in very low numbers. The fauna
suggests an essentially open environment with
broken ground and scrub.
25-100 em (zone f)
Open conditions continued and shade-demanding
elements were virtually eliminated. Additional
 .... 0-:tJ
C> - -
.... CD CD CD0_.
"''''
." CD UI 1/10
C> ... Co> ~n
C> C> -e",
1+ 1+ 1+ ;;.
.... CD ~ ~o
C> C> UI
-'"
~g:.
0.e;.'f.I °3 "
= g.1'"
g·o
, , ,

..
, , , , ! ! , , , ! !
~;~;;;.;~-< ""'it
!1C/
= =/i~'}')~/~
to"" ~~~
g. ~ \,II ............ O ...... CO.,f:o. (0)"" c:;
d) en ....., CJ,:I ....... cn<.nd)O 00'"
(\) n • D:I til (,0) 0 ...... 0 ...... (,11<0 Total number of shells
o (jO ... '" '"
~ s· ;... ;;, °l Lymnaea truncatula
;l.n~
'<i .... ~. 0-:::1
Pisidium casertanum
... 9:::::0 .,CD 0-:::J Pisidium obtusale
o ;:l"
=!1C/ = ~Ol Pisidium milium
1::. '!ll
=
0. ~. ~ 0-:::J Pisidium subtruncatum
'"dg.~ 0-:::J Pisidium tenuilineatum
0-:::J Columella columella
s~ g.(\) 9: Vertigo genes;;
\r g. ~ 0] II
§:~§ Pupilla muscorum
0" ~ ... °l
t::. Abida secale
...
= p 0~
~. t::: &S :] Vallonia pulchella
~[~
0. ~ ~ :]
g. ~ Vallonia costata
°l
Vitrina pellucida
so go(\) ::r0\
=tIl· ° l -
Euconulus fulvus
til
0 0Z
== °l
.tIln 'tl... ...(\) 0] Punctum pygmaeum
(\) ...
~
...(\) ::r
__
'tl til
Q. ...
~ Cochlicopa
~.. '<i!ln ::r
(\)
°l Trichia hispida
--
!1C/ 0 ~
g. ~ g
(\) til 'tl
'" 'tl
0" ~
0 ;:!. 0-:::j
(\)
til 0.
= '!ll= ...,0
:J
°3
Cepaea/Arianta
Deroceras/Limax
~ ~. ~ Nesovitrea hammonis
o g. = ° 1-
""g.(\) 0-:::J Helicella itala
~ (\) N
0-:::J Catinella arena ria
= 0" '" 0-:::J Oxyloma pfeifferi
~!1C/~(\). ~ 0-:::J Vertigo pygmaea
0-:::J Carychium minimum
~ • '<i
0.!1C/ ~ °1
!"l 0 til
0-:::J Columella edentula
0-:::J Vertigo pusilla
0-:::J
;(\) g.~. Vertigo moulinsiana
dl s· 0-:::J Zonitoides nitidus
til ...
7 ::r Vertigo substriata
!1C/ (\) °l
iii(\) 0-:::J Vitrea crystallina
Q. e; Vitrea contracta
~-<
°l
°l Aegopinella nitidula
:;idl
(\) :4 0-:::J Vertigo anti vertigo
Carychium tridentatum
e:ca
~ Q.
'<i e;.
o ~
cia 0.
e. g.
:J
0-:::J
0-:::J
Vertigo angustior
Acanthinula aculeata
n '"
til ... 0-:::J Aegopinella pura
(\) ::r 0-:::J Oxychilus alliarius
9:(\) 0-:::J
S ~ Clausilia bidentata
(\) 0-:::J Ena obscura
a ::r...
til (\)
0-:::J Discus rotundatus
/"\ N °l Leiostyla anglica
NO
0-:::J Lauria cylindracea
Y'=
~(\) 0-:::J Milaxspp
o.e:.
n N #-
eg Mollusc zone
S'§ G)"- til ~
~
~ 0. .,3 "5-'"t:: c:CD 2-
(\)~ --CD ii) iii
::> ~
0.. CD t::
.,., '"
CD O "tI 1/1
S- 1/1
'"
O t:: CD
3 .,., 3
3 cr
t:: ':S.
'";;;- .,<Ii iii"
ca
CD
~. N
o
CD
'"
 Mollusca
species included Helicella itala, Monacha can-
tiana and Helix aspersa, the indicator species for
zone f. The frequency of V pulchella and the
appearance of Succinea oblonga suggest moist
conditions with perhaps areas of bare mud.
(e) Trench 4
This trench was in direct alignment with Trench 3,
but was located further upslope (Fig. 3.1). Organic
deposits had been located within the Late-glacial
sequence in boreholes and this trench was exca-
vated specifically to study these in open section.
The following sequence, entirely attributable to
zone y, was revealed (Fig. 5.3.12, Table 5.3.7).
320-360 em
The molluscan fauna from the basal organic deposits
was dominated by the amphibious pulmonate
Lymnaea truncatula and Vallonia pulchella, with
Catinella arenaria, Pupilla muscorum and
Cochlicopa spp. occurring as subordinate elements.
Vertigo genesii and Cochlicopa nitens also
occurred. A base-rich marsh is indicated.
290-320 em
Lymnaea truncatula increased to even higher fre-
quencies in the middle part of the organic deposit
(-60%) and the bivalve Pisidium casertanum now
accounted for about 30% of the fauna. The fre-
quencies of V pulchella and P. muscorum fell.
These changes indicate much wetter conditions
with areas of bare muddy ground. The meagre
aquatic fauna suggests only shallow water depths,
perhaps no more than a few centimetres.
2BO-290em
Although the number of shells recovered from this
level was low, they nevertheless appear to reflect a
reversion to drier conditions, the frequencies of P.
muscorum and V pulchella expanding at the
expense of 1. truncatula and P. casertanum.
(f) Trench 5
This trench was located near Horseshoe Spring
(Fig. 3.1) and was cut specifically to sample a thick
deposit of tufa. The following succession was
revealed (Fig. 5.3.13, Table 5.3.8):
192
345-395 em (zone z)
Humic chalk muds between these levels were dom-
inated by Trichia hispida at values of -30%, but
declining upwards. Pupilla muscorum, Abida
secale and Columella columella occurred as sub-
ordinate elements. The fauna is typical of the
Late-glacial, but the records of Carychium mini-
mum, Columella edentula and the occasional shell
of Vertigo pusilla (if not intrusive) suggest that it
represents an episode at the very end of this period
or, more likely, the beginning of the Post-glacial. A
damp open environment is suggested.
270-345 em (zone a)
Conditions became much wetter and led to the
accumulation of an organic detritus mud before the
initiation of spring activity and the onset of tufa for-
mation. Marsh species such as Carychium
minimum, Zonitoides nitidus, Oxyloma pfeifferi
and Vertigo moulinsiana expanded at the expense
of the dry ground elements. There were some sig-
nificant changes between 285-305 cm. Vertigo
moulinsiana peaked and reached values of - 20%,
whereas other species such as Vallonia pulchella,
V costata, Trichia hispida, Vertigo pusilla and
Aegopinella nitidula declined or disappeared. The
character of the marsh had clearly changed, possi-
bly towards an open, flooded swamp. The fauna
from above 280 cm recorded further changes, the
Vallonia species returning to their former values
and A. nitidula and Trichia reappearing. Vertigo
angustior suddenly appeared and comprised 15%
of the fauna. Discus ruderatus also occurred for the
first time. These changes reflect the transition from
open swamp to a drier, more shaded environment.
140-270 em (zone b)
At the base of this division the fauna was dominated
by hygrophiles such as Carychium minimum, V
pulchella and V angustior, but these progressively
gave way to a range of shade-demanding species
such as C. tridentatum, Lauria cylindracea,
Clausilia bidentata, Acanthinula aculeata and
Aegopinella pura. Both Abida secale and D. ruder-
atus occurred in low numbers throughout,
implying that the woodland cover was open.
50-140 em ( zone e)
Woodland conditions persisted. The major differ-
ence from the previous zone is the replacement of
 Analysis offaunal change through the sections
D. ruderatus by D. rotundatus, the latter of which
occurred throughout at values of greater than 10%.
Open-country xerophiles, such as A. secale, were
now eliminated. A more heavily shaded environ-
ment is indicated. In the uppermost sample, single
shells of both Pomatias elegans and Succinea
oblonga were recovered.
(g) Trench 6
This was not actually a trench but a temporary
exposure created during the construction of the
portal through Castle Hill (Figs 3.19 and 3.20). The
following succession was demonstrated (Fig.
5.3.14, Table 5.3.9).
60-110 em (zone z)
This zone is characterized by an open country
assemblage of Late-glacial character, dominated by
Trichia hispida (which declined in frequency
thoughout the zone), Abida secale, Pupilla mus-
corum and Vallonia pulchella. Vertigo genesii,
Columella columella and Catinella arenaria are
noteworthy arctic-alpine elements. Shells were
scarce in the lower levels (below 70 cm), so con-
sequently it was necessary to analyse larger
samples.
Pollen and insect fossils, together with radiocar-
bon evidence, indicate that the levels above about
90 cm belong to the early Post-glacial, rather than
the terminal Late-glacial.
40~0 em (zone a)
A wide range of species such as Carychium mini-
mum, Columella edentula, Vertigo pusilla, V.
moulinsiana, V. substriata, Zonitoides nitidus
and Vitrea crystallina appeared at or towards the
base of this zone. Strictly open-ground and arctic-
alpine elements were suppressed or eliminated.
This suggests the development of a more stable and
abundant vegetational cover and a shift towards
wetter conditions. In the uppermost sample the
Pisidium fauna indicates not only swampy ground
(P. casertanum, P. obtusale) but also more perma-
nent water (P. milium, P. subtruncatum). The
humic chalk muds became more organic upwards
and culminated in peat containing fragments of
wood and other plant remains. Compressed hazel-
nuts were observed at the top of this unit. No
shells were present in this peat.
193
0-25 em (zone d)
The tufa overlying the peat yielded a diverse assem-
blage dominated by Carychium tridentatum with
C. minimum, Vitrea contracta, Aegopinella
nitidula and a range of shade-demanding taxa as
subordinate elements. Other noteworthy species
included Vertigo angustior, Discus rotundatus
and Leiostyla anglica. The last indicates attribution
to zone d, demonstrating a gap in the faunal suc-
cesssion covering zones band c, probably
represented in the shell-free peat. The environment
had become less swampy and more heavily shaded.
(h) Cut-&-cover Section
This section was exposed on the interfluve
between the Holywell Coombe and Horseshoe
Spring valleys during the construction of the cut-
and-cover tunnel. A small hollow, about 20 m wide,
was filled with chalky colluvial sediments. A well
developed grey soil had formed within these sedi-
ments (Figs 3.21 and 3.22) and could be traced for
some distance on either side of the hollow. The
position of the mollusc samples (SP 2) is shown on
Fig. 3.22; the fossiliferous part of the sequence was
entirely representative of zone z (Fig. 5.3.15, Table
5.3.10).
130-180 em (zone z)
Shells were present only within the soil itself and
in those samples from immediately above and
below it. The number of shells/500 g increased
progressively from the lowermost sample, below
the soil, through the soil itself to reach a maximum
frequency in the top 5 cm of the soil. Above this
level the numbers fell sharply and shells were com-
pletely absent above 130 cm. The assemblage
recovered is unmistakably of Late-glacial character,
being dominated by Vallonia pulchella, V. costata,
Trichia hispida, Pupilla muscorum and Abida
secale. The recorded occurrence of Carychium
minimum throughout the soil is especially inter-
esting because this has not been regarded as a
standard member of Late-glacial communities. The
record of a single shell of Vertigo geyeri is also
noteworthy.
(i) Section below Sugarloaf Hill (BS)
This section was exposed on the north-western
flank of Sugarloaf Hill during construction of the
 eft.

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+ Single shell

Figure 5.3.16 Molluscan diagram through the 'AJler0d soil' exposed at Cherry Garden. The 'upper' and 'lower' soils are lateral equivalents of the same soil that has been
thrust upon itself by major shearing. The assemblages belong in their entirety to zone z.
 Mollusca
(a)
Figure 5.3.17 Maps showing the modem distributions of (a) Columella columella and (b) Vertigo genesii.
cut-and-cover tunnel (Fig. 1.4). Because the sedi-
ments had clearly been displaced downslope (plate
1 (d); Figs 3.24-3.25), only a relatively coarse sam-
pling programme was undertaken through the
Late-glacial part of the sequence (Fig. 3.24). Seven
samples were analysed for molluscs (Table 5.3.11),
numbered 1-7 in decreasing order of age.
The basal three samples were taken below,
within and above the 'Moss layer' (Fig. 3.24).
Sample 1 proved to be barren, but the other sam-
ples yielded a marsh fauna that included species
such as Catinella arenaria and Vertigo genesii.
Samples 4 and 5 were taken from the top of the
basal humic silts, the first (4) from the same level
that yielded the birch trunk dated at 12 150 ±
110 yr BP and the second (5) from 20 cm higher.
Both these samples contained marsh faunas, simi-
lar to those from the earlier samples, which are all
attributable to zone y.
A thin organic lens within the overlying chalky
colluvium produced sample 6, whereas sample 7
came from the 'Aller0d soil' (Fig. 3.24). These sam-
ples, dominated by marshland snails, included
Trichia hispida, Arianta arbustorum, Nesovitrea
hammonis and Carychium minimum, all which
were absent from the earlier samples. Abida secale,
presumably derived from drier ground, was also
present in sample 7. These two assemblages are
therefore attributable to zone z.
196
(b)
0) Cherry Garden
Between February and April 1989, excavations
associated with the opening of the Cherry Garden
Watermain Duct, immediately west of Castle Hill,
created temporary sections through Late-glacial
deposits (Fig. 3.26). These sediments had been
extensively sheared and at one position the
'Aller0d Soil' had been thrust up upon itself to form
a double unit. Mollusc samples were taken through
both the 'upper' and 'lower' parts of this sheared
soil (Fig. 5.3.16, Table 5.3.12).
The recorded assemblages are typically Late-
glacial, being dominated by Vallonia pulchella, V
costata, Pupilla muscorum and Vitrina pellucida.
Nesovitrea hammonis, Abida secale and Helicella
itala were also important members of this com-
munity. As expected, the assemblages from the
two units were virtually indistinguishable and it is
interesting to note that certain trends, such as the
upward decline of V pellucida and corresponding
increase in Abida and H itala, were discernible in
both profiles. Once again Carychium minimum
was present in the 'Aller0d soil'. Radiocarbon
dates of 11 580 ± 100 yr BP on charcoal and 11 430
± 100 yr BP on shells of Arianta arbustorum were
obtained from the upper part of the 'upper' soil
unit.
 ...

-
...
...
yr
~.. ~\. J'
1
.. ~ IfF .
r - .', £~ ~tb..
- ,....
- .

,.
-
.
-
Figure 5.3.18 Variation in fossil Pupilla muscorum from two different sympatric populations in Holywell Coombe. a-e. From bulk samples taken from the Early Bronze
Age 'midden' towards the base of the hillwash in the Main Section. f-m. From a Late-glacial organic deposit (dated at 12280 ± 140 yr BP), Trench HV 420-430 cm.
......
~
~
\0
00
~
~

Figure 5.3.19 Vertigo genesii from Trench HV 420-430 cm. a-b. Specimen with small swelling on the parietal area. c-d. Specimens lacking parietal structures.
 Notes on selected species
(6) NOTES ON SELECTED SPECIES
Most of the molluscan taxa recovered still form
part of the British fauna. However, there were sev-
eral species found that today are either extremely
local or absent in south-east England and some that
are totally extinct in the British Isles. Some of these
are discussed below.
Catinella arenaria (Fig. 5.3.3)
This species lives on bare mud in calcareous
flushes but is also known from damp sparsely veg-
etated hollows in coastal dunes. Although it is
known from widely scattered localities in western
Europe and North Africa, it is rare today and con-
fined to only a few sites. In the British Isles it is
known from dune slacks at Braunton Burrows,
Devon (Baker, 1965), an upland marsh (Tam Moor)
in Cumbria (Coles and Colville, 1979) and from a
few calcareous marshes in central Ireland. It is
clearly relict in Britain as it was a common member
of Late-glacial marsh communities over large areas.
At Folkestone, like many of these other sites, it
occurred throughout the Late-glacial, but was elim-
inated at the beginning of the Post-glacial, probably
because the site became increasingly shaded by
trees, rather than for any purely climatic reason.
Cochlicopa nitens (Fig. 5.3.4)
Today this is a scarce species known only from a
few calcareous fens and marshes (rarely wet cal-
careous woodland) in central and eastern Europe
(Nilsson, 1956; Hudec, 1960). The Folkestone
shells represent the first records of this species
from the British Late-glacial (Preece, 1992b). In
Holywell Coombe it was recovered only from
marsh sediments that accumulated during the early
part of the Late-glacial (13-12 000 yr BP). Here it
was associated with several marsh species, such as
Catinella arenaria and Vertigo genesii, that today
are commonly regarded as having arctic-alpine
affinities. Lozek (1958) also reported the fossil
occurrence of C. nitens in Czechoslovakia again
from communities of Late-glacial character (with
Vertigo genesii and Columella columella). The
absence of C. nitens from younger sediments at
Holywell Coombe may have something to do with
changes in local hydrology that have altered the
character of the marsh. The species has now been
recognized in early Post-glacial tufas in Lincolnshire
and North Wales, demonstrating that it survived
much later at other British sites (Preece, 1992b).
199
Other Cochlicopa species (Fig.5.3.4)
In the light of recent work on the continent,
there is currently great uncertainty concerning the
systematics of European Cochlicopa. The situation
is complicated by the fact that many populations
are self-fertilizing, although allozymic differences
do exist between C. nitens, C. lubrica and C. lubri-
cella (Armbruster and Schlegel, 1994). C.
repentina, described by Hudec (1960) from
Czechoslovakia, was said to be anatomically dis-
tinct from C. lubrica, but indistinguishable on shell
characters. Recent work, however, has shown that
repentina shows almost no isozymic differentiation
from lubrica, suggesting that they form part of a
single species complex (Armbruster and Schlegel,
1994).
Columella columeUa
This species lives in damp, calcareous places
including grassland and scrub, often favouring
stony ground (Kerney et al., 1983). It is unknown
living in Britain today and has a distinctly arctic-
alpine modem range (Fig. 5.3.17). At Holywell
Coombe it was absent from the early part of the
Late-glacial but occurred in Late-glacial deposits
post-dating the 'Aller0d soil' and persisted during
the earliest part of the Post-glacial, when it was
joined by C. edentula. Occasional shells of C. col-
umella were recovered from bulk samples of the
basal organic tufa in Trench 3, deposited between
9300 and 9000 yr BP. If, as seems likely, these shells
are not reworked, they represent the youngest
known occurrence of this species in Britain,
although C. columella was also present in the early
Holocene in Ireland (Preece et al., 1986). C. col-
umella is often taken to be an indicator of cold
climate, but these occurrences show that this is not
always the case. Indeed at the base of Trench 5 it
was common in the humic silts yielding high fre-
quencies of Juniperus pollen (Figs 5.3.13 and
5.1.4). Its final disappearance in the British Isles
was therefore not caused by the increase in tem-
perature at the beginning of the Holocene, but was
brought about by the encroachment of forest, elim-
inating its open habitat.
Pupilla muscorum
This is an extremely variable species. At Folkestone
a number of different morphologies occurred,
sometimes sympatrically (Fig. 5.3.18). Most speci-
mens had strong parietal denticles, but those from
 Mollusca
the basal Late-glacial levels, deposited between
13000 and 12000 yr BP, were not only significantly
larger, both taller and broader, but were also gen-
erally edentulous, although there was much
variation (Fig. 5.3.18). Interestingly, these large
Late-glacial forms were recovered not from sedi-
ments representing the usual dry grassland habitat
of this species, but from marsh assemblages with
Vallonia putchella, Vertigo genesii and members
of the Succineidae. Kerney et at. (1964) reported
precisely the same pattern of occurrence from
comparable deposits at Brook. This large form is
similar to var pratensis Clessin, which is wide-
spread in Scandinavia. Rousseau and Laurin (1984)
and Rousseau (1989, 1997) undertook a biometric
analysis of Pupilla from both cold-climate and
interglacial sediments at Achenheim, France, and
also found a relationship between shell morphol-
ogy (chiefly height and outline of the shell
aperture) and climate. They regarded this morpho-
logical plasticity as the result of ecophenotypic
adaptation. The sympatric occurrence of various
distinct morphologies at Holywell Coombe means
that ecophenotypic adaptation cannot provide a
complete explanation, implying that there is scope
for much further work on this problem.
Vertigo genesii
This species is today restricted to calcareous seep-
ages on mountain hillsides (Kerney et al., 1983). Its
modern range is distinctly northern and alpine (Fig.
5.3.17), it is also widespread in Scandinavia (par-
ticularly in the north) and known from sites in
Germany and Switzerland (Kerney et at., 1983). In
Britain it was first discovered at Widdybank Fell,
Upper Teesdale, where it lives in a calcareous flush
alongside arctic-alpine plants, for which this local-
ity is famous (Coles and Colville, 1980). It has
recently been found living in Perth shire (B.
Colville, pers. comm.). At Holywell Coombe this
species occurred throughout most of the Late-
glacial, often dominating marsh assemblages, but it
was abruptly eliminated during the early Post-
glacial, probably by the spread of woodland.
Although the species is characterized by a lack of
apertural denticles, occasionally a rudimentary
knob-shaped swelling occurs on the parietal area
(Fig. 5.3.19). About 20% (27 out of 127) of the
shells from HV 420-430 cm had such a structure.
Pokryszko (1990) also reported the occurrence of
this structure, but only in about 1 in 30 of the spec-
imens she examined from Norway. This may reflect
the more calcareous substrate at Folkestone.
200
Vertigo geyeri.
Like V. genesii, this species also lives in upland cal-
careous marshes. It has a boreo-alpine modern range
and is known from Scandinavia, the former USSR,
the Alps, and parts of Germany and Czechoslovakia
(Kerney et at., 1983). In the British Isles it is known
from several sites in central Ireland, Cumbria (Coles
and Colville, 1979), Perthshire and Islay (B. Colville,
pers. comm.). Its distribution is relict, as it was fre-
quent in the Late-glacial and early Post-glacial. At
Holywell Coombe, although it occurred throughout
much of the Late-glacial, it was never as frequent as
V. genesii, merely occurring as odd shells in various
samples. It does appear to have survived later into
the Post-glacial than V. genesii, but all traces of it
vanish in sediments younger than - 9000 yr BP.
Vertigo angustior
The species is characteristic of open wet meadows
with a rich grassy vegetation (Norris and Colville,
1974). Although not an uncommon Post-glacial
fossil over large areas of southern Britain, it is
scarce in Britain today (Kerney, 1976b). It is note-
worthy that many of its modern British sites are
coastal, where it occupies a distinct zone (with
Carex spp. and Iris pseudacorus) transitional
between saltmarsh and sand dunes (Preece and
Willing, 1984; Killeen, 1992) or between grassland
and freshwater marsh (Killeen, 1992). It seems
likely that its disappearance from many inland sites
might have been linked with the spread of forest
during the Post-glacial. The survival of this species
in coastal areas may possibly result from the fact
that these were never completely forested during
the Holocene.
Abida secale
This is a xerophile with rather specialized ecologi-
cal requirements. It is strongly calciphile and needs
open, relatively treeless environments, preferably
with a certain amount of bare or loose rock. It is
clearly capable of surviving intensely cold winters
and in the Alps extends up to at least 2700 m, an
altitude not far below the permanent snow-line
(Germain, 1930). In view of its modern western
Atlantic and Alpine range, which on the continent
does not extend north of central Germany, its
occurrence in the British Late-glacial is remarkable
(Kerney, 1963). At Holywell Coombe it was absent
in the earliest part of the Late-glacial, but was found
in large numbers in the 'Allerod soil' and later
depOSits, although it appears to have been elimi-
 Notes on selected species
(a)
Figure 5.3.20 Maps showing the modem distributions of (a) Leiostyla anglica and (b) Spermodea lamellata.
nated by the spread of forest during the early Post-
glacial. It no longer lives on the North Downs, but
still occurs elsewhere in Britain, where its patchy
and disjunct range suggests a relict distribution
(Kerney, 1962).
Leiostyla anglica
This is an inhabitant of marshes and damp hollows
in woodland, where it can be very common. It has
a markedly western Atlantic modern distribution
(Fig. 5.3.20), ranging from Scotland, western
France dIe de Re), NW Spain and Portugal to North
Africa and Madeira (Seddon and Tatterfield, 1993).
Discus ruderatus
It is frequent over much of Ireland, but is only
locally common in northern and western Britain
(Kerney, 1976b). There are very few living records
from south-east England, but it is known from
woodlands in Sussex and from a single site in Kent
(preece, 1984). Although rare in south-east England
today, its distribution in Post-glacial deposits
reveals that it was once both common and wide-
spread (Kerney, 1976b). At Folkestone it first
appeared about 7500 yr BP, but it had become
extinct there by the Neolithic.
Spermodea lamellata
A species characteristic of old deciduous wood-
land, this snail occurs in leaf litter or amongst
201
(b)
damp moss. It has a NW European Atlantic
modern range occurring in Norway (to 64°N,
mainly coastal), southernmost Sweden, Denmark
and northern Germany, with disjunct outposts in
Portugal (Gittenberger, 1989), separated by over
2000 km from its main range in the north (Fig.
5.3.20). In the British Isles, like L. anglica, it has a
markedly northern and western distribution with
only a few relict colonies in south-east England
(Kerney, 1976b). At Folkestone, like L. anglica, it
appeared about 7500 yr BP but had vanished by
about 5000 yr BP.
This species inhabits woodland (mainly conifer-
ous), marshes and occasionally moist grassland
(Kerney et al., 1983). It is widespread throughout
Norway, Sweden and Finland and is also known
from the Pyrenees (rarely), Alps and Jura and in
scattered localities in the mountains of south and
central Germany (Fig. 5.3.21). It is unknown living
in Britain, although it seems to have been quite
widespread, at least in southern Britain, for a brief
period during the early Post-glacial. At Folkestone,
it was only present in low numbers between about
9500 and 8500 yr BP, when it was replaced by its
southern congener, Discus rotundatus (Fig.
5.3.21).
 Mollusca
Figure 5.3.21 Maps showing the modem distributions of Discus ruderatus and Discus rotundatus. D. rotundatus
replaces D. ruderatus during the early Post-glacial.
Nesovitrea petronella (Fig. 5.3.22)
This is a catholic species with a boreo-alpine
modem range, common in Scandinavia, the Swiss
and French Alps and parts of Germany (Kerney et
ai., 1983), but not known living in Britain.
Although not detected in any samples analysed
quantitatively, adult shells were recognized in bulk
samples of the organic tufa from Trench 3
(220-265 cm), along with Discus ruderatus.
Radiocarbon dates demonstrate that these deposits
accumulated between 9300 and 9000 yr BP. A simi-
lar history is known from its other British
Post-glacial sites (Preece and Robinson, 1984;
Preece, 1990).
Pisidium tenuilineatum (Fig. 5.3.23)
This small bivalve is generally associated with large
lowland rivers, but although widespread in Europe
it is never particularly common. At Folkestone it
clearly lived in the tufa-depositing springs through-
out the early and mid-Holocene. It has been found
in identical fossil contexts at Brook, Kent (Kerney
et ai., 1964), Totland Bay, Isle of Wight (Preece,
1979) and Berkshire (Holyoak, 1980, 1983).
Cecilioides acicula
This is a burrowing species that commonly occurs
in light friable soils at depths of between 1 and
202
1.5 m (Evans, 1972: 168; Barrett and Chatfield,
1978). Because ofits subterranean habit, it is diffi-
cult to resolve its status in the Holocene record,
most supposed fossils being rightly viewed with
suspicion and regarded as intrusive. Holyoak
(1983), however, discovered specimens in late
Boreal sediments from two waterlogged sites
(Thatcham Reedbeds and Avenell's Cottages) in
Berkshire, which he claimed represented genuine
fossils. In common with many other sites, C acic-
ula was also found at depths of up to 1.5 m in most
of the profiles analysed in Holywell Coombe.
However, in Trench HV, two shells of C acicula
were recovered from Late-glacial silts at an extraor-
dinary depth of 400-410 cm, far below the
monitored water-table, which occurred more than
1 m above this level. Two shells of Carychium tri-
den tatum, abundant in the overlying tufa but
unknown in the British Late-glacial, occurred in the
same sample and it was obvious that both species
were associated with root channels and were intru-
sive. In view of this, the recovery of C acicula in
deposits that are now waterlogged should not nec-
essarily be taken as evidence of their native status.
Monacha cartusiana
Although this is a widespread grassland species in
southern Europe, it is at the northern limit of its
range in Britain, where it is confined to a few sites
in the south-east, principally in Kent, Sussex and
 Notes on selected species

Figure 5.3.22 Nesovitrea petronella, Trench 3 220-265 cm. Scale bar = 1 mm

Figure 5.3.23 Pisidtum tenutlineatum , Trench 3 220-265 cm. a. Interior of left valve b. Exterior of right valve.

Suffolk (Kerney, 1970). It is known from a number
of archaeological sites on the North Downs at loca-
tions where it cannot be found alive (Kerney,
1976b). At Holywell Coombe it was absent in the
soil horizon at the base of the hillwash, but
occurred in the levels immediately above this. It
appears therefore to have lived in the valley from
the Bronze Age and, although dead shells can be
found on the chalk slopes of Round Hill (jJers.
obs.), it no longer survives in the immediate area.
Helix aspersa
This is the familiar garden snail. It is essentially a
Mediterranean species at the northern limit of its
range in Britain. It is clearly intolerant of cold and
does not extend beyond the January isotherm for
about +2°C. In parts of Britain it is frequently killed
in hibernation during unusually hard winters and
its distribution becomes distinctly coastal towards
the north. It is widely believed that this species was
introduced by the Romans either accidently or
deliberately as food. The stratigraphical and archae-
ological evidence from Holywell Coombe lends
support to this notion, despite the fact that a radio-
carbon date of 2850 ± 70 yr BP was obtained
directly from the shell of the earliest specimen of
H. aspersa. It is likely that this represents an age
anomaly resulting from the incorporation of 'dead
carbon' into the shell by the snail when alive.

203
 Mollusca
(7) REVERSED COlliNG
The coiling of gastropod shells can be either dex-
tral (right-handed) or sinistral (left-handed) and
with very rare exceptions, the direction of coiling
is always the same for each species. Very occasion-
ally monstrosities arise in which the direction of
coiling is reversed. During this study over 77 000
shells were analysed and reversed coiling was only
found in single specimens of the following species.
Aegopinella nitidula
A half-grown sinistral specimen was recovered
from the early Post-glacial tufa in Trench HV,
120-125 cm.
Acicula fusca
A minute sinistral juvenile specimen was present in
the Post-glacial tufa in Trench 3, 175-184 cm.
Sinistral specimens of this species are exceedingly
rare, although Kennard and Musham (1937)
reported an example from another Post-glacial tufa
in Lincolnshire.
Trichia hispida
In Late-glacial sediments at Dover Hill, Folkestone,
Kerney (1963: 237) reported sinistral specimens of
Trichia hispida in two successive samples, imply-
ing that this coiling abnormality might have a
genetic basis and was able to persist in the local
population over a period of years.
(8) TRACES OF PREDATION
A number of shells were damaged in a way that
could not have resulted from mechanical breakage
or chemical dissolution (cf. Fig. 5.3.24). Most
common were holes, usually located in apical areas
or on the undersides of shells (Fig. 5.3.24).
Sometimes, as in Fig. 5.3.18g, two or more holes
occurred in close proximity. These would seem to
be the result of predation by other land snails,
some of which (e.g. members of the Family
Zonitidae) are known to attack the victim while it
is still alive, whereas others are known to radulate
the shells of dead snails in areas deficient in lime.
In addition to these simple holes, another pattern
of damage was found on several specimens of
Nesovitrea hammonis from the early Post-glacial
tufa. In the two specimens illustrated (Fig.
5.3.24.1-2), oval areas of damage about 2 mm X
204
0.5 mm and 1 mm X 0.25 mm are seen on the
periphery and underside of different shells. In both
cases the boundary between damaged and undam-
aged areas is extremely sharp and a characteristic
ridge runs centrally along the long axis of the oval
area. Nesovitrea hammonis is known to be a
favoured prey item of Aegopinella nitiduta, a zoni-
tid species associated with these Nesovitrea, but this
pattern of damage is quite different from that illus-
trated by Mordan (1977). It is therefore by no means
certain that the agent was molluscan. Despite invit-
ing many opinions on Figs 5.3.24.1-2 before
publication, no one has yet offered a satisfactory
answer and the agent responsible remains unknown.
(9) SYNmESIS OF FAUNAL HISTORY
AND MOLLUSCAN ZONATION
Since none of the profiles discussed above covers
the entire stratigraphical record known from the
valley, it is necessary to provide a comprehensive
review pieced together from the various sections.
As mentioned earlier, Holywell Coombe has been
selected as the regional type site for a series of mol-
luscan zones (Kerney, 1977; Kerney et at., 1980;
Preece, 1993) and the faunal history can be conve-
niently discussed with reference to this zonation
scheme. The new work has three major advantages
over the initial study. First, the stratigraphical reso-
lution of certain parts of the succession has been
greatly improved. Second, many more radiocarbon
dates have been obtained, providing a sharper tem-
poral framework. Third, the analysis of multiple
profiles has enabled an appreciation of faunal het-
erogeneity in different parts of the valley at various
times. In the light of this work it is necessary to
make some minor modifications to the zonation
scheme, but overall the scheme has held up. The
divisions, which are mostly assemblage zones
(sensu Hedberg, 1976), have been labelled alpha-
betically with two Late-glacial (y and z) and six
Post-glacial zones (a to f). These are as follows.
Zoney
Occurrence: Main Section (basal organic
sample in Sump 3); Trench HV, 322-520 cm;
Trench 4, 280-360 cm; Section BS (samples
1-5).
Age: 13 160 ± 400 yr BP (Trench 4,
355-360 cm) until shortly before 11 530 ±
160 yr BP (upper boundary identified in
TrenchHV).
 Synthesis offaunal history and molluscan zonation

Figure 5.3.24 Patterns of damage on the shells of Nesovitrea hammonis from Trench 3, 220-265 cm. 1-2 shows
the identical pattern but at different scales. 3a-b shows a hole in the dorsal surface that has clearly not been caused
by mechanical puncture.

This was not represented in the original trial pits
(Kerney et at., 1980) but was recently discovered
at the base of several deep trenches at various
places upslope of the present axis of Holywell
Coombe. This zone is characterized by an impov·
erished pioneer community dominated by Pupilla
muscorum (large form), Vallonia pulchella, V.
costata and Vitrina pellucida. About 17 taxa are
known from this zone, including species, such as
Catinella arenaria and Vertigo genesii, that are
today commonly regarded as having northern or
arctic-alpine affinities. Another noteworthy
member of this community is Cochlicopa nitens, a
new record for the British Late-glacial, which here
co-existed with both C. lubrica and C. lubricella
(Preece, 1992b). The associated insect fauna and
plant assemblage indicates that the contemporary
climate was not excessively cold but was of inter-
stadial character.

205
 Mollusca

.~
..!!! § § Q
E
;:,
c:
Q E
.2 c: 't: .! .§ 2 E2 .l!!
--
~ :::: .!!! CD 1/1
r! ~ :=:,!!!
c:" .s: ~
:l1\1 Ql
.c "
E ~ ... ~ ~ ~ oS
:! .§ .2 ~ !g ~ SIIIQ .!!!
Q

-
't:
§ IIICD .! E
1/1
E .S:! ~ CJ .!l!
::: r! Q, I!! E ;: CD Q,
c: c: ~ ~ Q, .=! .~ -e ;:,
"
;:,
"~ 1\1 ~ ~
-
Q,
& & ~.c 1\1 E CJ ~
" Q, I!!
I/) Q, CD
1\1 ..!!! ~
CD E ~
1\1 Q,
.!!!
1\1 .:a E Qi .c Q Q Q Q Q .!!!
c: ~ ~ 1\1 ~ CJ c: .!!! S
CD
g ..!!! .!l!
c:
1/1

e
CD
c: b ~ § $ ~ ~~ .~ g .cCJ .c c: :::: g
~ CJ .5 1/1Q
.~ .~ go ~ ~
[ll
..,J ~ 0
~
~ ~
t t: t: t: t
~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ a~ :::
S ~ a.il .-: q: ~ ~ .Qq: :I!
Cherry Garden; 'upper IOU', 10-20 em
40 n=300
11,580 :t 100 BP (OxA-2242)

%
10
0

Cut-&-cover lectlon; 150-155 em

40 n .. 513
30 11,370:t 150 BP (OxA-2089)

%
1

Main section (24.5 m ...t of cIItum); 169-172 em

40 n= 159
30 11,520 :t 90 (OxA-2353)

% 20
10
O~----L-~L-----~--

Main section (27.5 m ...t of cIItum); - 169-172 em

40 n=286
11,520 :t 90 (OxA-2353)

Trench HV 322-327 em
n= 253
11,530 :t 160 (OxA-2345)

Section below Sugarloaf Hili

30 'Uppersoll'
n= 355
% 20
10
O~------~------~---

Figure 5_3_25 Molluscan faunas from the 'Aller0d soil' from various topographic contexts in Holywell Coombe and
the neighbouring valley. The species have been plotted in an approximate ecological order with aquatic and marsh
taxa on the left and xerophiles on the right. The faunal differences reflect the original heterogeneity of the land-
scape at the same period of time.

206
 Synthesis offaunal history and molluscan zonation
Zonez
Occurrence: Main Section (Deep Trench 1)
145-210 cm, Main Section (Deep Trench 2)
70-175 cm, Trench HV 235-322 cm; Trench 3
below 265 cm; Trench 5 345-390 cm; Trench 6
60-110 cm; Cut-&-cover Section 130-180 cm,
Section BS (top two samples); Cherry Garden
(upper and lower soil horizons)
Age: Slightly before 11 530 ± 160 yr BP (lower
boundary in Trench HV) to 9820 ± 90 yr BP
(upper boundary in Trench 6)
This is another open ground fauna, but substan-
tially more diverse than the previous assemblage.
Pupilla and Vallonia continued to dominate but
were now joined by Abida secale, Trichia hispida,
Helicella itala and Columella columella. Both
Nesovitrea hammonis and Arianta arbustorum
were now consistently present. Carychium mini-
mum has been recovered in low numbers from
several samples from this zone from different sec-
tions. Although previously listed from the
Late-glacial by Burchell and Davis (1957), these
records had been regarded with suspicion as possi-
ble intrusive contaminants. The new Folkestone
records remove any doubt that this species
occurred in the British Late-glacial.
This assemblage has been recovered from hori-
zons immediately below, within and above the so
called 'Aller0d soil'. Because this distinct horizon
has been recognized in several sections in different
parts of Holywell Coombe, and also at Cherry
Garden immediately east of Castle Hill, it has been
possible to examine the spatial heterogeneity of
the fauna in contrasting environmental settings
(Fig. 5.3.25). The assemblages from Cherry Garden
(upper soil 10-20 cm) and those from the Cut-&-
cover Section (150-155 cm) are strikingly similar,
being dominated by Vallonia pulchella at values of
about 35%. As might be expected, the assemblages
from the 'Aller0d soil' in the Main Section, sampled
3 m apart, were also virtually identical, as were the
assemblages from Trench HV (322-327 cm) and
that from the equivalent soil in the Section BS.
It had been assumed that zone z was exclusively
Late-glacial but palynological and radiocarbon evi-
dence from Trenches 5 and 6 suggests that this zone
extended into the earliest part of the Post-glacial.
Zone a
Occurrence: Trench 5 270-345 cm; Trench 6
40-6ocm
Age: From 9760 ± 100 yr BP (lower boundary
207
in Trench 5) to sometime before 9530 ±
75 yr BP (Trench 6) and 15 cm below a date of
9460 ± 140 yr BP (Trench 5)
A date of 9960 ± 170 yr BP (Q-1508) was obtained
from this zone in the original study (Kerney et al.,
1980). This is slightly earlier than the lower bound-
ary date listed above and is also earlier than the
terminal zone z date obtained from Trench 6, but
there is substantial overlap in all these dates and
they are statistically indistinguishable.
Zone a is the earliest Post-glacial assemblage and
is similar to zone z but has a poorer representation
of species of bare ground (notably Pupilla) and a
corresponding expansion of catholic species (ter-
restrial group 'A' sensu Kerney et al., 1980). A
range of other taxa appeared including Carychium
tridentatum, Vitrea and Aegopinella. When the
original zones were defined, it was thought that
neither C. tridentatum nor C. minimum occurred
in the Late-glacial, but since C. minimum has now
been shown to occur in zone z, the definition of
the base of zone a should be modified to refer
specifically to appearance of C. tridentatum (and
the other taxa listed above).
Zoneb
Occurrence: Main Section 51-72 cm (Deep
Trench 2), Trench HV 210-235 cm, Trench 3
205-265 cm, Trench 5, 140-270 cm
Age: Slightly before 9460 ± 140 (Trench 5) to
8630 ± 120 yr BP (Trench 3)
Zone b comprises a woodland fauna dominated by
Carychium tridentatum and Aegopinella (terres-
trial group 'B' sensu Kerney et al., 1980). Discus
ruderatus, a boreo-continental species now extinct
in Britain, is characteristic.
Zonec
Occurrence: Main Section 20-51 cm (Deep
Trench 2); Trench HV 165-210 cm; Trench 3
186-205 cm; Trench 555-140 cm
Age: From 8630 ± 120 yr BP (lower boundary
in Trench 3) to just before 7650 ± 80 yr BP
(Trench 3)
Zone c is a range zone (sensu Hedberg, 1976) con-
taining a similar assemblage to the previous one
except that Discus rotundatus has now replaced
D. ruderatus. Its base is defined by the expansion
of D. rotundatus. Occasionally there is some minor
overlap in the stratigraphical ranges of the two
species of Discus.
 Mollusca
Zoned
Occurrence: Main Section 0-20 cm (Deep
Trench 2); Trench HV 80-165 cm; Trench 3
155-186 cm; Trench 6 0-25 cm
Age: From 7650 ± 80 yr BP (lower boundary in
Trench 3) to sometime before 5620 ± 90 yr BP
(Main Section; Deep Trench 1)
In the original study there was a subdivision into
an earlier zone dl, defined by the appearance of
Oxychilus cel/arius, and a later zone d 2 , defined by
the appearance of Spermodea lamellata, Leiostyla
anglica and Acicula fusca. In most of the new sec-
tions studied during the recent work, these species
expanded at about the same time. Indeed, in
Trench 3, located only metres from Trial Pit 1 of
the original study (Kerney et al., 1980), single
shells of Spermodea and Leiostyla were recovered
from the sample below that containing O. cellarius
(Fig. 5.3.11). In contrast, in Trench HV subdivision
of zone d was possible (Fig. 5.3.10), exactly as
described by Kerney et al. (1980). Given these dif-
ficulties at the type site, together with data from
other British sites where L. anglica occurs much
earlier (preece, 1978, 1980b; Preece and Robinson,
1984; Willing, 1985), the subzones cannot be sus-
tained and, notwithstanding the data from Trench
HV, it is possibly best to refer all these assemblages
to an undivided zone d.
Zonee
Occurrence: Main Section (Deep Trench 1)
60-112 cm; Trench 3 100-155 cm
Age: Lower boundary appears to be
diachronous and has produced dates ranging
from 5620 ± 90 (Main Section) to 3980 ±
70 yr BP (Trench 3)
There are significant discrepancies between dates
from the identical basal sample in the Main Section,
with a shell date of 4470 ± 90 yr BP over one thou-
sand years younger than one based on charcoal
from the same sample. The archaeological evi-
dence (Part Six) lends greater support to this
younger determination. The upper boundary is
placed sometime before 2850 ± 70 yr BP (Main
Section)
Zone e is characterized by open-ground species,
such as Vallonia and Trichia, which expanded at
the expense of the shade-demanding taxa (terres-
trial group 'B'). A number of shade-demanding taxa
(e.g. Vertigo pusilla, V. alpestris) were eliminated
at this time. Helicella itala returned and Monacha
cartusiana appeared.
208
Zonef
Occurrence: Main Section 24.5 m east of
datum 30-60 cm; Trench HV 30-75 cm;
Trench 3, 30-100 cm
Age: From some time before 2850 ± 70 yr BP
(lower boundary in Main Section 24.5 m east
of datum). Archaeological evidence indicates
a Romano-British age for much of this zone
Zone f is a range zone (sensu Hedberg, 1976) char-
acterized by an open-ground fauna similar to the
last but with its base defined by the appearance of
Helix aspersa. Monacha cantiana also occurs.
The associated artefacts confirm that this unit accu-
mulated predominantly during Roman and later
periods.
(10) DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS
This study of the molluscan successions through
the Late-glacial and Post-glacial sediments at
Holywell Coombe, involving the analysis of over
77 000 shells from more than 200 samples from 10
different sections, is the most detailed yet under-
taken on chalkland deposits of this age. It has
provided a clear picture of the faunal successions
and from them the changing environmental condi-
tions.
The marsh deposits that accumulated in the early
part of the Late-glacial (13000-12000 yr BP)
yielded a molluscan assemblage (zone y) composed
of rather few taxa. Species of Vallonia, Euconulus
fulvus, Punctum pygmaeum and Vitrina pel/u-
cida were common, as was the large edentulous
form of Pupilla muscorum, which clearly inhab-
ited marshland rather than drier habitats with
which the species as a whole is more frequently
associated. Catinella arenaria, a rare species in
the British Isles today, was present, as was Vertigo
genesii. The assemblage is characteristic of cal-
careous spring-fed flushes dominated by sedges. V.
genesii has an arctic-alpine modern range (Fig.
5.3.17), but it appears from a study of the associ-
ated beetles (part Five (4)) that the climate was not
particularly cold at this time. The occurrence of V.
genesii here indicates open, rather than cold, envi-
ronments, a suggestion supported by the
occurrence of Cochlicopa nitens, a rare species
known from calcareous fens and marshes in cen-
tral and eastern Europe. This record constitutes its
first known occurrence in the British Late-glacial
(preece, 1992b).
This impoverished community was replaced by a
 Discussion and conclusions
more diverse assemblage (zone z), in which
Nesovitrea hammonis, Arianta arbustorum and
Trichia hispida became important elements.
Carychium minimum also occurred in low num-
bers, confirming its presence in the British
Late-glacial. In the drier facies, the xerophiles
Abida secale and Helicella itala also occurred. All
these species first appeared within, or in some
cases below, the 'A1ler0d soil', dated to about
11 500-11 000 yr BP (preece, 1994). Somewhat sur-
prisingly, virtually all these taxa survived into the
ensuing Younger Dryas, T. hispida becoming par-
ticularly abundant during this period. Columella
columella, a snail with an arctic-alpine modern
range (Fig. 5.3.17), was also present in habitats of
the right character. The coexistence of T. hispida
and C. columella is noteworthy, since their
modern ranges scarcely overlap (Kerney, 1963;
Kerney et al., 1983), the former becoming scarce
beyond 60 0 N (extreme limit about 66°N on the
coast of Norway). These Late-glacial assemblages
therefore have no exact modern analogues.
At the beginning of the Post-glacial significant
faunal changes occurred. Species of open-ground
were progressively eliminated and a range of shade-
demanding taxa appeared. In marsh habitats,
Carychium minimum became abundant and
Zonitoides nitidus and Vertigo moulinsiana
arrived. In slightly drier areas, Aegopinella and
Vitrea first appeared, important taxa for defining
zone a, as did Vertigo pusilla and V. substriata.
Some Late-glacial elements, such as C. columella,
survived into the early Post-glacial, demonstrating
that their final disappearance can be more closely
linked to their intolerance of heavy shading, result-
ing from the encroachment of scrub, rather than to
any direct climatic cause (preece, 1997). This early
Post-glacial community was progressively enriched
by the appearance of a range of woodland snails.
Carychium tridentatum rose to dominance and
Discus ruderatus, a boreo-montane species now
extinct in Britain (Fig. 5.3.21), also appeared at a
low frequency (zone b) at about 9500 yr BP. The
latter persisted until about 8600 yr BP, when it was
replaced by its southern and western congener
Discus rotundatus (Fig. 5.3.21), the appearance
of which defines the base of zone c. At about
7500 yr BP, further species such as Oxychilus cel-
larius, Leiostyla anglica, Spermodea lamellata
and Acicula fusca arrived (zone d). The land snail
assemblages reached their maximum richness (>
35 species) at about this time and consisted of a
range of species that can no longer be found living
together at any single site. These findings conform
209
with what is known from other comparable British
sites. The faunal richness is probably a reflection of
the Post-glacial thermal optimum, when the climate
was both warmer and wetter, judging from the
number of 'oceanic' elements present (cf. Kerney,
1968). It is not yet possible to link the faunal
changes after 7500 yr BP with the significant cool-
ing event seen in various proxy records from
Greenland ice cores at this time (Alley et al., 1997).
After about 6000 yr BP major environmental
changes occurred. Tufa formation ceased and hill-
wash from the chalk slopes began to accumulate,
following forest clearance during the Neolithic and
early Bronze Age. Woodland elements declined and
a re-expansion of open-country species occurred
(zone e). There are, however, important differ-
ences between the open-ground faunas of the
Late-glacial and the late Post-glacial; Abida secale,
so common during the latter part of the Late-
glacial, did not return, whereas the Holocene
assemblages include Monacha cartusiana and
Trichia striolata, unknown in the British Late-
glacial, and Vallonia excentrica, present in the
Late-glacial elsewhere but not at Holywell Coombe.
The occurrence of two soil horizons within the hill-
wash, dating from the Bronze Age and Iron
Age respectively, points to periods of relative slope
stability accompanied by some woodland regener-
ation. Land snails from these two soils show
significant increases in shade-demanding taxa, such
as Carychium tridentatum and Discus rotunda-
tus. In the Romano-British levels the garden snail,
Helix aspersa, first appeared (zone f), supporting
the belief that it was introduced by the Romans,
either aCcidentally or deliberately as food.
The molluscan succession here is unusually com-
plete and thus Holywell Coombe has been selected
as the type site for a series of molluscan assemblage
zones (Kerney, 1977; Kerney et al., 1980). The ear-
liest zone (y), not discovered here during the
original study (Kerney et al., 1980), has now been
found in its expected stratigraphical position, com-
pleting the full complement of zones at the type
site. Figure 5.3.26 presents a summary diagram of
the succession, showing how the molluscan zones
relate to the vegetational history and to the
improved radiocarbon chronology. Details of the
stratigraphical changes in the frequency of shells,
the number of species and their diversity (shown
by the Berger-Parker index) have already been pre-
sented for each of the analysed profiles (Part
Three). Figure 5.3.27 summarizes the molluscan
data for the full succession (the same composite
sequence as shown in Fig. 5.3.26). Note the steady
 ~ e
~ ~
~ ~
§ 5i
rn .b 12
~ ~ UJ ~ ici: as c., Ul CI) ~ ~ lQ

~ ~ ::;. ~~: ~~~ ~ cu~'~'~1!~ -~~~.~ ~ m '~.~ ~

!::i:::::: 1;; l:!:! Q) -'!! 0, "' CD N
~
5w ~ ~"8 ~ :!:!: a: ~ g,,~ -6 -g s ~ g e -'!! 1:::: as C
i+ 3; ~~ca~:=2" I=~~ -§ ~:.§1~:~.2 ~"iim~~ . ~ ~ ~ ~rl!ii~ u
. ~.~ ~ 8: &~&f3~ ~?~ ~ 6-.~~~;; ~~~~;.~ ~ ~ ~.~ ~ ~-5=--5 ~
Radiocarbon ]! ~ c( 1: 1: -= 1: ~ -6 ~ .~ CD ~ ~§ ~ ~ ~ a ~ ~ :B.~.§ ~ ~ a. ~ 13 ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ 0
dates (yr BP) em {:! a: ~ ~ ~ 8 ~ ~.[ ~ g:; ~ ~ !'l ~ () c3 is () ~ t% ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ :il :Ii Pollen assemblage zones

SOl:: ~:; :ea~non m • I : ~, I ~ ~ L.. f ~ ! ,.

3515 ± 80 _ _ IIIII 495
339
432 - - I ... '-. - -..
IIIIII Ie
5620 ± 90 ~ InH 583
763
TrenCh3 m
TT 546 + d
T 924
7650 ± 80 -~
~ gJ~ 1>------1'...------~ Corylus avellana - Ulmus
I
8630 ± 120 _~ T ~ m~ c
m Corylus avellana
446 c:::::::::J
56~
250j~ ~90D 0 _ .+ + • +. + b
9230±75 ______ ~ 122n n - - ~. • • +

9530 ± 75 _~~ Trench 6 409

50 1~~~ ~ CJ I ~ I • I I Betula - Pinus sylvestris
1060
9820±90 _ _
'
"
~ ~~
73
n ~ U
...---.( I
I ~.
r t •
..
i Junip~rus communis -
Gramlneae
10160 ± 110 _ _ j~~ :~
• Cutl
______ . cover 196 +
11 370 ± 150 513
~~
~:~ I section 446
251 ~
171
50------------------------~

~~~~ction 440 D ___ _ •

__ j~ 160 0 _ •
12150 ± 110
y

J~T"~h. ~D~~ I _Ir Betula - Gramineae

13160 ± 400
iii iii iii iii iii iii iii i rn r r r I i i i i i i i i i i i I i ' I i i i i i i i i i i i I rrn r r r r r fTTTl r r r r r I i i i i i i i i i i i I i i i rrn rn I i i i i i i i i i i fTTTl rrrrn
o 20 40 0 20 0000020406002040 o 000000 00000020406000020400 000 0 %
+ Single shall

Figure 5.3.26 Summary diagram of the molluscan succession at Holywell Coombe. The correlation of mollusc and pollen zones is shown on the right and the radiocarbon chronol-
ogy appears on the left. For the sake of simplicity, many terrestrial species have been grouped into ecological categories 'A' and 'B'. Those in group 'A' are essentially catholic species
of wide tolerance, living in open ground, marshes and woodland (Cocblicopa, Columella, Punctum, Vitrina, Vitrea, Nesovitrea, Deroceras/Limax, Euconulus, Arianta/Cepaea).
Those in group 'B' are more critical in their requirements, being commonest in deciduous woods and similar well shaded places (Carycbium tridentatum, Acantbinula, Ena,
Aegopinella, Clausiliidae, Helicigolla). Carycbium and Aegopinella make up the greater part of this group. Swamp species include the obligatory hygrophiles Carycbium mini-
mum, Zonitoides nitidus and members of the Succineidae.
 Radiocarbon Number of shells/500g Number of species (S) Species diversity (1/d) MoiluBC zone

50 -1,' II _~B~I~ I f

3515,.80 I
Ie
100 ~ IIll.dlll
• 5620 ,090 __
I.
T T
T ~--
Tranch 3 T
T
T

_ 78!O.:l:.80
~
~ ~
~ d
T T
200 -l TT T • 8630,.120 { ---.... C
T
T T
T
.... T .. ",
otT '< T
rT\,",
---- b
tl
~.
250 -4~T ~~ (")
~T}OT 9230.:1:,75
"'"I I
~
Trench 6 ~. 9530,075
( "
/ / ~
50 a ~.

C
I 8820,090
~
N ~
....
.... ~
100 ~ .10,160,.110
~
z
Cut-&-Cover
"
~
, > 8
section ,. ]lj';llj, I ........ ~
1,111,111
180 ••••
'Below
;> ;; ~ -
~
~
~.
-- -- C
Sugarloaf'
~
i ~
'.
Trench 4
:II.",...., (,
.I y
0-
350 -'
.' o • • 13,180±4OO
'-t] ? ;; )
0 500 1000 1500 0 10 20 30 40 500 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Figure 5.3.27 Summary diagram of molluscan data from Holywell Coombe showing the changes in: (a) frequency of shells/500 g dry weight of sediment; (b) number of
species (S) and (c) species diversity (the Berger-Parker index (lId); see text for explanation). The composite stratigraphical profiles shown here are identical to those plot-
ted on Figure 5.3.26. Note the steady increase in the number of species during the Late-glacial and the sharp rise at the beginning of the Post-glacial. The assemblages
exceeding 35 species of land snails (excluding slugs), present during the mid Post-glacial, cannot be matched at any single site in Britain today and may reflect warmer
and wetter conditions. This peak in the number of species coincides with a decline in diversity, reflecting dominance by relatively few species, in this case mostly
Carycbium tridentatum. The fall in the number of species during the late Post-glacial results from forest clearance during the Neolithic and especially during the Bronze
age. These assemblages are still richer than those present in the late-glaCial.
 Mollusca
increase in the number of taxa during the Late-
glacial and the sharp rise at the beginning of the
Post-glacial, which culminated in the rich faunas (>
35 species) of the mid Post-glacial, before a decline
in species richness in the late Post-glacial. The early
phase reflects the progressive appearance of newly
colonizing species, whereas the faunal impoverish-
ment during the late Post-glacial results from forest
clearance during the Neolithic and Bronze Age.
Note that these late Post-glacial faunas, composed
mostly of open-ground taxa, are still much richer
than those present during the Late-glacial. Study of
the modern molluscan communities (Part Seven)
has demonstrated further differences; in particular,
Cernuella virgata, a typical species of chalk grass-
land, is a significant element of the modern fauna
(Table 7.7), despite being completely unknown as
a fossil at this site.
The molluscan zonation scheme based on the
Holywell Coombe succession can be applied to
sites over much of southern Britain, despite some
regional variation (Preece, 1978; Willing, 1985).
The scheme may also prove to be broadly applica-
ble to sites in northern France (cf. Limondin, 1995)
and possibly elsewhere in NW Europe (R.A.
Meyrick, unpublished data). However, the faunal
histories of individual sites are never exactly iden-
tical. The differences are likely to result not only
212
from site-specific factors, but also from the relative
locations of refugia and from the individualistic
behaviour of the species themselves (cf. Huntley,
1991). Most of the molluscan zones have been
defined fairly broadly, so as to accommodate much
of this variation. Only the range zones, based on
first appearances of individual taxa, pose a particu-
lar problem, since the definition of 'first
appearances datum' or the level at which a species
shows a 'sharp rise' is frequently somewhat sub-
jective. It can be dependent not only on the size of
the sample counted, since single shells of critical
species may be undetected in small samples, but
also on the sediment accumulation rate, which, if
low, may not provide the necessary resolution to
define the boundary adequately. Despite these dif-
ficulties, the regional molluscan assemblage zones
defined from Holywell Coombe have proved useful
in providing a basis for inter-site and inter-regional
comparisons. Three final points should be stressed.
First, the zone boundaries will almost certainly
prove to be asynchronous over large areas. Second,
the precise faunal composition of each zone is also
bound to vary. Third, the division of molluscan dia-
grams into zones should not be allowed to obscure
the wealth of palaeoecological information that
many contain.
 Chapter 4
Insects
G.R. Coope
(1) INTRODUCTION
Insects remains, particularly Coleoptera (beetles),
are usually amongst the most abundant and varied
fossils in any non-marine Quaternary deposit that
has remained in a waterlogged condition since its
original deposition. Since beetles are often closely
tied to particular environmental niches, their fos-
sils can provide a detailed picture of the available
habitats close to the site at which they were found.
For the most part, they do not seem to have been
transported, dead or alive, over any great distance
and the bulk of them were probably living within a
kilometre or so of their place of burial. If a deposit
dries out or is weathered, the insect remains it con-
tains are rapidly decomposed, so there is little
chance of them being eroded out of one deposit
and redeposited elsewhere; in other words insects
do not readily occur as derived fossils. They can
therefore be relied upon to give palaeoenviron-
mental information on the period when sediments
were actually accumulating.
Of importance in the Holywell Coombe context
is the fact that insect fossils cannot indicate what
the environment was like during periods when sed-
iments were being weathered into soils. In fact
pedological processes remove any insect record
that the sediments may Originally have preserved.
As indicators of palaeoclimates, coleopteran fos-
sils probably represent one of the most sensitive
palaeontological tools available. Beetles respond to
climatic change in two important ways. First, they
are rapidly exterminated from an area when spe-
cific thermal thresholds are crossed. Second, they
213
can rapidly colonize areas made newly available by
changes in thermal regimes. Thus, as far as tem-
perature is concerned, the response of the
Coleoptera to any change can be both prompt and
intense, with large-scale climatic changes being
accompanied by enormous shifts of the geographi-
cal ranges of affected species.
(2) SAMPLING AND ANALYSIS
Altogether 14 samples, varying in weight from 1 kg
to 10 kg, were analysed for Coleoptera. All were of
calcareous organic mud with visible evidence of
plant remains. The exact provenance and strati-
graphical context of each of these samples is given
in Table 5.4.1. About 4000 radiocarbon years, span-
ning the Late-glacial-Holocene transition, separates
the ages of the oldest (No.1) and the youngest
(No. 14) of these samples.
The beetles were extracted from the sediment
using the standard technique described by Coope
(1968, 1986). In summary, each sample was disag-
gregated in water, no more elaborate chemical
procedures being necessary, and the resultant
sludge was washed over a sieve with a mesh aper-
ture of 300 ~. Paraffin (kerosene) was then added
to the residue held on the sieve and, after thorough
mixing, enough water was introduced into a poly-
thene bowl to allow a good separation between the
fraction that floated and that which sank. The float-
ing fraction, which contained most of the
arthropod fossils, was washed thoroughly in deter-
gent to remove the paraffin and then in alcohol to
 Insects

Table 5.4.1 Fossil Coleoptera from Holywell Coombe, Folkestone. Provenance of samples as follows: 1 =
Trench 4,315-340 cm; 2 = Trench 4,290-315 cm; 3-8 Section Below Sugarloaf (see Fig. 3.24 for stratigraphi-
cal contexts); 9 = Trench HV, 320-330 cm; 10 = Trench 6, 100-110 cm; 11 = Trench 6,80-100 cm; 12 =
Trench 6,60-80 cm; 13 = Trench 6,40-60 cm; 14 = Trench 3,220-265 cm. These coleopteran assemblage
zones can be correlated with faunal units 2-5 defined elsewhere (e.g. Walker et al., 1998).
Zone 1 Zone 2 Zone 3 Zone 4
Sample number 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
Carabidae
Cicindela campestris L.
Carabus granulatus L.
Carabus arvensis Hbst.
Carabus monitis F.
Carabus nemoratis Mill!
Leistus spinibarbis (F.)
Leistus rufescens (F.)
Nebria gyllenhati (Schanh.)
Notiophilus palustris (Duft.)
Notiophilus sp.
Elaphrus cupreus Duff.
Elaphrus riparius (1.)
Loricera piticornis (F.)
Clivina fossor (1.)
Dyschirius sp.
Dyschirius globosus (Hbst.) 4 17 3 1
Trechus secatis (payk.) 5 2 13 2 7 2
Trechus obtusus Er.
Trechus rivularis (Gyll.)
Bembidion dentellum (Thunb.)
Bembidion obtiquum Stunu 3
Bembidion varium (01.) 6
Bembidion schueppeti Dei. 2 3 2 3
Bembidion gilvipes Stunn 2 1
Bembidion doris (panz.) 1 1 2 1
Bembidion octomaculatum (Goeze) 2 3 2
Bembidion biguttatum (F.) 1 4
Bembidion aeneum Genu. 1 2 1
Bembidion unicolor Chaud. 3 2
Bembidion guttula (F.) 2 3
Bembidion dauricum (Motsch.)
Patrobus septentrionis Dei.
Patrobus assimitis Chaud. 2
Patrobus atrorufus (Strom) 5 2
Harpalus sp.
Trichocellus placidus (Gyll.)
Bradycellus sp.
Acupalpus sp. 1
Pterostichus strenuus (panz.) 1 3 14
Pterostichus ditigens (Stunu) 8 6 2 4 2 2
Pterostichus nigrita (payk.) 1 3 1
Pterosticbus gracilis (Dej.) 2
Pterosticbus minor (Gyll.) 3
Pterosticbus oblongopunctatus (F.) 1
Pterostichus melanarius (Ill.) 2
Calathus erratus (SaWb.)
Calatbus melanocepbalus (1.)
Agonum sexpunctatus (1.)
Agonum ericeti (panz.)
Agonum moestum (Duft.)
Agonum viduum (panz.)
Agonum futiginosum (Panz.) 3 2
Agonum gracile (Gyll.) 3
Agonum tboreyi Dei.
Platynus assimitis (Payk.) 2
Amara lunicoltis Schiodt.
Licinus depressus (payk.)
Panagaeus cruxmajor (1.)
Dytiscidae
Hydroporus sp 4 2
Agabus biguttatus (01.) or guttatus (payk.)
Agabus bipustulatus (1.) 2
Ilybius sp. 1
Rhantussp.
Colymbetes sp.
Acilius sp.

214
Plate lea) Main section at Holywell Coombe showing the dated 'Allerod soil' (1), the mid Post-glacial tufa (2) thinning upslope and the
hillwash with two well-developed palaeosols (3 and 4), that have yielded Early Bronze Age and Iron Age artefacts respectively. Some
Neolithic material and a single microlith was recovered from the base of unit 3. Chalky slope deposits extend for a further 2 m below the
'Allerod soil', An organic detritus mud, dated to 11,820.±. 140 yr BP, was present towards the base of the slope deposits, just above the Gault
Clay below the far left of the picture. These relationships are shown in Fig. 3.11.
Plate I (b) Late-glacial organic sediments exposed in Sump 3, at the base of the Main Section (see Fig. 3.11). These yielded a radiocarbon
date of 11,820.±. 140 yr BP.
Plate I (c) A typical core from the borehole survey, from the vicinity of Trench HV. The sequence runs, from the bottom right: Gault Clay;
Late-glacial slope deposits, largely Gault-derived (giving an olive colour); thin Late-glacial organic deposit (dark layer in 2nd-right core);
Chalk-derived Late-glacial slope deposits; tufa (bottom of left-hand core and most of 2nd left); hillwash (top of left-hand core).
Plate I (d) Section below Sugarloaf Hill exposed during the construction of the Cut-&-cover tunnel. The surface of the Gault Clay is fresh
and unweathered and appears to have been scoured by periglacial action. Note also the evidence for post-depositional disturbance. The
'Moss layer', for example, has been severely disrupted (See also Fig. 3.24 and 3.25),
(a) (b)

(c) (d)

Plate 2 (a) Sections towards the lower part of the valley (Trench 6) extending from Horseshoe Spring, exposed during the construction of
the Cut-&-cover tunnel. Numbered beds: 1 - chalk rubble, 2 - chalk muds, the base of which are of Younger Dryas age, whereas the upper
layers are early Holocene (arrow shows the Late-glacial-Holocene boundary within this bed); 3 - organic deposit, from the middle of which a
radiocarbon date of 9530 ± 75 yr BP was obtained; 4 - tufa; 5 - made ground.
Plate 2 (b) Sections cutting through the interfluve area between the Horseshoe Spring and Holywell Coombe valleys prepared in connec-
tion with the construction of the Cut-&-cover tunnel. Note the weathering of the Gault Clay on each limb and the unweathered core.
Plate 2 (c) The bottom of Trench 5 (Horseshoe Spring), showing a sequence of slope-deposits, Gault-derived at the base and largely chalk-
derived above. These Late-glacial beds underlie early Holocene tufa, seen higher in the trench and out of view (see Fig. 3.9, which is a view
of the upper part of this trench).
Plate 2 (d) Aerial view of ring-ditches south of Castle Hill, 1992.
t~~(~~i~~i~j-~Holywell
p:la:t:e~3~TCoombe
~hin sections of selected horizons from buried soils at
(scale bars 0.5 nun)
A, Profile SPI, 30 cm depth (Bt horizon), Green glauconite grains
and large chalk fragment in silty clay matrix; fine brown material is
intrapedal illuvial clay, o riginaIly deposited in voids but subse-
quently incorporated into the soil matrix by cryorurbation. Plane
polarized light.
B. Profile SPI, 50 cm depth (Bt horizon). Green glauconite grains
and cha lk fragments in silty clay matrix, with intrapedal ilIuvial clay
concentration (light brown) near centre of picture; dark brown to
black areas are ferruginous and manganiferous concentration .
Plane polarized light.
C. Profile SPI, 50 cm depth (Bt horizon). Green glauconite grains
and chalk fragments in silty clay matrix with intra pedal iIIuvial clay
accumulations and birefringent clay coaling to void (black area in
centre). Crossed polarizers,
D. Profile SP2, 10 cm depth (Ah horizon). Greyish brown silty clay
matrix with chalk fragments, fine black charcoal fragments, quartz
silt grains and rare weathered glauconite gmins (green-brown).
Earthworm granule in right-hand corner, Plane polarized light.
E. Profile SP2, 125 cm depth (BCg horizon). Large rounded
fragments in silty clay matrix wilh rare weathered glauconite grains;
strongly mottled with brown ferruginous and black manganiferous
concentrations resulting from intense gleying. Plane polarized light.
(a)

(c) (d)

Plate 4 (a) The late spider orchid (Ophrys fucifIora), a nationally rare plant which grows on the Folkestone - Etchinghill escarpment.
Plate 4 (b) The bedstraw broomrape (Orobanche caryophyllacea), another protected plant, which grows in Holywell Coombe.
Plate 4 (c) Late-glacial beetles from Trench 4 showing the iridescent colouring. Most of these specimens are Plateumaris discolor.
Plate 4 (d) Trunk of a birch tree in Section BS (Below Sugarloaf Hill), from which a radiocarbon date of 12, 150 ± 110 yr BP was obtained
(see Fig. 3.24).
 Sampling and analysis

Table 5.4.1 Continued

Zone 1 Zone 2 Zone 3 Zone 4
Sample number 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
Dytiscus sp.

Hydraenidae
Hydraena riparia Kug. group 7 2 1 4 3 13 5 4
Ocbtbebius cf. auriculatus Rey 1
Ocbtbebius minimus (F.) group 46 73 29 5 4 8 4
Limnebius truncatellus (fhunb.) 2 6 2
Limnebius sp.
HeloPborus grandis Ill. 2 1
Helopborus aquaticus CL.) 4 1
HeloPborus glacialis Villa 4
Helopborus (misc. small spp.) 24 4 6

Hydrophilidae
Coelostoma orbiculare (F.) 2 8 4
Cercyon tristis (111.) 2 2
Cercyon convexiusculus Steph.
Megasternum boletopbagum (Marsh.)
Hydrobiusjuscipes (L.) 3 2 9 2
Anacaena sp.
Laccobius sp. 6 10 2 2
Enocbrus sp.
Cbaetartbria seminulum (Hbst.) 9 5 11 7 6 2
Berosus ajfinis Brulle

Histeridae
Paralister purpurascens (Hbst.)

Silphidae
Pbospbuga atrata (L.) 2

Uodidae
Liodes sp. 2
Agatbidium laevigatum Er. 2

Sphaeriidae 1 11
Spbaerius acaroides Waltl 33 39 7 15

Ptiliidae
Ptenidium sp. 2

Staphylinidae
Megartbrus bemipterus (Ill.) 2
Euspbalerum minutum (F.) 8 12 2 4 4 12
Pycnoglypta lurida (Gyll.) 4 5 3
Omalium excavatum Steph.
Omaliumsp.
Olopbrum piceum (Gyll.) 4 2
Olopbrum assimile (payk.) 3 2 2 4
OloPbrum boreale (payk.)
Arpedium quadrum (Grav.)
Eucnecosum bracbypterum (Grav.)
Acidota crenata (F.)
Acidota cruentata (Mannh.)
Lesteva punctata Er. 2
Lesteva longelytrata (Goeze) 2
Lesteva beeri Fauv. 5
Geodromicus nigrita (Mull.)
AnthoPbagus alpinus (payk.)
Boreapbilus benningianus Sahib. 3 5
Trogopbloeus sp. 2 1 7 20
Oxytelus rugosus (F.) 2 1
Oxytelus nitidulus Grav.
Platystetbus cornutus (Grav.) 2
Platystetbus arenarius (Fourcr.)
Platystetbus nodifrons Mannh.
Platystetbus nitens (Sahib.) 2
Bledius sp. 3

215
 Insects

Table 5.4.1 Continued

Zone 1 Zone 2 Zone 3 Zone 4
Sample number 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
S~phylirndaeconHnued
Stenus guttuta MiiIl.
Stenusspp. 2 3 4 10 9 3 4
Dianous coerulescens (Gyll.)
Euaesthetus btpunctatus (1.jungh)
Scopaeus d. !aevigatus (Gyll.)
Latbrobtum terminatum Grav.
Lathroblum d. brunntpes (F.) 2 2
Lathrobium spp. 1 2 2
Cryptobium fract/corne (payk.) 2 1
Xantholinus spp.
Philonthus spp.
Trichoderma pubescens (Geer)
Staphylinus erythropterus L.
Quedius spp.
Mycetoporus spp. (sensu lato)
Tachyporus sp. 2
Tachtnus rufipes (Geer) 5
Tachinus corticinus Grav. 3
Tachinus spp. 1 1
A1eocharinae gen. et spp. indet. 10 7 10 8 15 21 3 9 14 5 6

Pselaphidae
Bryaxtssp. 6
Brachygluta fossutata (Reichb.) 2
Pselaphus hetsei Hbst. 4 3 2

Cantharidae
Cantharis sp. 2 2
Rhagonycha sp.

Elateridae
DaloPius marginatus (1..)
Agriotes sp.
Prosternon tesseltatum (1..) 1
Dent/coUts linearts (1..) 2
Athous haemorrhoidalts (F.) 4
Hypnoldtus riparius (F.) 7
Zorochrus dermestoldes (Hbst.)

Eucnemidae
Melasts buprestoides (1..)
Eucnemts capucina Ahr.
Dirhagus pygmaeus (F.)

Buprestidae
Gen. et sp. indet.

Dascil1idae
DasciUus cervinus (1..)

Helodidae
Helodes mtnuta (1..)
Gen. et sp. indet. 4 3 2

Dryopidae
Dryopssp. 2 3 3
Georissidae
Geortssus crenutatus (Rossi) 2 2 5

Heteroceridae
Heterocerus sp.

Byrrhidae
Simplocaria semtstriata (F.) 1
Cyttlus sericeus (Forst.) 9 2
Byrrhussp.
Porcinolus murinus (F.)
Curimopsis sp. 2

216
 Sampling and analysis

Table 5.4.1 Continued

Zone 1 Zone 2 Zone 3 Zone 4
Sample number 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
Nitidulidae
Epuraeasp.
Meitgetbes sp.
Cateretes pedicularius (1..)
Cateretes bipustulatus (Payk.)
Bracbypterolus sp.

Cryptophagidae
Henoticus serratus (Gyll.)

Phalacridae
Pbalacrus substriatus Gyll. 2 2
Pbalacrus caricis Stunn

Lathridiidae
Corticaria spp. 2 10
Corticarina /uscula (Gyll.) 3

Coccinellidae
Scymnus redtenbacberi Muls.
Scymnussp.
Adonia variegata (Goeze)
Hippodamia tredecimpunctata (1..)
Coccinella septempunctata L.

Aspidophoridae
Aspidipborus orbiculatus (Gyll.)

Anobiidae
Anobiumsp.
Dorcatoma dresdensis Hbst.

Pyrochroidae
Scbizotus pectinicorois (1..)

Scarabaeidae
Geotrupes sp.
Apbodius spp. 2 2
Ampbimallon sp.
Cetonia aurata (1..)
Tricbius sp.

Cerambycidae
Anaglyptus mysticus (1..)
Pogonocberus bispidulus (pill. Mitt.)

ChrysomeJidae
Donaciasp.
Plateumaris discolor (Panz.) 13 28 7 11 4
Plateumaris sericea (1..) 1
Cbrysomela sp.
Plagtodera versicolora (Laich.)
Pbyllodecta sp.
Galeruca tanaceti (1..)
Halttcasp. 2 2 2
Cbaetocnema sp.

ScoJytidae
Scolytus ratzeburgi Janson
Tapbroryncbus cr. villifrons (Duf.)

Curculionidae
Deporaus betulae (1..)
Coenorbinus aeneovirens (Marsh.)
Apton spp. 3 2
Ottorbyncbus /uscipes (01.) 2 3 1 1
Otiorbyncbus dubius (Strom.) 7 1
Otiorbyncbus rugifrons (Gyll.) 2 4 2 3
Otiorbyncbus ovatus (1..) 2 3 3 2 1

217
 Insects
Table 5.4.1 Continued
Zone 1
Sample number 1 2 3 4
Curculionidae continued
Phyllobius cf. argentatus (L.)
Phyllobius sp. or Polydrusus sp.
Brachysomus echinatus (Bonsd.)
Sitona sp.
Rhyncolus elongatus (Gyll.)
Notaris aethiops (p.)
Grypus equiseti (p.)
Cryptorhynchus lapathi (L.)
Baris picicornis (Marsh.)
Limnobarls piltstriata (Steph.)
Micrelus erlcae (Gyll.)
Ceuthorhynchiinae gen. et sp. indet.
Rhamphus pultcarlus (Hbst.)
remove the detergent and water. This fraction was
finally sorted under alcohol using a binocular
microscope with a magnification of about X 40.
The insect fossils were preserved in tubes of alco-
hol to prevent attack by fungi, which can rapidly
destroy insect cuticles if they are kept in water for
only a few weeks. The preservation of beetle
remains at Holywell Coombe was generally good
(plate 4 (c)).
The identification of the fossil insects was by
direct comparison with a comprehensive collec-
tion of well identified modern specimens. The
traditional method of identifying insects using keys
is of little use for fossils, since they mayor may not
have preserved the requisite characters that are
essential for progression through the keys.
However, the complexity of coleopteran mor-
phology is such that detailed comparisons can be
made using a host of characters not found in the
traditional keys, leaving no doubt that all distinc-
tive fragments can be matched precisely with
living species. This is fortunate, since identification
to species level provides the most detailed
palaeoenvironmental information. More non-
descript specimens can often be determined only
to generic or even family level, but this does not
imply that the fossils show any evidence of mor-
phological differences from their modern
equivalents.
In Table 5.4.1 all identified taxa from Holywell
Coombe are listed using the nomenclature and tax-
onomic order of Die Kafer Mitteleuropas (Lucht,
1987). Altogether 220 coleopteran taxa have been
recognized, of which 163 could be determined to
species (or species group) level. Almost all of these
218
Zone 2 Zone 3 Zone 4
5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
6 3 4
are still living in the British Isles, although not nec-
essarily in the Folkestone area (part Seven), but six
species would now seem to be extinct in Britain
(indicated by * in Table 5.4.1). In the table, the min-
imum total of individuals recovered from each
sample has been estimated from the largest number
of any diagnostic skeletal element obtained. It
would of course be possible to illustrate these fig-
ures graphically, as in the bar charts in the
accompanying mollusc section (preece, Part Five
(3)) but, given the large number of taxa involved
in the study of Coleoptera, this procedure would
lead to the construction of excessively cumber-
some diagrams. Table 5.4.1, however, provides all
the information for interested readers to construct
their own bar-charts selecting species on criteria of
their own choosing.
The sequence of coleopteran assemblages in
Table 5.4.1 shows a number of important changes
that enable the succession to be divided into four
faunal units. These are established primarily on the
presence of critical species and to a lesser extent
on the numerical representation of the species con-
cerned. As is the case with land snails and plant
macrofossils, the abundance of a species is deter-
mined largely by local environmental factors; rarity
may not mean that the species was regionally
scarce, it may well have been common at some
localities far removed from the catchment area of
the sampling site. In the account that follows, the
local environmental implications of the Coleoptera
will be considered for each faunal unit in turn,
starting with the oldest. The climatic significance
of the changes in the coleopteran assemblages will
be discussed under a separate heading.
 Analysis offaunal changes
(3) LOCAL ENVIRONMENTAL
RECONSTRUCTIONS BASED ON
mE COLEOPfERA
The interpretation of past environments on the basis
of fossil assemblages rests on the fundamental
assumption that the requirements of a species in the
past were the same as they are today. In other
words, it requires that the evolutionary stability that
can be recognized at a morphological level was
accompanied by a similar stability at the physiologi-
cal level, reflected in the environmental preferences
of the species. Of course this assumption is the foun-
dation of all palaeoecological inferences, be they
based on insects, molluscs, ostracods or plants. On
the basis of these principles, it is evident that sensi-
ble ecological reconstructions can be made from
fossil assemblages that date back many hundreds of
thousands of years. In the case of the Late-glacial and
early Post-glacial assemblages from Holywell
Coombe, it can be safely assumed that the present
ecological requirements of the Coleoptera repre-
sented give a valid indication of environmental
conditions during these periods.
Viewed as a whole, the diversity of coleopteran
species is enormous (more than a quarter of all
known animal and plant species are beetles). They
inhabit a vast array of environments, both terres-
trial and freshwater, but they have, so far, not
invaded the fully marine environment. Many
species are carnivorous either as generalist or spe-
cific predators, whilst others are phytophagous,
some of which are highly selective, not only of
their host plant, but also of the part of the plant on
which they feed (e.g. roots, stems, flowers, pollen,
leaves, seeds). Because of their economic impor-
tance, both as destroyers of crops and as valuable
predators of pest species, the life histories and food
preferences of many species of beetle are now well
known. It is thus possible to put together the
details of the ecological preferences of the species
in a fossil assemblage and build up a mosaic picture
of the environmental conditions available at a par-
ticular time in the remote past.
In the construction of mosaics of this sort it is
important to understand something of taphonomy,
that is, the processes that bring fossil assemblages
together in the first place. It is clear that not all the
species recorded at Holywell Coombe actually
lived on the spot. Although it is certain that some
did so, many of the others must have arrived more
or less aCCidentally, either by flying in or being car-
ried in after death. Thus the picture of the local
219
environment that emerges represents habitats
available over a wide area, probably many hectares
in extent. Unfortunately there is no way at present
of defining the source area more precisely.
However, the environmental preferences of the
species encountered at Holywell Coombe present a
picture of sufficient ecological coherence as to sug-
gest that the assemblages were derived from a
limited catchment area.
(4) ANALYSIS OF FAUNAL CHANGES
(a) Zone 1
This zone includes the coleopteran assemblages
from samples 1, 2 and 3. Samples 1 and 2 are con-
tiguous and were taken from the humic silts in
Trench 4, whereas sample 3 was taken from similar
sediment below the 'Moss layer' in Section BS. On
the basis of radiocarbon dates, it would seem that
this zone spans the period from about 13 000 to
12 300 yr BP. Significant species include Bembidion
octomaculatum, which is exclusively confined to
this part of the Late-glacial part of the sequence,
but which reappears in the earliest Post-glacial
sample. High numbers of Ochthebius minimus are
also unique to this phase. Sphaerius acaroides,
although an extremely small beetle and thus diffi-
cult to find, is represented in this assemblage by
enormous numbers of individuals, as it is in the
lowest sample (No.4) of the next zone. Indeed, it
is one of the most common species, being second
only in abundance to o. minimus. S. acaroides
lives in swamps and bogs on wet mud or sand,
where there is an overgrowth of algae. The author
has only once found it in abundance, in the black
mud exposed on the margins of a partly drained
mill pond. Phalacrus substriatus, which is found
in wet meadows on Carex flowers where the
larvae appear to live on the spores of smut fungus
infecting the inflorescences, is exclusively present
in this zone.
The Carabidae are chiefly predatory or general
scavenging ground beetles that provide informa-
tion about the grain size and moisture content of
the substrate, as well as the level of exposure to the
sun and thus the density of vegetation cover.
Leistus spinibarbis is a thermophilous species that
prefers warm slopes with light woodland, often
with a chalky substrate (Koch, 1989). According
to Luff (1993) it also occurs on dunes. Nebria
gyllenhali is usually considered to be a species of
 Insects
rather colder habitats. In Britain it is mainly a north-
ern and western upland species. Its presence in
this zone seems a little anomalous, but since it
occurs in the basal sample it may just be a survival
from the earlier cold period (i.e. before
13000 yr BP). Notiophilus palustris lives in rather
shaded habitats on humus-rich soils in wet places
amongst leaf and moss litter. It is found in both
deciduous woods and in marshes with high and
rather dense vegetation. Elaphrus cupreus is typi-
cal of eutrophic fens with dense vegetation in both
deciduous woods as well as in open country.
Dyschirius globosus is very eurytopic in all sorts of
moist habitats in open country. Trechus secalis
lives amongst vegetable debris in shaded places,
such as 'water-meadow forests' (Lindroth, 1985:
120), where the soil is moist organic rich clay, but
is also known in open country where lush vegeta-
tion provides shade. Bembidion varium and B.
obliquum both live on moist soils, where they run
about on the bare patches between marsh plants
such as Carex, grasses and Equisetum. According
to Lindroth (1985: 158) B. varium is a predator on
small worms and insect larvae such as those of
Ochthebius; note that 0. minimus is also abun-
dant. Bembidion gilviPes, B. doris, B. biguttatum
and B. unicolor are all species of marshes with
dense vegetation. B. doris is abundant in olig-
otrophic bogs, but in this assemblage it is relatively
rare, suggesting that the marsh was not olig-
otrophic. Pterostichus strenuus lives on damp clay
soils either in deciduous woodland or in open
country where the vegetation is tall enough to pro-
vide adequate shade, such as at the margins of
eutrophic ponds or in rich meadows. P. gracilis is
also a hygrophilous species living in open country
where there is a dense vegetation of Carex and
similar plants providing shade, such as beside
eutrophic ponds or in marshes. P. nigrita is con-
fined to wet habitats with clay and often
humus-rich soils. It is also most abundant by
eutrophic ponds or marshes. Agonum moestum is
more or less stenotopic on clayey or muddy shores
of eutrophic waters where there is tall reedy vege-
tation (Lindroth, 1986: 288).
The Dytiscidae water beetles are carnivorous
both as larvae and adults. The latter are active
swimmers with a hydrodynamically streamlined
body and elongated hair-fringed back legs with
which to row themselves through the water. If
open water had been widely available at this time,
representatives of this family would have been
more abundant. Only one dytiscid species could be
identified at this level, Agabus bipustulatus, which
220
is almost ubiquitous in a variety of aquatic habitats,
but it is normally a member of the freshwater
marsh community, where it occurs in ponds
choked with plant detritus (Balfour-Browne, 1950:
133). Hydroporus, well represented in the upper-
most sample of this zone, is a genus of very small
beetles that can make do with very little water. The
other two dytiscid genera, /lybius and Colymbetes,
are represented only by isolated fragments.
The Hydraenidae and Hydrophilidae are also
water beetles, but their adults are herbivores, often
feeding on dead cells on the surfaces of plant tis-
sues. The larvae are in most cases carnivorous. As a
group they are most common in detritus ponds,
which need to be only a few centimetres deep.
Hydraena riparia can be found in both running
and stagnant water. Ochthebius minimus, which
occurs here in prodigious numbers (see above), is
a species of stagnant waters and marshes.
Limnebius truncatellus is common in both stag-
nant and running water. Species of Helophorus
are usually found in shallow detritus ponds that
need only to be a few millimetres deep. They
were very common in the uppermost sample of
this zone. Coelostoma orbiculare, Hydrobius
fuscipes and species of Laccobius are also found
in detritus ponds, often with little water available.
Chaetarthria seminulum, which is found in all
eight of the basal samples in this sequence, inhab-
its the wet mud at the edges of ponds and is
seldom found amongst the vegetation (Balfour-
Browne, 1958: 79).
Although most of the Staphylinidae are preda-
tors, the most abundant species of this family,
Eusphalerum minutum, would seem to be a phy-
tophage that feeds on the flowers in which it lives.
It is usually found on yellow flowers such as Caltha
palustris and species of Ranunculus, but it also
occurs on Crataegus, Filipendula, Chaerophyllum
and others. Olophrum assimile is a species of
swampy meadow-like habitats with tall reedy vege-
tation, where it lives under plant detritus. Species
of Oxytelus and Platystethus are predators that live
amongst vegetable debris or in dung, in which they
excavate extensive burrows.
The Helodidae have aquatic larvae that live in
both stagnant and slowly moving water, where
they can be found under stones or aquatic plants.
The adult beetles live amongst the grasses and flow-
ers of the adjacent swamps and marshes.
The Byrrhidae are exclusively moss feeders, both
as larvae and adults. Simplocaria semistriata and
Cytilus sericeus are found on wet moss in damp
meadow-like vegetation.
 Analysis offaunal changes
Scymnus redtenbacheri inhabits swamps, bogs
and wet meadows feeding on aphids.
The Chrysomelidae and Curculionidae are exclu-
sively phytophagous and reflect the local flora.
Although there has been some debate recently
about the reality of the distinction between
Plateumaris discolor and P. sericea (Askevold,
1992), the fossils here fall well within the range of
P. discolor, which is usually a moorland species
feeding on Carex and Eriophorum. Its great abun-
dance here probably reflects the local predominance
of sedges. Galeruca tanaceti feeds largely on the
leaves of various species of Compositae, particu-
larly on Tanacetum vulgare and Achillea
millifolium. The weevils Otiorhynchus rugifrons
and O. ovatus are nocturnal, feeding on the leaves
of a wide variety of ruderal plants, most often in
rather dry places. Both these species would seem
to represent the fauna from the better drained
slopes on the hillside above the marsh. If this is so,
it would appear that the landscape was only thinly
vegetated away from the valley bottom. In this
respect the occurrence of Scolytus ratzeburgi is
important. This is a bark beetle that exclusively
attacks Betula trees, most frequently B. alba but
also on B. verrucosa and B. pubescens. This beetle
requires branches of about 10 cm diameter before
the female can excavate her characteristic galleries
directly under the bark in which the eggs are laid
and from which the larvae radiate out feeding on
the cambium layer. If infestations by this beetle are
extensive they can lead to the death of trees by
interrupting the conducting vessels. There can thus
be no doubt that tree birches were present in
Holywell Coombe at the very start of the Late-
glacial and must have been present shortly after
13 000 yr BP (see also Part Five, (1)). Lastly the
small weevil Micrelus ericae feeds exclusively on
Calluna vulgaris and Erica tetralix, the larvae
feeding on the flower heads. The presence of
heathers in a local environment so dominated by
chalk may, at first sight, seem unlikely, but it prob-
ably indicates that some leaching had already taken
place, leading to the development of acid soils. M.
ericae is represented by only one specimen, sug-
gesting that acid soils were either rare in the
immediate neighbourhood or distant from the sam-
pling site.
In summary, the Coleoptera of zone 1 indicate a
rather eutrophic marsh with, for the most part, a
thick vegetation of sedges and grasses, which in
places was patchy, leaving areas of bare mud
exposed. The little open water that was available
was largely choked with decomposing vegetation.
221
Tree birches were certainly present at the begin-
ning of this zone, though they were probably
scarce in the neighbourhood.
(b) Zone 2
This zone includes the coleopteran assemblages
from samples 4 to 9 inclusive. There is clearly a
transition between this zone and the one below,
particularly with the assemblage from sample 4.
Significant differences are the sudden rise of
Dyschirius globosus and Trechus secalis, the
appearance of Bembidion schueppeli, the exclu-
sive presence in this unit of B. guttula, the sudden
rise and importance throughout of Pterostichus
diligens, the numerical diminution of Ochthebius
minimus, the presence of Pycnoglypta lurida and
Boreaphilus henningianus, both of which are
northern species not occurring in Britain today,
and the relative importance of Pselaphus heisei.
Amongst the phytophagous species there is a
sudden increase in numbers of individuals of
Cytilus sericeus, the continued presence through-
out the lower part of the zone of Plateumaris
discolor and the appearance in the upper part of
Notaris aethiops and Limnobaris pilistriata. On
the evidence of the radiocarbon dates, these assem-
blages would seem to span the time between
12 200 and about 11 500 yr BP.
The Carabidae are represented by 32 species,
most of which inhabit swampy conditions.
Carabus granulatus is hygrophilous, living in
marshy meadows and in open deciduous woodland
and on moist clayish soils. Carabus monilis and C.
nemoralis are eurytopic species on soils rich in
humus in more or less open country. Today they
are favoured by agriculture. Leistus rufescens is
another hygrophilous species living amongst wet
leaves in deciduous woodland. Elaphrus riparius
is typically found on sandy or clayish banks by
standing or slowly flowing water where the vege-
tation is sparse or even absent altogether. It flies
readily in warm sunshine. Loricera pilicornis lives
on muddy soils in shaded area, where it is an active
predator on Collembola, as is Notiophilus palus-
tris, which occurred in the same sample. The
habitat preferences of Dyschirius and Trechus
secalis have been mentioned earlier and their rela-
tive abundance in sample 4 implies damp
humus-rich soils. D. globosus prefers open thinly
vegetated places whilst T. secalis is most usually
found in moderately shaded environments. Trechus
rivularis, is a rare species which, up to now, has
 Insects
been thought to be characteristic of marshy places
in woods. However, it has recently been found to
be widespread in upland bogs. Bembidion schuep-
peli is a species of marshy woodland where the
vegetation is dense and predominantly grass and
sedge. According to Lindroth (1985: 163), it is
often seen running on sparsely vegetated spots in
sunny weather. Bembidion guUula lives in open
or lightly wooded habitats where the soil is clayey
and richly vegetated with Carex or grasses.
Patrobus assimilis in the high north is a very eury-
topic species, but in the southern parts of its range
it becomes restricted to wetter places, often in
light deciduous woodland with Carex or
Sphagnum, where it is associated with Trechus
rivularis. Trichocellus placidus occurs in moder-
ately shaded places often amongst leaf litter in thin
forests. This species avoids very wet, dark forest
swamps (Lindroth, 1985: 376). The sudden rise in
frequency and continuous presence of Pterostichus
diligens throughout this zone may well indicate a
change in the local environment. Although a eury-
topic species, it shows a decided preference for
nutrient-poor, rather acid environments, where it
can become the dominant carabid. P. nigrita also
occurs in these acid habitats, where it is always out-
numbered by P. diligens. This suggestion of acidity
might seem unexpected considering the chalk
downs that surround Holywell Coombe and would
seem to imply that further leaching was taking
place or that already leached material had washed
from the hillside into the valley below. Calathus
erratus is clearly not a member of the marsh com-
munity, being a xerophilous species of dry sandy
soil with little humus and only sparse vegetation.
Here again is a glimpse of the nature of the vegeta-
tion cover on the adjacent higher ground. Agonum
sexpunctatum is a strongly heliophilous species
that lives on moist, peaty or clayey soils with a very
sparse vegetation cover. A. juliginosum and A.
gracile are both species of marshy habitats that
may be either eutrophic or oligotrophic.
Panagaeus cruxmajor is a spectacular species that
is decidedly hygrophilous, living in wet meadows
where the vegetation is rich and the soil clayey.
On the whole, water beetles are scarce. The
dytiscids are represented by small isolated elytral
fragments, only one species being identifiable.
Agabus guUatus is a species of trickling streams,
springs and wells usually in mountainous areas
(Balfour-Browne, 1950: 51). It would seem to be
out of place in the dominantly marsh community
described above and was either washed into the
deposit accidently or it may have flown from some
222
adjacent running water habitat. The rather sporadic
occurrences of the hydraenid and hydrophilid
water beetles appear to be a numerically impover-
ished version of the earlier assemblages; most of
the same species are present but the numbers of
individuals are greatly reduced, suggesting that the
availability of shallow detritus ponds was even fur-
ther restricted.
Phosphuga atrata lives in both open and
wooded habitats in vegetable detritus where it
feeds on snails, particularly members of the
Helicidae and Succineidae.
Sphaerius acaroides, which was so abundant in
the previous assemblages, continued to be
common in the lowest sample, sample 4, after
which it is represented by single specimens only.
Its environmental significance has already been dis-
cussed.
The Staphylinidae are more diverse and numeri-
cally more important compared with those in zone
1. This is probably because, being terrestrial
species, they reflect the gradual loss of aquatic habi-
tats noted above. Some significant additions to the
fauna occur during this period. Pycnoglypta lurida
made its first appearance in sample 5 and continued
through to sample 8. This is a decidedly northern
species that extends as far south as north-eastern
Germany (East Prussia) but does not live in the
British Isles today. It is a swamp species, living
under decaying vegetation. This introduction of a
northern aspect to the fauna is reinforced by the
presence of Eucnecosum brachypterum in sample
6, Anthophagus alpinus in sample 8 and
Boreaphilus henningianus in relatively large num-
bers in samples 6 and 7. A. alpin us is found in the
flowers of a variety of herbs such as Gentiana,
Cirsium and Trollius; the other two in plant debris
in damp places. Species of Bledius excavate gal-
leries underground in damp silty-sand, syste-
matically turning over the top few centimetres of
the sediment, preferring sunny, exposed places
(Smith and Hein, 1971). Their food is probably
algae. It should be emphasized that these beetles
are a potential cause of bioturbation on a scale that
could reduce the resolution of pollen diagrams.
Species of Stenus occurred in all samples of this
zone. Most of them live on damp soil under plant
detritus. This is the habitat for most of the remain-
ing staphylinid species, which are much more
abundant here than in zone 1. One species stands
out as particularly interesting. Trichoderma pubes-
cens is a predator on Aphodius species and their
larvae. Aphodius is most frequently a dung beetle
feeding on the droppings of herbivorous mammals.
 Analysis offaunal changes
It was present in rather small numbers in samples
4, 5 and 8 but not sufficiently common to suggest
that such mammals were at all plentiful at this time.
Pselaphus heisei is a remarkably eurytopic
species living in all sorts of plant debris usually in
damp meadows.
Hypnoidius riparius was common in sample 7.
Today it is predominantly a boreD-montane species
not uncommon in upland areas of Britain in sandy
places where its larvae feed underground on plant
roots.
Georissus crenulatus is a hygrophilous species
in wet sandy or clayey habitats. Although wide-
spread in Fennoscandia it does not penetrate much
to the north of the arctic circle. In this zone it was
well represented in the basal three samples.
Phytophagous species of Coleoptera provide
useful information on the composition of the flora
of the times. The moss feeding species of
Byrrhidae are relatively common at the base of this
zone, in particular Cytilus sericeus in sample 4.
Plateumaris discolor is also very common in the
lower samples suggesting the continued presence
of Carex, as does the regular occurrence of the
northern species Notaris aethiops, which is regu-
larly present in the upper four samples.
Limnobaris pilistriata, frequent in the same sam-
ples, feeds on species of funcus and Cyperaceae
(Carex, Scirpus and Cladium) , the larvae eating
the roots or sprouts of these plants. Grypus equi-
seti has larvae that attack the stems and shoots of
Equisetum arvense and E. palustre. The adults drill
holes in the stems. Scolytus ratzeburgi is present
in samples 6 and 7, indicating the presence of tree
birches. The weevil Deporaus betulae lays its eggs
on the leaves of Betula, Salix and similar trees,
which it rolls up into pendulous cigars that are very
characteristic (Hoffman, 1958: 1697). The
chrysomelid species Plagiodera versicolora feeds
on narrow leaved hairless species of Salix and, less
often, on Populus. The larvae can completely skele-
tonize the leaves. Cryptorhynchus lapathi as an
adult feeds on Salix, on small thin-barked twigs.
The larvae start life just under the bark, but later
bore into the wood itself. Rhamphus pulicarius is
a small weevil that consumes the leaves of Salix,
Betula and Populus. Aspidiphorus orbiculatus
lives in fungus on rotting wood, principally on
Myxomycetes and Lycoperdon. It is of interest that
this suite of tree-dependent Coleoptera was
restricted to samples 6 and 7, indicating that by this
time at least both tree birch and willow trees were
growing in the immediate vicinity. Finally the four
species of Otiorhynchus in the zone are all
223
polyphagous, feeding by night on leaves of many
herbs. Their larvae are subterranean, eating roots
of many species of plants. 0. ovatus and o.
rugifrons are xerophilous and, even though they
are relatively common, they would appear to rep-
resent the community from the adjacent hillslopes,
which must have provided the source of weedy
vegetation upon which they feed. 0. dubius is a
northern and montane species that is also
polyphagous on a wide variety of herbs, but is not
xerophilous. It occurred in considerable numbers
in sample 6 and in sample 9 as a single specimen.
O. fuscipes is polyphagous on herbs and also on
trees, both deciduous and coniferous. Its occur-
rence in samples 5 and 6 might thus be another
reflection of the presence of trees.
In brief summary, the Coleoptera show a gradual
change in the local environment. In the beginning,
the marshy conditions persisted, but towards the
top of zone 2 there was evidence for the loss of
truly aquatic habitats, particularly in samples 8 and
9. It is impossible to say on the basis of a single site
to what extent this drying was a regional or merely
local effect, but it is interesting to note at the end
of the time represented by this zone, the beetle
record was interrupted by the formation of 'Aller0d
soil', which would seem to be a widespread event
in south-eastern England (see Fig. 1.1 and Part
Three (2)). It should be emphasized, however, that
by about 11 500 yr BP the habitats available in the
valley bottom were still damp enough to
encourage the growth of Carex and similar mois-
ture-demanding plants. There is evidence for the
existence of tree birches and probably also willow
trees during the middle part of the zone (samples 6
and 7).
(e) Zone 3
This zone includes the coleopteran assemblages
from samples 10 and 11. These samples were
obtained from Trench 6, where blue-grey silty and
chalky clay lay above almost a metre of chalk gravel
and immediately beneath an organic silt, which
became highly humified and contained fragments
of wood and hazel-nuts in its upper part and was
clearly of Post-glacial age. Sample 10, only about 1
kg in weight, came from Trench 6 100-110 cm,
whereas the much larger sample 11 (about 10 kg)
was taken immediately above (80-100 cm). Note
that these samples were taken 20 cm below the
organic horizon thought initially to represent the
base of the Post-glacial.
 Insects
Significant species in this zone include
Bembidion dauricum, Helophorus glacialis,
Olophrum boreale, Arpedium quadrum,
Otiorhynchus dubius and O. rugifrons, all of
which have boreo-montane distributions at the pre-
sent day. The first four species are now extinct in
the British Isles. On the negative side, this fauna is
characterized by a dramatic diminution in diversity,
from 125 taxa in zone 2 to 24 taxa in zone 3, but
this is largely the result of the smaller sample
analysed. Two replicate radiocarbon dates of
10 160 ± 160 yr BP (OxA-2608) and 9900 ±
100 yr BP (OxA-2606) were obtained from a piece
of Salix wood recovered from Trench 6
100-110 cm (Le. the level of sample 10). These
dates come from the end of the Younger Dryas
period and indicate that there is a substantial hiatus
of almost 1500 radiocarbon years occurred in the
beetle record between samples 9 and 10. Thus
much of the latter part of the Late-glacial
Interstadial and most of the Younger Dryas period
are unrepresented in the coleopteran sequence
(Fig. 5.4.2).
The impoverished coleopteran assemblages from
samples 10 and 11 suggest that a very harsh local
environment existed in Kent towards the close of
the Younger Dryas period. There is a continuous
indication of melting snow patches and a rather
barren landscape with very sparse vegetation. The
loss of almost all species of the marsh community,
so prevalent earlier in the sequence, suggest that,
even in the valley bottom, the vegetation had
become thin. The beetles provide no evidence for
the existence of trees in the neighbourhood at this
time. The obvious climatic implications of these
faunal changes will be discussed later.
Only five species of Carabidae are present in this
assemblage. Clivina fossor excavates burrows in
clayey soils in damp sparsely vegetated places. The
habitats of Dyschirius globosus and Bembidion
schueppeli have already been described in connec-
tion with the species from the two previous zones.
Bembidion dauricum is a high northern and east-
ern Asiatic species, occurring no nearer to Britain
at the present day than the high mountains of
Norway, where it inhabits the birch zone and
lower alpine zone on dry stony, sandy soils, where
the vegetation is sparse (Lindroth, 1985: 190).
Patrobus septentrionis is one of the most abun-
dant beetle species above the tree-line in
Fennoscandia in various wet or dry habitats. Below
the tree-line in the southern parts of its range it
becomes much more hygrophilous, living in damp
shaded habitats. P. atrorujus, particularly abundant
224
in sample 11, also occurs in moist shaded environ-
ments, both in woodland and open ground.
Helophorus glacialis is a boreo-montane species
found at low altitudes in the far north of
Fennoscandia, but in central Europe it occurs only
on the highest mountains. It is most frequently
associated with the margins of melting snow
patches, particularly where the newly exposed
grass is still dead and black (Angus, 1992). In the
alpine zone of the Dovre Mountains in southern
Norway, the author found large numbers of this
beetle in water that was barely above freezing, in a
small pool in a stream emerging from wet ground
where a snow patch had recently melted.
The two staphylinid species Olophrum boreale
and Arpedium quadrum fit well into this habitat,
since both are boreo-montane and occur, although
not exclusively, in wet moss and under stones at
the margins of melting snow patches.
The two northern and montane weevils
Otiorhychus dubius and o. rugifrons would seem
to be the only plant-feeding Coleoptera from this
zone and they are both polyphagous, living on a
variety of weeds. As pointed out above, o.
rugifrons is xerophilous, which suggests that the
higher ground above the valley was relatively dry
at this time, perhaps free draining because of a lack
of humus in the soil, rather than because of
regional dryness.
(d) Zone 4
This zone includes the coleopteran assemblages
from samples 12, 13 and 14, all of which are early
Post-glacial. The recognition of the base of the
zone in Trench 6 has been problematic, since it
did not coincide with the lithological boundary
between apparent Late-glacial and Post-glacial
deposits. This boundary occurred at 60 cm, where
grey silty clay, seemingly part of the underlying
sequence of cold-climate depOSits, gave way to
more organic sediment. During sampling, this
boundary was assumed to be the base of the
Holocene, but subsequent analysis of the beetles
showed that this was not the case. Sample 12
(60-80 cm), immediately below the lithological
change, yielded thermophilous beetles character-
istic of the Holocene and has therefore been
included in zone 4. Clearly the beetles responded
more rapidly to Post-glacial warming and migrated
into east Kent before the expansion of vegetation
gave rise to organic sedimentation. The true lower
boundary of the Post-glacial was clearly below the
 Analysis offaunal changes
lithological change in the Trench 6 section, but
equally it is unlikely to have coincided precisely
with the contact between samples 11 and 12. This
fact is reflected to some extent by the occurrence
of a number of beetle species straddling this con-
tact, for example Loricera pilicornis, Bembidion
schueppeli, Patrobus atrorujus, Trogophloeus
sp., Oxytelus rugosus, Platystethus cornutus and
Dryops sp., all of which persisted into sample 12.
The base of the Holocene therefore lay some-
where between 60 and 80 cm below the top of
this section.
On purely faunal grounds it would seem possi-
ble to separate the assemblage from sample 14,
which came from Trench 3, from those from
Trench 6. Sample 14 would then represent a fur-
ther zone in its own right. However, since the
assemblage from this sample appears merely to
reflect a further elaboration of the faunal complex-
ity that developed in response to early Holocene
climatic warming, it is perhaps better to include it
in a single Post-glacial zone, as has been done here.
Significant species in zone 4 include Clivina
jossor, Bembidion octomaculatum, B. bigutta-
tum, Patrobus atrorujus, Pterostichus strenuus,
P. minor, Platynus assimilis, Licinus depressus,
Megarthrus hemipterus, Olophrum piceum,
Lesteva heeri, Prosternon tessellatum, Denticollis
linearis, Melasis b upresto ides , Eucnemis
capucina, Dirhagus pygmaeus, Anaglyptus mys-
ticus, Pogonocherus hispidulus, Taphrorynchus
villifrons, Coenorhinus aeneovirens and
Rhyncolus elongatus.
On the basis of radiocarbon dates, it would
seem that zone 4 coincides with the first thousand
years of the Post-glacial period. Sample 12 has a
date of 9820 ± 90 yr SP (OxA-2346), obtained from
Juniperus seeds, and sample 14 from Trench 3 has
a date at its base (255-265 cm) of 9230 ± 75 yr SP
(Q-2710), obtained from Salix wood. A date of
8630 ± 120 yr SP (OxA-2157) was also obtained
from wood fragments from 15 to 20 cm above the
top of this sample.
Viewed as a whole this coleopteran assemblage
indicates a return of the swamp community,
though conditions were seemingly not quite as wet
as in the earlier part of the Late-glacial. Some open
water persisted throughout this period and was of
adequate depth to support some of the largest
water beetles. However, by far the most significant
development at this time was the spread of true
broad-leaved woodland, both within the swamp
itself and on the higher, drier ground on the chalk
hillside above. This woodland had become an
225
important component of the regional vegetation by
the time the sediments of sample 14 were
deposited, since this sample provided evidence of
forest maturity in the form of beetles that require
old dead trees.
The carabid beetles include many species that
have already been discussed in the context of ear-
lier samples. These will only be dealt with here if
they add substantially to the local environmental
picture of the early Post-glacial. Cicindela
campestris is the familiar tiger beetle, a daytime
hunter on all sorts of bare-ground soils. Carabus
arvensis is also a species of dry habitats in open
country and forest clearings. Carabus nemoralis is
a beetle that lives on moderately dry humus-rich
soils in low-density forests and in open country.
This is one of the species that today has taken
advantage of agricultural practices. Trechus obtusus
is most typical of moderately damp and usually
shaded sites, such as thin deciduous woodland.
Today it too is favoured by agriculture, but living in
the hedges rather than the open fields. Bembidion
dentellum is a member of the marsh community,
preferring soft mud or clay near to water and
shaded by a dense growth ofJuncus, grasses or
Equisetum. Bembidion schueppeli lives on moist
silty ground where there is a dense cover of grasses
and sedges; it was recorded by Lindroth (1985: 163)
as being 'often seen on sparsely vegetated spots
when it is sunny weather'. Bembidion octomacu-
tatum is important because it occurred in profusion
in zone 1. This is a rare south-eastern species in
England today, living on the margins of small ponds
in marshes on a variety of soil types (Fig.5.4.1).
Bembidion biguttatum is another species of damp
habitats with tall shading vegetation, such as in a
eutrophic fen. It also occurs in open woodland
amongst moss and leaves on the margins of ponds
(Lindroth, 1985: 172). Patrobus atrorujus, already
mentioned in connection with the zone 3 assem-
blage, is a hygrophilous species often found in
damp deciduous woodland on mull soils.
Six carabid species belonging to the genus
Pterostichus are well represented. P. strenuus,
very common in sample 14, is a characteristic
species of the litter layer of damp deciduous forests
on clayey mull-rich soils. It also occurs in shaded
sites in open country, such as the margins of
eutrophic pools or in meadows with tall vegeta-
tion. Pterostichus diligens is very eurytopic in
damp environments, such as wet meadows and
marshes but, if it occurs in large numbers to the
near exclusion of other Pterostichus species, not
the case here, it is indicative of acid, nutient-poor
 (a) (b)

(c) Cd)

(c:) (I)

(g) (h)

Figure 5.4.1 Maps of the modem distributions of beetles found as fossils at Holywell Coombe: (a) Bembidion
octomaculatum; (b) Panagaeus cruxmajor; (c) Boreaphilus henningianus; (d) Olophrum boreale; (e) Helophorus
glacialis; (f) Bembidion dauricum; (g) Notaris aethiops; (h) Licinus depressus.

226
 Analysis offaunal changes
habitats. P. gracilis is a hygrophilous species found
predominantly by eutrophic ponds, usually on a
clay-rich soil where there is a dense growth of
Carex. P. minor is found in a variety of wet habi-
tats in which a rich growth of vegetation provides
shade. P. oblongopunctatus is a woodland species
in deciduous and coniferous forests where the soil
is fairly dry and often rather acid. It only occurs in
open country in places where an overcast sky can
provide the required shade. P. melanarius is thor-
oughly eurytopic, living in open as well as thinly
wooded habitats that are moderately damp. It
should perhaps be noted here that none of these
species of ground beetle is directly dependent on
the trees themselves; rather it was the physical
environment generated by the woodland that
determined the acceptability of the habitats.
The ground beetle Agonum ericeti is of particu-
lar interest in this context, because it is confined
almost exclusively to strongly acidic soils (pH
3.6-4.6), often being found in Sphagnum bogs in
both wet spots and dry situations such as clumps
of Calluna and Vaccinium. It is decidedly helio-
philous, running about on bare spots where the
microclimate can become very hot. The presence
of this species in a context dominated by chalk hills
and calcareous deposits must imply that, in places,
leaching had removed much of the carbonate from
the soil.
Platynus assimilis has habitat preferences that
are precise and rather well known and which are
described by Lindroth (1986: 281) as follows:
A stenotopic species of deciduous forests on
mull-rich soil occurring in cool and wet,
shaded habitats among litter, under bark of
the stumps etc., often near water. Also in
damp and shaded sites in parks and gardens.
Under experimental conditions (Thiele, 1964, 1967
[quoted in Lindroth, 1986]), the species was found
to prefer dryness and to be very resistant to desic-
cation. Its choice of cool, damp microclimates is
determined by its preference for low temperature.
It is a night-active species.
Licinus depressus is a predator on snails living in
dry sandy or gravelly soils often mixed with clay or
chalk. It prefers light woodland or rather shaded
open grassland.
One of the conspicuous features of zone 4 is the
return of the water beetles after their rarity or
absence in samples 8, 9, 10 and 11 (zones 2 and 3).
Amongst the dytiscid species are two of the largest
beetles of this group. Acilius is a species of silt
227
ponds rather than detritus ponds (Balfour-Browne,
1950: 305). Dytiscus is also found in ponds or
lakes. Being a large insect its life cycle is protracted
and newly emerged adults occur from July to
October. It is likely, therefore, that both Dytiscus
and Acilius were breeding in permanent ponds,
though since they are excellent fliers and were rep-
resented by single individuals only, their actual
breeding location may have been at some distance
from the sampling site. Amongst the hydraenid
water beetles, Hydraena riparia was the most
abundant in this assemblage, but it inhabits both
standing and running water. However, the total
absence here of the riffle-beetles, the Elmidae,
which are almost always an abundant component
of temperate riverine sediments, suggests that it
was the still water option that aquatic beetles were
adopting here. Amongst those hydrophilid species
that are water beetles, Hydrobius Juscipes is a
detritus pond species, as are Anacaena, Laccobius
and Enochrus, but each is represented by few
specimens. Thus it would seem, from the assem-
blage of water beetles, that there were fewer
aquatic habitats available during the early Post-
glacial compared with the early phase of the
Late-glacial.
Paralister purpurascens is a carnivore that feeds
on small arthropod larvae, often dipterus maggots,
in dung or decaying plant refuse.
Phosphuga atrata, the adults and larvae of
which feed mainly on snails, reaches its highest
numbers in sample 14, the same sample in which
the snail eating carabid Licinus depressus also
occurred.
Almost all of the staphylinid species live under
plant detritus in rather damp habitats. Thus
Olophrum piceum lives in damp Polytrichum or
Hypnum tussocks, in Sphagnum or under detritus
of Carex, Juncus or Scirpus (Koch, 1989: 239).
Only Megarthrus hemipterus would seem to be an
exception, in that it is a woodland species that
occurs in rotting fungus, particularly Polyporus
caudicinus, and on sap seeps on Quercus.
All four of Elateridae, the familiar 'click-beetles',
are more or less associated with woodland. Thus
Dalopius marginatus occurs in bushes and trees,
its larvae developing in the humus layer on the
forest floor or under moss. Prosternon tessellatum
is primarily associated with coniferous trees on the
dry margins of woodland, at the edges of woodland
clearings, or on heaths and dunes. Denticollis
linearis has larvae that develop in fresh or rotten
timber of deciduous trees in wet shaded places.
Athous haemorrhoidalis is almost ubiquitous, but
 Insects
is particularly common in woodland and grassland,
where its larvae, the well known 'wire-worms' of
agricultural notoriety, feed on the roots of a wide
variety of plants. It is interesting to note that in the
same sample (No 14) as A. haemorrhoidalis, there
were 24 tipulid (crane-fly) larvae, which as 'leather
jackets' are likewise an agricultural pest, feeding on
the roots of a large number of plants and often
occurring in enormous numbers in grassy places.
The eucnemids are closely related to the ela-
terids and are represented here by three species,
all from sample 14. All three are dependent upon
rotten wood of deciduous trees as a source of food
for their larvae. Melasis buprestoides is found
chiefly in sunny, dry broad-leaved woodland,
where such trees as Quercus, Fagus and Carpinus
are present. Eucnemis capucina is a species of
mature woodlands; its larvae require damp rotten
wood, often infected with the fungus Fomes, of
such trees as Acer, Tilia, Wmus, Fagus or Populus,
but no doubt, many other trees would be equally
acceptable. Dirhagus pygmaeus is found in broad-
leaved woodland, particularly in oakwoods, where
its larvae develop in the rotten small twigs and
branches of Quercus, Populus, Corylus and a wide
variety of other trees.
Anobium, the familiar woodworm beetle, is also
part of this woodland community and, in its natural
environment, has larvae that develop in both hard
and soft woods that have already been attacked by
fungus. Dorcatoma dresdensis, though closely
related to Anobium, is exclusively a fungus-feeder
on such wood fungi as Polyporus, Fomes,
Placoderma on old deciduous trees such as Salix
in particular but also Alnus, Fraxinus, Betula and
Quercus.
The coccinellid beetles are the well known lady-
birds, which feed almost exclusively, both as larvae
and as adults, on various species of aphid. Adonia
variegata is xerophilous, living chiefly in dry sandy
places, heaths and the sunny edges of woods.
Hippodamia tredecimpunctata is hygrophilous and
is found in marshy places with Carex, Sparganium
and similar plants, but it would seem to feed pri-
marily on the Salix-aphid Hyalopterus pruni.
Coccinella septempunctata, the seven-spotted lady-
bird, is without doubt the best known beetle in
Britain today. It is common wherever there are
aphids on herbaceous plants and, because it is an
excellent flier and migrates in enormous numbers,
it may be found aCcidentally almost anywhere.
Schizotus pectinicornis is a spectacular red
beetle that has carnivorous larvae that live under
the bark of dead broad-leaved trees (rarely of
228
conifers), such as Corylus, Quercus and Fagus,
where they feed on arthropods and worms.
The Cerambycidae, the longhorn beetles, almost
invariably have larvae that feed on wood, burrow-
ing deep into the trunks of either deciduous or
coniferous trees, though very few species can
accept both. Anaglyptus mysticus has larvae that
feed on the dry heart-wood of many broad-leaved
trees, including Quercus, Fagus, Corylus and
many more. The larvae of Pogonochercus hispidu-
Ius are also polyphagous, feeding in dry branches
of many deciduous trees including Quercus,
Fagus, Populus and Salix. The scolytid species
Taphrorynchus villifrons makes breeding galleries
under the bark of a variety of broad-leaved trees,
principally Quercus according to Balachowski
(1949), where the larvae feed on the conductive
tissues. The weevil Rhyncolus elongatus tunnels
deep into dead and partly rotten wood of conifers,
usually Pinus sylvestris. These four wood-boring
species occurred exclusively in sample 14 in com-
pany with the elaterid and eucnemid species that
are dependent on rotting wood.
Further evidence of the local presence of trees
at this time comes from the weevil Coenorhinus
aeneovirens, which lays its eggs exclusively in the
buds of Quercus, in which the larvae develop
before falling to the ground and pupating, The
presence of Salix is indicated by Plagiodera versi-
colora and probably also by Phyllodecta. The
minute weevil Rhamphus pulicarius feeds on the
leaves of a number of trees, such as Salix, Betula
or Populus. It is apparent, therefore, that by the
period between about 8900 and 9200 yr BP, as rep-
resented by sample 14, a mature forest was in
existence in the Holywell Coombe area. This was
dominated by deciduous trees, including oak and
willow, but Pinus sylvestris was also represented.
Apart from the tree-dependent species men-
tioned above, there is very little here to provide
information about the rest of the flora. There is an
almost total absence of the marsh species so pre-
dominant in the earlier samples. Note, in particular,
the absence of Plateumaris and that Limnobaris
pilistriata has been reduced to a single specimen
in sample 13. Some presence of herbaceous vege-
tation is indicated by the occurrence of Apion,
Otiorhynchus and Sitona, but excepting the latter
genus that lives exclUSively on Papilioniaceae,
there is little to suggest which herbs were present.
Thus Brachysomus echinatus is a polyphagous
weevil that lives on a wide variety of herbs, usually
in woods where the adults devour young fruits.
Baris picicornis feeds on the leaves of the
 Climatic implications of the Coleoptera
mignonettes Reseda luteola and R. lutea and its
larvae attack the roots of the same species. The
scarabaeid Cetonia aurata is the spectacular 'rose-
chafer' that feeds on the flowers of a variety of
bushes, such as Crataegus, Sambucus, Cornus and
Rosa, in sunny warm and dry woodland margins.
The larvae live in decomposing vegetation as well
as in the rotten wood of deciduous trees.
Finally the scarabaeid Geotrupes, represented in
sample 14 by a number of fragments (despite being
listed in Table 5.4.1 as only one individual, because
the pieces could not be allocated to individual ani-
mals very easily), is a large beetle dependent on the
presence of mammal dung. However, the absence
of Apbodius dung beetles suggests that mammals
were not common inhabitants of the early Post-
glacial forest at Holywell Coombe.
(5) SUMMARY OF mE LOCAL
ENVIRONMENT INFERRED FROM
mE COLEOPfERA
A brief resume of the local environment is given at
the end of the sections on each of the zones, after
the detailed justification for the interpretation
based on the requirement of the species present in
the coleopteran assemblages. It remains necessary
to give here an outline of the salient features of the
ecological development that took place during the
deposition of the Late-glacial and early Post-glacial
sediments in Holywell Coombe.
It is clear that the early cold phase of the Late-
glacial, namely prior to 13 000 yr BP, is not
represented in the samples analysed for beetle
remains. The sequence begins with an assemblage
of beetles that lived in a temperate marsh in the
valley bottom and sparsely vegetated hillsides
above. At the very beginning of this sequence birch
trees had already reached the British Isles, although
they were probably sparsely distributed and did not
constitute closed woodland. Subsequently, from
sample 4 through to sample 9, the beetle fauna
becomes gradually impoverished, reflecting a grad-
ualloss of both truly aquatic and marsh habitats. It
is clear from the reduction in numbers of the more
thermophilous species and the arrival of boreal and
boreo-montane elements that the impoverishment
of the fauna was caused by climatic deterioration
(see below). This deterioration apparently culmi-
nated in the deposition of the unfossiliferous chalk
gravels below the grey silts from which samples 10
and 11 were taken, although whether the climate
had started to ameliorate by the interval repre-
229
sented by these samples is uncertain. The radiocar-
bon evidence discussed above demonstrates that
the basal grey silts date from the terminal part of
the Younger Dryas. The interval, lacking represen-
tation in the beetle record, between the periods
represented by samples 9 and 10 coincided with
widespread soil formation (the 'Alle(!3d soil').
Samples 12, 13 and 14 clearly represent the
period of climatic amelioration that closed the
Younger Dryas period and ushered in the Post-
glacial. There was an immediate loss of
cold-adapted beetles and a return of ther-
mophilous, southern English species, such as
Bembidion octomaculatum. With the climatic
warming came the return of trees into the area, but
this time a more or less closed woodland devel-
oped, with oak and pine, and had reached a stage
of sufficient maturity by 9000 years ago (as repre-
sented by sample 14) to support a community of
forest-dwelling beetles of types that occur today in
decreasing numbers in old and rotten wood in the
vestiges of mature natural forests. There is some
evidence, in the form of dung beetles, that large
herbivorous mammals roamed this forest (see
Section 7, below).
(6) CLIMATIC IMPLICATIONS OF mE
COLEOPfERA
In the review of the local environmental conditions
outlined above it was inevitably necessary to refer
some of the changes to large-scale climatic events,
particularly those in the thermal environment.
Because of the rapidity and large-scale changes in
the geographical ranges of beetles in response to
climatic changes, they have proved to be some of
the most sensitive indicators of sudden and intense
alterations in climate (Coope, 1977). Furthermore,
instead of merely indicating a cooling trend or an
amelioration, it has now become possible to quan-
tify such climatic conditions, at least in terms of the
thermal environment, and, where the radiocarbon
dates are reliable, to put figures on the rates of
change involved.
The principles behind this quantification proce-
dure have been discussed elsewhere (Atkinson et
al., 1987) with special reference to the terminal
phases of the Devensian and the transition to the
Holocene, and it would be superfluous to review
the methodology here. The procedure has been
called 'Mutual Climatic Range Reconstruction'
(MCRR). The results are shown graphically in Fig.
5.4.2. In this figure the mean temperature of the
 Insects

+25 14

13

I
+20

- 1 12
.c.
I I
c
o +15

-
[I
E 10 11

( /)
Q)
E +10
~

~
~
+5

o
oo
'-' 13,000 12,000 11,000 10,000 9,000
Q)

-
~

::J
~
~

Q)
Q.
+10

-
E
Q)

+5

o
I
-
.c.
c
o
_E -10
-5
II
(/)
Q)
"0

oo -15

-20

-25

-30
I
13,000 12,000 11,000 10,000 9,000

Radiocarbon dates (BP)

Figure 5.4.2 Reconstructed mean temperatures for the warmest (TMAX) and coldest (TMIN) months of the year.
Each vertical bar represents the mutual climatic range of a single dated beetle fauna from Holywell Coombe. For
details of samples, radiocarbon dates and complete faunal lists see Table 5.4.1. Numbers above each line are the
sample numbers; sample 9 is omitted because the fauna was inadequate.

230
 Climatic implications of the Coleoptera
warmest month, normally July, and of the coldest
month, normally January or February, are each
shown as a range of degrees C. It should be empha-
sized that the methodology only permits the mean
figure to be placed between these limits and does
not indicate that mean temperatures fluctuated
between them. There is, at present, no means of
distinguishing between a wildly oscillating temper-
ature and an equable temperature that has the
same mean value. The order of the samples is set
out in the same sequence as in Table 5.4.1, but has
been subdivided according to the traditional
nomenclature of the Late-glacial period. It should
be emphasized at the outset that this use of subdi-
visions of the Late-glacial does not imply an
acceptance of this view of the climatic changes of
the time. Figure 5.4.2 illustrates the same recon-
structed temperature values plotted against
radiocarbon years BP. The hiatus between samples
8 and 10 is clearly seen. The information illustrated
in Table 5.4.1 and Fig. 5.4.2 may be summarized as
follows.
No insect assemblage was recovered at Holywell
Coombe from the cold period pre-dating the Late-
glacial Interstadial. However, a radiocarbon date of
13 160 ± 400 yr BP from the base of the organic silts
in Trench 4 indicates that the earliest insect assem-
blage comes from the very beginning of the
Interstadial. The presence of a single individual of
Nebria gyllenhali, a predominantly northern
British species, in the otherwise thermophilous
community of sample 1 might represent the
remains of the insect fauna that lived in Britain
prior to 13 000 yr BP. The climatic amelioration at
this time was apparently extremely rapid, with
glacial climates giving place to temperatures of
interglacial intensity in less than a century and
mean July temperatures increasing at the rate of
1°C per decade (Coope and Brophy, 1972).
Twenty-five years ago, such a rate of change
seemed to border on the absurd, but in recent
years such rates have become much more widely
acceptable (e.g. Dansgaard et ai., 1989).
The Coleoptera show that the thermal maximum
of the Late-glacial Interstadial was reached at the
beginning of the B0lling phase (samples 1-4), with
summer temperatures at least as warm or even
warmer than those of the present day. A species
characteristic of this period is Bembidion octomac-
uiatum, the present geographical range of which
is shown in Fig. 5.4.1. During this early phase of
the Late-glacial Interstadial, its range was extended
into northern England (Coope and Joachim, 1980)
and as far west as the Isle of Man (Coope, 1971)
231
and South Wales, where it occurs at Llanilid
(Walker and Harkness, 1990; Coope, unpublished
data). It also occurred on Bodmin Moor, Cornwall
(Coope, unpUblished) and at Gransmoor, E.
Yorkshire (Walker et ai., 1994).
The thermal maximum came to an abrupt end
some time before 12000 yr BP, as is shown in Fig.
5.4.2 by the fall in the summer temperature
between samples 5 and 6. Since Sample 6 has a
radiocarbon date of 12 150 ± 110 yr BP, the timing
of this sudden climatic deterioration is fairly pre-
cisely known. This climatic deterioration may have
coincided with the so called 'Older Dryas period'
of continental authors (Van Geel et ai., 1989).
Since, however, there were several phases of cool-
ing prior to the major Younger Dryas phase (e.g.
Ko<;; Karpuz and Jansen, 1992; Walker et ai., 1994),
it may well be that others of these have been attrib-
uted to the 'Older Dryas'.
The early Aller0d phase of the Late-glacial
Interstadial, represented by samples 6-8, was char-
acterized by the disappearance of thermophilous
species and the appearance of northern species
such as Pycnoglypta iurida, Anthophagus alpin us,
Boreophiius henningianus (Fig. 5.4.1) and Notaris
aethiops (Fig. 5.4.1). Thus the Aller0d period, at
least during its early part, was colder by about 4°C
in its mean July temperature in comparison with
the B0lling phase. There is a hint of warming in the
beetles from samples 8 and 9, but at no time did
the thermal environment approach the levels
encountered during the B011ing. From evidence
available elsewhere in England (e.g. Walker et ai.,
1994), but unfortunately missing from the Holywell
Coombe coleopteran samples, the thermal climate
fluctuated somewhat during the Aller0d phase, but
always remained within a few degrees of the mean
July temperatures inferred from the assemblages in
samples 6-8. It would thus appear that over a thou-
sand years of relatively cool climate prevailed from
about 12 200 to 11 000 yr BP, when a sudden and
intense cooling ushered in the Younger Dryas.
In the Holywell Coombe sequence only samples
10 and 11 represent the Younger Dryas, both
dating from the end of the period, from about
10 000 yr BP. The insect fauna by this time had
become very impoverished, but included such
cold-adapted species as Bembidion dauricum (Fig.
5.4.1), Heiophorus giacialis, Oiophrum boreaie
(Fig. 5.4.1) and Arpedium quadrum. By this time
the threshold temperature below which trees
cannot grow was almost certainly crossed, though
some birch could have survived in favourable loca-
tions. In the original trial pit of 1968, insect fossils
 Insects
recovered from small samples of Younger Dryas
sediments included not only HeloPborus glacialis,
but also Bembidion difficile, another non-British
species that lives at high altitudes in the
Fennoscandian mountains, providing further evi-
dence of a cold climate at this time (Coope, 1980).
A combination of cold summers and very cold win-
ters meant that mean annual temperatures at this
time were probably sufficiently low for there to
have been considerable cryoturbation.
The sudden intense climatic warming between
samples 11 and 12 records the transition between
the Younger Dryas and the Post-glacial. This is an
important boundary, recognized all over Europe,
that coincides with very large changes in both
fauna and flora. It is therefore interesting to find
that at Holywell Coombe this dramatic change was
located within a uniform sequence of blue-grey
silty clay (see above). It is thus clear that the appar-
ent abruptness of the amelioration is not an artifact
produced by a gap in the sedimentary sequence,
but is a true indication of the change in climate at
this time. The exact timing of this event is difficult
to establish, but would seem to be later than
10 160 ± 110 yr BP and earlier than 9820 ± 90 yr BP,
athough it must be remembered that a radiocarbon
plateau occurred at about this time. This climatic
change saw an increase in mean July temperatures
of at least 7°C in less than three hundred years
(Ashworth, 1972; Osborne, 1980).
This transition from a glacial to an interglacial
(modem) climate was apparently an abrupt, step-
wise, change and not a gradational one over many
centuries, as inferred from the traditional interpre-
tations of pollen diagrams. Likewise, the climatic
amelioration at about 13 000 yr BP was Similarly
abrupt and of the same magnitude as that at the
beginning of the Post-glacial. Here again there was
a marked lag in the vegetational response. It is clear
from the existence of both Betula wood and its
associated wood-boring beetle that tree birches
were already present in the British Isles by just after
13000 yr BP, so that the lag cannot be attributed to
a delay in arrival times, as suggested in Coope and
Brophy (1972). It has been suggested elsewhere
that factors other than climate may well have con-
tributed to the failure of tree birches to form closed
woodland at this time (Coope and Joachim, 1980;
Walker et al., 1994). In brief, it would seem that
after periods of sudden and intense climatic
change, such as those at 13 000 and 10 000 yr BP,
the fauna and flora go through a period of dishar-
mony with the physical environment. In the former
case this disharmony lasted for at least 800 years,
232
whereas in the latter the duration may have been
slightly shorter. At the time that sample 12 was laid
down, the thermal climate was quite favourable
enough to support a mixed-oak forest, but it would
seem that mature forests with oak trees did not
develop until about 9000 yr BP.
This picture of the climatic changes at the end
of the Devensian and beginning of the Post-glacial,
as interpreted from the Coleoptera from Holywell
Coombe, fits neatly into the pattern of climatic
events interpreted from a large number of sites
across southern Britain. Unfortunately, apart from
south-west Scotland, much of the north has yet to
be investigated in detail. The climatic data from var-
ious sites have been summarized in Atkinson et al.,
(1987) and, on a North-west European scale, by
Walker et al. (1994). A reconstruction of the
changes in mean annual temperatures is given in
Fig. 8.2 and these figures can be compared with
those on Fig. 5.4.2. This overall pattern of changes
in the thermal climate matches well, both in timing
and intensity, with those inferred for the Greenland
ice cores (Dansgaard et al., 1989), the changes in
the surface circulation of the adjacent North
Atlantic (Ruddiman and McIntyre, 1981), and even
the isotopic variation in Swiss lake sediments
(Oeschger et al., 1984; Ammann and Lotter, 1989).
(7) CADDISFLIES AND OTHER
AQUATIC INSECTS
N.B. WiUiams
Larval caddisflies (frichoptera) are wholly aquatic,
occurring in all types of freshwater. Disarticulated
sclerites of their exoskeletons are often abundant
and well preserved in Quaternary sediments and
their use as palaeoecological indicators is now well
established (Williams, 1989).
Various larval sclerites were recovered in the
two samples analysed from the Late-glacial inter-
stadial deposits in Trench 4, radiocarbon-dated to
between 11 830 and 13 160 yr BP. These were iden-
tified with the aid of a reference collection of
modem exoskeletal material, photographs and as
well as relevant taxonomic literature.
A single caddisfly species (Limnepbilus extrica-
tus McL.) was found in large numbers at both levels
(Table 5.4.2). Remains of other aquatic insects
were scarce, comprising a few water boatmen
(Corixidae) and dipteran larvae. The usually abun-
dant midge larvae (Chironomidae) were almost
totally absent. The single specimen identified from
the lower level was Microspectra/Tanytarsus
 Caddisflies and other aquatic insects

(both widespread, eurytopic genera). The most

abundant terrestrial arthropods noted were beetles
(Coope, this volume), mites (Schelvis, this volume)
and spiders (not studied).
Limnephilus extricatus is an unspecialized detri-
tal feeder occurring in northern and central, but
not Arctic, parts of the Palaearctic region. It is
reported from silty and well vegetated areas of per-
manent, small rivers, streams, canals and
occasionally lakes in Britain today (Hiley, 1976;
Wallace et al., 1991). It is common throughout
Britain and Europe (except for Spain and Portugal)
in a wide variety of permanent water bodies,
induding brackish ones (Botosaneanu and Malicky,
1978) and occurs also in northern, central and
western parts of European Russia (Lepneva, 1964), Figure 5.4.3 Cases of chironomid larva (cf.
Stempellina) from the tufa in Trench 5 (85-90 cm).
where it is reported as inhabiting areas of slow-
flowing current and the open sandy shores of lakes.
Solem (1985) found this species in slow-flowing
waters in the sub-alpine zone of central Norway,
but not at higher altitudes. It was particularly abun-
dant at one lake outflow. Similarly, it occurs in generally absent from the Post-glacial sediments. In
small streams and permanent stagnant waters in the oxidized tufa, the only clues to their former
southern Sweden (Svensson, 1974). The ability of occurrence were small scaphopod-like curved and
L. extricatus to inhabit both standing and flowing tapering open-ended tubes. These are usually
waters, as well as its unspecialized feeding habits, between 2.5 and 3 mm long and less than 0.5 mm
predispose this species to be a successful pioneer. in maximum diameter (Fig. 5.4.3). Although their
In addition, there appears to have been an absence frequencies have not been noted, they appear to
of competition in the detrital feeding niche usually have been restricted to certain levels within the
occupied to a large extent by chironomid larvae. various tufa deposits in Holywell Coombe. Identical
structures noted in many other British Post-glacial
Table 5.4.2 Caddisfly fossils from Late-glacial sediments tufas (preece, 1978) are thought to be the tubes of
in Trench 4. All are parts of Limephilus extricatus McL. chironomid midge larvae belonging to the genus
Body part 315-340 em 290-315 em Stempellina.
frontoclypeus 88 72
mandible 8 4
parietal 72 32
pronotum 160 164
mesonotum 48 52
leg segments 112 104
Total 468 428

(8) CHIRONOMIDAE

With the exception of the organic muds in Trench

6 and the plant-rich organic tufa in Holywell
Coombe (e.g. Trench 3), insect remains were

233
 Chapter 5
Mites
J Schelvis
(1) INTRODUCTION
Mites constitute a relatively poorly known group
within the phylum Arthropoda. The only represen-
tatives known to the general public are the handful
of species affecting human health and welfare,
such as ticks, chiggers or scabies mites and the
house-dust mite. This has created the false impres-
sion that all mites are harmful parasites, which is
certainly not the case. The vast majority of the
thousands of mite species are not parasites and
many play an important role in essential processes
such as biodegradation and soil formation.
Mites are closely related to larger and therefore
better known groups within the class Arachnida,
such as the spiders, harvestmen and scorpions. Mites
range in size from 0.1 mm to about 3.0 mm,
although ticks, swollen with the blood of their hosts,
can even reach a body-size of up to 1 cm. However,
the majority of mite species are smaller than 1 mm.
In addition to this small size, mites are characterized
by a lack of spinnerets, poison glands and body seg-
mentation. Like all arthropods, mites have an
external skeleton composed of chitin, a highly resis-
tant organic compound. Furthermore, they are
flightless, which is of great importance for their use
in palaeoecological reconstructions, as their remains
will thus reflect local ecological conditions.
Mites are one of the most successful groups of
arthropods in terms of species diversity and distri-
bution. They can be found in practically every
available habitat from the arctic to the tropics and
from the highest mountain tops to the deep sea.
Tens of thousands of species have evolved, which
234
are all more or less exacting in their choice of habi-
tat. This evolution, however, took place over a long
period of time and the rate of morphogenesis in
certain groups has been extremely slow. The oldest
known fossil mite was found near Gilboa, New
York, in a Middle Devonian deposit more than 375
million years old (Shear et al., 1984). The most
amazing aspect of this find is not its great age, but
the fact that the mite could be identified as a rep-
resentative of the extant family Ctenacaridae. The
earliest records of fossil mites date back to the
middle of the nineteenth century and refer to finds
in amber (Koch and Berend, 1854). Even though
the remains of mites in Quaternary deposits had
been described as early as 1901 by Nordenskiold,
their role as ecological indicators has only been rec-
ognized in the last few decades. Early reports
usually consisted only of a species list without any
ecological interpretation. It was not until some 30
years ago, following Coope's work using insect
faunas in palaeoecological and palaeoclimatologi-
cal reconstructions, that researchers also attempted
to use fossil mites in Quaternary palaeoecology.
Although some have doubted their value as
palaeoecological indicators others, such as
Krivolutsky and Druk (1986) and Erickson (1988),
have stressed their importance and potential.
The most important mites in palaeoecology
belong to the order Oribatida. Oribatids, or beetle
mites, are generally small soil-dwellers that can
reach very high densities of up to 400 000 individ-
uals per square metre in forest soils. These mites
have been relatively well studied for over a cen-
tury. More than 6500 species have been described
 Results
and the ecological preferences of many have been
studied extensively. Another group of mites
reported, albeit only rarely, from Quaternary
deposits is the Gamasida or meso stigmatic preda-
tory mites. Usually occurring in places with a high
degree of biological turnover, these have been used
successfully in the recognition of dung in archaeo-
logical deposits (Schelvis, 1992a).
(2) MATERIAL AND METHODS
The four samples from which the mite remains
have been extracted were all taken from the Late-
glacial deposits in Section BS (,Below Sugarloaf').
The oldest sample (A) is from the 'moss layer'
towards the base of the sequence (Fig. 3.24), laid
down between 13 000 and 12 500 yr BP (during the
'B01ling phase'). The next two samples were taken
from the same level (B) as the birch wood (dated
at 12 150 ± 110 yr BP) and from the sediments
20 cm above this horizon (C). Both these samples,
which have yielded northern beetles such as
Pycnoglypta lurida and Boreaphilus hen-
ningianus, are thought to date from the beginning
of the 'Aller0d phase'. The youngest sample (D)
was taken from a small organic lens within the
chalk rubble overlying the dated wood, but below
the 'AUer0d soil' (Fig. 3.24). Sample D is therefore
thought to date from between 12 150 ± 11 0 yr BP
and 11 500 yr BP.
The mite remains were extracted from the sam-
ples by means of an adapted version of the Paraffin
Flotation Method described by Kenward et al.
(1980). Because of their small size, these remains
had to be retrieved on a very fine (106 11m) mesh
sieve. After flotation the mite remains were sorted
from the small amount of plant material under a
low power stereomicroscope. Subsequently, the
mites were transferred to a strong (80%) lactic acid
solution, which not only preserved them, but also
increased the transparency of their exoskeletons,
an aid to identification. The mites were then
observed individually under a light microscope
with a magnification of at least X400, using
Grandjean's half-open slide technique (Balogh and
Mahunka, 1983). The mites have been identified
with reference to Siepel (in prep.) for the Oribatida
and Karg (1971, 1989) for the Gamasida. However,
mite remains from archaeological and geological
sites are usually incomplete (Fig. 5.5.1), lacking
diagnostic mouth-parts and legs. A reference col-
lection is therefore essential for identification.
The main factor determining the local distribu-
235
tion of oribatid mites is thought to be the amount
of moisture in the soil. German ecologists, such as
Strenzke (1952) and Kniille (1957), have demon-
strated that this parameter governs the
co-occurence of oribatid mite species in so-called
isovalent groups. The latter were used by Schelvis
(1990) as the basis for his ecological groups of ori-
batids used in the reconstruction of local
environments (see Table 5.5.1 for the optimal
habitat of these ecological groups). The species
within each of these 20 groups possess similar eco-
logical preferences and therefore generally share
the same habitat. However, since oribatid species
occur in differing densities in different habitats
and the ecological groups consist of a varying
number of species (ranging from 1 to 14), it is
insufficient simply to provide counts for the
groups. If this approach were used, the impor-
tance of those groups with the highest numbers of
species and those with species generally occurring
in higher densities would be over-emphasized.
Therefore, the representation of the ecological
groups is calculated in such a way that the number
of individuals in each group is multiplied by an
index (A), this being the number of individuals
from a particular group encountered in the sample
divided by the total number of species in that
group. In this way the relative representation of
the ecological group is stressed, rather than the
actual number of individuals from that group.
Although this correction is still a crude attempt at
dealing with the ecological complexity of terres-
trial micro-arthropods, it has proved to be useful
in the reconstruction of local environments
(Schelvis, 1992b).
At Holywell Coombe, finds of fossil gamasids
were interpreted using the ecological data on the
individual species available in the literature (e.g.
Karg, 1971, 1989).
(3) RESULTS
Table 5.5.2 presents the quantitative analyses of
mite remains from the four samples. The youngest
sample (D) produced only a few poorly preserved
specimens, only 63.6% of which were identifiable.
It was not possible to achieve the 100 identifica-
tions considered necessary for a meaningful
ecological interpretation, so it was decided to
exclude sample D from the environmental recon-
structions. The other three samples yielded
adequate numbers, each being comparable with
regard to preservation and diversity. The only
 Mites

Figure 5.5.1 Scanning electron micrographs of the two most common species of mite encountered in the Late-
glacial samples at Holywell Coombe: SFA018 Tectocepheus velatus (Michael, 1880), dorsal view; SFA019 prodorsum
of same individual in more detail; SFA022 ventral view of another specimen of T. velatus; the large hole at the caudal
end is caused by the absence of the anal plates; SFA015 Tectocepheus concurvatus Knillle, 1954, dorsal view; SFA016
the same specimen showing the prodorsum in more detail. Note the characteristically curved lamellae; SFA020 same
specimen at even higher magnification showing the structure of the sensillus, which is often highly characteristic.

difference between the three samples was the low fied to species level, this was clearly not the result
frequency of mite remains in the oldest level of poor preservation. The results from the three
(sample A), but as 82.4% of these could be identi- oldest samples will now be discussed.

236
 Results

Table 5.5.1 The habitat (or combination of habitats) in which the ecological groups of oribatid mites
(Schelvis, 1990) are optimally represented
Group I Moss, lichens and litter on dry sandy soil in Calluna heath and on dry and moist soil in moorland, sparsely in dry woodland
soils.
Group ill Dry and moist, rarely wet, litter as well as moss in woodland
Group VIII Moist and wet woodland and moorland soils, preferably wet Calluna heath and swamp woodland.
Group IX Soaking wet moorland and grassland as well as swamp woodland.
Group X Soaking wet moorland and grassland.
Group XI Constantly soaking wet mosses, especially SPbagnum in moorland.
Group XII Soaking wet grassland and swamp woodland.
Group XIII Moist as well as soaking wet, either fresh or salty grassland.
Group XIV Salty grassland only.
Group XV Moist mosses on a solid surface.
Group XX No obvious preferred habitat.

(a) Section BS, sample A
More than 98% of the mite assemblage from sample
A (Table 5.5.3) belongs to the Oribatida and all can
be allocated to one of the ecological groups
defined by Schelvis (1990; Fig. 5.5.2). The fact that
most mites found in this deposit belong to a group
(XX) lacking distinct habitat preferences suggests
that the depositional environment was relatively
unstable, favouring generalists. The second most
common group (X) is characteristic of wet moor-
land and grassland. Two other Groups, I and XIV,
are relatively well represented. Members of Group
I have a wide ecological range, occurring in moss,
lichens and litter on dry sandy soils on Calluna
heathland, on moorland soils or even sparsely on
dry woodland soils. Latilamellobates incisellus is
the only representative of the salty grassland Group
XIV, but some authors (Hammen, 1952; Strenzke,
1952) doubt that this species is restricted to this
habitat, since it is also known from wet meadows
and damp willow litter. Two more ecological
groups are represented by more than I %. Group
XIII represents moist, as well as saturated (either
fresh or salty) grassland, whereas the optimal habi-
tat of Group XV is damp moss growing on solid
(rock) surfaces. This last group, which is repre-
sented in all three of the analysed samples,
probably reflects those oribatids that were washed
down from the moss growing on the surrounding
hillsides. The remaining ecological groups (III, XI
and XII), characteristic of woodland, constantly
wet mosses and saturated grassland/swamp wood-
land respectively, are represented by only very low
frequencies «1 %). Although practically all the eco-
logical groups represented are indicative of moist
and wet surroundings, it is striking that the truly
aquatic and amphibious oribatids, which dominate
the mite assemblage from the Dutch Late-glacial
site at Usselo (Schelvis and Van Geel, 1989) are
completely absent.
Dinychus undulatus, the only gamasid mite
found in sample A, provides little ecological infor-
mation, as it is a relatively common inhabitant not
only of wet moss and litter on forest floors but also
of very wet meadows. Moreover, it displays a behav-
iour known as phoresy. Phoretic mites cling to
insects, usually those capable of flight, and in this

Table 5.5.2 Fossil mites from the Section Below Sugarloaf. For each of the samples is given (a) the number of
retrieved individuals (Nind.), (b) the number of species found (Nsp.), (c) the percentage of individuals identi-
fied to species level (% id.), (d) the diversity of the sample as expressed by the Shannon-Weiner Information
code (Div. H') and (e) a measure of the frequency of the mite remains (Ind./kg) expressed as the number of
extracted individuals in the first flotation of 1 kg of sample
Sample Nind. Nsp. % id. Div. H' Ind./Kg
D 11 5 63.6 1.55 131
C 332 16 80.4 1.73 506
B 211 17 74.9 1.89 643
A 199 15 82.4 1.75 289

237
 Mites
c This might suggest that the environment had
B of Atropacarus striculus (Group VIID, characteris-
xx
A destruction and why their remains are rare in
XIV
xv
Figure 5.5.2 Pie diagrams showing the proportions of
mites in each ecological group (Table 5.5.1) from the
three Late-glacial samples from Holywell Coombe
analysed in detail.
way compensate for their own restricted dispersal
capabilities. D. undulatus is known to be phoretic
on dipteran flies (Karg, 1989), so its use for envi-
ronmental reconstructions is therefore limited.
(b) Section BS, sample B
Over 98% of the mites found in sample B belong
to the Oribatida (Table 5.5.4). Two species,
Lauroppia splendens and Zygoribatula prop in-
quus, together represented by 11 individuals (7%
of the oribatid assemblage), are relatively
238
common in moss in a variety of habitats
(Willmann, 1931).
Figure 5.5.2 shows the proportions of individu-
als in the ecological groups of oribatid mites in
sample B. It is obvious that the representation of
the generalist Group XX is less than in sample A.
become more stable and that specific microhabitats
had developed. A comparison of pie charts A and B
in Fig. 5.5.2 reveals environmental differences
between the two samples. The most drastic change
is the enormous increase in species optimally rep-
resented in wet grassland and swamp woodland.
Since the two groups characteristic of grassland
(XIII and XIV) are less important in sample B than
in A, it seems reasonable to infer an increase in
woodland at the expense of grassland. This inter-
pretation is further corroborated by the appearance
tic of swamp woodland, and the increased
representation of Group III. A. striculus, which
feeds on decaying wood, belongs to the ptychoid
oribatids, a group that is rarely encountered in
palaeoecological studies. These primitive mites are
characterized by the possession of two main body
regions, the prosoma ('head') and opisthosoma
('body'), which are movable and can be folded like
a penknife. This is probably the reason why their
exoskeleton is more susceptible to mechanical
Quaternary deposits. The presence of A. striculus
in both sample Band C is, therefore, a further indi-
cation of the excellent preservation.
Sample B yielded two gamasid species, Sejus
longipes and Pseudoparasitus venetus. The latter
is not useful for palaeoecological reconstructions,
since it is found in a variety of microhabitats such
as litter, moss and lichens on the forest floor, as
well as between the roots of grasses in meadows. S.
longipes, on the other hand, is a very characteris-
tic inhabitant of marshland, where it occurs within
root masses (Karg, 1971).
(c) Section BS, sample C
The species composition of the oribatid fauna from
sample C (Table 5.5.5) closely resembles that from B
(Fig. 5.5.2B and C). Again ecological Group XII is the
most important, indicating wet woodland habitats.
A notable difference between samples Band C is
the higher frequency of gamasids in the latter,
more than 9% of the total mite assemblage. One of
 Results

Table 5.5.3 The number (n) and frequency (%) of identified mite remains from Sample A (544 g) from the
'Moss layer' in the Section Below Sugarloaf which accumulated during the B0lling phase of the Late-glacial
interstadial. For the oribatids, the ecological groups defined by Schelvis (1990) are indicated.
n % Group
ORIBATIDA
Tectocepheus velatus (Michael, 1880) 84 5l.2 XX
Latilamellobates incisellus (Kramer, 1897) 20 12.2 XlV
Trichoribates trimaculatus (C.L. Koch, 1836) 15 9.1
Tectocepheus sarekensis Triigaardh, 1910 11 6.7 XX
Eupelops strenzkei (Kniille, 1954) 10 6.1 X
Oppiella nova (Oudemans, 1902) 7 4.3 XX
Liebstadia similis (Michael, 1888) 4 2.4 XIII
Suctobelbella acutidens (Forsslund, 1941) 2 1.2 III
Banksinoma lanceolata (Michael, 1885) 2 1.2 XX
Zygoribatula exilis (Nicolet, 1855) 2 1.2 XV
Tectocepheus concurvatus Kniille, 1954 1 0.6 XII
Suctobelbella palustris (Forsslund, 1953) 0.6 X
Trichoribates novus Sellnick, 1928 0.6 XIII
Pilogalumna tenuiclava (Beriese, 1915) 0.6 Xl
Suctobelbella type A (cf. acutidens) 11
Suctobelbella type B (cf. nasalis) 7
Suctobelbella type C 2
Scutovertex cf. sculptus 1
Oribatida Indet. (9 adults, 5 nymphs) 14

GAMASIDA
Dinychus undulatus Sellnick, 1945 (2'i' 'i' , 10) 3 l.8

(199) 164 100%

Table 5.5.4 The number (n) and frequency (%) of identified mite remains from Sample B (328 g) from the
level in the 'Section Below Sugarloaf' associated with the birch trunk dated at 12150 ± 110 yr BP. For the
oribatids, the ecological groups defined by Schelvis (1990) are indicated.
n % Group
ORIBATIDA
Tectocepheus concurvatus Kniille, 1954 64 40.5 XlI
Oppiella nova (Oudemans, 1902) 40 25.3 XX
Eupelops strenzkei (Kniille, 1954) 14 8.9 X
Lauroppia splendens (C.L. Koch, 1841) 10 6.3
Tectocepheus velatus (Michael, 1880) 5 3.2 XX
Suctobelbella acutidens (Forsslund, 1941) 5 3.2 III
Suctobelbella subtrigona (Oudemans, 1916) 3 l.9 III
Atropacarus striculus (C.L. Koch, 1836) 2 l.3 VIII
Tectocepheus sarekensis Triigardh, 1910 2 l.3 XX
Liebstadia similis (Michael, 1888) 2 l.3 XIII
Trichoribates trimaculatus (C.L. Koch, 1836) 2 l.3
Zygoribatula exilis (Nicolet, 1855) 2 l.3 XV
Pilogalumna tenuiclava (Beriese, 1915) 2 l.3 XI
Platynothrus peltifer (C.L. Koch, 1839) 0.6 IX
Zygoribatula propinquus (Oudemans. 1902) 0.6
Suctobelbella type 0 10
Oribatida Indet. (9 adults, 33 nymphs) 42

GAMASIDA
Sejus longipes Willmann, 1951 2 l.3
Pseudoparasitus venetus (Beriese, 1903) 1 0.6
Gamasida Indet. (1 notogaster)

(211) 158 100%

these is P. venetus, which was also found in
sample B. Three other species of gamasid, Sejus
curtipes, Plesiosejus italicus and S. mutilus, all
belonging to the Sejidae, are characterized by the
presence of so-called pulvilli on the proximal end
of the tarsus. These hair-like extensions are an
adaptation to very wet environments enabling the
mites to walk on the surface of the water.
The oribatid fauna found in sample C indicates
little or no change in the local environment from
B. The higher frequency of gamasid remains prob-
ably indicates an increase in the amount of

239
 Mites

Table 5.5.5 The number (n) and frequency (%) of identified mite remains from Sample C (656 g) from the
level in the Section Below Sugarloaf immediately overlying the birch trunk dated at 12150 ± 110 yr BP. For
the oribatids, the ecological groups defined by Schelvis (1990) are indicated.
n % Group
ORIBATIDA
Tectocepbeus concurvatus Kniille, 1954 122 45.7 XII
Oppiella nova (Oudemans, 1902) 69 25.8 XX
Tectoceopbeus velatus (Michael, 1880) 12 4.5 XX
Pilogalumna tenuiclava (Berlese, 1915) 10 3.7 XI
Eupelops strenzkei (Kniille, 1954) 8 3.0 X
Liebstadia similis (Michael, 1888) 7 2.6 XIII
Tricboribates trimaculatus (C.L. Koch, 1836) 6 2.2
Zygoribatula exilis (Nicolet, 1855) 5 1.9 XV
Tectocepbeus sarekensis Triigardh, 1910 4 1.5 XX
Atropacarus striculus (C.L. Koch, 1836) 3 1.1 VIII
Lauroppia splendens (C.L. Koch, 1841) 2 0.7
Suctobelbella subtrigona (Oudemans, 1916) 0.4 III
Suctobelbella type A 8
Oribatida Indet. (8 adults, 32 nymphs) 40

GAMASIDA
Sejus curtipes (Halbert, 1923) 14 5.2
Plesiosejus italicus (Berlese, 1905) 2 0.7
Sejus mutilus (Berlese, 1916) 1 0.4
Pseudoparasitus venetus (Berlese, 1903) 0.4
Sejus sp. 6
Gamasida Indet. 7

(332) 267 100%

decomposing litter; the gamasid species again point
to very wet habitats.
Although the number of oribatids found in sample
D is insufficient for an environmental reconstruc-
tion (Table 5.5.6), it is worth noting the
occurrence of an oribatid exclusive to this sample,
Sphaerozetes orbicularis, which is reported to live
epiphytically on trees (Willmann, 1931; Gje1strup,
1979). This provides another indication of the
spread of woodland.
(4) DISCUSSION
This study of the Late-glacial mite remains from
Holywell Coombe is one of very few such investi-
gations carried out thus far. Most of the previous
research on Quaternary mites has been undertaken
on deposits dating from the Preboreal to
Subatlantic periods (Karppinen et al., 1979). The
first publication on Late-glacial mites was by
Sogaard Andersen (1938), who studied the inverte-
brate remains from lake sediment from Nxstved in
Denmark. He described 44 individuals, belonging
to four species, which occurred only in a gyttja
deposit dated to the 'Allerod' period. His conclu-
sion was that the most abundant of these species,
Limnozetes rugosus, can be used as a guide-fossil
for lacustrine deposits of 'Allerod' age.
In 1975, the Late-glacial type section at Usselo
(The Netherlands) was re-excavated in order to
clarify the discrepancy between reconstructions of
mean July temperatures based on the pollen and
those based on beetle remains (Van Geel et al.,
1989). The palaeoecological results of this study
concurred with those of a parallel investigation of
the mite remains (Schelvis and Van Geel, 1989).
The change from a truly aquatic environment to
more marshy habitats, and subsequently to an olig-
otrophic SPhagnum peat, was reflected in the
species composition and frequencies of the 428
identified mite remains, amongst which 15 oribatid
species were represented.
No straightforward comparison can be made
between the results from Holywell Coombe and
those from Usse1o. First, there were differences in
sampling technique. At Usse10 the mite remains
were extracted from stratigraphical subsamples of
about 5 cc taken every 0.5 cm. This allowed a very
detailed reconstruction of the species succession
but it produced relatively few mite remains for
each period. At Holywell Coombe, on the other
hand, larger samples of several hundreds of grams
were taken from selected organic deposits. This
strategy produced higher numbers of mite remains,

240
 Conclusions

Table 5.5.6 The number (n) and frequency (%) of identified mite remains from Sample D (84 g) from the
'lower organic deposit' that occurred within the chalky colluvium above the basal Late-glacial deposits in the
Section Below Sugarloaf. For the oribatids, the ecological groups defined by Schelvis (1990) are indicated.
n % Group
ORIBATIDA
Sphaerozetes orbicularis (CL. Koch, 1836) 2 28.6
Eupelops strenzkei (Kniille, 1954) 2 28.6 X
Tectocepheus velatus (Michael, 1880) 14.3 XX
Tectocepheus sarekensis Triigardh, 1910 14.3 XX
Oppiella nova (Oudemans, 1902) 14.3 XX
Suctobelbella cf. alloenasuta Moritz, 1971
5 uctobelbella sp.
Oribatida Indet. (2 adults) 2

(11) 7 100%

increasing the reliability of the reconstructions, but (5) CONCLUSIONS

the stratigraphical resolution is much poorer.
Furthermore, the Usselo material was washed
through a 140 Mm sieve, whereas the Holywell
Coombe samples were washed through a 106 MID
sieve. This difference could, for instance, explain
the absence of the genus Suctobelbella at Usselo,
since most of the representatives of this genus are
only 120 Mm across.
Another obvious difference between the two
sites is, of course, the geological setting. The Usselo
deposits originated in a pool on a sandy substrate
in a virtually flat landscape, whereas the Late-glacial
sediments at Holywell Coombe were deposited at
the bottom of a valley surrounded by steep chalk
slopes. This difference not only governs the pres-
ence of specific microhabitats, but is also
responsible for differences in the way some of the
mite remains accumulated in the deposits, for
instance, through post-mortem transport by water
running down the slopes.
The environmental reconstructions based upon
the oribatid mite remains from the Late-glacial
deposits in Section BS suggest that there was a
change from an unstable, open and marshy terrain
during the 'B011ing' phase (sample A) to an increas-
ingly more wooded, but still very wet environment
during the early part of 'Aller0d' phase (as repre-
sented by samples B and C). During both periods
there were no indications of the presence of open
water at the site.
At Holywell Coombe, gamasid predatory mites
were found in reasonable numbers for the first time
during a palaeoecological study. The higher fre-
quency of gamasid remains in the 'Aller0d' deposits,
as compared to those of 'B011ing' phase, probably
indicates an increase in the amount of decompos-
ing organic litter. Most of the gamasid species found
again point to very wet surroundings.

241
 Chapter 6
Ostracoda
jE. Robinson
(1) INTRODUCTION
Ostracods are small bivalved aquatic crustaceans,
usually between 0.5 and 2.5 mm in size. They
secrete a carapace, into which the appendages can
be retracted, composed of low-magnesian calcite.
The two valves forming the carapace differ from
the shell of a bivalve mollusc in being formed by
the calcification of parts of the cuticle, which is a
continuous layer over the valves, limbs, body and
ends of the gut. Ostracods reproduce sexually or
by parthenogenesis and moult their shells during
growth up to eight times before reaching maturity.
In this respect they differ again from bivalve mol-
luscs, in which incremental growth occurs at the
growing margin until maturity is attained.
Ostracod valves, complete with the muscle scars
that close them, readily fossilize. Different taxo-
nomic characters have been used to classify
ostracods. Zoologists have tended to place much
emphasis on the internal anatomy, particularly on
characters of the appendages, whereas geologists,
denied the use of soft parts, have had to devise a
taxonomy based on characters preserved in the
carapaces. This has lead to classification schemes
that are not entirely congruent. Nevertheless the
taxonomy of modem European freshwater ostra-
cods is reasonably well known (e.g. Griffiths, 1997).
Ostracods have been extensively used for both
stratigraphical and palaeoenvironmental interpreta-
tions (Carbonel et at., 1988; Griffiths, 1995). Most
species show clear habitat preferences, although
some are markedly eurytopic. The substrate, habitat
permanence, flow rate, dissolved solids, turbidity,
242
anion composition, salinity, temperature and preda-
tor pressure are important factors that can influence
their occurrence and abundance. Although primar-
ily aquatic, a few species have adapted to damp
terrestrial habitats, such as leaf-litter. They can also
show marked seasonality in the period during which
the organism develops and grows.
(2) SAMPIlNG AND TREATMENT OF
DATA
Ostracods are readily recovered from a wide range
of Quaternary deposits (Griffiths et at., 1993). In
the case of those from Holywell Coombe, ostracod
valves were recovered from the same samples as
those analysed for Mollusca, with counts reported
here representing the total number of valves
retained in 0.5 and 0.25 mm sieve fractions (the
latter having been retained exclusively for ostra-
cods analysis).
The results are presented as histograms plotting
the absolute frequencies of ostracod valves per
500 g dry weight of sediment. Samples where the
weight was <500 g have been extrapolated as appro-
priate. Details of the representation of various moult
stages were noted but are not presented here.
The preservation of ostracods was generally
good (Figs 5.6.1-5.6.2), but was best in the more
silty levels. In some of the more organic horizons
(e.g. Trench 6, 45-50 cm), remnants of the chiti-
nous elements were preserved and many
specimens of Pseudocandona marchica from
Trench 4 even retained the hairs on outer surfaces
 Sampling and treatment of data

Figure 5.6.1 Scanning electron micrographs of selected ostracods from Holywell Coombe. Magnification all x60,
except 7 which are X30; enlargements are X250. 1. Cyclocypris laevis. (a) Exterior of right valve, Trench 4
330-335 cm. (b) Dorsal aspect, Trench HV 200-205 cm. (c) Interior of right valve, Trench HV 200-205 cm. 2.
Cavernocypris subterranea, Trench 4365-370 cm. (a) Exterior of right valve. (b) Dorsal aspect. 3. Psychrodromus
olivaceus, Trench HV 150-155 cm. (a) Dorsal aspect. (b) Exterior of right valve. (c) Interior ofleft valve. (d) Muscle
scars of left valve. 4. Pseudocandona marchica (a) Right valve of instar A-III, Trench 4 290-295 cm. (b) Interior of
right valve of instar A-III, Trench 4290-295 cm. (c) Exterior ofleft valve, Trench HV 200-205 cm. (d) Interior ofleft
valve, Trench HV 200-205 cm. (e) Surface detail, Trench 4 290-295 cm. 5. Fabaeformiscandona fabaeformis,
Trench 4310-315 cm. (a) Exterior of left valve, Trench 4310-315 cm. (b) Interior of right valve, Trench 4
310-315 cm. 6. Candona candida, Trench 4 320-325 cm. (a) Exterior of left valve. (b) Interior of left valve. 7.
Herpetocypris reptans, Trench 4 320-325 cm. (a) Exterior of left valve. (b) Interior of right valve.

243
 Ostracoda

Figure 5.6.2 Scanning electron micrographs of selected ostracods from Holywell Coombe. Magnifications all X 60;
enlargements are X 250. 1. Nannocandonajaba, left aspect of carapace, Trench 4320-325 cm. 2. Potamocypris
ct. julva. (a) Interior of right valve, Trench 4 365-370 cm. (b) Interior of left valve, Trench 4 360-365 cm. 3.
Ilyocypris bradyi. (a) Left valve, Trench 4 310-315 cm. (b) Interior ofleft valve, Trench 4310-315 cm. (c) Exterior
of right valve, Trench HV 220-225 cm. (d) Muscle scars ofleft valve, Trench 4310-315 cm. (e) Enlargement of post-
ventral ornament, Trench HV 220-225 cm. 4. Ilyocypris inermis, Trench 4 215-220 cm. (a) Exterior of right valve.
(b) Exterior of left valve. (c) Interior of right valve. (d) Muscle scars of right valve. 5. Eucypris pigra (a) Exterior of
right valve, Trench HV 205-210 cm. (b) Interior of left valve, Trench 4 290-295 cm. 6. Eucypris virens, Trench 4
315-320 cm. (a) Exterior of left valve. (b) Interior of left valve.

244
 Faunal analyses of the profiles
of the valves (Fig. 5.6.1.4e). Despite this, the valves
of some of the larger species (e.g. Herpetocypris)
are rather delicate and prone to post-mortem degra-
dation (Danielopol et al., 1986), so that it is
difficult to assess accurately their numerical repre-
sentation within each sample. Many of the
Late-glacial levels also included microfossils
reworked from the Chalk, but these could readily
be separated from the Pleistocene material.
(3) TAXONOMY AND PROBLEMS OF
IDENTIFICATION
Most of the ostracods from Holywell Coombe were
identifiable to the level of species, although three
taxa are left in open nomenclature (Candona sp.
and Scottia sp. from Trench 4 and Ilyocypris sp.
from Trench 5). The small number of specimens
attributed to Candona s.l. and Ilyocypris sp. were
not identifiable, so it is unclear whether these
might represent additional taxa or local ecopheno-
types; however, the problems involved in the
identification of Quaternary Candoninae and
Ilyocyprididae are well known (Absolon, 1978; Van
Harten, 1979). Scottia has been reviewed by
Kempf (1971) and, although the Holywell Coombe
specimens could not be identified with certainty,
it is unlikely that anything other than Scottia
pseudobrowniana Kempf, the only recognized
European Holocene species, would be present.
The most serious difficulty concerned the iden-
tification of members of the genus Potamocypris,
since current taxonomy rests heavily on soft-part
anatomy (Meisch, 1984; 1985), an approach that is
precluded in fossil material. Carapace outline dif-
fers between left and right aspects, the more so
when the two valves are separated from one
another. According to Meisch (1984: 14) 'P.fulva
is closely allied to P. pallida with which it may be
easily confused'. Ecologically, both species are non-
swimming forms, possessing only short swimming
setae on their antennae. P. pal/ida is more often
described as a spring-dweller but has not been
been found as a fossil.
Systematic nomenclature here follows Griffiths
and Holmes (1997).
(4) FAUNAL ANALYSES OF THE
PROFILES
The ostracod biostratigraphy was studied in the fol-
lowing five profiles:
245
(a) Trench HV
Altogether some 13 species were recovered from
this profile (Fig. 5.6.3). The fauna can be conve-
niently divided into four main assemblages as
follows:
365-520cm
Although the number of specimens recovered
varied enormously (presumably, in part, a product
of different rates of accumulation), the earliest
communities were dominated by Potamocypris
fulva, which shows two peaks, the first between
490 and 480 cm and a later one between 370 and
365 cm. This species often occurs in rather cold,
gravelly, poorly-vegetated streams. Other important
members of this community included Pseudo-
candona marchica, Ilyocypris bradyi and
Eucypris pigra. It appears that there were no
major compositional changes within this unit,
except that Eucypris virens occurred in the basal
levels, Cyclocypris laevis in the middle and
Cavernocypris subterranea only towards the top.
The stratigraphical evidence indicates that this
assemblage existed at the beginning of the Late-
glacial (12-13 000 yr BP). The ostracod assemblages
from this zone are typical of modestly-flowing
water, possibly prone to drying out seasonally.
327-335cm
This assemblage, from a thin unit of calcareous
tufa, consists of just three species P. marchica, E.
pigra and C. subterranea. P. fulva, the dominant
species in the previous unit, was not recovered.
The formation of tufa during the 'Aller0d intersta-
dial', immediately before 11 530 ± 160 yr BP,
indicates the initiation of spring activity towards
the head of the valley at this time.
190-235cm
The lower half of the Post-glacial tufa yielded the
most diverse ostracod assemblage in this profile,
with ten species recorded from this division. The
faunal composition is completely different from the
lower Late-glacial communities. First, P. fulva,
although still present, now constitutes only a sub-
ordinate component, whereas the spring-dwelling
Psychrodromus olivaceus, previously absent, now
dominates. These faunal differences may be ther-
mally controlled, as P. olivaceus has a more
southerly European distribution than P. fulva, and
 ~
f
\II
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N en
OJ Co>
~ C> C> ... ""
1+ 1+
a:,
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C> C> ;a-
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~ ~ W ~ W N N ~
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8- o 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 3

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o n.o
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co O O...............................................
- , - - I - - I - I - I - I - - I - I - I..... --I-I-I-I-I
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OJ - Candona neglecta ~
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g, OJ
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1i Cavernocypris subterranea
S!;. •
\JI
0
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(JCl
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....0 P,yclirodromu, oli..ceu,
<Il
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0-:1
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 Faunal analyses of the profiles

em
150 """TTTT1TT,AIlTm'Tll1

•
-_ .
7650±80-
T T

8630 ± 120.
T
T

T ~~ I t~
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•
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I I I
250
9230 ± 75.
co ;') C> 0
I I
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~~~;;;
600't:,....OCl~o~
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I I I I I I I I I I I r-r r-r ,-r-,,---,--r r-r r-r I I I I I t i I I i I i

300 0 50 0 50 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 50

Valves 1500g

Figure 5.6.4 Ostracod diagram from Trench 3 showing the number of valves/SOO g of sediment.

may also indicate the build-up of some organic lithological change to fine-grained (micritic) tufa,
detritus and plant communities. there was a marked difference in faunal composi-
tion and abundance. First, the overall numbers of
ostracods recovered increased significantly.
90-190cm
Second, the diversity also increased, with 10 taxa
The fauna from the upper half of the tufa is far less recorded from this upper division. Amongst the
diverse and for the most part is composed exclu- new taxa, Potamocypris zschokkei and Ilyocypris
sively of P. olivaceus. inermis became co-dominant with P. fulva and 1
bradyi. Cavernocypris subterranea and
Psychrodromus olivaceus were also well repre-
(b) Trench 3 sented in these upper levels. These faunal
differences clearly relate to hydrological changes in
The ostracod fauna from this profile can be divided the depositional environment resulting from
into two assemblages. The earliest, which was reduced water flow and increased aquatic produc-
recovered from the lower nodular facies rich in tivity. The coarser nodular facies at the base is
plant detritus, comprises between three and five thought to have accumulated more rapidly in a
species (Fig. 5.6.4), amongst which Potamocypris higher-energy environment than the overlying
fulva and Ilyocypris bradyi are the most frequent. micritic facies (part Three, 2 (2)) and so would be
Above 225 cm, corresponding approximately to the expected to furnish a less species-rich assemblage.

247
 Ostracoda

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13,160%4001 r •
1 I I I I 1 I I I r' 1 I I I I 11--'-'--"- r' [' f""T 1 I I I I 1 I I I I 11 I I I 'ii i I [' [' I ['
o 50 0 0 50 0 0 0 0 0 50 100 0 50 0 0 0 0

Valves/500g

Figure 5.6.5 Ostracod diagram from Trench 4 showing the number ofvalves/500 g of sediment.

Despite this, the lower part does not seem to
reflect a riffle environment, but is more likely to
have accumulated in a pool.
No ostracods were recovered from the organic
silt (184-186 cm), which is thought to mark a
period when the surface of the tufa dried out.
Interestingly no ostracods were recovered from the
tufaceous sediments above this horizon
(155-186 cm), which must imply a significant dif-
ference in depositional environment between the
two tufaceous units. The absence of ostracods and
the greater frequency of dry-ground snails (Part
Five (3» indicates that there was less water present
during this time.
(c) Trench 4
Altogether some 13 taxa were recovered from the
samples obtained from this trench between
280-360 cm (Fig. 5.6.5) and a further two
(Heterocypris salina and Bradleystrandesia jus-
cata) were encountered in bulk samples. Although
there were quite large fluctuations in the number
of specimens recovered in each sample, they can
all be regarded as a single assemblage. Candona
candida, P. marchica, Cyclocypris laevis and
Ilyocypris bradyi dominate, with subordinate
Herpetocypris reptans, Potamocypris julva,
Eucypris pigra and E. virens. Greatest numbers
were recovered between 290-325 cm, which is
known from molluscan and plant macrofossil evi-
dence to represent a change towards more marshy
conditions (Figs 5.3.12 and 5.1.2).
(d) Trench 5
This was the deep trench situated near Horseshoe
Spring. The sequence comprised some humic chalk
muds and an organic detritus mud in the lower
part, overlain by a thick unit of calcareous tufa in
the upper part. This tufa was nodular (onchoidal)
at its base but became more silty around 250 cm.
Although pollen was recovered both from the
chalk muds and the waterlogged part of the tufa
above 250 cm, it was absent from the lower part of
the tufa (Fig. 5.1.4), which must be a reflection of
its coarser texture.
The ostracod succession (Fig. 5.6.6) can be sub-
divided as follows:

248
 Faunal analyses of the profiles

~
III
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.~

Q
.~
I!)0
~
I
8
!
.~
13
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E VI
!
1:VI
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=
c::
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.Q
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-8 QS
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c::
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342
T T

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11480:1: 140. T I
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50
I. i ,
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150
f' iii
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iii I
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50
i I
0
I i I Ii,
50
, iii
100
r

ValvesJ500g

Figure 5.6.6 Ostracod diagram from Trench 5 showing the number of valves/500 g of sediment.

345-400cm 275-iJ40cm
Although the basal chalk muds yielded ostracods, The basal part of the tufa is completely dominated
only three species (Psychrodromus olivaceus, by Cryptocandona vavrai and Potamocypris
Pseudocandona compressa and P. marchica) fulva. The latter species dominates in the basal
were recovered and these occurred in low num- nodular tufa, but above 315 cm it is outnumbered
bers, precluding further discussion. bye vavrai.

249
 Ostracoda

em
o
T T

9530± 751

50 I I I

·v,,·x "
~ v>-~·
10,160 ± 1101 I i I Iii iii I iii i i " " IT ,-.-,-- IT I ' I I I I I ~ 1'1
o 50 100 150 o 0 0 0 0 0 o 0 0

Valves/500g

Figure 5.6.7 Ostracod diagram from Trench 6 showing the number of valves/500 g of sediment,

180-275 cm
The assemblage is similar to that from the preced-
ing division except that C. vavrai is abruptly lost
from the record above 275 cm and replaced by P.
olivaceus.
55-180cm
This division is completely dominated by P. oli-
vaceus with subordinate C. subterranea and P.
julva. Ilyocypris inermis and L bradyi also occur
in very low numbers.
(e) Trench 6
40-50cm
A meagre assemblage was recovered from the
lower half of the Post-glacial organic deposits, com-
prising Potamocypris julva, C. vavrai, P.
marchica, L bradyi, Nannocendona jaba and E.
pigra. No ostracods were recovered from the
highly humified part of this sedimentary unit
between 25 and 40 cm.
10-25cm
This assemblage, from the tufa overlying the
organic deposits, is completely dominated by P. oli-
vaceus, with subordinate C. vavrai, P. marchica,
L bradyi and P. zschokkei.

The location of this trench is shown on Fig. 1.3 and (5) COMMENTS ON SPECIES OF
a detailed section drawing and full lithological INTEREST
description given in Part Three. No ostracods were
recovered from the Late-glacial chalk muds but a Candona candida (O.F. MUller)
few were present in the early Post-glacial organic (Fig. 5.6.1(6))
muds. The sequence (Fig. 5.6.7) can be divided This species was encountered in most of the sam-
into two units as follows: ples. Today it is common and widely distributed in

250
 Comments on species of interest
Europe and North America. It is usually found in
stagnant or slow flowing waters with a muddy sub-
strate and has been found in streams, ponds, lakes
and ditches.
Fabaeformiscandonafabaeformis (Fischer)
(Fig. 5.6.1(5))
This is another widely distributed species in
Europe and Asia, where it occurs in marshes, flood-
plains, ponds and lakes. It is encountered most
frequently in plant-rich, muddy-bottomed ponds
that dry out in summer (Diebel and Pietrzeniuk,
1977). In southern England adults are normally
found between March and June (Henderson, 1990).
Pseudocandona marchica Hartwig
(Fig. 5.6.1(4))
This species is apparently unknown living in Britain
(Henderson, 1990). According to Hartwig (1899),
it can swarm in meadow pools and shallow lake
margins with rich plant growth and leaf-litter. In
north-west Europe it occurs early in the year
(spring). Early instars emerge in April and adults
first appear in May and survive until June or July
according to the coolness of the season.
P. marchica has been found in a number of Post-
glacial tufas in the British Isles, such as those in the
Ancholme Valley, Lincolnshire (Preece and
Robinson, 1984), Newlands Cross, Dublin (preece
et at., 1986), as well as from lacustrine sediments at
Kildale, Yorkshire (Keen et at., 1984).
Cyclocypris laevis (Muller) (Fig. 5.6.1(1))
This is an ostracod that is widely distributed in
Europe and North America. It inhabits shallow
ditches and can often be found swimming at
or above mossy organic bottoms of pools
(Niichterlein, 1969: 251).
Eucypris pigra (Baird) (Fig. 5.6.2(5))
This is the smallest British member of the genus
and is widespread both in Britain and NW Europe.
Although it inhabits permanent running waters, it
cannot swim (Fox, 1966). It is an important
member of assemblages from tufa-depositing
springs (e.g. Kerney et at., 1980, Preece and
Robinson, 1984).
251
Herpetocypris reptans (Baird)
(Fig. 5.6.1(7))
This is the largest ostracod encountered. It is very
common across Europe and N. Mrica, occurring in
bodies of fresh water ranging in size from small
pools to large lakes.
Jlyocypris bradyi Sars (Fig. 5.6.2(3))
This common species, found in muddy substrates
of ponds and lakes with liberal growth of water
weeds, shares with Eucypris and Herpetocypris an
inability to swim in flowing water. Preferring
cooler water, it is often found in springs and per-
manent streams and still occurs in the present
spring at Holy Well (fable 7.16).
Jlyocypris inermis Kaufman (Fig. 5.6.2(4))
This species can be distinguished from L bradyi by
its posterior outline, which has an accentuated
bend brought about by the arched ventral line of
the valves, and especially by its limbs. The swim-
ming bristles on its antennae are rudimentary,
indicating poor swimming ability. According to
Niichterlein (1969: 256), this species is almost
exclusively a spring-dweller, although there are
subsequent records from upland lakes. It is widely
distributed across Asia and Europe, but appears to
be rare in Britain at the present day, although there
are records from springs in Essex and Sussex
(Henderson, 1990). As a fossil it has been reported
from calcareous tufa assemblages from several sites
(e.g. Preece et at., 1984), as well as from fluvial
contexts.
Potamocyprisfulva (Brady) (Fig. 5.6.2(2))
This short, bluntly triangular species, first described
from Loch Fadd in Bute, lacks swimming bristles
on its antennae, a typical feature of non-swimming
taxa from quiet slow-flowing water bodies (Meisch,
1984; 1985). It is uncommon in Britain and Europe
(Henderson, 1990), but is proving to be a regular
member of Post-glacial tufa assemblages (preece
and Robinson, 1984; Preece et at., 1984). At
Holywell Coombe it also occurs in the early Late-
glacial marsh deposits in Trench 4 and Trench HV.
Potamocypris zschokkei (Kaufmann)
In contrast to the preceding species, this potamo-
cyprid has an elongate and incurved venter. Like
 Ostracoda
P.jutva it cannot swim, but is recorded from
spring-fed pools in southern England and Italy
(Fox, 1966).
Psychrodromus olivaceus (Brady and
Norman) (Fig. 5.6.1(3))
This species was first described from limestone
streams in Lathkill Dale in the Derbyshire Peak
District and has subsequently proved to be typical
of cooler, solute-rich waters, such as springs and
mountain streams throughout most of Europe. In
head-waters in lowland Britain it is not uncommon
to find monospecific populations of this species,
although it is replaced by P. robertsoni in more
acidic upland streams (Griffiths et at., 1996). P. oli-
vaceus is a characteristic member of assemblages
from calcareous tufa, where it is often the domi-
nant species (with Eucypris pigra), as it is at
Holywell Coombe. It is still frequent (with
Ityocypris bradyt) in the present spring at Holy
Well (fable 7.16).
Cavernocypris subterranea Wolf
(Fig. 5. 6. 1.2.D
C. subterranea was first described from spring
pools near Basel and from springs in the Jura up to
an elevation of 1100 m (Wolf, 1919). In Britain, Fox
(1967) reported it from springs emanating from the
Lower Greensand at Paines Hill, Surrey, from the
Chalk at Dagnall, Buckinghamshire, and from the
Carboniferous Limestone at Pen-y-Cae, Brecon, and
Malham Tam, Yorkshire. These occurrences sug-
gest that it has a preference for cold-water springs
with a hard substrate (Niichterlein, 1969). It has
also been found in small streams, wells and under-
ground waters (Henderson, 1990). As a fossil it has
been reported from a number of other calcareous
tufas (preece et at., 1984).
(6) DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS
The excellent sedimentary sequence at Holywell
Coombe has thrown considerable light on details
of ostracod faunal history, particularly for the Late-
glacial. The results are summarized in Table 5.6.1.
The fossil ostracod assemblages from Holywell
Coombe consist of taxa that still form part of the
fauna of the Western Palaearctic, most taxa being
widely distributed within this area (Laffler and
Danielopol, 1978). The majority occur commonly
252
in spring brooks, streams and associated habitats
today (Griffiths et at., 1996). Faunas of similar com-
position to those from Holywell Coombe are
commonplace in tufa deposits throughout central,
western and northern Europe (Absolon, 1973;
Preece and Robinson, 1984; Preece et al., 1986;
Pietrzeniuk, 1985; van Frausum and Wouters, 1990;
Griffiths and Mount, 1993; Griffiths et at., 1996).
Usually in spring-fed environments species diver-
sity is inversely related to both proximity to the
seepage and to water velocity, with the more
diverse faunas only occurring downstream where
flow becomes intermittent and marshland is devel-
oped. The ostracod faunas of fast-flOwing habitats
(e.g. riffles) are often species-poor or monospecific,
whereas more diverse faunas typify the slower
flOwing, sediment-rich areas, such as pools, and the
areas downstream (Griffiths et at., 1996). In the
latter, the fauna often encompasses species from a
range of microhabitats and seasons, as well as those
brought downstream by the effects of drifting.
Some of the species from Holywell Coombe
exhibit generalist or eurytopic ecologies, although
species that are generally associated only with
standing waters are absent. Many of the species
present may occur in both running and still waters,
such as Limnocythere inopinata, Candona
neglecta and Ityocypris bradyi (Delorme, 1991),
whereas others may be found in waters exhibiting
limited movement, such as a backwater or a marsh-
land with some through-flow (e.g. P. serrata,
F. fabaeformis). Some cold stenothermal species
are also present and these are generally associated
with running, often calcium-rich waters (1 inermis,
C. vavrai, N faba, P. olivaceus, E. pigra, C. sub-
terranea, P. fulva and P. zschokket). Finally,
P. marchica, Scottia and to some extent, N faba,
can often be found in marshy habitats, whilst E.
virens is most often found in vernal pools
(Baltanas, 1994).
Most of the changes seen at Holywell Coombe
are associated with transitions from rapidly flowing
streams to those that are sluggish and more distal
from the spring (cf. Griffiths et at., 1995), or with
areas that dry out. Most studies of fossil ostracods
are based on the analysis of a single sequence at
anyone site. The present investigation is unusual
because no fewer than five individual profiles have
been analysed for ostracods within a relatively
small area. This has enabled the study of both tem-
poral and spatial assemblage variations.
Various additional points also emerge from this
study. First, most of the species recovered were
 Discussion and conclusions

Table 5.6.1 Stratigraphical occurrence of Ostracoda from Holywell Coombe

~lIing AIler0d Preboreal Boreal Atlantic
Date (kyr BP) 12-13 11-12 ~10 8-9 5-8
Limnocytbere inopinata (Baird) +
Ryocyprls bradyi Sars + + + +
Ryocyprls inermis Kaufmann + + +
Candona candida Miiller +
Candona neglecta Sars + +
Fabaeformiscandona fabaeformis (Fischer) +
Pseudocandona compressa (Koch) +
Pseudocandona marcbica Hartwig + + + + +
Pseudocandona rostrata (Brady & Nonnan) +
Cryptocandona vavrai Kaufmann + + +
Nannocandona faba Ekman + +
Cyclocypris laevis (Miiller) + + + +
Cyclocypris ovum (Jurine) +
Scottia sp. +
Herpetocyprls reptans (Baird) +
Psycbrodromus olivaceus (Brady & Nonnan) + + +
Heterocyprls salina (Brady) +
Bradleystrantiesia Juscata (Jurine) +
Eucyprls pigra (Fischer) + + + + +
Eucypris virens (Jurine) +
Prlonocypris zenkerl (Chyzer & Toth) +
Cavernocypris subterranea (Wolf) + + + +
Potamocyprisfulva (Brady) + + +
Potamocypris zscbokkei (Kaufmann) + + +

already present at the beginning of the Late-glacial
(13000 yr BP). This suggests that many of them
have very good powers of dispersal (Griffiths and
Evans, 1995) or that they may have even been pre-
sent during the preceding cold phase. Further data
are needed to test the last suggestion.
Second, it appears that ostracod communities,
dominated by different species, coexisted in differ-
ent parts of the valley. The fauna from Trench 4,
for example, was dominated by llyocypris bradyi
and Candona candida, whereas these were sub-
ordinate or, in the case of C. candida, completely
absent in contemporary sediments in Trench HV.
Therefore, unlike the molluscan and pollen
records, it is not possible to recognize discrete
ostracod assemblages that replace one another in a
sequential order. This is largely because each point
along the course of a stream has a distinct assem-
blage, reflecting its proximity to the source.
Third, it appears that the ostracod assemblages
are governed to a very large extent by the nature
of the local environments. Thus, all the Post-glacial
tufa-depositing springs in Holywell Coombe were
completely dominated by Psychrodromus oli-
vaceus. The associated subordinates were broadly
similar, although the prevalence of each varied
with individual site location. C. subterranea, for
example, was particularly common in the upper
levels of the tufa deposited between 9000 and
8000 yr BP exposed in Trench 5, whereas it was
less common at this time in the area of Trench HV.
The paucity of the ostracod assemblage (lacking P.
olivaceus) from the tufa dating from the 'Aller0d'
(-11 500 yr BP) in Trench HV is in marked contrast
to the more diverse Post-glacial tufa assemblages.
This may simply represent a transient environment
that did not last sufficiently long for full ostracod
colonization.
Essentially, the ostracod record from the site is a
reflection of the activities of the springs and their
effects upon the local landscape. The poor repre-
sentation of hypogean species suggests that tufa
build-up in the valleys occurred as a direct result of
degassing of spring waters, with upward seepage
through the underlying chalk playing only a minor
role. Other sites on chalk, such as West Overton,
Wiltshire, and Bossington, Hampshire (Griffiths and
Mount, 1993; Griffiths, 1995b), all feature ground-
water-inhabiting species, suggesting that
groundwaters at these sites have made a far greater
contribution to their ecology.
The ostracods were unable to amplify details of
the climatic history, except in indicating the stable
and cool nature of the spring environments.
Ostracods are a source of authigenic carbonate and
are often used to provide trace-element and stable-
isotope records through Quaternary sequences
(Holmes, 1996). There are possibilities for doing
this at Holywell Coombe, but they must remain for
the future.

253
 Chapter 7
Vertebrates
A.M Lister and AJ Stuart
(l)INTRODUCTION
Vertebrate remains were surprisingly scarce at
Holywell Coombe, both in the Late-glacial deposits
and the early Post-glacial tufa. Preservation, both in
the tufa and the later hillwash, was generally poor.
Most small-mammal teeth had lost their cementum
and dentine, so that only a fragile shell of enamel
remained, and many were incomplete. Only a few
of the larger bones, preserved within Late-glacial
and early Post-glacial organic horizons, were in
good condition.
Small vertebrates were recovered from bulk sam-
ples sieved to 0.5 mm (by R. C. Preece) and 1 mm
(by J.D. Clayden) and sorted by binocular micro-
scope. In addition to the identifiable mammal
remains listed here, many unidentifiable fragments
were recovered, mostly of small mammal and fish,
plus a very few unidentified amphibian or reptile
remains. Derived Cretaceous fossils were also
observed.
All vertebrate remains have been placed in the
collections of the University Museum of Zoology,
Cambridge.
(2) IDENTIFICATION AND
INTERPRETATION
A list of identifiable specimens is given in Tables
5.7.1-3 and a tabulation of stratigraphic ranges is
shown graphically in Fig. 5.7.1. The vertebrates can
be divided into three assemblages, as follows.
254
(a) Late-glacial
All identifiable Late-glacial small mammals came
from the 'Allen?ld soil', sampled at Cherry Garden
and the Cut-&-cover Section. The single large-
mammal (aurochs) bone is from a pre-Alleff,,,d
horizon in Trench HV.
Sorex araneus L, common shrew
Two lower molars from the 'Aller0d soil' in the
Cut-&-cover Section (associated with dates of
11 370 ± 150 yr BP and 11 500 ± 100 yr BP), and
one from Trench HV (above a date of 11 530 ±
160 yr BP), are identifiable as common shrew. A
fragmentary calcaneum from the Cherry Garden
'Aller0d soil' (0-10 cm, above a date of 11 580 ±
100 yr BP) is referable to Sorex sp.
Microtus sp., vole
Two molar fragments from the 'Alleff,l)d soil' at
Cherry Garden, and three from the Cut-&-cover
Section (associated with dates of 11 370 ± 150}T BP
and 11 500 ± 100 yr BP), are identifiable as
Microtus, but are undiagnostic with regard to
species. A further molar was recovered from bulk
samples of Late-glacial material at the base of Deep
Trench 1. Species of Microtus known from the
British Late-glacial include not only the field vole,
Microtus agrestis L., but also the northern vole M
oeconomus Pallas and tundra vole, M. gregalis
Pallas (Sutcliffe and Kowalski, 1976; Stuart, 1982).
 Identification and interpretation

Table 5.7.1 Identifiable Late-glacial mammals from Holywell Coombe

Sorex araneus RMI &RM 2 Cut-&-cover Section, 150-170 cm ('Allerod soil')
cf. S. araneus calcaneum frag Cherry Garden lower soil, 0-10 cm ('Allerod soil')
Microtus sp. LM2 frag. Cherry Garden upper soil, 40-50 cm ('Allerod soil')
Mfrag. Cherry Garden upper soil, 20-30 cm ('Allerod soil')
Ml frag. Cut -&-cover Section, 'Allerod soil'
TwoM frags. Cut-&-cover Section, 'Allerod soil'
Bos primigenius Rscapula Trench HV 420-430 cm

Bos primigenius Bojanus, aurochs ten specimens identified as females measured

A fragmentary right scapula of large bovid (Fig.
5.7.2. a, b) was recovered from a thin unit of
organic detritus mud 420-430 cm from the surface
in Trench HV. A radiocarbon date on collagen from
the bone gave an age of 12 280 ± 140 yr BP. The
specimen, an adult, is identified as bovid rather
than cervid on the basis of a distinct notch in the
lateral edge of the glenoid (Fig. 5.7.2. a). Further,
the shape of the glenoid departs relatively little
from circularity, corresponding to Bos, whereas in
Bison its shape is more markedly ovoid (Gee,
1991). In size, the least antero-posterior diameter
of the scapular neck is 67.0 mm in the Holywell
Coombe specimen. This falls within the range of
Late-glacial to early Post-glacial B. primigenius
from Denmark, as measured by Degerb01 (1970).
Fifteen Danish specimens identified as males by
Degerb01 (1970) gave a range of 74-87 mm and
59-68 cm. The Holywell Coombe scapula is thus
likely to represent a female. Its size is well above
the range of 36 scapulae of domestic cattle (Bos
taurus) from the Irthlinborough Beaker barrow
(39-55 mm) and 129 Romano-British scapulae
from York and Dorchester (35-59 mm) (Davis,
1989).
Until quite recently, the presence of Bos in the
British Late-glacial was uncertain (Stuart, 1982).
However, the Holywell Coombe specimen is now
one of six directly-dated remains, all in the range
ca. 12500-11 000 yr BP (Table 5.7.4). The other
specimens are from cave deposits, so the Holywell
Coombe scapula is the first fossil of Bos from a
British Late-glacial open site. It is possible that
B. primigenius disappeared from Britain in the
Younger Dryas, before reappearing in the early
Post-glacial.

Table 5.7.2 Identifiable Early Post-glacial mammals from Holywell Coombe

Talpa europaea humerus Trench 6, 30-35 cm
Sorex araneus RMI/2 Trench HV, 230-235 cm
cf. S. araneus Mfrag. Trench 3,186-190 cm
M frags. Trench 3, 170-175 cm
Apodemus sylvaticus LM2 frag. & M frags. Main Section, 145-150 cm
/ A. jlavicollis Mfrag. Main Section, 131-145 cm
LM~, LM 2, LM3 Main Section, 66-72 cm (Deep Trench 2)
RM ,3M frags. Trench HV, 150-155 cm
2 M frags. Trench HV, 210-215 cm
LMp RM 2, LM3, LMI frag. Trench HV, 215-220 cm
RM2 Trench 3,200-205 cm
LM 1, LM 3, LM 2, RM 2, M frag. Trench 5,165-170 cm
LM3 Trench 5, 195-200 cm
Cletbrionomys glareolus RM3 Main Section, 131-135 cm
Mfrag. Trench 3,170-175 cm
M3 frag. Trench 3,184-186 cm
RM2 Trench 3, 235-245 cm
M frags. Trench 5, 95-100 cm
M frags. Trench 5,115-120 cm
Vulpes vulpes R mand. ramus with Ml & M2 Base of tufa in lower part of Horseshoe Spring
Susscrofa Distal R humerus Trench 3, 220-265 cm
Cervus elapbus 5th cervical vertebra Trench 3,220-265 cm

255
 Vertebrates

Table 5.7.3 Identifiable Bronze Age and Iron Age mammals from Holywell Coombe
Species Specimen Excavation Find Number Context Period
Bostaurus upper molar frog. 1988 35 Base of hollow way = 50 Late Neolithic/Early Bronze Age transition
prox. radius shaft 35B
molarfrag. 36C
molarfrag. 36P
prox. metacarpal 36G
tibia shaft 35H
M1orM 2 35K
mandible articulation 35S
upper molar frog. 35W
upper molar frog. 35X
mandible with M2_3 84
molarfrag. 100
upper premolar 65
upper molar frog.
calcaneum frog.
upper premolar 87
lower molar 48
tooth frogs. "
Hollow way infiIIJhillwash = 5
"
Beaker
molarfrag. 18
molarfrag. 17
molarfrag. 19
upper molar "
1987 2282 5
"
tooth frag. 1988 Buried soil
"
later Bronze Age
prox. metacarpal 41
molarfrag. "
Post-hole
"
Early Bronze Age?
lower molar frog.
"
1987 1134 Buried soil 4 Iron age
molar frog. 1135
molarfrag. 1136
femur frog. "
Hillwash 3
"
Iron age or later
radius frog. unstrat.
Sussp. molar 1988 35A Base of sunken way = 50 Late Neolithic/Early Bronze Age transition

Ecology layer (35-40 cm) dated to 9530 ± 75 yr BP. The

specimen (Fig. 5.7.2. c) is a right humerus, com-
As the species of Microtus is uncertain, detailed
plete except for the proximal epiphysis. The distal
discussion of its ecological position at Holywell
epiphysis measures 10.5 mm in diameter.
Coombe is not possible. However, all species of
Microtus are grazers and tend to occur in grassy
areas. Bos primigenius similarly was a grazing Sorex araneus 1.., common shrew
species, although in the British Pleistocene it was
An upper first or second molar of common shrew
largely restricted to temperate and at least partly
was found at the base of the tufa in Trench HV,
wooded episodes (Stuart, 1982), so it probably
230-235 cm. This level is dated by molluscan
grazed on local areas of grassy habitat. The
biostratigraphy to ca. 9000 yr BP. In addition, frag-
common shrew, Sorex araneus, lives in a variety
mentary molars comparable to common shrew (cf.
of habitats provided that low cover is available; its
S. araneus) were recovered in two samples from
climatic range is broad, extending from the Arctic
Trench 3: 186-190 cm (bracketed between radio-
to the Mediterranean in Europe today. All three
carbon dates of 7650 ± 80 yr BP and 8630 ±
species are therefore quite conformable with the
120 yr BP) and 170-175 cm (above a horizon dated
temperate climate and largely open habitat with
to 7650 ± 80 yr BP).
scattered trees inferred for the Late-glacial
Interstadial at Holywell Coombe.
Apodemus sylvaticus 1.., wood mouse, or A.
jlavicoUis Melchior, yellow-necked mouse
(b) Early Post-glacial
A total of 22 molars are identifiable as Apodemus,
but it is not possible to distinguish between the two
Talpa europaea 1.., mole
species, both of which occur in southern England
A humerus of mole was found in a humified peat at the present day. The Holywell Coombe remains
at 30-35 cm in Trench 6, immediately above a (fable 5.7.2) come from layers ranging in age from

256
 Identification and interpretation

Vulpes vulpes L, redfox

"~
on
:::I
The horizontal ramus of a right mandible, with Ml
j :i and M2 in place (Fig. 5.7.2. d), was recovered ex situ
¥ ...S!
.
If
'i' c in the lower part of the Horseshoe Spring Valley, a
!!
.c
e i.. i short distance east of Trench 6. It was said to have
I
on 'i:'
c
~ ....

I
'M u
:i .e
~ j come from the lower part of the tufa, and is there-
I
.11

!g. ! ! 12 ! i
:::I
.!!.
~ ! fore likely to be early Post-glacial in age. The length
.~
I., 1 I fJ
!I
i; ! Ii ~ of the first lower molar is 15.9 mm. Subsequently,

!
on

:1 ! ~
.I!
the front end of the mandible was discovered, eden-
i .~:I! i 1
{.! ~ ~ ~
~
i
);
l! Q
i ~ tulous but including the alveoli for all the premolars
kyr BP and the canine. This specimen, which perfectly
2 refits to the first, was excavated in situ from the
I base of the tufa O. Rady, pers. comm.).
...
3
I
4

Sus scrofa L, wild boar

6 The distal end of a right humerus of an adult wild

I
7 boar was found ex situ in Trench 3, within spoil of
organic tufa from 220-265 cm, a layer rich in hazel-
II I
B

9 I I nuts and bracketed between dates of 9230 ±

10
75 yr BP and 8980 ±100 yr BP. Sediment extracted
from the marrow cavity of the bone yielded a
11
I I pollen spectrum rich in Cory/us. The humerus (Fig.
12
+ 5.7.2.e) has a distal epiphysis diameter of 40.4 mm.
13

Cervus elaphus L, red deer

Figure 5.7.1 Stratigraphical occurrences of mammalian
taxa identified at Holywell Coombe. The finds fall into
three assemblages: Late-glacial (ca. 13-11 kyr BP), early
Post-glacial (ca. 10-7 kyr BP) and Bronze Age to early
Iron Age (ca. 3.7-2.5 kyr BP). Cross: directly radiocarbon-
dated specimen. Simple vertical bar: a series of
specimens, spanning the age range shown. I-shaped bar:
one or a few specimens dating somewhere within the
indicated range. See text and Tables 5.7.1-3 for details
of dating. Where based on radiocarbon measurement,
vertical bars have been extended to one standard error
beyond the central age estimate.
9240 ± 90 yr BP (three molars from an organic silt
in the northern face of Deep Trench 2, Main
Section 66-72), to ca. 7000 yr BP (a molar fragment
from below the tufa, Main Section 131-135, age
estimated from molluscan biostratigraphy).
Clethrionomys glareolus Schreber, bank vole
Six molars of bank vole were identified, ranging in
age from ca. 9000 yr BP (a specimen from Trench
3 235-245, bracketed between dates of 9230 ±
75 yr BP and 8630 ± 120 yr BP) to ca. 7000 BP (a
molar fragment from Trench 3 170-175, above a
date of 7650 ± 80 yr BP).
A fifth cervical vertebra of red deer (Fig. 5.7.2. f)
was found in a bulk sample from Trench 3,
220-265 cm, processed for beetle remains (Sample
14), bracketed between dates of 9230 ± 75 yr BP
and 8980 ±100 yr BP. The vertebra probably repre-
sents a young adult, as the centrum epiphyses were
unfused and have been lost.
Ecology
The early Post-glacial mammals recovered at
Holywell Coombe form an assemblage highly sug-
gestive of temperate woodland conditions. All of
the species have been present in Britain through
most of the Holocene, starting at ca. 10-9.5 kyr BP
in the faunas from Thatcham, Berkshire and Star
Carr, Yorkshire (Stuart 1982: 138). All still occur in
Britain today, with the exception of Sus scrota,
which was exterminated in historical times but sur-
vives on the Continent.
(c) Bronze Age and Iron Age
A total of approximately 80 small finds from the
archaeological excavations were identifiable
as bone or tooth. Preservation was poor, most

257
 Vertebrates

Table 5.7.4 Radiocarbon dates on British Late-glacial Bos primigenius

Site Specimen Date Lab. number Reference
Pin Hole, Derbyshire tibia 10970 ± 110 OxA-1937 Hedges et at., 1989
Kent's Cavern, Devon mandible 11880 ± 120 OxA-1203 Hedges et at, 1988
Gough's Cave, Somerset not given 11 900 ± 140 OxA-813 Currant, 1986
Holywell Coombe, Kent scapula 12280 ± 140 OxA-1752 tbisvolume
Pin Hole, Derbyshire astragalus 12400 ± 140 OxA-1471 Hedges et at., 1989
Pin Hole, Derbyshire astragalus 12 480± 160 OxA-1615 Hedges et at., 1989

specimens being highly fragmentary and easily
breakable. Thirty-one elements were identifiable to
species. Of these, ten are from the lowest level - a
Beaker midden known as the 'hollow way' with an
uncalibrated radiocarbon date of 3650 ± 50 yr BP
on a Bos bone). Sixteen are from higher units, all
attributed to the Beaker period. Four are probably
early Iron Age, and one is unstratified.
Bos taurus L, domestic cattle
Thirty specimens are identifiable as domestic cattle.
These comprise 21 separate finds of tooth frag-
ments, two mandible portions and seven partial
limb bones (fable 5.7.3). Ten of the specimens (six
teeth, three limb bones and a mandible) are from
the 'sunken way'. Three teeth and a femur frag-
ment came from contexts of probable early Iron
Age date. The remainder of the finds are from
Beaker levels above the 'sunken way'.
The bulk of the Bos material is too damaged to
allow refitting, but it is likely that at least some
specimens came from the same individuals. For
example, the three molar portions (nos
1134 -1136) are probably associated.
All of the specimens are too fragmentary for
meaningful measurement, with the exception of a
right mandible containing M2 and M3 (Fig. 5.7.2.
g) from the 'sunken way'. The lengths of these
teeth at the crown base are: M2 = 24.2 mm, M3 =
36.4 mm. This is well below the range of European
Post-glacial Bos primigenius (known to have been
still present in Europe in the Bronze Age), for
which Degerb01 (1970) quoted a range of
43-55 mm for M3 length (n = 47). The Holywell
specimen, however, falls well within the range of
domestic B. taurus. For a Neolithic domestic
sample from Denmark, Degerb01 (1970) gave a
range of 34-46 mm (n = 81), while a composite
sample of British Neolithic cattle (Grigson, 1983)
measured 35-42 mm (n = 28). Davis and Payne
(1993) have described a large collection of cattle
remains from a Beaker burial at Irthlingborough,
Northamptonshire, of very similar age to the
Holywell Coombe finds. Measurements (Davis,
1989) indicate a range of 34-42 mm for M3 length,
very similar to the Neolithic samples and encom-
passing the Holywell Coombe specimen. Two
cattle teeth from Irthlingborough gave uncali-
brated ages of 3610 ± 110 yr BP (OxA-2084) and
3810 ± 80 yr BP (OxA-2087) (Davis and Payne,
1993).
Sus sp., wild boar or domestic pig
A single specimen, a fragment of a worn molar
from a Beaker horizon is referable to Sus sp. No
morphological or size distinction between wild and
domestic animals can be made from this specimen,
although the latter is more likely given the context.
Interpretation
Thirty specimens of cattle and one of pig have
been recovered, the majority of them from Beaker
levels of the early Bronze Age. The limited sample
size and poor preservation preclude any meaning-
ful study of minimum number of individuals,
refitting or butchery marks. The small number of
identifiable remains also makes discussion of taxo-
nomic representation hazardous. It is interesting,
however, that at Irthlingborough, in contexts of
very similar age, Davis and Payne (1993) found a
great preponderance (98%) of cattle remains, with
very subordinate pig and other species. They also
found limb bones to be highly under-represented
compared to teeth, a pattern that, so far as can be
determined, is not followed strongly at Holywell
Coombe. The situation at Irthlingborough, a delib-
erate accumulation of cattle skulls above a Beaker

258
 Identification and interpretation

Figure 5.7.2 Mammalian remains from Holywell Coombe: (a-b) right scapula of Late-glacial aurochs, Bos primige-
nius, in distal and lateral views; (c) right humerus of early Post-glacial mole, Ta/pa europaea, in anatomically
posterior view; (d) right mandibular ramus of early Post-glacial red fox, Vulpes vulpes, in lateral view; (e) right
humerus of early Post-glaCial wild boar, Sus sero/a, in anterior view; (f) fifth cervical vertebra of early Post-glacial red
deer, Cervus e/apbus, in left lateral view; (g) right mandibular ramus of Bronze Age cattle, Bos taurus, in medial
view. Scale bars 5 cm, except (c), scale bar 1 cm.

259
 Vertebrates

burial, is thought to reflect symbolic significance Holywell Coombe archaeological units are burnt,
(Davis and Payne, 1993), whereas the Holywell although unfortunately the specimens are uniden-
Coombe bone deposit probably had a purely eco- tifiable and unstratified.
nomic basis. Three bone fragments from the

260
 PART SIX

The Prehistory of Holywell Coombe

P. Bennett, S. Ouditt and J Rady
with contributions from A. Gibson, E. Healey
and N Macpherson-Grant
 Introduction
(l)INTRODUCTION
This section concentrates on the results of the
archaeological component of the multidisciplinary
fieldwork at Holywell Coombe. The work, under-
taken by Canterbury Archaeological Trust, was
primarily concerned with the recording of artefact
evidence recovered from hillwash sediments over-
lying the earlier geological sequence.
The deposition of hillwash involves the move-
ment downslope of soil as a result of a variety of
processes both natural and anthropogenic, includ-
ing rain-splash, freeze-thaw, sheet, rill and gully
erosion and the effects of cultivation. These
processes are accelerated when slopes are left bare
by clearance, cultivation or overgrazing.
Colluvial deposits of this sort have often been
found to preserve extensive sequences of artefacts,
together with palaeoenvironmental evidence, all of
which may be related to episodes of land use. The
potential of dry valley sites to preserve detailed
archaeological sequences within accumulations of
hillwash has been demonstrated by excavations
such as those at Kiln Combe and Itford Bottom in
Sussex and Chalton in Hampshire, where distinct
Beaker, Iron Age and Medieval horizons were iden-
tified and in some cases linked to nearby
occupation sites (Bell, 1983). In the light of such
studies, despite the scarcity of previous finds of
artefacts from the site, detailed archaeological exca-
vations of the upper hillwash were included in the
research programme at Holywell Coombe. Unless
stated otherwise, note that dates in this section are
expressed in terms of calibrated years Be.
(a) Previous finds
Before the present fieldwork, no stratified prehis-
toric or later artefacts had been recovered from the
coombe. Nearby however, a surface scatter of
Mesolithic and Neolithic flints had been recovered
during fieldwalking (Gibson, 1972). At Castle Hill,
overshadowing the western side of the coombe,
excavations by General Pitt Rivers, one of the pio-
neers of British archaeology, recovered Neolithic
pottery and flints from features and layers underly-
ing the medieval motte-and-bailey castle occupying
the hill-top (Pitt Rivers, 1882). At the southern foot
of Castle Hill recent excavations in advance of the
construction of the A20 extension provided evi-
dence for three Bronze Age burial mounds,
263
together with traces of a partly superimposed small
settlement of early Iron Age date (Rady, 1992). To
the south of the coombe, Neolithic flint imple-
ments and a complete beaker were found on
Folkestone Golf Course Oessup, 1940; Toke, 1945)
and aerial photography indicated the possible pres-
ence of a further two ring ditches to the south-east
(Darville, 1986). Roman coins have also been
located on Sugarloaf Hill, immediately east of the
coombe (Fisher, 1973). Finds of other metal and
ceramic objects of Roman age have been recovered
by the use of metal-detectors from fields occupying
the hill-top north-east of the coombe.
(b) Methodology
The fieldwork methodology employed in 1987 was
modelled on that used at Kiln Coombe, Sussex (Bell,
1983), with a few modifications to accommodate
the geological investigations. A machine-excavated
trench was cut from the valley centre perpendicular
to the valley axis, towards its eastern side (Fig. 6.1).
The trench, measuring some 40 m by 8 m, was exca-
vated through hillwash into underlying tufa and
Late-glacial deposits to a maximum depth of 2 m.
The trench sections were straightened, cleaned
by hand and recorded (Fig. 6.2A). A strip 1 m wide
and 35 m long, adjacent to the northern side of the
trench, was hand-excavated to the base of the hill-
wash in 2 cm spits. The three-dimensional
coordinates of each find recovered during excava-
tion were carefully recorded (Fig. 6.2B). A series of
bulk samples from three 1 m 2 control columns was
retained for later sieving to determine the com-
pleteness of recovery and to ensure that smaller
cultural and faunal remains were properly repre-
sented. Finally, a small area of underlying tufa was
examined to establish whether it contained arte-
facts or vertebrate remains.
Interpretation of the geological sequence was
attempted on the basis of the physical relationship
between identified stratigraphical units and the dis-
tribution of artefacts, which were plotted without
reference to the stratigraphy (Figs 6.2 and 6.3).
(c) Summary of results
The 1987 investigation provided sufficient evi-
dence to suggest the presence of a domestic
occupation site of primarily Early Bronze Age date.
 The Prehistory of Holywell Coombe

Figure 6.1 Holywell Coombe 1987: machine-excavated trench showing the stratigraphic sequence in the north
face of the Main section, after removal of modem soil. View looking north-east. Scale 1 m.

Earlier and later phases of activity were indicated
by cultural materials recovered from successive
units within the hillwash.
On completion of this work, a larger area to the
north of the Main Section was examined in early
1988. This excavation, carried out immediately
prior to the commencement of construction works
for the cut-and-cover tunnel across the coombe,
confirmed the presence of rare early Beaker domes-
tic occupation (ca. 2500-1850 yr Be). The
settlement features, comprising numerous post-
holes, a broad longitudinal feature interpreted as a
'hollow-way' and associated artefact assemblages,
appeared to form part of a larger occupation site.
Exploratory trenches cut to determine the limits of
settlement indicated that the area excavation had
fortuitously exposed the only surviving remains.
Elsewhere, erosion had removed all traces of set-
tlement and associated cultural materials.
(2) mE 1987 EXCAVATION
(a) The general stratigraphical
sequence (Figs 6.2 and 6.3)
The machine-excavated exploratory trench revealed
three main groups of sediments.
(i) Late-glacial deposits
(Fig. 6.2A, 19, 22, 23, 24, 27, 28)
These Late-glacial basal sediments, resting on Gault
Clay, comprise redeposited Gault or chalk (some-
times heavily frost-shattered) that has moved
downslope as a slurry. Organic deposits and a
prominent buried soil horizon were visible within
the sequence (plate 1 (a) and Fig. 3.11). Apart from
charcoal in the 'Allerod soil' (Part Five (1)), of
uncertain origin, there was no archaeology.

264
 The 1987 excavation
(Ii) Tufa deposits (Fig. 6.2A, 11, 12, 13, 14)
These calcium carbonate sediments, precipitated
from springs active in the valley during the early to
mid Post-glacial, were exposed at the base of the
cutting (see Part Three). They contain fossils indica-
tive of a woodland environment (part Five). Two
1 m 2 sondages were cut into this tufa to the water-
table. Although no artefacts were recovered from
the tufa in the field, subsequent sieving of samples
yielded a few fragments of mussel shell, which may
be indicative of human activity during the
Mesolithic period.
(iii) HiUwash
(Fig. 6.2A and 1,2,3, 4, 15, 16, 57)
This deposit, formed largely as the result of human
forest clearance activities, was of variable thickness
throughout the length of the trench. Thickest at
the western downslope end of the cutting (towards
the valley axis), it progressively thinned upslope to
the east and contained a number of identifiable
levels that appeared to represent both buried soils
and occupation horizons. Artefacts were not ran-
domly distributed in the hillwash but were
concentrated at particular horizons, especially in
the buried soils (Fig 6.2B).
(b) The early settlement features
(Figs 6.3G; 6.4)
The earliest deposits yielding cultural material were
present either near the valley axis (at the west end
of the trench) or infilling a hollow depression
located in the eastern half of the trench. Only
deposits within the hollow appeared to be in situ
and these contained a relatively pure assemblage of
later Neolithic and early Beaker material (Figs 6.2A,
5, 20A and 50; Fig. 6.4, stylized section, 20, 50).
Another deposit (57), which directly overlay tufa
across the greater part of the trench west of the
hollow, yielded ceramics spanning the Early
Neolithic to the Early Iron Age periods.
In the light of the 1988 excavation it can now be
seen that the 'hollow' represented the only intact
fragment of in situ Beaker period stratigraphy.
Elsewhere, successive episodes of erosion had
removed all early stratigraphy and only deeply cut
features remained to indicate the former presence
of a settlement site.
265
(i) The Hollow (Fig. 6.3G)
The hollow, located at the eastern end of the
trench, was approximately 2 m wide and appeared
to intersect the trench at an acute angle. The base
of the hollow was defined by a compact lens of
grey silty loam, bearing traces of iron-staining (50).
This deposit varied in thickness from a thin lens to
9 cm; against the eastern edge of the hollow the
layer did not extend to section A-B. It yielded an
assemblage of Beaker period pot-sherds (Fig. 6.4)
and a number of struck flints (Table 6.1).
Six post-holes were identified within the hollow,
cut from the surface of this primary deposit (Fig.
6.3G, nos 47, 48, 49, 51, 52 and 53). The fills of
some of these post-holes contained Beaker period
sherds (Figs 6.7, nos 12 and 16) and several worked
flints (Table 6.1).
Sealing the base of the hollow (50) and the post-
holes was a lens of hillwash (20) of brown silty
loam. The hillwash did not extend to section A-B
but reached 5 cm in thickness against the eastern
edge of the hollow (Fig. 6.4, stylized section). This
deposit yielded 36 sherds from the Beaker period
(Fig. 6.4; Fig. 6.7, nos 17-18; Fig. 6.8, nos 30-31).
A 'midden' of shells (20A) rested on the lens of
hillwash against the south-eastern side of the
hollow (Figs 6.2A; Fig. 6.3G; Fig. 6.4, stylized sec-
tion; Fig. 6.5). The midden contained several
hundred marine shells, mostly limpets (Patella vul-
gata) , but with some winkles (Littorina littorea)
and mussels (Mytilus edulis). A sample of winkles
from this midden was collected and measured (Fig.
6.6) to provide data for comparison with sites else-
where. At Holywell Coombe the mean shell height
was 2.38 ± 0.38 cm (n = 126) and mean shell
breadth 1.90 ± 0.24 (n = 119). The smallest win-
kles recovered measured 1.49 X 1.19 cm;
harvesting shells below this size was presumably
uneconomic.
The midden also yielded some eighteen Beaker
period sherds (Fig. 6.7, nos 10-12; Fig. 6.8, nos
34-35) and 121 flint flakes including 35 exhibiting
retouch (Table 6.1; Fig. 6.9, Nos 2,4).
Overlying both deposits and the remaining parts
of the hollow was a layer of hillwash (5) of light
yellowish brown loam (Fig. 6.2A; Fig. 6.4, stylized
section). The layer contained some 60 Beaker
period sherds, including two of probable Late
Neolithic Grooved Ware type (Fig. 6.7, nos 5 and
11; Fig. 6.8, nos 23-7 and 41). Over 450 flint flakes
were recovered from this deposit (Table 6.2),
including a number exhibiting secondary retouch
(Fig. 6.9, no 3; Fig. 6.10, nos 5-6,11-15, Fig. 6.12,
no 20).
 West

~A
E
m
o 1 2 3 4 57

i
ci 15 57
L{)
I I
"l\"

- -
= I6 r
12 r
13
. ' __....m::

t':"==.:

Overall distribution of finds

Rints • Flake c::::I Blade like • Retouched • Notched + Piercer _ Knife

X Denticulate o Scraper 0 Core 0 Microlith • Bifacial

~Chisel
• Leaf shaped A Triangular
V arrowhead arrowhead ~ arrowhead

Figure 6.2 Holywell Coombe 1987: Main Section.

A. The identified layers; B. Overall distribution of finds. Note the concentration of finds in the buried soil horizons
(see Fig. 6.4); c. Flint types with inset showing enlargement.
 East

Modern
c:l
field drain Hollow Way
-2-0A-----....J·1
15 I
o
-------------------------------------~
E
0')
_-------------- i o
oLO
__ -~-- __ n~~ _{_='=--=1
---1------------ ---
24 27
28

23
11 14 19

.~' .
.,:".
. .:
~.'

:::.~.}".
~<.( ~"

..··D·.
. _ .-' , , 0 '+J ' - ' ' ; ' o· :.' \ ' " ---------••• : ..... / ........ -

l ' ~., ;~.=~~:!.......,;~.~-...

.:...---\.../ -------'"-..:'..:.--l: =~_'=~...~-.~..::::._:~'~~~.~~-~--~. -~-~~~-~~:--::~=O~~.~~.--j- ---

..
-

- ... . ..
C •

'0 o.
. .. ..
'

• • b.
.
..,. . .., . .. • • 0."
': ~
'l>o . . '.":- •• 0
• 0"..... c:j;
~ ~
~ .o~' ~'.~.1P7
." •• :. \,A. •• : •• '

267
 The Prehistory of Holywell Coombe

D
r
i
i
~------~;.~-~.~.~-------
•• 0 .. .' ..- .~.
• 00 I•

Neolithic I Early Bronze age "EN ~ GW. F. Beaker 0 R. Beaker • Beaker I FV + Uncertain

E
•• •• • 6

Iron age and later fabrics 0 Late bronze age I Early Iron age • Early Iron age ~ Belgic • Roman 0 Saxon

o Early Medieval . . Med I Late Medieval • Post Medieval

F
I
i
i .~ • • • • ,. 0"'"
~~--~----~--------

Shell and bone • Shell OBone

G 42 54

r---------+-----~---------------
I

I
Plan of features

Figure 6.3 Holywell Coombe 1987: Main Section. For datum see Fig. 6.2.
D. Neolithic/Early Bronze Age pottery (inset shows enlargement); E. Iron Age and later fabrics; F. Shell and bone;
G. Plan of features.

268
 ·0

o 4: · 0.' ~ "<ill
••"0 0 ••• •• 0 09 ~ "".~o'
'C8>\..V 0 ••
"PO 000' elY .. '. o~ 0 0 :'.' • • •

+ • ---------_...........

..... " "

" '.' .~ .. ~~~~-~~-:~:~- ......

-lI=11-~~1----~nl~!J2.lIitjr=;/~-I~-i=--=---=-----~j
~ 53 Midden 20A ~
Hollow 50 .

269
 The Prehistory of Holywell Coombe

Layer Sequence 3'

4'
45

Fabric Groups ,, 3
,5/
4'6 fit 30 • '0 "40" Shen:l Total

,,
Post Medieval 5 5
Medieval I Late Medieval 2 3
fa medieval I Medieval 1
Early Medieval
? SaXon
11 6
, ,
17

Roman
8 •
7
7 , 2
1 2
9
11
?MiddlelronA e 1 1
Earty Iron Age 107 2 69549 2 729
? laIe Bronze .IE lrona 8 2 17 19
? Late Bronze A 8 shell - filled 4 1 5
Umtypes 4 2 2 8
? Umlvoes
Food v98881
4 1 3
1
3 11
,
Beaker I Food vassel 11 8 2 1 4 1 27
? Beaker I Food vessel 7 1 8
Rusticated beaker 1 4 5 8 6 11 5 40
? Rusticated beaker 5 3 4 9 5 7 33
Fine Ware beaker 1 14 30 4 2 35 2 15 3 9 115
? Fine Ware beaker 1 4 1 2 5 1 2 1 17
Grooved Ware 2 1 3
? Grooved Ware 1 1 1 3
Early Neolithic 1 4 1 1 1 8
?EartyNaoIithic 3 5 2 10

Total '085 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 BOO sheJds

East

Layer Interpretation: Stylised Section

Upper hillwash West
Hillwash
Interface between 2 and 4 _________~1_______________
Early Iron Age
15/16 Lower hillwash
57 Basal hillwash (soil)
I
Gully '----------- -------- 57

------
30
5 HotiowWay ~
20A Midden []]]]]]]]
E:arty Iron Age burled soil and Late Neollthicl I .,../';
Early Bronze Age occupation layers L _______ - - - --
20 Lower edge of Hollow Way
31,41,45,49 Post-holes
10 15 20 metres
50 Base of Hollow Way

Figure 6.4 Holywell Coombe 1987: table showing distribution of fabric groups by context and interpreted stylized
section.

Associated with the later stratigraphy within the date. Charcoal obtained from this layer provided a
hollow were a small number of post-holes and a radiocarbon date of 5620 ± 90 yr BP (4690-4325 or
shallow depression. The earliest of these (hollow 4280-4260 cal. BC), whereas fragments of shell
40; post-holes 29 and 39) were cut through the fills from the same horizon yielded a date of 4470 ±
of the hollow (layers 5, 20 and 50) and were sealed 90 yr BP (3365 - 2915 cal. BC). The range of these
by the deposit capping the hollow (15). These fea- dates, together with the mixed nature of the
tures (Figs 6.2A; 6.3G and 6.4, stylized section) ceramic assemblage, indicates accumulation by lat-
yielded no datable finds and only one flint flake was eral as well as vertical accretion.
recovered, from hollow 40. A single post-hole (42) and two shallow depres-
sions or pits (54) were overlain by the hillwash
west of the hollow. Neither of these features con-
(c) Basal buried soil and Late Bronze tained datable material.
Age-Early Iron Age features Capping the uppennost stratified deposits within
the hollow and the buried soil west of it for a dis-
A prominent buried soil (57), approximately 10 cm tance of some 9 m was a further unit of hillwash
thick, was developed in the base of the hillwash (Fig. 6.2A, layers 15, 16). This yellowish-brown silty
immediately overlying the tufa west of the hollow. loam, approximately 15 cm thick over the hollow,
This yielded a molluscan fauna indicating the dis- gradually thinned to the west. An assemblage of
appearance of the closed woodland canopy that some 65 pot-sherds, predominantly belonging to
had existed during the deposition of the tufa (part the Beaker period, was recovered from the deposit
Five (3)). The soil produced 16 pot-sherds of mixed (Fig. 6.4), together with 242 flint flakes (Tables 6.2
ages (Fig. 6.4), including material belonging to the and 6.3), including a single microlith of probable
Beaker period, the Late Bronze Age or Early Iron Mesolithic date (Fig. 6.10, no. 8).
Age, as well as ceramics of possible Early Neolithic Demonstrably earlier than this layer was a small

270
 Table 6.1 Holywell Coombe 1987: table showing composition ofthe flint assemblage
Context Cores Flakes etc. Microliths Arrowheads Scrapers Knives Denticulates Edge retouch Notch Piercer Chopper Other Total %
33 33 7.73
Hillwash 1&2 2 2 0.47
and 2 8 8 1.87
later 3 18 18 4.22
4 I? 93 2 2 I' 101 23.65
4 to 16 1 0.23
Sub total 163 38.17 ~
~
5 l? 106 2 5 117 27.40
Neolithic 15 25 2 27 6.32
and 16 39 2 43 10.07
\0
00
Beaker 30 4 5 1.17 '-....I
N 31 1 0.23
'--I
.... 45 1 0.23 ~
Sub total 194 45.43
£
20 14 2 16 3.75
Beaker 20A 29 2 2 35 8.20
~
only 50 6 1.41 ~
3
53 5 7 1.64
o;::s
Sub total 64 14.99

Sub total: Neolithic and Beaker 258 60.42

7 1 0.23
Aceramic 36 1 0.23
36B 2 0.47
39 0.23
1 0.23
Sub total 6 1.41

Total 427
, = Bifacial
 The Prehistory of Holywell Coombe

Discussion
The stratified sequence and associated features
appear to represent the remnants of an Early
Bronze Age occupation site which has been almost
entirely removed by erosion. The deposits within
the hollow were compact and appeared to repre-
sent accumulations of trampled material directly
associated with occupation. Although the features
located east and west of the hollow cannot be
firmly tied to the primary occupation phase, those
within the hollow did appear to relate directly to
this. Cessation of occupation appears to be linked
to a phase of hillwash accumulated following forest
clearance. That later activity on the site occurred
is suggested by the presence of later Bronze Age or
Late Bronze/Early Iron Age transition ceramics,
although no single feature located within the 1987
trench can be assigned to a secondary occupation
phase.

Figure 6.5 Holywell Coombe 1987: detail of midden (d) The Early Iron Age soil horizon
(20A) during excavation, looking west. Scale 50 cm.
Another well-defined soil, less prominent than the
lower one discussed above but nevertheless rec-
group of features cutting the final fills of the hollow
ognizable by its darker colour and texture (part
(Fig. 6.3G). The features comprised three post-holes
Three 2 (1», was observed within the upper levels
(31, 32, 33) and a single north-south aligned gully
of hillwash (Fig. 6.2A, 4). Indicative of a further
(30). The post-holes provided no datable material,
period of relative slope stability with some regen-
but the gully yielded some 13 Beaker period sherds,
eration of scrub (Part Five (3», this dark brown
one possible Early Neolithic sherd (Fig. 6.4; Fig. 6.7,
silty loam horizon, up to 20 cm thick, yielded a
no 2) and five flint flakes (fable 6.1).
high density of finds. These included over 600 pot-
One final feature, a post-hole located to the east
sherds, predominantly of Early Iron Age date; and
of the hollow (41), which contained a single
some 332 flints of the Neolithic to Early Bronze
Beaker sherd and one possible Early Neolithic
Age (Figs 6.8,6.11,6.12,6.13). Although no fea-
sherd (Fig. 6.4; Fig. 6.7, no 1), was sealed by a later
tures were identified in this horizon, the high
horizon (4). This single feature may post-date the
quantity of Iron Age finds indicates the former
stratigraphy contained within the hollow.
presence of an occupation site of that date in the
vicinity. The assemblage also includes a high pro-
portion of residual finds, particularly flints, and it is
considered likely that this well-defined horizon
35 may have developed during a protracted period of
30 agricultural use. The majority of the sherds are
(/) 25 small, worn and abraded, suggestive of material
liE 20 that has been turned over by the plough during
:J 15
Z episodes of arable farming. What is surprising is
10
that this possible period of agricultural activity had
5
not resulted in further colluviation. Presumably the
>1.49 >1.74 >1.99 >1.24 >2.49 >2.74 >2.99 >3.24 >3.49 upper slopes of the valley were not subject to
Shell Height (cm) in 0.25 cm classes arable farming and perhaps elevated positions
were allowed to develop sufficient natural ground-
Figure 6.6 Measurements of winkles (Littorina lit-
cover to stabilize the higher slopes.
torea) from the Bronze Age midden in Holywell
Coombe.

272
 The 1987 excavation
(e) The later sequence ofhillwash
On the basis of cultural materials recovered from
the overlying deposit, the next phase of slope activ-
ity appears to have taken place in the later Iron Age
or Roman period. Overlying the Iron Age soil hori-
zon was a yellowish-brown silty hillwash (3),
10-30 cm thick (Fig. 6.4, stylized section), con-
taining a molluscan fauna of open-country (Part
Five (3)). This material yielded a mixed assemblage
of sherds spanning the Early Iron Age to Anglo-
Saxon periods. Only one sherd of possible
Anglo-Saxon pottery was recovered and the archae-
ological emphasis may lie in the Roman period.
Relatively large quantities of Early to Middle Iron
Age pottery were represented. This material,
together with the smaller quantities of later ceram-
ics and the depth of hillwash, strongly suggests a
resurgence of intensive agricultural activity on the
higher slopes of the coombe.
A final phase of colluviation is suggested by two
further distinct horizons (Fig. 6.2A, 1 and 2; Fig.
6.4, stylized section). The first of these (2), overly-
ing the possible Roman levels, was a light
brown-grey loam that yielded early medieval sherds
together with a small amount of earlier material
(Fig. 6.4). The uppermost deposit, a pale brown
loam (1), contained an assemblage of pot-sherds
dating from the Beaker to post-medieval periods.
These uppermost layers of hillwash appear to
result from soil erosion as a direct consequence of
sustained arable farming or overgrazing.
Notwithstanding the depth of hillwash during the
post-Iron Age period, there does appear to be a
rapid decline in the quantities of ceramic finds
from the later deposits, which may reflect both a
lack of occupation in the vicinity and increased
agricultural activity.
(0 Summary
The 1987 excavation provided abundant evidence
for occupation and agriculture at the eastern end
of Holywell Coombe, extending from the later
Neolithic to the post-medieval period, although not
necessarily continuous. Some 1805 pot-sherds and
420 flint flakes were recovered during the course
of the work, together with quantities of marine
shells. The painstaking excavation of the sequence,
with three-dimensional plotting of finds, clearly
indicated the presence of distinct cultural horizons
that relate to the stratigraphy within the hillwash
273
(Figs 6.2 and 6.3). Although small quantities of Late
Neolithic material were present, perhaps sugges-
tive of an early phase of activity nearby, it seems
likely that the primary occupation phase dates from
the Early Bronze Age. The situation at Holywell
Coombe is therefore similar to many other dry
valley sequences in southern England where the
earliest evidence of major human activity is also
during the Early Bronze Age (Bell, 1982, 1983;
Allen, 1992).
Much of the sequence excavated in 1987 was hill-
wash. Unlike the earliest cultural materials and
features beneath the hillwash, which appeared to
represent in situ occupation, most of the finds from
the hillwash itself had been displaced from their
Original contexts. Traces of settlement were
restricted to a small area in the northern face of the
trench, where a greater density of features was
exposed during the area excavation of 1988.
Prominent in both excavations was a broad, shallow
feature, interpreted as a 'hollow way' worn by the
constant passage of men and animals. This occurred
within a natural depression in which archaeological
features had survived widespread erosion of the sur-
rounding landscape. This erosion had removed all
but the deepest-cut features and all traces of stratig-
raphy, except within the hollow way itself, where
the only stratified deposits were preserved. Cultural
materials gleaned from these deposits were almost
entirely of Early Bronze Age date.
Although only a 25 m length of east-west aligned
hollow was identified (Fig. 6.15), it is possible that
the feature may have formed part of a more exten-
sive track connecting elements of the contemporary
local landscape. In the immediate vicinity these may
have included not only adjacent field systems, but
freshwater springs at Holy Well, a possible large
enclosure on Castle Hill, a small group of burial
mounds at the southern foot of this same hill (Fig.
6.23) and access to the crest of the North Downs
escarpment, which may have served as an impor-
tant cross-country link. Excavations in the Terminal
area, west of Castle Hill, have provided evidence for
at least eight contemporary settlement sites located
at the foot of the escarpment, all of which may have
been connected by regularly-used paths.
Basal hillwash (Fig. 6.4, 57) overlying the tufa
west of the hollow way contained a wide variety of
finds dating from the later Neolithic period to the
Early Iron Age. A later unit of hillwash (Fig. 6.4,
15/16) yielded mainly derived Beaker material
together with a large assemblage of struck flints,
including a Mesolithic microlith. Both deposits
 The Prehistory of Holywell Coombe

~-~ ~-. ~-~

EARLY

,G
NEOLITHIC: 1 2 3

~ e ,-~
"":' : --. . .-

4 5 6

uncertain .
-~
attribution .
~
7 8 9

GROOVED WARE:

I ~ contexts 5, 20A
11 I ~

FINE WARE BEAKER:

12 :
most same vessel,
from
I ~ I ~ IV . fA:
~.

I~
contexts

,~ I
16,20,45,53
. '~ ~
--
, ,
?
- - - I ems
contexts 49, 50

I @w
I

~ ~ ~-- ~
'---
.
13 14 15 16

17
t ~
18 I e - -~

19 \ ~ 20\ 8
Figure 6.7 Holywell Coombe 1987: Illustrations of Neolithic-Early Bronze Age pottery. Scale 1:2.

274
 The 1987 excavation

Figure 6.7 Holywell Coombe 1987: Illustrations of Neolithic-Early Bronze Age pottery. The
small find number follows the Context number. Scale 1:2.
(a) Early Neolithic
1. Fabric F5. Everted rounded rim. Context 41: 2337: Post-hole sealed by Iron Age soil hori-
zon.
2. Fabric F5. Everted rounded rim. Context 30: 2172: Gully cuttingfinalfills of hollow way.
3. Fabric F5. Undecorated rim sherd. Context 30: 1618: Gully cutting final fills of hollow
way.
4. Fabric F5. Two horizontal lines of twisted cord decoration. One surface only remains.
Context 16: 1678: Colluvium capping hollow way.
5. Fabric F5. Undecorated rounded rim sherd. Context 5: 1962: Final fill of hollow way.
6. Fabric F5. Everted rim sherd with traces of an external cordon and a ring/coil break.
Context 4: 1604: Iron Age soil horizon.
7. ?Early Neolithic. Fabric F2c. Carinated sherd with a shallow neck leading to an everted rim,
and with a high accentuated shoulder. Context 20A: 2445: Primary midden deposit,
hollow way.
8. ?Early Neolithic. Fabric F4. Undecorated rim sherd. Context 15: 1455: Colluvium capping
hollow way.
9. ?Early Neolithic. Fabric F4a. Undecorated carinated sherd. Context 15: 1457: Colluvium
capping hollow way
(b) Grooved Ware
10. Fabric F2c. Seven incised converging lines suggestive of a pendant chevron motif. Context
20A: 2455: Primary midden deposit, hollow way.
11. Fabric F2c. Six incised lines. Context 20A: 2423: Primary midden deposit, hollow way;
Context 5: 2296: Final fill of hollow way.
(c) Fine Ware Beaker
12. Fabric FI. Horizontal lines of toothed comb impressions with interrupted herringbone
motif. Context 53: 2522, 2553: Post-hole stratified within hollow way; Context 5: 2533:
Finalfill of hollow way; Context 20: 2525, 2505: Occupation fill, hollow way; Context 16:
1169: Colluvium capping hollow way.
13. Fabric Fla. Four horizontal lines of double fine toothed comb impressions. Context 50:
2541: Base of hollow way.
14. Fabric FIb. Two rows of horizontal triangular impressions. Context 50: 2580: Base of
hollow way.
15. Fabric F2. Three horizontal rows of carelessly applied toothed comb impressions with a
single line of chevron fringe or cross-hatching above. Context 50: 2579: Base of hollow
way.
16. Fabric Fla. Horizontal lines, cross-hatched zone visible. Context 50: 2570: Base of hollow
way; Context 49: 2549: Stratified post-hole, hollow way.
17. Fabric Flc. Two horizontal incised lines with six incised vertical or slightly diagonal lines
between them forming the ladder motif. Context 20: 2502: Layer in hollow way.
18. Fabric F2a. Three horizontal lines of lightly applied rectangular toothed comb impressions.
Context 20: 2520: Layer in hollow way.
19. Fabric FIb. One horizontal line of square toothed comb impressions with chevron fringe
motif below this. Context 16: 1664: Colluvium sealing hollow way.
20. Fabric FIb. Three diagonal incised lines. Context 16; 1676. Colluvium sealing hollow way.

275
 The Prehistory of Holywell Coombe

I~ - .
I~ ,-p

,
.
~ .

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~

21 22 23 24

~ I @> \ (F
28~B
25 26 27
\~
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29
RUSTICATED BEAKER:

\ 30 31

uncertain attribution:

I--~
32 , -~

33
BEAKER / FOOD VESSEL:

I 36
~
? 36
35
\-~
34 37 \ ~

_ _ _ _ _ I ems

FOOD VESSEL:
probable
DEVEREL-
\ 40
'8
RIMBURY - type
URNS:
41~-Q
Figure 6.8 Holywell Coombe 1987: Illustrations of Neolithic-Early Bronze Age pottery. Scale 1:2.

276
 The 1987 excavation

Figure 6.8 Holywell Coombe 1987: Illustrations of Neolithic-Early Bronze Age pottery. The
Small Find number follows the Context number. Scale 1:2.
(c) Fine Ware Beaker (continuedfrom Figure 6. 7)
21. Fabric F2b. Two roughly horizontal and five diagonal lines visible, carelessly executed
toothed comb/incision. Context 16; 1268: Colluvium sealing hollow way.
22. Fabric F1. Four horizontal incised lines with five vertical lines forming a ladder motif
between the first and second lines, and three oblique incised lines fOrming the start of a
row of ?multiple herringbone motif. Context IS: 1283: Colluvium capping hollow way.
23. Fabric Fib. Four horizontal lines of toothed comb impressions. Context 5: 1953: Final
occupation fill, hollow way.
24. Fabric Fib. Two horizontal lines of toothed comb impressions, rim sherd. Context 5,
1808: Final occupation fill, hollow way.
25. Fabric Fla. Four horizontal lines of toothed comb impressions. Context 5: 2310: Final
occupation fill, hollow way.
26. Fabric F2. Five diagonal incised lines forming herringbone motif. Context 5; 2035: Final
occupation fill, hollow way.
27. Fabric Fib. Six converging lines of toothed comb impressions arranged in pendant paral-
lel chevron motif. Context 5: 2147: Final occupation fill, hollow way; Context 4,988:
Iron Age soil horizon.
28. Fabric Fib. Rim sherd, single ridge/cordon on exterior below rim. Unstratified: 2158.
29. Fabric F2. ?Fine ware beaker; two rows of small circular impressions visible. Context 50:
2537: Base of hollow way.
(d) Rusticated Beaker
30. Fabric F2. Paired fingernail impressions with raised semicircles of dislodged clay; rim.
Context 20: 2518: Occupation deposit, hollow way.
31. Fabric F2. Rim sherd with traces of paired fingernail impressions. Context 20: 2514:
Occupation deposit, hollow way.
32. Fabric F2. ?Rusticated beaker. Undecorated rim sherd. Context 30: 2115, 2165: Gully cut-
ting final fill of hollow way.
33. Fabric F2. ?Rusticated beaker. Random light fingernail impressions. Context IS: 1244:
Colluvium capping hollow way
(e) Beaker/Food vessel
34. Fabric F2b. Short lengths of vertical/diagonal coarse toothed comb impressions; traces of
coil/ring breaks. Context 20A: 3450: Primary midden deposit, hollow way.
35. Fabric F2b. Undecorated base sherd. Context 20A: 2417: Primary midden deposit, hollow
way.
36. Fabric F2. Two diagonally intersecting incised lines. Context 15: 1365: Colluvium capping
hollow way.
37. Fabric F2. Undecorated rim sherd. Context 4: 1300: Iron Age soil horizon.
38. Fabric F2. ?Beaker/Food Vessel. Rim sherd with oblique fingernail impression on top of
rim. Context 4: 1205: Iron Age soil horizon.
(f) ?Food Vessel
39. Fabric Fib. Undecorated bevelled rim sherd. Context IS: 1384: Colluvium capping hollow
way
(g) Deverel-Rimbury type urn
40. Fabric F3b. Three horizontal incised lines; possible rim sherd. Context 4: 1570, 1571: Iron
Age soil horizon..
41. Fabric F3e. ?Urn/beaker. Single horizontal incised line, rim sherd. Context 5: 2314: Final
occupation fill, hollow way.

277
 The Prehistory of Holywell Coombe

~I
~ 3
~
•
• bulb of perCUSSIon present
4
o bulb of perCUSSIon abSent

Figure 6.9 HoJywell Coombe 1987: Illustrations of flints . Scale 1 : 2.

278
 The 1987 excavation

Table 6.2 Holywell Coombe 1987: flint table showing technological aspects of the struck flints. For location of
contexts see Fig. 6.2
Subtotal Subtotal
Context 5 15 16 20A 20 50 53 4
Complete 72 19 28 119 23 12 4 40 74
Proximal 11 2 8 21 2 3 9
Distal 13 3 3 19 6 7 4
Medial 3 3 0 2
Undefined fragment/chip 7 7 1 1 2 4
Cortex 40 12 17 69 8 6 2 2 18 45
Cortical 4 1 3 8 0 3
Plain 54 17 25 96 14 8 2 25 39
linear 11 2 2 15 2 2 4 17
Faceted 3 1 3 7 4 2 8 14
Shattered 10 2 12 4 1 6 3
Other 1 1 2 1 1 1
Prominent 9 7 16 3 6 9
Diffuse 74 21 29 124 22 22
Other 0 0
Edge trimmed 1 1 0
Hinge 31 11 12 54 7 1 8 35
Other 16 7 6 29 4 2 1 3 10 18
Parallel scraper 111 13 39 163 20 8 2 3 33 64

Figure 6.9 Holywell Coombe 1987: Illustrations of
flints. The small find number follows the context
number. Scale 1:2.
1. Complete core. Elongated nodule which is seemingly
an ideal shape for a core, but although clearly once a
single platform core, it became randomly flaked leav-
ing multi-directional scars and much step fracturing
on the last face to be worked. Quite large. Weight:
240 g. Context 36B; 2342.
2. Complete core. Approximates to the sub-discoidal
core class with keeled edge. There is some step-frac-
turing on the face of the core and the flint itself has
faults in it and so may have been discarded at an
early stage. Quite large. Weight: 210 g. Context 20A:
2412: Primary midden deposit, hollow way.
3. Trimming flake from blade core. Context 5: 1887:
Final occupation deposit, hollow way.
4. Chopper. Large thermal flake with irregular bifacial
flaking along one side forming a chopper-like edge.
Context 20A: 1926: Primary midden depOSit,
hollow way.
were presumably derived from the higher slopes of
the coombe. Most of the excavated features
revealed in 1987 can be equated with Early Bronze
Age settlement. This discovery closely matches the
results of investigations in other dry valley
sequences, where the earliest evidence of major
activity is also during the Beaker period (Bell, 1982,
1983, 1987; Allen, 1992). A number of other fea-
tures, together with cultural material from the
hillwash, may relate to a later phase of Bronze Age
occupation.
A well-defined soil horizon (Fig. 6.4, 4) within
the upper levels of hillwash provided a substantial
amount of Early Iron Age pottery, the quantity of
which, some 600 worn and abraded sherds, is far
too great to have resulted purely from agricultural
activity. However, no feature indicative of settle-
ment was discovered at this level, so it appears that
occupation must have occurred upslope.
Above the Iron Age soil is a further unit of hill-
wash (Fig. 6.4, 2) that appears to have accumulated
during the Roman period. This is thicker than ear-
lier horizons, implying considerable erosion of the
upper slopes during this period. It contains consid-
erably less cultural material than earlier levels

279
 The Prehistory of Holywell Coombe

,AJA
I \ I \

5 6 7

.t
I

-(fJj-
0

-ID-
"
Cb

~
...
8
9
10
.
6 11
~
~

I
6
12 13 14

-
~
, ~

«:Z
, -

~ ~
~-
D
16 ... 17 ... 18 ~
<tW///ai ~

- - . - - _ I ems

Figure 6.10 Holywell Coombe 1987: Illustrations of flints. Scale 1:2.

280
 The 1987 excavation

Figure 6.10 Holywell Coombe 1987: illustrations of flints. The small find number follows the context number. Scale
1:2.
5. Arrow-head tip. Probably from a leaf-shaped arrow-head as it is rather too thin and straight-sided to have origi-
nated from a barbed-and-tanged arrow-head. Context 5: 2293: Finaloccupaton deposit, hollow way.
6. Chisel-ended arrow-head. Context 5: 1925: Final occupation deposit, hollow way.
7. Triangular arrow-head. Bifacially worked in the manner of an arrow-head, but is relatively thick. Context 50:
2567: Base of hollow way.
8. Microlith. Narrow blade; it has abrupt retouch along one straight edge and probably belongs to Jacobi's Class 5
(rods) or possibly is a fragment of a scalene triangle (Class 7a) (Jacobi, 1978). Context 16: 1621: Colluvium cap-
ping hollow way.
9-10. Scrapers. Extended end retouch. Respectively Context 20A: 2424: Primary midden deposit, hollow way..
Context 16: 1313: Colluvium capping hollow way.
11-15. Scrapers. End and side retouch. No. 14 has a tanged butt. Respectively Context 53: 2557: Post-hole within
stratiJiedfills of hollow way. Context 15: 1368; Context 15: 1607; Context 16: 1219: Colluvium capping hollow
way; Context 20A: 2425: Primary midden deposit, hollow way.
16-18.?Scrapers. Side retouch. Respectively Context 20: 2527; Context 20: 2528: Layer in hollow way; Context
20A: 2425: Primary midden, hollow way.

Figure 6.11 (on page 282) Holywell Coombe 1987: illustrations of Late Bronze Age/Early Iron Age-Mid Iron Age,
'Belgic' and later pottery. The small find number follows the context number. Scale 1:2.
(a) Late Bronze Age/Early Iron Age
42. Fabric Fl1. Rim from large diameter coarse ware jar or bowl. Light finger-tip decoration on rim exterior. Dark
grey-brown interior, drab buff-brown externally. Wiped horizontally on inside. Context 4; 1225.
43. Fabric F15. Rim from jar with curving everted neck. Bevelled rim top with finger-tip decoration. Dark grey-
brown. Context 1; 684.
44. Fabric F30. Rim from high-shouldered jar. Decoration of neat, spaced, incisions across rim top. Light buff-brown
interior, patchy drab greylbuff-brown exterior. Externally smoothed. Context 1; 685.
(b) Early Iron Age
45. Fabric F7. Fine ",are bowl sherd with part distinct, deep, omphalos. Exterior smooth with traces of original
moderate burnish. Interior worn away. Dark brown core, pale brown-buff exterior. Context 4; 1560.
(c) Middle or Late Iron Age
46. Fabric F43. Shoulder sherd from small fine ware bowl or jar. Single neat and burnished horizontal groove just
above shoulder angle. Exterior smooth with traces of burnish. Interior surface damaged and worn. Reduced
grey throughout. Context 4; 479.
'Belgic'
47. Fabric F34. Worn rim sherd from wheel-made globular barrel jar. Patchy dirty dark greylbuff exterior; dark
brown inner surface (nearly worn away) over thin pink-brown margin to lighter drab grey-brown core. Single
groove on shoulder, traces of broad shallow groove beneath rim. Context 1; 70.
Transitional 'Belgic'/Early Roman
48. Fabric F28. Jar rim fragment. Rather drab pale brown-pink surfaces. Drab dirty grey-buff core. Possible traces of
sooting on rim exterior, ?post-Ioss. Rim tends to sit on shoulder. Context 1; 81.
Early Medieval
49. Fabric F31. Small worn rim from large diameter fairly thick-walled cooking-pot. Brown-pink oxidized surfaces,
grey core. Rim internally bevelled. Context 1; 19.
Early Medieval/Medieval
50. Fabric F36. Fairly large sherd from cooking-pot. Well-made product with angled rim top, nearly squared eversion.
Exterior sooted on shoulder and under rim overhang. Context 2; 288-9.

281
 The Prehistory of Holywell Coombe

,-w
LATE BRONZE/EARLY IRON AGE
TRANSITION:

42

43 44
EARLY IRON AGE:
MID - LATE IRON AGE:

45 46

'BELGIC' :
'BELGIC/EARLY ROMAN:

48

___ __ ems

EARLY EARLY MEDIEVAL/MEDIEVAL:

MEDIEVAL:

'- 0 49 50
..
·r~.
'.
.
.

Figure 6.11 (caption on previous page) Holywell Coombe 1987: Illustrations of Late Bronze Age/Early Iron Age-Mid
Iron Age, Belgic' and later pottery. Scale 1:2.

Figure 6.12 (Opposite) Holywell Coombe 1987: Illustrations of flints . The small find number follows the context
number.
19. Knife. Thick piece with blade-like proportions. Slightly convex longitudinal profile. There is semi-invasive flaking
along both sides which converge to form a pOint. Context 4: 1221: Iron Age soil horizon.
20. ?Knife fragment. Burnt; scale flaking along one edge, possibly represents a knife. Context 5: 2047: Final occu-
pation deposit, hollow way.
21. Piercer. Small squat flake. It has inverse retouch on its edges at the distal end which converge to form a point; it
appears to be deliberate although this is just the sort of area which would be accidentally chipped. Context 4:
576: Iron Age soil horizon.
22. ?Piercer. Has retouch on the side of the flake off-setting a similar projection or point (as 21). Context 4: 1620: Iron
Age soil horizon.

282
 The 1987 excavation

-~- ~,
I

-(f-\
~ I
-----
•
-<:>

0 20 <tZZZllzzz>
• 21
19 22
~
- -- = ems

-D-
O

~
23 •• 24 25
~

~
o
, j

o o
27 ~ 28

Figure 6.12

23. Denticulate. Large squat flake struck from a changed orientation core with a series of denticulations along a
convex edge. Context 50: 2571: Base of hollow way.
24. Denticulate. Two denticulations formed by two contiguous notches each formed by a single blow. Context 4:
920: Iron Age soil horizon.
25. Fragment with ?unifacial retouch. Invasive flaking all over the dorsal surface which appears to have been done
before the flake was struck from the core. Context 4: 396: Iron Age soil horizon.
26. Tanged fragment. Abrupt retouch forming a tang. Context 3: 167: Roman colluvium.
27. Miscellaneous edge retouch. Small fragment with retouch along the straight edge, though it is not certain that this
is deliberate. Context 4: 890: Iron Age soil horizon.
28. Bifacially retouched piece. Thin blade-like piece with bifacial splintering on its distal end. Context 50: 2544: Base
of hollow way.

283
 The Prehistory of Holywell Coombe
FLINT
% 60
Neolithic and Beaker
50
40
Hillwash and later
30
20
10
o
Context - N
% in context % grouped contexts
Figure 6.13 Holywell Coombe 1987: histogram showing the proportion of worked flints from each context.
perhaps suggesting that the eastern head of the
coombe was not occupied. Evidence from the
uppermost layer of hillwash (Fig. 6.4, 4) indicates
that traditional agricultural practices continued
unabated, despite soil loss, well into the post-
medieval period.
(3) THE 1988 EXCAVATION
(a) Introduction (Fig. 6.14)
The discovery in 1987 of a significant number of
soil-cut features, together with a high concentra-
tion of artefacts, suggested the probability of an
adjacent occupation site of Early Bronze Age date.
Consequently in January 1988 a trench, 15 m by
10 m, was opened immediately north of the 1987
excavation. With groundworks for the construction
of the cut-and-cover tunnel across the coombe due
to start in early March, time was limited, so a
mechanical excavator was employed to remove
most of the upper hillwash. Subsequently a
machine was again used to cut a number of slit
trenches to the north and north-east, to determine
the extent of archaeological remains. Most of these
additional trenches were devoid of features and it
284
..,o ;:; o ,.,
'" '"
was apparent that the only remaining traces of set-
tlement fortuitously lay within the area excavation.
The site was excavated over a period of ten weeks
in adverse weather conditions and with the con-
tinual presence of ground-water issuing from
nearby natural springs.
(b) Late Neolithic-Bronze Age
transition (ca. 2500-1850 Be)
(i) The 'Ard-marks'
(Figs 6.14, 6.15A and 6.16)
A number of narrow linear gullies, aligned parallel
to one another roughly north-east to south-west,
were probably the oldest features discovered.
Interpreted as the marks of a primitive digging stick
or 'ard' (a precursor of the plough), these features
were 3-5 cm wide and only 1-2 cm deep, cut into
the underlying tufa. They survived only within the
central part of the western half of the excavation.
The majority of the marks formed a pattern of par-
allel rows, not entirely consistent with other rare
examples of early prehistoric ploughing, which dis-
playa criss-cross configuration (Fowler, 1971). The
record of a few short lengths of similar marks at
 The 1988 excavation

I !
I o!
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I '
io !
i J.
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I ~O' '-......
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0 0 0 0 0)0 fJ'-:~~
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. plan (metres/) ,J
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1988 excavation \
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Figure 6.14 Holywell Coombe: plan of the 1988 excavation.

285
 ! Early Bronze Age Features
! 0 Probable Breaker post-holes
I• Probable Breaker post-holes with pottery

I
~.~

"~
~
~

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~.
, 0
'0 Hollow Way .0
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Figure 6.15 Holywell Coombe: phase plans of the 1988 excavation: A. Features of Early Bronze Age date; B. Features of later date.
 The 1988 excavation
Figure 6.16 Holywell Coombe 1988: 'Ard-marks' at the base of the hillwash exposed during the area excavation,
looking north. Scale 2 m.
right angles to the majority (Fig. 6.14) may be
indicative of a conventional pattern. Overall the
marks were intermittent; a scouring of the tufa sur-
face appears to have taken place and this may have
removed a more extensive network. These 'ard-
marks' could not be related stratigraphically to any
other features or deposits, nor could they be dated
independently. A number of them, however,
extended into an area containing post-holes.
Although these post-holes did not intersect the 'ard-
marks', the complete disparity between the two
sets of features suggests that they relate to separate
phases of activity, the 'ard-marks' probably being
the earlier. The ard-marks, if they have been inter-
preted correctly, are of considerable significance
for their rarity alone, since few examples of this
antiquity are known from Britain (Ashbee et at.,
1979) and relatively few from the continent
(Fowler, 1971).
Sealing the 'ard-marks' and tufa across the
greater part of the excavated area, was a ca. 10 cm
thick unit of light brown silty loam, which in
colour and consistency was broadly similar to the
287
buried soil at the base of the hillwash (Fig. 6.4, 57)
located in the 1987 trench. Unlike that unit how-
ever, which yielded a mixed assemblage of
ceramics, the sediment sealing the 'ard-marks' pro-
vided materials only from the Late Neolithic and
Beaker periods, together with cockle shells
(Cerastoderma edute) and an assemblage of struck
flints.
(ii) The hollow way (Figs 6.17 and 6.18)
The largest and most significant feature located
during the excavation was the 'hollow way'
described above. This feature, first identified in the
1987 trench, was shown in 1988 to be broadly U-
shaped, 4.5-10 m wide, ca. 30 cm deep and
aligned approximately east-west. Its base declined
to the west, approximately following the contour
of the hillside. Its southern margin was fairly well
defined, but its northern edge was shallower and
less pronounced. The irregularity of its margins and
unevenness of its floor suggest an anthropogenic
origin, perhaps formed by compaction as a result
 The Prehistory of Holywell Coombe
Figure 6.17 Holywell Coombe 1988: work in progress on the 'hollow way', looking east.
of constant trampling by people or animals.
Formation of iron-pan at the interface of the hill-
wash infilling the hollow way and the tufa beneath
may have been caused by impeded drainage result-
ing from this compaction.
The primary infill of the hollow way, 3-11 cm of
light-grey to brown silt containing abundant char-
coal, ironstone, chalk and tufa nodules, was also
compacted. Many of the clasts appeared to have
been pressed into the deposit, possibly as a form
of metalling. A relatively large quantity of cultural
material was also present in the primary fill, con-
centrated against the southern side of the hollow
way. The finds included crushed bones of domestic
cattle (Bos taurus) and wild boar or domestic pig
(Sus seroja) , together with Beaker pot-sherds,
struck flints and marine shells, mostly limpets and
mussels (Fig. 6.19). A radiocarbon date of
3650 ± 50 yr BP (2140-1885 cal. Be) was obtained
from a bone of Bos from this area. This primary
deposit was broadly similar to the lowest fills of the
hollow excavated in 1987 (Fig. 6.4, 50, 20, 20A) ,
the finds recovered from both areas indicating an
Early Beaker date for the feature.
288
The 1988 excavation revealed a complex
sequence of further sediments completing the infill
of the hollow way and broadly equivalent to the
uppermost infill seen in the 1987 trench. This
sequence, comprising compact silt horizons of dif-
fering colour and thickness intercalated with
further patches of charcoal and marine shell, filled
the hollow to its northern and southern edges.
Later sediments extended beyond the bound-
aries of the hollow way. First a hillwash, similar to
that overlying the 'ard-marks' and attributed to the
earliest episode of colluviation, sealed the feature
and its infill. Broadly similar to hillwash noted in
1987 (Fig. 6.4, 57, 15/16), the deposit yielded a
mixed assemblage of artefacts dating from the Late
Neolithic period into the later Bronze Age.
(iii) The post-holes (Figs 6.14 and 6.15A)
A bewildering array of post-holes and shallow
depressions were located surrounding the hollow
way within the area of the 1988 excavation. Nearly
300 such features were identified and of these over
200 were less than 20 cm deep. The majority of the
 The 1988 excavation
Figure 6.18 Holywell Coombe 1988: the 'hollow way', looking south-west. Scale 1 m.
features had very similar homogeneous fills with
virtually no evidence to indicate 'post-pipes' or
'packing'. The fills were largely devoid of artefacts.
Only 23 features contained pot-sherds and of these
only nine contained material of the Beaker period.
A number of post-holes could have been related
to the hollow way. Many form alignments that
appear to respect and run parallel to this feature
perhaps indicating that the thoroughfare was pro-
vided with a fenced boundary. This is particularly
evident on the south side of the hollow way. No
stratigraphic differentiation of the post-holes was
possible and it is likely that many of those not in
alignment with the hollow way may be unrelated
to the Early Bronze Age settlement phase.
Perhaps the most interesting group of post-holes
was located immediately north of the hollow way
(Figs 6.1SA and B, 6.20) where some formed
curvilinear patterns suggesting circular or oval
structures, possibly bUildings. Although these struc-
tures, suggesting buildings Sm-8m in diameter, are
reminiscent both in plan and dimensions of
'Beaker' houses elsewhere in Britain (Simpson,
289
1971), they cannot be securely identified. This
uncertainty arises from the lack of stratification and
the existence in the immediate vicinity of undoubt-
edly later or earlier post-holes.
(e) Later Bronze Age (ca. 1300-600 Be)
(Fig. 6.15B)
Small quantities of later Bronze Age ceramics were
recovered from the early hillwash in both excava-
tions, suggesting a second phase of occupation at
the eastern head of the coombe. Additionally, a
small number of post-hole infills excavated in 1988
provided ceramics of the Late Bronze or Late
Bronze Age/Early Iron Age transition. Furthermore,
post-hole infills yielding late ceramics have been
tentatively attributed to a pair of four-post struc-
tures, located at the western side of the
excavation. These post-holes were found to cut
the surface of the primary colluvium and were
buried beneath the well-defined soil horizon of
Early Iron Age date (1987 trench; Fig. 6.4, 4). The
 The Prehistory of Holywell Coombe
Figure 6.19 Holywell Coombe 1988: detail showing
trampled deposit including animal bone in the base of
the 'hollow way', looking north-east. Seale 50 em.
implied structures, set close together, each being
2 m-2.5 m square, appear to be of a type com-
monly found on Late Bronze Age and Iron Age
sites (Gent, 1983). Such four-post buildings are
usually interpreted as non-domestic, perhaps grain
storage structures. A small number of additional
post-holes revealed beneath the Iron Age soil hori-
zon formed linear rows. One row, aligned
north-south, crossed the hollow way, clearly sug-
gesting that this feature was no longer in use when
this phase of activity occurred.
(d) Early Iron Age (ca. 600-400 BC)
A well-defined soil horizon formed within the
upper levels of hillwash contained a substantial
number of Iron Age ceramics and was almost cer-
tainly the lateral extension of that identified in the
1987 excavation (Fig. 6.4, 4). The soil was heavily
bioturbated and perhaps had been subject to
290
episodes of ploughing, as suggested by worn and
abraded ceramics recovered from it. It was
observed across the entire site and indicated that
active slope erosion had been retarded for some
time. The large quantities of ceramics recovered
from this soil strongly suggest the close proximity
of an occupation site. No trace of this occupation
however, was found during the excavation or
during a watching brief maintained during the con-
struction of the cut-and-cover tunnel.
(e) Middle or Late Iron Age
(ca. 300-75 BC) to Post-medieval
The later periods were mainly represented by suc-
cessive deposits of hillwash that were almost
entirely removed by machine before excavation.
Stratigraphical study of the deposits indicated that
the sequence was broadly similar to that investi-
gated during 1987 (Fig. 6.4, layers 2 and 3). The
depth of later hillwash remained roughly constant
throughout the trench confirming that erosion
from the upper slopes of the coombe provided a
rich source of material throughout this period.
(f) Summary
The 1988 excavations, which will be published in
full elsewhere, broadly confirmed the stratigraphi-
cal units recognized during the multidisciplinary
investigation of 1987. Although the survival of 'ard-
marks', the well defined 'hollow-way' and the
prolific number of post-holes were significant dis-
coveries, the sequence of events determined from
the 1987 excavations needed little revision in the
light of this later work.
Although features associated with possible suc-
cessive settlements of the Early Bronze Age and
Early Iron Age were found within the hillwash, the
truncation of various units precluded a detailed
interpretation of these phases. Nevertheless the dis-
covery of a rare Early Bronze Age settlement site at
Holywell Coombe, with possible built structures, is
of great Significance. The discovery of this deeply
buried site, which could not have been detected by
aerial photography nor any other form of archaeo-
logical surveying, indicates the value of including
all forms of archaeological investigation when
development takes place in dry valleys.
The works at Holywell Coombe and the
Channel Tunnel Terminal site as a whole would
 The flint-work
Figure 6.20 Holywell Coombe 1988: post-holes immediately north of the 'hollow way', possibly describing one or
more buildings, looking west. Scale 2 m.
appear to indicate that Early Bronze Age occupa-
tion sites may not be as rare as the archaeological
record suggests. Rather, their apparent rarity
reflects a general lack of detailed fieldwork in the
county and the sheer depth of overburden con-
cealing such sites.
(4) THE FLINT-WORKE. Healey
(a) Chronology and implications
Lithic artefacts were found in virtually every con-
text, although in varying numbers (Figs 6.13), with
about 38% coming from stratigraphically mixed
contexts in the hillwash, a few from 'pure' Beaker
contexts and a substantial proportion in contexts
that contained Beaker and other Neolithic ceram-
ics (Fig. 6.13 and Table 6.1). Assessment of the
material suggests that the following periods are
broadly represented.
291
(i) Mesolithic
A single microlith may date from this period.
(ii) Later Neolithic
A chopper, several denticulates and a flat, sub-
discoidal core are more typical of later Neolithic
industries associated with Grooved Ware pottery.
(iii) Later Neolithic-Ear!y Bronze Age
A triangular arrow-head and, to a lesser extent, a
chisel-ended arrow-head, together with the various
classes of scraper present, at least one knife frag-
ment, blades and blade-like flakes would fit into
the range of lithic artefacts associated with Beaker
pottery.
Gibson's assessment of the pottery (see below)
suggests that it is an almost pure early Beaker
assemblage with small quantities of other Neolithic
material interpreted as residual. The lithic industry,
 The Prehistory of Holywell Coombe

on the other hand, is less easy to characterize. (ii) Late Neolithic

Although it appears to be reasonably homogeneous
Later Neolithic flint-working traditions in general
there is an earlier element present, represented by
are relatively well-known (e.g. Wainwright and
the microlith. The latter suggests Mesolithic activ-
Longworth, 1971; Saville, 1981; Healy, 1985, 1986,
ity, although no other Mesolithic flints were
1988; Cleal, 1984). Associations oflithics in Beaker
recognized, assuming that the blades and blade-like
graves have been summarized by Clarke (1970).
flakes can be accommodated within a Beaker indus-
Beaker domestic industries, however, are rare and
try. The microlith may therefore be best considered
tool classes have only been recognized in so far as
as a stray find.
they can be paralleled from grave contexts and
Firm conclusions as to the date and affinity of the
sites such as Plantation Farm (Clark, 1933); cf.
assemblage must await the complete analysis of the
Windmill Hill (Smith, 1965) where they differ from
1988 material, but it is reasonable to assume that
the norm of other later Neolithic industries.
there is a Beaker tradition of flint-working present.
Another problem is the scarcity of early Beaker
Over 2600 lithic artefacts were recovered from that
domestic industries; most of the domestic indus-
excavation, three-quarters coming from primary
tries that have been analysed, for example
contexts, with the assemblage comprising cores
Plantation Farm (Clark, 1933), Hockwold cum
(about 10%), flakes and blades (about 85%) and
Wilton (Bamford, 1982), Belle Tout (Bradley,
retouched material (just over 4%). The raw material
1970), Weasenham Lings (Healy, 1986), are associ-
was similar to that used in the 1987 assemblage
ated with middle to late style Beakers or do not
with the addition of some glauconitic flint and
have pottery present, as at Rackham (Holden and
occasional pebble flint and it is probable that the
Bradley, 1975).
majority of the raw material is local.
No detailed study of technology at Holywell
Reduction was for the most part by direct per-
Coombe has yet been made, but from the tool
cussion using hard hammers. There is evidence of
classes it is clear that both flakes and blades or
testing nodules on site, some of which were aban-
blade-like flakes were needed. In the main it would
doned and some worked randomly. Others were
appear that Beaker technologies are fairly ad hoc.
shaped into cores and flaked more systematically.
In eastern Britain partly flaked single-platform cores
There are removals from all stages in the reduction
predominate (Cleal, 1984; Wainwright, 1~7~),
process with flakes being the predominant removal
whereas in Sussex, Bradley claims to have dlSttn-
type, although a small proportion of blades are also
guished two different aspects of core reduction.
present.
The first, associated with All-Over-Cord (AOC)
The retouched pieces include scrapers (64% of
Beakers, uses two-platform cores, whereas the use
the retouched pieces), arrow-heads, both leaf-
of multi-platform cores seems to be associated with
shaped and chisel-ended types, a fabricator and
the later style Beakers. Flakes also seem to increase
two axe rough-outs, together with some shaping
in size from the AOC associated material to that
flakes. The retouched component in the 1988
associated with the later East Anglian styles
assemblage is characteristic of Late Neolithic tool
(Bradley, 1970). Blades apparently do feature in
kits and the removals typical of an industry with
graves, although no definition of the distinction
plenty of raw materials readily available. The full
between flakes and blades is given (Clarke, 1970),
comparative analysis of both assemblages, particu-
and are discussed at least in so far as length to
larly of material from well-stratified contexts, is
breadth ratios are concerned at Belle Tout (Bradley,
likely to produce further information on the knap-
1970). At Holywell Coombe a few blade-like pieces
ping techniques used. The site is likely to be critical
are present and some do seem to come from a dif-
for interpreting assemblages of Late Neolithic date
ferent tradition of knapping, but parallels from
in this area of Kent.
burials suggest that they could be contemporary
with the Beaker material. The majority of the flakes
and cores are somewhat ad hoc and the lack of
(b) Traditions and illustrated material
core preparation evident from the removals fits in
with the general picture of Beaker technology so
(i) Mesolithic
far known, although the majority of the flakes from
Represented by a single microlith. The available Holywell Coombe seem to have been struck from
evidence is too limited to warrant further discus- single-platform cores.
sion. In so far as retouched forms are concerned, the

292
 The flint-work
picture is a little clearer, although again detailed
comparison is hampered by the absence of early
Beaker industries. There appears to be a restricted
range of tool classes in the earlier and middle
Beaker period, although the number does seem to
increase in the later Beaker period (Cleal, 1984).
Barbed and tanged arrow-heads are twice as
common as other types of arrow-heads in Beaker
industries, but leaf-shaped and chisel-ended arrow-
heads also occur in Beaker contexts (Green,
1984). Triangular arrow-heads have been recorded
in Beaker levels at Windmill Hill (Smith, 1965),
Belle Tout (Bradley, 1970) and at Hockwold cum
Wilton (Bamford, 1982) where one was described
as a triangular point with bifacial retouch,
although Green (1984) considered such artefacts
to be blanks for barbed and tanged arrow-heads
rather than a finished form.
Scrapers are the predominant tool class, at least
in Middle Beaker assemblages (Cleal, 1984;
Bamford, 1982; Bradley, 1970; Healy, 1986, 1988;
Wainwright, 1972). They are generally, but not
exclusively, small (Bradley, 1970; Holden and
Bradley, 1975) but tend to be thinner than other
scrapers (Saville, 1981). The retouch is character-
istically scaled (Clark, 1933; Smith, 1965). In
Middle Beaker contexts, forms with retouch on the
ends, with retouch on ends and sides, together
with double-sided and horseshoe forms, are the
most common, whereas end scrapers are more
usual with later style Beakers (Cleal, 1984).
Other tool classes include small knives with
acute scaled retouch along one or both edges
(Smith, 1965), bifacially retouched pieces, for
example Hockwold cum Wilton (Bamford, 1982)
and possibly thin, flattish fabricators with the
retouch confined to the edges (Smith, 1965;
Bradley, 1970). Daggers are highly characteristic
but rare, for instance the example from Capel-le-
Feme (Jessup, 1940).
Clearly the arrow-heads, scrapers and knives
found at Holywell Coombe would fit into the range
of tools associated with Beakers. However, some
additional forms are present which would be more
usual in a later Neolithic industry associated with
Grooved Ware, for example the chopper
(Alexander et at., 1960; Wainwright and
Longworth, 1971). Denticulates also feature in sim-
ilar contexts and the flat, sub-discoidal core is
characteristic of these industries (Healy, 1988).
The scrapers (Fig. 6.10) form a heterogeneous
artefact class. Their dimensions, apart from nos 9
and 11, are remarkably standard. They range in
length from 33-39 mm (nos 9 and 11 being 50 mm
293
and 24 mm long respectively), in width from
28-35 mm and in thickness between 7 and 10 mm.
All are made on flakes, except for no 9, which is
more elongated. The retouch is mainly semi-abrupt
and forms a rounded contour (no 14 has rather
more abrupt retouch than the others).
(c) Industries, condition and raw
material
Some 427 artefacts were recovered during the
1987 excavations; 14.75% are from contexts or fea-
tures with Beaker pottery, 44.9% from contexts
that had other Neolithic ceramic styles present
with the Beaker and the remainder are from hill-
wash contexts of Iron Age or later date. Their
contexts and the range of artefact classes are sum-
marized in Table 6.1. The tool classes suggest that
the lithics come from at least two different indus-
tries, a Mesolithic one and a later Neolithic one.
The artefacts are heavily corticated, many to
such a degree that they are disintegrating. Flake-
scar ridges tend to be abraded, suggesting, along
with context, that the flint has been redeposited.
The cortication obscures the colour of the flint but
there are one or two less heavily corticated pieces
that are of grey flint; there are also two reddish-
pink pieces from the top soil. Cortex is
predominantly soft and chalky, only a small pro-
portion (ca. 15%) having a hard, pebble-like cortex.
One or two pieces are iron-stained and three pieces
have a yellow stain beneath the cortex. The cores
and hammerstones, as well as the dimensions of
the flakes, suggest that nodules of a reasonable size
were available for knapping. Flint is present in the
immediate vicinity and there is no reason to sup-
pose that this was not the source of at least the
bulk of the raw material.
(d) Technological aspects (Table 6.2
and Figs 6.21, 6.22, 6.23)
The technology has been assessed largely on infor-
mation obtained from the removals, since very few
cores were present. The removals were measured
for length (complete pieces only), breadth and
thickness and examined for attributes indicative of
fracture mechanics at the butt and distal ends. The
assemblage has a small blade-like component, but is
predominantly flake based.
The flakes are consistently squat with wide,
untrimmed butts forming a dished-like flake in
 The Prehistory of Holywell Coombe

LENGTH BEAKER BREADTH

MM 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
%50 50%
40 40

30 30

20 20

10 10

0 0
NO. 9 10 4 4 3 3 3 12 9 4 4 2

LENGTH BEAKER AND NEOLITHIC BREADTH

MM 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
%50 50%
40 40
30 30
20 20

10 10

0 0
NO. 4 30 40 28 16 3 3 3 44 45 24 7 2

LENGTH LAYER 4 BREADTH

MM 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
%50 50%
40 40
30 30

20 20

10 10

0 0
NO. 14 33 15 9 3 26 30 9 6

Figure 6.21 HolyweU Coombe 1987: histogram showing the dimensions and ratios of complete flakes.

cross-section (Gingell and Harding, 1981, Class III).
There is a high incidence of hinge termination,
although this is not necessarily very pronounced,
and there are a few outrepasse or plunging flakes.
Dorsal scarring patterns on the flakes suggest that
most were struck from single-platform cores. Flakes
seem to have been used for scraper blanks though
many are too irregular for use without further
attention (cf. Moss, 1986).
The blades and blade-like pieces on the other
hand are quite different. They form only a small
proportion (ca. 9%) of the assemblage. They tend
to be thinner than the flakes and to be parallel-
sided with parallel flake ridges; the butts are
narrow or linear and the edge between the core
face and the striking platform has generally been
trimmed (Gingell and Harding 1981, Class Ia). No
blade-cores were recovered, but the scarring pat-

294
 The Neolithic-early Bronze Age pottery

RATIO CJBEAKER

~LAYER4
0;0130
~().
~ BEAKER AND NEOLITHIC

10 "
)()

60 THICKNESS
e()

60
till

~O "1030
- - BEAKER
<Ill
------ LAYER 4
:30 20 - - - BEAKER & NED.
~()

)10 10
~()

10 MM 1 3 5 9 11 13 15 17 19
l()

()

~:S

Figure 6.22 Holywell Coombe 1987: diagrams showing the dimensions and ratios of complete flakes.

tern on the dorsal surface of three of the blades and
a trimming flake from a blade core (no 3) shows
that opposed platform cores were in use. There is
also one trimming flake which renews a striking
platform, similar to core tablet. Some blade-like
pieces appear to have retouched edges, although it
is difficult to be certain how much of the edge
chipping is due to accidental damage and how
much to deliberate use or retouch.
Slight differences were noted between flakes in
Beaker and other contexts, but the quantities were
low and it would be premature to draw any con-
clusions prior to a full analysis of the larger 1988
assemblage.
(5) THE NEOLITHIC - EARLY BRONZE
AGE POTTERY A. Gibson
(a) Chronology and implications
(i) Earlier Neolithic: ca. 3100-3000 BC
A small number of sherds, particularly everted rim
and carinated sherds, suggest that there is a possi-
bility of some material dating to this period. The
pottery comes from a variety of fabrics and con-
texts, however, suggesting that it is probably
residual. A decorated sherd bearing two parallel
lines of twisted cord decoration suggests an ele-
ment of early decorated bowls or Ebbsfleet Ware.
(ii) Neolithic-Bronze Age transition:
ca. 2500-1850 BC
The majority of the pottery dates to this period and
is in the Beaker tradition, an intrusive style of pot-
tery reaching Britain from continental Europe just
after ca. 2500 BC The majority of the diagnostic pot-
tery is comb-decorated with mUltiple horizontal
lines, narrow running chevron, ladder and inter-
rupted herringbone motifs being recognized. Rim
sherds suggest vessels with outward curving rims
(and therefore sinuous profiles) and this, with the
repertoire of decorative motifs, suggests an assem-
blage which, in the main, is early and dating to
before ca. 2300 BC
The presence of rusticated ware with fingernail
and fingertip impressions and Beaker sherds with
incised decoration, however, also suggests a
domestic assemblage associated with prolonged

295
 The Prehistory of Holywell Coombe
Figure 6.23 Holywell Coombe 1987: examples of flint tools from the excavation. Scale 5 cm.
occupation. These sherds suggest vessels later than
Step 4 of the scheme of Lanting and van der Waals
(1972), which might suggest a Beaker presence on
the site lasting until ca. 2000 BC
Some grog-filled sherds with converging and
parallel incised and scored lines bear a strong
resemblance to the finer vessels from Clacton in
Essex and can be attributed to the Grooved Ware
tradition. These sherds, although contemporary
with the Beaker fabrics found at Holywell Coombe,
are abraded and small, suggesting that they may be
residual.
(iii) Earlier Bronze Age: ca.lB50-1300 Be
Some sherds in a thicker fabric than Fine Ware
Beaker and with more crudely executed decoration
may represent hybrid vessels of this period, partic-
ularly Beaker/food vessel hybrids. Such mixing of
traditions is common towards the end of the
middle of the second millennium BC.
In addition, some coarse sherds with calcined
flint inclusions can be attributed to the Deverel-
Rimbury type urn tradition of the later second
296
millennium, although some sherds could also rep-
resent activity during the Late Bronze Age/Early
Iron Age transition. The small quantities of pottery
attributable to this period, the small sherd size and
abraded nature of much of the pottery, plus its
occurrence in the higher and later contexts, sug-
gests that these sherds may be derived.
The pottery from Holywell Coombe represents
classic domestic material from an early Beaker
domestic site. As such, the site is important for a
number of reasons: (a) Beaker settlement sites are
rare over the country as a whole and the few house
sites are mostly in the highland zone; (b) Beaker
domestic sites of any type are rare in Kent; (c) Early
Beaker domestic sites are extremely rare and strati-
fied sites almost unknown.
Many Beaker domestic sites were excavated badly
at the tum of the century, or are sand dune and/or
coastal sites with little stratigraphy and much rede-
posited material. Thus the occurrence of the Beaker
settlement at Holywell Coombe within a stratified
dry valley sequence increases its importance.
The total assemblage at Holywell Coombe sug-
gests that the main bulk of the assemblage is early,
 The Neolithic-early Bronze Age pottery
with few, if any, vessels dating to later than Step
4/5 of Lanting and van der Waal's scheme. This is
extremely unusual since, before this typological
stage, beakers are common in graves but not from
settlements. It is only after Step 5 that the numbers
of Beaker domestic sites increase. This earliness,
therefore, enhances the already high rarity value of
the assemblage.
Non-Beaker ceramics from contemporary tradi-
tions are rare and likely to be residual. This is also
extremely important since there are no other
'pure' Beaker domestic assemblages from England,
i.e. sites that have produced only Beaker pottery.
Normally one would expect there to be an ele-
ment of 'impurity' comprising vessels of different
ceramic traditions, particularly other later
Neolithic forms such as Grooved Ware or
Peterborough Ware. This general association of
beakers with 'native' vessels from different
ceramic traditions on the same site has generally
been used to argue against the once-established
hypothesis of Beaker invasions from Europe, in
that there are no sites that would appear to record
the settlements of an invading population
(Burgess, 1980; Gibson, 1982). However, this argu-
ment is hampered by the fact that there are no
early Beaker settlements at all.
Further investigation at Holywell Coombe, an
eady site on the eastern side ofthe country, and in
particular the location of the main settlement
focus, thus affords an opportunity of national sig-
nificance to reassess the domestic side of the
invasion/migration/culture contact argument. At a
local level, Holywell Coombe has provided impor-
tant comparative material for the later and impure
sites of the buried Lyonese surfaces of Essex and
eastern Kent, as well as providing a wealth of
palaeoenvironmental evidence directly linked to
cultural stages.
(b) Traditions and illustrated material
(i) Early Neolithic bowls (Fig. 6. 7, nos 1--9)
The vessels in this assemblage are tentative identi-
fications as too little of the individual vessels
survives to allow more confident appraisal.
The sherds identified are found in fabrics F2c, F4
and F5 (below). Fabrics F4 and F5 contain finely
crushed quartz filler while the latter is a grog-tem-
pered fabric.
Identifications were made in Contexts 4, 5,
15/16, 30 (Fig. 6.3G) and 41 (Fig. 6.4), most of
297
which occur in the upper levels, and this sheds fur-
ther doubt over the identification of the fabric,
unless it is assumed that these represent derived
and residual material from higher upslope. This
explanation would explain the small size and/or
very abraded nature of the majority of the sherds.
One sherd (no 4) exhibits two lines of twisted cord
decoration, suggesting that it may be from a south-
eastern decorated bowl (Mildenhall/Whitehawk
Ware) or from an Ebbsfleet Ware vessel.
(ii) Grooved Ware (Fig. 6. 7, nos 10-11)
So far, Grooved Ware is rare in Kent and these
sherds must, therefore, be regarded as important.
Equally it means that there is little comparative
material against which to validate the identifica-
tion, although the use of grog filler compares well
with the material from Clacton (Longworth et at.,
1971).
The Grooved Ware assemblage is very small and
no vessels are reconstructible. The identified
sherds occur in Fabric F2c and are distinguished by
their incised/scored linear decoration. The use of
grog filler in this fabric, and its soft and porous
nature, may also be regarded as diagnostic
(Longworth et at., 1971).
The sizes of the surviving sherds do not allow
the reconstruction of vessel forms or decorative
motifs and thus they cannot be assigned to a defi-
nite sub-group. Nevertheless, the occurrence of
converging diagonal lines might suggest that the
sherds belong to Longworth's Clacton or
Durrington Walls sub-styles (Wainwright and
Longworth, 1971).
Grooved Ware has been identified in Contexts 5
and 16 (Fig. 6.4) but current chronology does not
allow temporal resolution finer than ca. 2500-2000
BC for this ceramic tradition in southern England
(Wainwright and Longworth, 1971; Gibson, 1982).
(iii) Fine Ware beakers (Fig. 6. 7, nos 12-20;
Fig. 6.8, nos 21-29)
Beaker fabrics generally and Fine Ware beakers in
particular make up by far the greatest proportion
of the earlier ceramic small finds from this site both
in terms of actual sherds (fable 6.3) and in terms
of minimum numbers of individuals. Once more,
however, the evidence takes the form of small
sherds that rarely exhibit complete decorative
motifs and never allow vessel reconstructions to be
made. The Beaker presence appears to be long-
 The Prehistory of Holywell Coombe

lived but the abraded nature of some sherds sug- Table 6.3 Holywell Coombe 1987: table showing
gests that there must also be an element of residual Neolithic-Early Bronze Age - minimum number of
and perhaps derived material. pots
The earliest forms in Fabric Fl (below) are from Fabric Fabric sub-group Quantity
pre-Step 4 beakers (Lanting and van der Waals, Fabric FI FI At least 4 individuals
1972) and are therefore early in the British series Fla At least 4 individuals
and particularly important in that they are from a FIb At least 25 individuals
FIe At least 4 individuals
domestic context.
Fabric F2 F2 At least 17 individuals
The sherds comprising no 12 are all probably F2a At least 3 individuals
from the same vessel, or at least very similar ves- F2b At least 6 individuals
F2c At least 4 individuals
sels, and none occur higher than Context 16 (Fig. F2d At least I individual
6.4). This vessel has been decorated with zones of Fabric F3 F3a At least 2 individuals
interrupted herringbone, common in Clarke's Basic F3b One individual
European motif repertoire (Clarke 1970, Motif F3c At least 4 individuals
F3d At least 2 individuals
Group 1). Although Clarke's groups are now ques- F3e
tioned, the motif is nevertheless an early one and Fabric F4 F4 One individual
combined with the quality of the fabric suggests a F4a One individual
beaker early in the British sequence at ca. 2400 BC Fabric F5 F5 At least 6 individuals
Zones of fine cross hatching (Fig. 6.7, no 16; both
sherds probably from the same vessel) also suggest
an early phase, although this motif is longer lived.
Later Fine Ware beakers appear to be present deposition. Moreover, the question is unlikely to be
from Contexts 16 and above, for example, Fig. 6.8, resolved. Furthermore, early beakers in the assem-
no 22 (context 15) and no 27 (probably from the blages from Shoebury (Essex), Fakenham (Suffolk),
same vessel, contexts 4 and 5), and can be dated to Creeting St Mary (Suffolk) and Methwold (Norfolk)
Step 4 or later, post ca. 2200 Be. Unequivocally late all come from scatters of material and lack mean-
beakers in Fabric Fl are rare, however, and ingful contexts or associations (Gibson, 1982).
although more common in Fabric F2, they are still Early Step 1-3 beakers were recovered in osten-
few in number and rarer in the deeper contexts. sibly domestic contexts from pre-barrow layers at
This suggests that the majority of the beakers rep- Snail Down (Wiltshire) and Martlesham Heath
resented at Holywell Coombe, and thus the main (Norfolk). At Snail Down, the early beaker was
episode of occupation, dates to the earlier part of found below and in the mound material of Barrows
the Beaker period in Britain, although with contin- XV and XIX, but they were few in number and con-
ued occupation well into the second millennium. sidered to be on the edge of a settlement and
Early Beaker domestic sites are rare in Britain without real context. At Martlesham Heath bar-
(Gibson, 1982). Although AOC sites are well dis- rows, I, II and III, the early assemblage, datable to
tributed around the coast of Britain, the tradition Step 3 (ca. 2300 BC), was more homogeneous but
of cord decoration is long-lived and All-Over-Cord again represented a scatter, probably on the edge
decorated beakers are not precisely datable. Comb- of a settlement, and in protected contexts sealed
zoned beakers have a better understood stylistic by the barrow material (Martin, 1975, 1976).
sequence, but can still provide only a broad Noteworthy is the presence of Fine Ware beaker
chronology (Clarke, 1970; Lanting and van der in almost all the contexts at Holywell Coombe.
Waals, 1972; Case, 1977; Gibson, 1982). While the chronological depth of the assemblage
Nevertheless, stylistically early beakers are rarely can be used to explain this, it may also be sug-
found on domestic sites. The closest parallel for the gested that many of the sherds may be material
early date of the Holywell Coombe assemblage is derived from higher up in the settlement, reaching
that from Callis Wold 275 in North Humberside, its final position by downslope movement. This
where sherds of Step 2/3 beakers were found scat- may also explain the small, fragmentary and often
tered over the primary mound (Coombs, 1976). abraded state of many sherds.
The Callis Wold assemblage represents no more
than a scatter of sherds, however, the full extent of
(iv) Rusticated Beaker (Fig. 6.8, nos 30-33)
which was not determined. It is uncertain whether
this assemblage represents an occupation near to The majority of the sherds in this category are rep-
and on top of the mound or else an act of ritual resented in Fabric F2 (below). Fingernail

298
 The Neolithic-early Bronze Age pottery
rustication in the form of random paired fingernail
impressions with resultant crescents of dislodged
clay is by far the most common technique used.
Such heavy plastic decoration would be expected
with beakers of Step 4 or later and it is suggested
that these sherds may originally have been associ-
ated with the later element of the Fine Ware
beakers. With this in mind it is noticeable that the
rusticated beakers come from the higher and later
contexts, supporting the chronological depth of
the Fine Ware beakers.
Once more none of the vessels can be recon-
structed, but the curved rim profile of no 30
(context 20) suggests that these sherds may have
come from a small hemispherical or slightly globu-
lar bowl, perhaps derived from later Neolithic
impressed wares. Other sherds displaying straight
and slightly curved profiles suggest true rusticated
necked or 'S'-profiled beakers common on many
later Beaker domestic sites, especially in eastern
England (Clarke, 1970; Gibson, 1982). The absence
of heavy zoned rustication resulting in plastic ribs
or cordons in this assemblage would suggest that
there is no representation of the final phase of the
Beaker period, thus putting a closing date on the
assemblage of ca. 2000 BC.
(v) Beaker/Food Vessel (Fig. 6.8, nos 34-:38)
This category comprises vessels with Beaker deco-
ration, particularly comb impressions, but with
fabric differing from that of the Fine Ware beakers
described above. Typical of the class is no 34 (con-
text 20A) which is in a grog-filled fabric but with
marked surface/core colour contrast unlike the
other Beaker wares. The decoration on this sherd
is rather crudely applied comb impressions form-
ing a broad zone of either interlocking chevron,
lozenge or hexagon motif. The decorated areas,
however, lack the bordering line or outline that
these panels have on Beaker pots, and the comb
used in the execution of the motif is short and
broad (only ca. five teeth and ca. 4 mm wide), in
contrast to the fine comb used on the other Beaker
sherds. It is most likely that the sherds from this
vessel, although not capable of reconstruction,
represent a globular bowl; however, the possibility
that they are from the bulbous belly of a late
necked beaker or a handled beaker cannot be
eliminated.
The finding of food vessel sherds at Beaker
domestic sites is quite common, such as at
Hockwold cum Wilton (Norfolk) and Belle Tout
(Sussex), where the fabric quality of the vessels
299
concerned is also rather good but differs consider-
ably from the Fine Ware beakers in the assemblage
(Gibson, 1982; Bradley, 1970). The vessels in this
category represent an increasingly 'grey area' of
hybrid vessels and ceramic traditions in the middle
of the second millennium.
(vi) Food Vessel (Fig. 6.8, no 39)
One sherd of a possible food vessel is represented
by the rim sherd no 39 (context 15), with charac-
teristic internal bevel. The sherd is undecorated. Its
occurrence in Fabric Fl may suggest that this too
ought to be in the above category.
(vii) Urn (Fig. 6.8, nos 40-41)
Sherds considered to represent Deverel-Rimbury
Urn types of the second millennium BC are almost
entirely from the upper layers of Holywell
Coombe and are mainly in the distinctive Fabric
F3. It is difficult to sub-categorize these sherds as
they are mainly devoid of decoration and/or diag-
nostic formal characteristics. Their presence in the
upper layers of the site and their small fragmentary
nature suggests that they may be derived from ups-
lope.
(c) Fabric groups and technological
aspects
All fabrics were identified macroscopically.
(i) Fabric F1
This is a good quality fabric mainly represented by
Fine Ware beakers. The outer surfaces of the
sherds are generally red to reddish-brown with a
black or grey interior surface and core.
Occasionally reddish-brown inner surfaces are also
encountered. The fabric may have a somewhat lam-
inated texture and be slightly gritty to touch. The
opening agents or fillers used in the fabric consist
of finely crushed grog, together with quartz, which
appear to be used sparingly. The fillers frequently
break the surfaces of the sherds but lie flush and
do not detract from the smoothness of the vessels.
This fabric can be subdivided as follows:
Fl Good quality fabric with red to reddish-brown
surfaces and a black core. Both surfaces
appear burnished and the fillers are finely
crushed and sparingly used. All sherds in this
 The Prehistory of Holywell Coombe

fabric are from Fine Ware beakers. The fillers (ii) Fabric F2
are finely crushed and rarely exceed 1 mm in
Fabric F2 is a large group with considerable inter-
maximum dimension.
nal variation, but characterized overall by the
Fla Also a good quality fabric but differing from
abundant use of grog fillers, which give the fabric a
Fl in the more abundant use of quartz and
soft soapy touch. Many of the grog inclusions are
grog fillers. These fillers frequently show in
visible in the surfaces of the pot, giving a speckled
the surfaces of the pots but are flush with the
effect to the sherds, but generally they lie flush
surfaces and do not detract from the fine qual-
with surfaces and do not give the fabric a rough
ity of the fabric. The fillers are still finely
feel. The fabric, in its use of grog is similar to Fla,
crushed and rarely exceed 2 mm in maximum
but the quality is not as good as the latter and F2 is
dimension. The inner surface of the sherds is
generally softer and the grog particles are larger.
generally black though the outer surface is
The colour of the fabric varies from buff through
reddish-brown. There are traces of external
brown to dark grey, the colour varying on individ-
burnishing on some sherds.
ual sherds, although the core of the fabric is usually
FIb As Fl but with larger and more abundant
grey. The thickness of the fabric also varies consid-
quartz filler. The fabric is, nevertheless, still
erably from as little as 5-12 mm.
fine and the fillers rarely exceed 3 mm in max-
There are sub<livisions within Fabric F2 as follows.
imum dimension. The outer surface of this
fabric is red while the inner surface ranges
F2 As described above.
from black to red. The fabric is also slightly
F2a As above, but the fabric is thin and the grog
softer than Fl and Fla with the result that
is finely distributed.
many of the sherds are more abraded.
F2b As F2 but with less grog visible on the sur-
Flc As Fl but the sherds are pinkish-brown
faces. Surfaces are light brown and cores dark
throughout, rather softer and consequently
grey. Some quartz inclusions are also notice-
more abraded. Fillers are very sparse indeed.
able in this fabric. These may be deliberately
added rather than natural.
Technological aspects
F2c This fabric is similar to F2 but is generally
Almost the entire collection of pottery in Fabric Fl
thinner and much softer. Much of the grog
and the variants thereof can be assigned to vessels
breaks the surfaces of the sherds but lies flush
of the Fine Ware Beaker tradition. Both early and
and does not result in a rough or gritty feel.
later beakers are represented by interrupted her-
The grog is generally well crushed and rarely
ringbone motif and carefully manufactured vessels
more than 2 mm in maximum dimension.
particularly common in Fl and Fla, suggesting ves-
Most of the sherds are rather abraded.
sels of Clarke's European group or Lanting and van
F2d This is represented by a single undecorated
der Waals' Step 1-3. Later motifs such as chevron
sherd with visible grog inclusions up to 5 mm
fringe and ladder patterns are found in FIb and Flc
in maximum diameter. The filler also appears
as are sherds with fine fingernail impressions, sug-
to be more sparse in this group and breaks
gesting the beginnings of the finger-rusticat~d
the surfaces less frequently.
wares. Incised decoration is also to be found m
these fabric sub-groups, as are the later motifs such
Technological aspects
as opposed chevrons and cross-hatching.
Many of the F2 finds are undecorated body sherds
One rim sherd with an internal bevel and exter-
exhibiting no formal diagnostic characters, which
nal moulding may represent a sherd of food vessel
might allow confident identification of ceramic tra-
(Fig. 6.8, no 39 in FIb). Two slight fingernail
ditions. However, the abundance of fingernail
impressions on the rim are probably more likely to
rusticated sherds suggests that the assemblage
be accidental than an attempt at decoration.
dates from the latter half of the Beaker period and
Coil/ring breaks are visible on some sherds and
in particular later than Step 5 of Lanting and van
burnishing is visible on many of the sherds in Fl
der Waals' scheme. This is supported by the pres-
and Fla.
ence of sherds of Fine Ware beaker decorated with
Estimates for minimum numbers of individuals
later motifs and/or incised decoration.
for this and the following fabrics are given in
The decoration on no 34 in F2b (Fig. 6.8), con-
Table 6.3.
sisting of short lengths of coarse toothed comb
impressions arranged vertically in a series of panels,

300
 The Neolithic-early Bronze Age pottery
has been applied in a particularly haphazard way.
Traces of a ring/coil break in the (?)lower part of the
sherd allow it to be orientated, suggesting that the
motif represented consists of crudely applied filled
lozenges, triangles or even extended hexagons and
that we are dealing with either a Step 5 or later
beaker, or perhaps even a decorated food vessel.
The sherds representing F2c are generally small
and undiagnostic, but the broad incisions on nos
10-11 (Fig. 6.7) suggest that they may be from the
same or similar vessels. The groups of parallel and
converging incisions on no 10 identify the vessel as
belonging to the Grooved Ware tradition. Not
enough survives of this sherd to allow it to be
assigned confidently to a sub-style, but the con-
verging lines suggest either the Clacton or
Durrington Walls style.
Sherd no 7 (Fig. 6.7) is also in F2c, but is clearly
not Grooved Ware. The sherd comes from a cari-
nated vessel with a faintly incised or scored line in
the neck at the start of the shoulder, but is other-
wise undecorated. It is probable that this sherd
represents a carinated bowl of the Grimston tradi-
tion with a widely splayed neck. It is very abraded
and is likely to be residual.
A further sherd (not illustrated) has a sharply
defined rim with an angular internal section. Its
outer surface is missing, but it is possible that it too
represents Grimston Ware; too little of the sherd
survives for confident identification.
Coil/ring breaks are visible on many sherds in
this fabric group, particularly in the thicker
sherds.
Many of the sherds, particularly in F2c and F2d,
are striated, particularly on outer surfaces. This
may result from the wiping of the pot after manu-
facture and before it had reached the leather hard
state.
(iii) Fabric F3
This fabric is characterized by its use of abundant
crushed calcined flint fillers to the exclusion of any
other opening agent. The calcined flint frequently
breaks both surfaces of the sherds, giving the pot-
tery a coarse and rough texture despite its being
hard and well-fired. The surfaces of the pot vary
conSiderably in colour from buff to dark grey-
brown on the outer surface and from grey-brown
to black on the inner surface. The thickness of the
sherds is also variable from 15 mm at one extreme
to 7 mm at the other. Two sherds (Fig. 6.8, no 40)
are conjoining and decorated with three horizon-
301
tal lines. The sherds are abraded and may come
from near the rim of the vessel.
Sub-divisions within this fabric may be made as
follows:
F3 As described above.
F3a Fabric as described above, but with inclusions
measuring up to 4 mm maximum dimension.
The fabric is 10 mm thick and has a red-
brown outer surface and a dark grey!black
inner surface. The colouration changes
midway through the thickness of the pot.
F3b Fabric as described above, but the sherds are
light brown throughout and the inclusions are
abundant, very finely crushed and rarely over
Imm.
F3c Fabric as F3a above, but the sherds are dark
grey throughout.
F3d Fabric as F3a above, but the fillers are more
sparsely distributed and the fabric is softer,
resulting in more abraded sherds. The colour
is light brown throughout.
F3e Represented by one everted-rim sherd, which
is simply rounded in section (not illustrated).
The fabric is as F3a above, but the sherd has
grey-brown surfaces and a brown core. It is
also slightly porous in texture and the cal-
cined flint filler is rather more porous.
Technological aspects
The general lack of decorated and/or formally
diagnostic sherds makes the allocation of this fabric
group to one or more traditions rather tentative.
The colour and thickness of F3a and some of the
sherds of F3c suggest that they are at least as old as
the Bronze Age. The decoration of no 40 (Fig. 6.8)
suggests a place in the Grooved Ware tradition but
the fabric is not typical of that type of pottery. It is
more likely that these sherds come from urns of
broadly Deverel-Rimbury type.
The form of the unillustrated sherd in F3e is not
typical of an urn tradition, however, and may be
from a Coarse Ware beaker with the beginnings of
horizontally incised decoration below the rim. If
this is the case, then the sherd differs markedly
from the other Beaker sherds in Fl and F2, but nev-
ertheless the similarity of some miniature urn and
Beaker fabrics is well known. The possibility that
this sherd represents the expanded neck of an early
decorated Neolithic carinated bowl must also be
considered.
Coil-ring breaks are visible in some of the sherds,
particularly in F3a and F3c.
 The Prehistory of Holywell Coombe
(iv) Fabric F4
This is a fine well-fired fabric, containing abundant
finely crushed quartz fillers, rarely over 1 tnm. The
fabric is ca. 5 mm thick and occasional quartz
inclusions break the surfaces of the sherds, giving a
slightly gritty feel. The surfaces of the sherds are
dark grey-brown and the core is dark grey. The
surfaces appear 'slipped' with the coloration pene-
trating less than 1 tnm into the fabric.
Sub-divisions of fabric F4 can be noted as follows:
F4 As described above.
F4a One sherd in a fabric identical to that
described above but with light brown sur-
faces (Fig. 6.7, no 9). The inclusions break the
inner surface more frequently than the outer.
Technological aspects
None of the sherds are decorated and they are gen-
erally too small to be assigned to a tradition with
confidence. However, no 9 has a sharp and well-
defined carination on the outside, but a smoothly
curved internal profile suggesting that it may
belong to the earlier Neolithic bowl tradition. If
this is the case, then the form, fabric and condition
differs greatly from the vessel of this tradition iden-
tified in F2c above.
Evidence for the technology of the sherds in this
fabric group is not abundant, with the exception
of the application of a slip already mentioned
above.
(v) Fabric F5
This fabric is hard and well fired and contains
sparsely distributed quartz fillers finely crushed so
that few grains are over 3 tnm. The fabric may have
a slightly laminated texture in section, but is quite
hard. Small voids in some of the sherds suggest that
organic inclusions have burnt out from the clay
during firing. The colour of the fabric is dark grey
or grey-brown throughout. The surfaces are smooth
and the fabric feels rather soapy to the touch.
Technological aspects
The sherds are small and generally undiagnostic.
The majority are simple or slightly everted rim
sherds and one has traces of a below-rim carination
a short distance down the body. The fabric is simi-
lar to the Beaker fabrics (F1) and it is possible that
these vessels represent undecorated cordoned
beakers, although it is difficult to be certain in view
of the small amount of pottery surviving from each
302
vessel. Another possibility is that these sherds rep-
resent open bowls of the earlier Neolithic, though
the high carination on no 6 suggests a particularly
small example.
One sherd (Fig 6.7,4) is decorated with two (?)
horizontal lines of twisted cord decoration, a char-
acteristic that is difficult to date beyond ca. 1550
Be, and in the apparent absence of an obvious AOC
Beaker element the vessels are best attributed to
the Neolithic Impressed Ware tradition. The
absence of thickened rims is to be noted in this
context, although these need not be expected if
the sherds are early in the tradition.
A single ring/coil break can be noticed among
the sherds and some voids suggest the former pres-
ence of organic inclusions.
(6) mE lATE BRONZE AGE AND
IRON AGE POTTERY
N. Macpherson-Grant
(a) Chronology and implications
(i) Late Bronze Age/Early Iron Age
transition: ca. 85~00 BC
This is represented by a small group of sherds of
two main fabric types, a minority shell-tempered
ware and flint-tempered wares. Apart from their
distinctive fabric, sherds in the former group are
small and featureless. The flint-tempered ware com-
prises sub-groups that are virtually indistinguishable
from fabrics of the following phase. Isolation here
is based on the presence of several finger-tip deco-
rated rims and, much more tentatively, a few
sherds that are marginally coarser than the main
bulk of the Early Iron Age material.
(ii) Early Iron Age: ca. 600-400 BC
A large quantity of sherds coming almost exclu-
sively from the buried soil horizon (Fig. 6.4, layer
4), together with smaller quantities in the upper
layers of the hillwash, can be confidently assigned
to this period. The great majority are flint-tempered,
which can be divided into a number of sub-groups
with a variety of other inclusions. A number of rim
sherds are present but are too small to provide
useful formal evidence. Once again, most of the
remaining sherds are small and featureless, although
the overall degree of wear is marginally less than
that present on the earlier (and often softer) Beaker
material. However, the presence of a sherd from an
 The late Bronze Age and Iron Age pottery
omphalos-based Fine Ware bowl and one rusticated
sherd (with clay deliberately added to roughen the
exterior surface) suggests occupation at some point
in the above age range.
(iii) Middle or Late Iron Age: ca. 300-75 Be
This is represented by a single decorated sherd in
a flint-tempered fabric quite unlike the above
Early Iron Age pottery. However, its presence in
the buried soil horizon (Fig. 6.4, layer 4) calls for
caution and renders the attribution highly tenta-
tive.
The age ranges proposed above for the later pre-
historic components of the Holywell Coombe
sequence are adopted here, partly out of caution,
and partly because they are based on the still
sparsely published data from East Kent as a whole.
More comprehensive surveys of material from the
region, coupled with more firmly dated local
groups, may eventually modify the picture. Two
points can be made:
(1) The highly distinctive shell-filled sherds will
ultimately prove to be a useful chronological
indicator. More detailed study of the material
from other Channel Tunnel sites should con-
firm whether the fabric belongs to a
specifically Late Bronze Age tradition or is,
indeed, a transitional Late Bronze Age/Early
Iron Age one. Either way, it will date more
securely the beginning of later prehistoric
activity at Holywell Coombe.
(2) For the remaining Late Bronze Age/Early Iron
Age material there is remarkably little infor-
mation to go on, despite the large quantity of
sherds recovered (Fig. 6.4). Their separate
treatment serves to emphasize the potential
range present which, taken at face value,
could span the period ca. 850-400 Be.
However, a particular feature of the other
Late Bronze Age/Early Iron Age material is that
it shares the same fabric sub-groups as those
sherds attributed to the Early Iron Age. This
could indicate either long-term occupation or
successive phases of occupation with a
dependency on, or preference for, the same
clay sources. Alternatively, it is distinctly pos-
sible that both groups of sherds represent one
phase of occupation of moderate longevity
(considering the number of sherds involved),
with characteristics that incorporate both ulti-
mate Late Bronze Age and Early Iron Age
303
traditions. If so, then an age range of ca.
650-550/500 Be would adequately accommo-
date the available evidence.
(b) Traditions and illustrated material
(i) Late Bronze Age/Early Iron Age
sheU-tempered ware
Hitherto shell-tempered wares from East Kent have
only been recorded from the Early Roman and later
periods. This is the first recorded pre-'Belgic' occur-
rence of such a ware and attribution was initially
uncertain. However, an overview of material from
other recent Channel Tunnel sites revealed a more
substantial group of shelly fabrics. These included
at least one jar with a fingernail-decorated rim and
an above-shoulder fingertip-decorated applied
cordon of, broadly, transitional Late Bronze
Age/Early Iron Age type. The attribution 'transi-
tional' is deliberately provisional since more
comparative material is needed from the region
before a more precise age can be given. However,
there is a possibility that these sherds are earlier,
and specifically Late Bronze Age (Fig. 6.4, table).
(ii) Late Bronze Age/Early Iron Age
flint-tempered ware (Fig. 6.11, nos 42--:3)
The sherds grouped under this heading are tenta-
tive identifications only. Those isolated are in fabric
sub-groups F9, Fll, F15, FI8A and F27A, with
Fabric Fll the dominant type. Fabric FIl is also
one of the most frequently occurring types
amongst those sherds classified as Early Iron Age.
This, together with the fact that the remaining sub-
groups also occur in the latter category, underlines
the tentative nature of this group. Also the use of
simple finger-tip decoration on rims has a long, pos-
sibly intermittent, life in East Kent, from at least the
tenth century (as at Kingston Down, Macpherson-
Grant 1980a, fig. 12, 70, 75) through to at least the
fifth century Be (as at Highstead near Chislet;
Couldrey, forthcoming; decoration Style A), if not
later.
Despite these factors there are several points
that tend to support the present age attribution.
First, these sherds are unlike the bulk of the coarse
flint-tempered F3 material from Holywell Coombe
tentatively identified as of Deverel-Rimbury type,
which is similar to definite Deverel-Rimbury jars
with finger-nail or finger-tip decoration from Bridge
(Macpherson-Grant, 1980a, figs 25-6) and
 The Prehistory of Holywell Coombe
Netherhale Farm, Thanet (perkins, 1980, fig. 20).
Second, finger-tip decoration occurs throughout
the Highstead Periods 2 and 3A contexts, ca.
850-550 BC (spanning the end of the Late Bronze
Age and the beginning of the Early Iron Age) and
this trait continues quite strongly into Period 3B,
dated ca. 550/500-400 DC. In this period, however,
its usage is slightly different and nos 42-43 (Fig.
6.11) appear to have more in common with the
earlier Highstead examples (Couldrey, forthcom-
ing, e.g. figs 50, 52-3). On this admittedly slender
evidence the present sherds could perhaps be
placed between ca. 750-550 BC.
(iii) Late Bronze Age/Early Iron Age
sandy ware (Fig. 6.11, no 44)
This is represented by one rim sherd in Fabric F30
(below). As with the flint-tempered ware, there are
difficulties in differentiating transitional Bronze
Age-Iron Age and Early Iron Age sandy ware
sherds, particularly because possibly contemporary
flint-tempered wares of definitely Iron Age charac-
ter contain quartz inclusions or have a quartz sandy
matrix. Inclusion of no 44 in the present category
is solely based on its decoration, which consists of
short incisions across the top of the rim. At
Highstead this trait occurs as decoration Style B
(Couldrey, forthcoming, e.g. fig. 53, 74 and fig. 57,
120). It is not a dominant trait and is confined to
Periods 2-3A; in other words it is unlikely to be
later than ca. 550/500 BC. Attribution here is again
tentative, but could suggest that no 44 is more
likely to have had Late Bronze Age, rather than Iron
Age, antecedents. If so, this adds a little more
weight to the possibility of a transitional Late
Bronze Age/Early Iron Age presence at Holywell
Coombe.
(iv) Early Iron Age wares (Fig. 6.11, no 45)
With over 700 sherds, this is the dominant category
represented at Holywell Coombe (Fig. 6.4). The
vast majority are flint-tempered with a variety of
inclusion types, such as ferric oxide, quartz sand,
grog, organic and combinations of these. A total of
24 fabric sub-groups have been identified. These
are not given separate treatment here since most
of them probably reflect no more than the various
clay sources used, rather than any specific tradi-
tion. It is worth noting, however, that sub-groups
with organic or grog inclusions are in the minority,
whereas Fll (flint-tempered with no other inclu-
sion type) is a major fabric. These trends are
304
apparent at Highstead and also Crundale (Bennett,
forthcoming), the only other prehistoric sites in the
region to have received detailed fabric analyses.
The exception at Holywell Coombe is the occur-
rence of F7 (flint-tempered in quartz sandy matrix)
which is the dominant type. At Highstead and
Crundale similar fabrics have very low counts. In
this instance the difference is probably due to local-
ized variations in clay types available.
Fine Ware and Coarse Ware forms are repre-
sented by the small quantity of rims recovered.
These include a shouldered Fine Ware bowl, prob-
ably high-shouldered Coarse Ware jars and both
Fine Ware and Coarse Ware simple-rimmed bowls.
Unfortunately, the forms are either too simple, too
crude or the sherds too small to make reliable
comparisons with other assemblages, except that
there is little likelihood of their being later than
the Early Iron Age. Of more use is an unillustrated
rim segment from a heavily rusticated Coarse Ware
jar.
No 45 is a fragment from a Fine Ware bowl with
a distinct basal omphalos. In East Kent the full
chronological range of this type has not been firmly
established, but is likely to span the Late Bronze
Age/Early Iron Age transition and the Early-Middle
Iron Age. It is certainly present at Highstead, with
one example from the Late Bronze Age enclosure
ditch B70 and another from the first phase of a
Period 3B timber structure, which might be dated
early in the approximate range 550-400 BC
(Couldrey, forthcoming, fig. 81, 362). Another
example occurred at Crundale, where a small
assemblage has been provisionally placed between
ca. 500-300 BC.
The rusticated sherd is important because it
emphasizes the Early Iron Age nature of the Layer 4
assemblage. This distinctive trait has a marked
regional distribution confined to Kent east of the
Medway, particularly the north-east and eastern
coastal areas and hinterland. It is widespread on the
continent. Its occurrence at Highstead is thought to
be derived from sources on the lower Rhine or
Belgium (Couldrey, forthCOming, figs 47-8, and sec-
tion 2.10). It has been recorded from Highstead
Periods 2-3B, beginning with sparse examples in
Period 2, gradually increasing in 3A to reach its
peak in 3B, a trend suggesting long-term cultural
contact with the continent, rather than a sudden
influx. It was a significant component of the pottery
at Highstead from between ca. 600 and 400 BC,
with a distinct rise in the fifth century during Period
3B. However, the style was long-lived (Couldrey,
pers. comm.) and almost certainly continued
 The late Bronze Age and Iron Age pottery
beyond ca. 400 Be and into the fourth century.
Supporting this is its occurrence at Dolland's Moor,
another Channel Tunnel site, where it forms a sig-
nificant element in an assemblage provisionally
placed between ca. 500 and 300 Be. What needs to
be stressed is that rustication is visually unmistak-
able and can be detected even where sherd size is
small and where present as only a minor compo-
nent of the pottery, as was shown at Crundale. At
Holywell Coombe it is represented by only one
sherd out of 700, which is in FII, the second major
fabric type. Despite the range of fabric sub-groups,
the assemblage appears relatively homogeneous and
broadly contemporaneous. If the collection reflects
occupation equivalent to Highstead Periods 3A-3B
or later, more examples would have been expected.
Therefore this sherd is either an isolated and late
find from deposits containing predominantly earlier
material or it represents the occasional usage of this
trait at a time before its main local adoption. Either
way, this suggests that the majority of the material
from the buried soil horizon was deposited early in
the Early Iron Age.
(v) Middle or Late Iron Age flint-tempered
sandy ware (Fig. 6.11, no 46)
Only one sherd in Fabric F43 has been identified
(from Layer 4) and very tentatively assigned to the
above period(s). It has a fabric distinctly finer than
those of the Early Iron Age with quartz sand matri-
ces and has neat and regular decoration. The form
and decoration broadly match a potential Middle
Iron Age sherd from Highstead (Macpherson-Grant,
forthcoming 1, Period 3C, fig. 94, 504). As with the
Highstead example, firmer attribution is hampered
by the absence of well-dated sequences/assem-
blages of Middle or native (as opposed to 'Belgic')
Late Iron Age date.
(c) Fabric groups and technological
aspects
Technological aspects are detailed following the
fabric descriptions. Fabric types were isolated
macroscopically, with further definition obtained
using a X 20 magnification hand lens.
(i) Fabric F29
This represents a Late Bronze Age or transitional
Late Bronze Age/Early Iron Age tradition. The fabric
305
is soft with consequently small and abraded sherds.
It is characterized by the moderate to abundant use
of finely crushed shell filler (up to 2 mm, mostly
smaller). Sherds with abundant filler have distinctly
laminated structures. No other macroscopic inclu-
sions can be observed. Sherd cores are either black
or more frequently drab brown. Surfaces are gen-
erally slightly darker. One sherd has an oxidized
red-brown outer surface and core, with a black
interior.
(ii) Transitional Late Bronze Age/Early Iron
Age and Early Iron Age fabriCS
Other than F29 there is no other observable fabric
type or sub-group that can be specifically assigned
to a Late Bronze Age or transitional Late Bronze
Age/Early Iron Age category on the basis of spa-
tial distribution or fabric components. The 20
sherds that have been tentatively placed in the
latter category on the basis of decoration and/or
appearance are all in fabrics that occur in the
Early Iron Age-type Layer 4 assemblage. If the
assemblage represents prolonged occupation, the
persistence of this fabric type may indicate no
more than a dependency on the same clay
sources. On the other hand it serves to emphasize
the probable absence of any significant cultural
break in occupation during deposition of the
Layer 4 material. Accordingly these sherds have
not been given separate fabric numbers and are
included below.
There are two main classes of fabrics, flint-tem-
pered and sandy, the latter containing either
profuse or moderate-sparse quartz sand.
Flint-tempered
This is the largest class with 696 sherds (out of a
total count of 731 for both fabric classes). It con-
tains three main groups listed in order of
frequency: (a) flint-tempered with quartz sand or
quartz inclusions; (b) purely flint-tempered with
no other inclusions; (c) flint-tempered with non-
quartz inclusions. With the exception of (b), there
are sub-divisions within each group based on var-
ious inclusion types present. It must be stressed
that these sub-divisions themselves contain
considerable internal variation, particularly for
those listed under group (a); the various fabric
descriptions given below are the main observable
tendencies. Table 6.4 gives the quantities of sherds
for each main group and for each sub-group.
 The Prehistory of Holywell Coombe

Table 6.4 Holywell Coombe 1987: table showing quartz as F6. Fairly profuse black sand as F6.
Late Bronze/Early Iron Age and Early Iron Age fabric FI8 Very sparse flint temper up to I mm. Sparse-
quantities moderate clear and milky quartz, as F6.
Fabric LBA/ Moderate fine black sand, as F6. Moderate
Fabric type sub-group EIA-type EIA-type pink-brown grog up to 1.05 mm, mostly less.
Flint tempered Sparse red-brown ferric oxide (up to
(a) With quartz 0.05 mm).
and black sand F6 3 I8A As F18 but with coarser, more abundant
F7 168
F12 4 flint. One example is particularly coarse with
F17 7 flint, sparse quartz and ferric oxide up to
F18 3
F18A 2 27 3 mm, and may be Late Bronze Age/Early
F19 8 Iron Age.
F21 4
F22
F19 Sparse-moderate flint temper up to 1.05 mm.
3
F25 5 Large rounded or sub-angular milky quartz
F35 sand up to 2 mm with finer background of
Little/no black sand F8 11 clear and milky quartz, 0.05 mm or less.
F13 72
F13A 80 Moderate fine black sand, as F6. Sparse
F24 8 brown ferric oxide up to 0.05 mm.
F27 15 F21 Sparse flint temper up to 1 mm. Fairly sandy
F27A 49
matrix with sparse sub-rounded/angular
(b) Purely flint tempered F11 12 107
clear, milky and rose quartz; moderate black
(c) Non-quartz inclusions F9 3 88
FI6 1 sand (ca. 0.03 mm), and as such slightly
F20 8 coarser than black sand in F6 and other fab-
F26 5
rics. Fairly profuse finely crushed buff/pale
Sandy brown grog (ca. 1 mm), with rare larger
F14 2 1.05 mm grain. Occasional chalk inclusions,
FI5 3
F23 10 1.05 mm.
F23A 6 F22 Moderate flint temper up to ca. 1 mm, with
F30 13 sparser grit up to 2 mm, tending to cluster.
Sandy matrix with fairly even proportions of
quartz (clear and milky) and fine black sand;
grain sizes as F6. Sparse maroon-red ferric
(a) Flint-tempered with quartz sand or quartz oxide up to I mm.
inclusions F25 Sparse-moderate flint temper up to 2 mm.
F6 Moderate flint-temper, ca. 1-2 mm, tending Fairly sandy matrix; clear, milky and sparse
to cluster. Moderately sandy matrix of rose quartz as F6. Fine black sand.
rounded/sub-rounded clear quartz (up to ca. Occasional black linear streak from burnt out
0.05 mm with occasional angular grains up organic inclusions.
to 2 mm) and fine black sand (usually F35 Very sparse flint temper up to 1 mm.
<0.03 mm). Moderate ill-sorted red-brown Profusely sandy matrix, predominantly of
grog inclusions (0.05-2 mm). fine black sand (as F6), with fairly sparse red
F7 Fairly abundant flint temper, ca. 0.05-3 mm, oxide (1 mm) and sparse chalk inclusions.
occasionally up to 4 mm. Sandy matrix of
clear, milky and sparse rose quartz, other- The above fabrics are all united by the presence
wise quartz and black sand as F6. Fairly of both quartz and black sand. The following
sparse inclusions of brown-red ferric oxide examples contain little or no black sand:
(0.05-3 mm).
F12 Moderate flint-temper, 1 mm up to occasional F8 Moderate fine (0.05-2 mm) or coarser flint
5 mm. Sparse clear, milky and rose quartz, as temper. Fairly sandy matrix of rounded/sub-
F6. Moderate fine black sand, as F6. Matt angular clear and milky quartz (0.05 mm or
black inclusions of ?charcoal (up to 2 mm). less). Occasional light brown grog (2 mm)
F17 Sparse flint temper ca. 1-2 mm, rarely up to inclusions and sparse fine brown ferric oxide
4 mm. Sandy matrix of clear and milky «0.03 mm).

306
 The late Bronze Age and Iron Age pottery
F13 Moderate flint temper (up to 2 mm). Fairly
sandy matrix of clear, milky and sparse rose
quartz (as F6).
FI3A As FI3 but with sparse quartz.
F24 Sparse flint temper (up to 1.05 mm). Sparse
sub-angular clear and milky quartz (up to
1 mm). Slightly laminated structure from
original presence of moderate organic con-
tent, showing as burnt-out linear voids and
impressions. Some brown-red ferric oxide
(0.08-1 mm).
F27 Moderate to fairly abundant flint temper
(0.05-3 mm), tending to cluster. Slightly
sandy matrix with clear and milky quartz as
F6. A little fine black sand. Sparse chalky
inclusions (ca. 1 mm) and brown ferric
oxide (up to 1 mm).
F27A As F27 but with very sparse quartz content.
(b) Purely flint-tempered, no other inclusions
FIl Moderate to fairly abundant fine (0.03-1 mm)
or coarse (2-3 mm) flint temper. No attempt
has been made to sub-divide this group on the
basis of temper size. Identification is based
solely on the absence of sand or other inclu-
sions.
(c) Flint-tempered with non-quartz inclusions
F9 Moderate flint temper (ca. 1-2 mm). Sparse
red-brown ferric oxide up to 0.05 mm.
FI6 Moderate flint temper (0.05-2 mm av.), tend-
ing to cluster. Occasional linear void from
burnt out organic inclusions. Sparse brown
ferric oxide (0.05 mm).
F20 Fairly sparse flint temper (up to ca. 1 mm).
Moderate-sparse angular or rounded pale
buff or brown grog (ca. 1 mm). Sparse dark
brown or dark maroon ferric oxide
(0.05 mm). Some examples in this small
group are soft with pale grog and may be
earlier prehistoric.
F26 Sparse fine flint temper (0.05 mm) in an
essentially grogged fabric. The grog is fairly
abundant, finely crushed (up to 0.05 mm),
pale buff or brown tending to speckle the
surface (as F21). Fabric fairly soft, and again
some examples may be earlier prehistoric.
Sandy
Collectively the four fabrics identified in this class
form only a small proportion of the total assemblage
(35 sherds out of731). As usual identifications have
been made on the evidence from small sherds. It is
307
quite possible that individual sherds may have
come from sparsely flint-tempered vessels, so that
some, particularly those containing quartz and
black sand, may belong in group (a) of the flint-
tempered class.
F14 Sparse-moderate sandy with rounded/sub-
rounded clear and milky quartz (0.03-1
mm). A little fine black sand. Black linear
streaks and impressions from burnt-out inclu-
sions. Moderate maroon-red ferric oxide (up
to 1.05 mm).
F15 Sandy, with fairly abundant rounded/sub-
angular milky, mostly clear quartz (as FI4).
Some fine black sand. Fairly profuse but ill-
sorted finely crushed grog, pale brown/
brown-red (up to 1 mm, often finer). Sparse
maroon-brown ferric oxide (up to 0.05 mm).
F23 Sparsely sandy. As F14, but no organic con-
tent.
F23A As F23 but moderately sandy.
F30 Sandy, with abundant quartz and fairly pro-
fuse fine black sand. Quartz is rounded/
sub-rounded, milky, clear and rose, average
0.05 mm or less, with sparser 1 mm grains.
Sparse red-brown ferric oxide, 0.03 mm or
less.
Throughout the above dasses and fabric sub-
groups, there is a preponderance of sherds with
generally dark fabric colours, reduced black, dark
brown or dark grey/grey, sometimes with dark or
light brown outer surfaces. There are no com-
pletely oxidized sherds. A few have both surfaces
oxidized brown-red with dark grey or black cores.
More often only the outer surface is oxidized,
brown-red (occasionally extending part way
through the core) with dark grey or black cores
and inner surfaces. There is a little evidence sug-
gesting that partly oxidized sherds occur more
frequently in the Group (a) quartz and black sandy
flint-tempered fabrics.
Technology
The quartz and black sand content of the Group (a)
fabrics is thought to derive from natural occur-
rences in the day(s) used, rather than from
deliberate addition. Two main clay sources are indi-
cated, fine day(s) macroscopically free of any
inclusions (as Fl1) and sandy clay(s). Apart from in
F11, naturally occurring ferric oxide is almost ubiq-
uitous; its occurrence in F9 may indicate a third
source. Other minor sources are possibly indicated
 The Prehistory of Holywell Coombe
by the presence of sparse quartz (apparently unac-
companied by black sand) or chalk. Fabrics with an
organic content are in the minority, occurrences
representing either accidental inclusion during
manufacture or presence in the clays used. There
is no genuine evidence of intentional usage.
Moderate-finely crushed grog was certainly used,
but is a minor trend. Most of the sherds appear to
be Early Iron Age, but the possibility of some
derivation from earlier phases of the sequence
cannot be entirely ruled out.
Flint is the dominant tempering agent, rarely
exceeding 2-3 ffiffi. As elsewhere, it is often more
finely crushed for Fine Ware vessels, with a maxi-
mum upper limit of ca. 1 mm. The bulk of the
assemblage consists of Coarse Ware sherds with
smoothed or roughly wiped surfaces (with the
notable exception of the single rusticated sherd).
Only 33 Fine Ware-type sherds were recorded,
thin-walled, with fine flint temper (where used)
and traces of external burnishing. No clear-cut
fabric preferences were noted for this group.
One or two Coarse Ware sherds exhibit traces of
slab construction with smooth, angled, fractures.
No assessment has been made of the minimum
number of vessels.
(iii) Fabric F43
Though flint-tempered, the fabric and finish of F43
is fundamentally different from the flint-tempered
sandy wares described above and may represent a
later, Middle or Late Iron Age product. The temper
is fairly sparse, 0.05 mm or less, with rare 1 mm
grains. This is a sandy fabric with fine quartz sand,
predominantly 0.03 mm or less, occasionally
0.05 mm (rounded/sub-angular). Black sand
appears to be absent, but there is a moderate quan-
tity of thin fine black streaks from burnt-out
organic inclusions as well as sparse brown-red
ferric oxide inclusions.
(7) THE 'BELGIC', ROMAN AND LATER
POTIERY
N. Macpherson-Grant
(a) Chronology and implications
(i) 'Belgic:· ca. 25 BC-AD 50/75
A small group of eleven sherds in grog-tempered
fabrics, including one classifiable rim, indicates
some activity during the above period.
308
(ii) Transitional 'Belgic'-Early Roman: ca.
AD 50-75
Five sherds including one diagnostic rim fragment,
in a coarse sandy ware, can be attributed to the
Stuppington Lane kiln, near Canterbury.
(iii) Roman: ca. AD 75-150
Four sherds in two fabric types: North Kentish
Upchurch-type ware and a sandy ware of
Canterbury type.
(iv) Early-Mid Saxon: ca. AD 550/600-700
Represented by one very worn and small sherd
with organic temper. The identification is highly
tentative.
(v) Early Medieval: ca. AD 1075-1125/50
Seventeen sherds of Canterbury-type sandy ware.
One small rim fragment is identical to Canterbury
forms of specifically late eleventh-century type.
(vi) Early Medieval/MedievaL· ca.
AD 1175-1225
A single large sherd in a shell-filled sandy fabric.
The fabric is unsourced but is possibly of East
Sussex origin.
(vii) Early Medieval/MedievaL· ca.
AD 1300-1440/1450
Three glazed sherds in fine sandy fabrics.
Unattributed but again possibly from East Sussex,
perhaps from Rye.
(viii) Post-medieval: ca. AD 1680-1775
Four sherds of Staffordshire-type; one from a
combed slip ware dish, the others representing
hollow-ware vessels in white salt-glazed stone
ware.
(ix) Late Post-medieval: ca.
AD 1775/1800-1825
A single sherd in cream earthenware with under-
glaze hand painting.
Figure 6.4 shows clearly that none of the post-Early
Iron Age fabric groups occur in quantities indicat-
ing occupation in the immediate vicinity of
 The (Belgic', Roman and later pottery
Holywell Coombe. Most are probably derived from
the manuring of agricultural land. If the various
'Belgic'-Roman and Early Medieval fabrics are
grouped together, a distinct patterning in land use
is suggested as follows.
(1) Abandonment or possibly intermittent pasture
ca. 500 BC-AD 25.
(2) A phase of probable agricultural use ca. AD
25-125/150.
(3) A return to pasture or non-agricultural use ca.
AD 150-1075 (with only a very tentative pos-
sibility of Anglo-Saxon activity during the
seventh century).
(4) A second phase of probable agricultural use
between ca. AD 1075-1225/50.
(5) A final phase with only sporadic occurrences
of domestic rubbish, derived via farmyard
manure throughout the medieval and later peri-
ods, indicating not just a potential change in
rubbish disposal habits, but also the likelihood
of long phases of pasture/non-agricultural use,
particularly ca. AD 1400-1700 and from ca.
1850 onwards.
(b) Traditions and illustrated material
(i) 'Belgic' grog-tempered wares
(Fig. 6.11, no 47)
These are distinctly different from the earlier and
later prehistoric grogged wares detailed above. Two
fabric types are present, grog-tempered with sparse
quartz inclusions and purely grogged, the former
predominating. No 47 is purely grogged and is a
Thompson form B5-5 from a wheel-made grooved
globular barrel jar. It is a form possibly originating in
the late first century BC and was 'popular in Kent'
prior to the Conquest (Thompson, 1982).
(ii) Transitional <Belgic'/Early Roman
coarse sandy ware (Fig. 6.11, no 48)
The small rim sherd (no 48) confirms the identity
of Fabric F28. Parallels can be found amongst jars
from the Stuppington Lane kiln, just south of
Canterbury (Macpherson-Grant, 1980b, Fig. 9, 98).
The products of this kiln are transitional and
Romanizing, but with formal traits clearly derived
from the 'Belgic' grog-tempered tradition. The kiln
material was dated ca. AD 50-75, on the basis of
data from Canterbury excavations, and so far there
309
has been no evidence to contradict this. The pre-
sent sherds are useful since they extend the
geographical range of this ware, hitherto confined
to the kiln itself, Canterbury and one other rural
site, at Highstead, a few miles north of Canterbury
(Green, forthcoming).
(iii) Roman wares
Only one small, worn sherd of Upchurch-type was
recovered. It is fairly soft, drab buff-grey and sug-
gests a late first-century product. The three
pink-buff Sandy Ware sherds are typical late
first-early second-century Canterbury products and
may be from a flagon(s). All pieces are too small for
more definitive comment, except that all are likely
to be earlier than the terminal date supplied for this
group.
(iv) Early-Mid Anglo-Saxon organic-
tempered ware
This dubious piece contains, for its size, a higher
proportion of organic content than any of the Early
Iron Age fabrics with organic inclusions noted
above. Possibly sixth-, certainly seventh-century
Anglo-Saxon wares, including organic-tempered
sherds, have been noted from other recent Channel
Tunnel sites, so Anglo-Saxon occupation/activity in
the area of Holywell Coombe is not impossible.
This sherd has been allocated to the main range of
Canterbury organic-tempered fabrics. It also con-
tains grog, which is unusual but not impossible
amongst Canterbury material.
(v) Early Medieval Canterbury-type sandy
ware (Fig. 6.11, no 49)
The 17 sherds in this category are typical of
sandy wares found in Canterbury. More specifi-
cally the reduced or oxidized firing colours and
sherd thicknesses are especially typical of
eleventh- and twelfth-century products. The small
rim fragment (no 49) with its internal bevel that
occurs very frequently on large cooking-pots of
the period ca. 1075-1125, with a marked pre-ll00
emphasis. These sherds provide useful confirmation
of the marketed range of Canterbury products
during this period. Another assemblage with a simi-
lar age to no 49 comes from the former Mid-Late
Saxon and Early Medieval coastal settlement at
Sandtun near Hythe.
 The Prehistory of Holywell Coombe
(vi) Early Medieval/Medieval shell-filled
sandy ware (Fig. 6.11, no 50)
The form and fabric components of no 50 can be
broadly matched with products of similar traditions
from Canterbury, north and west Kent, with an age
range of essentially mid twelfth to earlier thirteenth
century. However, the sand content of the present
piece is markedly finer and a different East Sussex
or east Wealden source is implied.
(vii) Medieval and later wares
The remaining wares are either too small, too few
in quantity or too well known to warrant much
discussion. It is sufficient to note that the
Medieval/Late Medieval sandy wares (F32 and
F38) are, if from Rye, unsurprising finds and more
likely to date from the fourteenth, rather than fif-
teenth century. Also that the Staffordshire-type
slipware dish fragment is more likely to belong to
the eighteenth century than the late seventeenth
century.
(c) Fabric groups
Technological discussion is not included in this sec-
tion; quantities are too low or wares too well
known to warrant additional comment.
It will be apparent from Fig. 6.4 that most of the
post-Early Iron Age fabrics are represented by very
few sherds. Practically all are probably redeposited
domestic refuse with little or no likelihood of
sherds from the same vessel. The figured quantities
can be taken at face value; separate estimates of
minimum numbers are not given below.
Fabrics were isolated macroscopically, with fur-
ther definition obtained using a X 20 magnification
hand lens.
(i) 'Belgic'
All sherds in both fabric groups are fairly hard.
External surfaces are predominantly black, dark
brown or dark grey-brown with a tendency to be
darker than cores and inner surfaces. A few sherds
show signs of light external burnishing.
FlO Grog-tempered with grains of brown-red,
mostly dark grey, dark brown or black grog
(up to 4 mm, mostly less). Sparse sub-
rounded/sub-angular grains of milky or clear
310
quartz (up to 1.05 mm, mostly less).
F34 Purely grog-tempered with grains of fairly
finely crushed light dark brown and black
grog (up to 1.05 mm). Sparse natural inclu-
sions of maroon-red or dark brown ferric
oxide. One sherd with slightly laminated
structure.
(ii) Early Roman and Roman
F28 Stuppington Lane Ware. Fairly hard with a
general tendency for drab pink-brown sur-
faces and dirty grey-buff cores. Coarse sandy
fabric with profuse sub-rounded or, less fre-
quently, angular clear and milky quartz (up
to 0.03 mm) and moderate quantities of fine
black sand (ca. 0.01 mm). Sparse maroon-red
ferric oxide (2 mm).
F37 Canterbury-type pink-buff sandy ware. Fairly
hard, oxidized. Fairly coarse sandy fabric,
grains larger, more open-spaced and not as
profuse as F28. Moderate quantities of
rounded/sub-angular clear, milky and sparse
rose quartz (up to 0.06 mm). Black sand also
present (0.02-0.03 mm). Moderate quanti-
ties of red, or more often dark brown, ferric
oxide (up to 1 mm).
F39 Upchurch-type Ware. Fairly soft, drab pale
buff exterior, pale dirty grey core and inner
surface. Fine smooth fabric. Fairly profuse
very fine mica (0.01 mm or less).
(iii) ?Early-Mid Anglo-Saxon
F33 Fairly soft. Reduced black exterior and core,
dark brown-buff interior. Sherd really too
small to make accurate assessment of con-
tents, but apparently moderate-profuse
burnt-out organic content, showing as
impressions and short linear voids. Structure
partly laminated, but this may be due to
moulding, rather than temper.
(iv) Early-Late Medieval
F31 Early Medieval Canterbury-type sandy ware.
Fairly hard, with tendency for oxidized
brown-pink or dark grey/grey surfaces and
drab buff-grey or grey cores. Coarse sandy
fabric consisting of fairly even proportions
of quartz and black sand. Quartz: sub-
rounded/sub-angular, milky, rose and sparser
clear, ca. 0.03 mm. Black sand: sub-angu-
 Conclusions
lar/angular and marginally finer. Fairly pro-
fuse background of fine mica (0.01 mm), but
occasional larger plate up to 0.02 mm.
Sparse red-brown ferric oxide (ca. 1 mm).
F32 Possible Medieval Rye Sandy Ware. Fairly
hard, oxidized pale orange with pale buff-
pink exterior. Fine sandy fabric of
rounded/sub-angular or angular quartz
(mostly milky, some clear and pinkish), ca.
0.02 mm. Moderate angular black sand up to
0.02 mm, mostly finer. Sparse fine brown-red
ferric oxide.
F36 Early MedievaVMedieval shell-filled sandy
ware. Fairly hard, light brown oxidized sur-
faces, dark grey core. Fine sandy fabric of
profuse quartz, rounded/sub-rounded, pre-
dominantly clear and milky, with a
considerable variation of grain size
«0.01-0.02 mm up to occasional grains of
0.05 mm). Some fine black sand, not visually
dominant. Moderate fairly evenly distributed
shell temper, well-crushed: (0.05-1 mm with
larger pieces up to 2 mm). Fabric also con-
tains occasional plates of mica (1 mm), rare
grains of pale grog, sparse black streaks from
organic inclusions and occasional grains of
brown ferric oxide (up to 1 mm).
F33 Possible Medieval or Late Medieval Rye
sandy ware. Fairly hard, oxidized pale
orange. As F32 for content, but grain distrib-
ution more open-spaced.
(v) Post- and Late Post-medieval
These fabrics are not individually described. The
Staffordshire types (F40, F41) are too well known
to warrant separate treatment. The late post-
medieval Fabric F42 is an unattributed fine cream
earthenware, with dark blue and red-brown hand-
painted floral decoration under a thick very pale
glaze and is of late eighteenth- or early nineteenth-
century date.
(8) CONCLUSIONS
The results of the 1987-8 excavations at Holywell
Coombe can be summarized as follows.
(1) Mesolithic. A single microlith derived from
lower hillwash (an Early Bronze Age context)
may be indicative of Mesolithic activity in the
vicinity. Occasional marine shells also were
311
recovered from the upper levels of the tufa
and there is evidence from land snail analysis
for a decline in woodland cover, both of
which probably relate to Mesolithic activities
(part Five (3)).
(2) Earlier Neolithic (ca. 3500-3100 BC). Some
residual pot-sherds suggest possible Early
Neolithic occupation in the vicinity.
(3) Later Neolithic. A number of flints, probably
all residual, are typical of Later Neolithic
industries and suggest occupation of this
period in the vicinity.
(4) Neolithic-Bronze Age transition (ca.
2500-1850 BC). The bulk of the ceramic evi-
dence is from this period and is in the Beaker
tradition. Much of the pottery was associated
with a 'hollow way' seen in both the 1987
and 1988 excavations, with various midden
deposits and with a very few of the numerous
excavated post-holes. Despite the relative
paucity of partly worked and complete flint
tools, it is reasonable to assume that most of
the material represents a tradition of Beaker
flint working. The combined assemblage
strongly suggests the presence of a rare and
long-lived Beaker occupation site.
Although no definite structures have been
isolated in the complex pattern of post-holes
revealed during the 1987 and 1988 excava-
tions, at least two oval or circular groups of
post settings are suggestive of structures.
Analysis of the remains is complicated by a
number of factors. First, the presence of
numerous straight alignments of post-holes,
many parallel to the sunken way, which may
represent fence lines; second, by the lack of
artefactual evidence from many of the post-
hole fills; and third by the truncation of the
deposits by erosion, which may have
removed any associated occupation horizon,
except where preserved in the 'hollow way'.
This erosive episode may have been initi-
ated by cultivation relating to this settlement.
Although evidence for earlier agricultural
activity was identified in the 1988 excavations
in the form of possible 'ard marks', no traces
of later plough-marks were found.
(5) Early-Late Bronze Age (ca. 1850-1300 BC).
This period is represented by a small quantity
of pottery, all of which is probably residual. It
seems likely that there was no intensive occu-
pation of the immediate area in this period.
(6) Late Bronze-Early Iron Age transition
 The Prehistory of Holywell Coombe
(ca. 850-600 Be). This period is only repre-
sented by a few tentatively identified
pot-sherds, most of which come from the
1988 excavation. However, these sherds are
evident within the fills of some of the post-
holes, particularly those of two four-post
structures located at the western side of the
1988 trench, and are indicative of Late
Bronze-Early Iron Age occupation.
(J) Early Iron Age (ca. 600-400 Be). This period is
represented by a well-defined soil horizon
indicating a period of slope stability. A large
quantity of Iron Age pottery, much of it worn
and abraded, was recovered from this unit.
The quantity of ceramics strongly suggests the
presence of occupation in the vicinity during
the Early Iron Age.
(8) Middle or Late Iron Age (ca. 300-75 Be) to
Post-Medieval. During this lengthy period it
would appear unlikely that any large-scale
occupation or settlement existed in the imme-
diate area. Although pottery from most
periods is represented in the upper hillwash,
the sherds are few in number and few other
types of artefact are present. The wide
chronological spread of material from these
layers mitigates against the construction of a
chronological sequence for colluvial deposi-
tion. Much of the pottery, possibly originally
introduced by manuring during periods of
agricultural use, may be intrusive and perhaps
suggests reworking and/or bioturbation of
these upper levels.
(9) HOLYWEIl. COOMBE AND OTHER
CHANNEL roNNEL SITES: A BRIEF
OVERVIEW
The 1987-8 excavations at Holywell Coombe were
of great value in that they provided not only the
first detailed archaeological examination of collu-
vial deposits in a dry valley context in Kent, but
also direct evidence for a rare and early Beaker
period domestic settlement. The flint and ceramic
assemblages recovered are of singular significance
for period studies of such material and Holywell
Coombe has become a reference site for the Early
Bronze Age in the region.
No less significant was the number of sites
located across the length and breadth of the
Channel Tunnel Terminal at Cheriton, as well as
Frethun in the Pas-de-Calais. The construction of
the Channel Tunnel, one of the largest civil engi-
312
neering projects ever undertaken in Europe,
prompted archaeological activity on both sides of
the English Channel. Although fieldwork directly
associated with construction activity was com-
pleted in 1992, only a few interim reports have
been published so far (Antoine, 1989; Bostyn et al.,
1990; Vallin, 1991; Demarez, 1991; Anon., 1993;
Routier, 1997). Plans to publish a comprehensive
review of the work undertaken on both sides of the
Channel have yet to materialize. Nevertheless, it is
possible to highlight here the importance of recent
discoveries and stress the significance of the
Holywell Coombe sequence.
The settlement and its associated artefactual
assemblages at Holywell Coombe are to a degree
mirrored by a number of similar but less well
defined settlement sites, together with surface-
derived finds, discovered within the Terminal
boundaries. Greater definition of chronological
range and occupation density during the Neolithic
and Bronze Age periods at the base of the Downs
will be provided by examination of this larger col-
lection. Baseline data for this study are provided by
material from the following sources: surface-
derived flints from the Holywell Coombe area;
small-scale excavations on Castle Hill, larger-scale
excavations at the base of the hill; further surface
collections gleaned from sites within the Terminal
and the Downs outside the Eurotunnel area imme-
diately behind Castle Hill. Of particular importance
is a very large assemblage of broadly later Neolithic
date recovered from Creteway Down overlooking
Holywell Coombe and Sugarloaf Hill. To the list
should be added surface and chance finds from
Cauldham Hill and Capel, slightly north-east of
Creteway Down.
On the basis of present evidence it is clear that
the area around Castle Hill and Holywell Coombe
witnessed much prehistoric occupation. Further
examination of flintwork from these locations,
from other Channel Tunnel sites and surface col-
lections from the coastal zone, may indicate
whether this general area was Similarly favoured
during the Mesolithic period. Gibson's analysis of
the 1987 pottery adds a chronological perspective
to the activity at or around Holywell Coombe.
Sherds from possible everted rim bowls may indi-
cate an earlier Neolithic presence; one or two may
be Late Neolithic, in the Peterborough tradition.
The importance of the large body of Beaker pottery
has already been alluded to above. Rather more sig-
nificant is the fact that the bulk of the Beaker
assemblage consists of early Fine Ware vessels that
can be dated to the period ca. 2500-2300 Be,
 Holywell Coombe and other Channel Tunnel sites
although some elements may indicate a slightly
longer phase of activity. A few sherds from indige-
nous Grooved Ware style vessels are worn and may
reflect contemporary occupation in the vicinity.
What makes the whole range identified interest-
ing, and possibly regionally unique, is that it is
likely to represent only a small fraction of the orig-
inal occupation density or activity level for the
periods indicated. Earlier Neolithic bowls in the
Whitehawk style have been found at Creteway
Down (Dunning, 1966, fig. 6; Clark, 1982) and
although the attributions from Holywell Coombe
and other Channel Tunnel sites are tentative it is
likely that fairly intensive activity took place in the
region during this period.
Rather more confidence can be given to the
occurrence of Late Neolithic Peterborough-style
pottery from a number of recent sites at the foot of
the Downs, west of Holywell Coombe. Bowls in
the Mortlake style were recovered from the top of
the escarpment at Castle Hill from a context
strongly suggestive of a ditch. This raises the impor-
tant possibility of a Neolithic enclosure on Castle
Hill. Irrespective of this tentative hypothesis, later
Neolithic occupation on the hill is confirmed by
the Peterborough-tradition material recovered in
1878 (pitt Rivers 1882, figs 45-6).
Quite apart from any previous finds of Beakers
from the region (Folkestone Golf Course, Creteway
Down: Clarke, 1970, Corpus Nos 404,391-2), and
Holywell Coombe itself, what makes this area
exceptional is the number of Beaker occupation
sites recorded during the Channel Tunnel excava-
tions. At least four produced material broadly
contemporary with Holywell Coombe and a further
eight to ten locations provided Fine Ware and
Coarse Ware Beaker pottery, including an impor-
tant new assemblage from a site at the foot of Castle
Hill containing three burial mounds (Fig. 6.23),
The full implications of this number of Beaker
sites within a relatively small area have yet to be
assessed. Most of the sites are situated in a similar
topographical position to that at Holywell Coombe,
that is at the base of, or on the lower slopes of the
North Downs escarpment. The woodland that cov-
ered the chalkland slopes during the mid
Post-glacial had essentially been cleared (part Five).
It is currently believed that the distribution of sites
may reflect, in part, a shifting community estab-
lishing new short-term settlements as agricultural
land became less fertile or subject to erosion. Other
settlements, like Holywell Coombe, may have been
occupied for longer periods and these may reflect
either the careful maintenance of higher slopes or a
313
greater distance between settlement and field sys-
tems. It is clear that Holywell Coombe, Castle Hill
and the immediate landscape around them were of
considerable social significance during the later
Neolithic (if not earlier) and the first centuries of
the second millennium BC.
Apart from some very tentative identifications of
Food Vessel urns from Holywell Coombe and other
Channel Tunnel sites (some of which may well be
contemporary with the later phases of Beaker activ-
ity), and a Collared Urn component in the Castle
Hill (ring ditches) excavations, other later Early
Bronze Age ceramic traditions have not been iden-
tified. This absence perhaps reflects a general lack
of clarity regarding this ceramic phase of the
Bronze Age, which, within the region, appears to
be represented by only a handful of Collared Urns
and miniature 'incense' cups. Further analysis must
await a thorough review of contemporary material
from East Kent.
It is unlikely that these later ceramics have been
overlooked or wrongly attributed amongst some
of the more difficult Folkestone fabrics that are
likely to date from the mid to later second millen-
nium BC. Their absence may be due to a recovery
bias, a significant reduction in occupation denSity,
or indeed a shift in settlement patterns away from
the area.
To some extent the latter possibility is qualified
by the recognition of probable Late Bronze Age
Deverel-Rimbury-type sherds from within the
Holywell Coombe sequence and, more positively,
from other Channel Tunnel locations. Yet again the
distribution density is abnormally high. This may
reflect a purely local trend in the Folkestone area
or, as only recently appreciated, an unexpectedly
larger number of Deverel-Rimbury settlements in
the region as a whole.
At least one recent location, near Folkestone
Sand Quarry, has produced a small body of transi-
tional Late Bronze/Early Iron Age pottery which
can be linked into the dated sequence from
Highstead near Chislet (Macpherson-Grant, forth-
coming), and other regional sites of similar date. As
noted above, a few sherds from Holywell Coombe
may be of this date. It is clear from the 1987-8
excavations that later prehistoric occupation
occurred at Holywell Coombe and some elements
from this rather undiagnostic assemblage may, with
further assessment, confirm this attribution. It is
not yet certain whether the occupation preceded,
or can be equated with, the large Early-Mid Iron
Age assemblage from the upper levels of the hill-
wash excavated in the 1987 trench. It is felt that
 The Prehistory of Holywell Coombe
the material from both sites is broadly contempo-
rary, but better chronological resolution is
dependent upon detailed fabric/form comparisons
with the recently excavated material from the site
at the foot of Castle Hill. This site produced a small
but unique body of Early Iron Age rusticated
Coarse Ware and highly decorated Fine Ware of
broadly ca. 600-400 BC date.
Other recent Folkestone locations, notably a
palimpsest settlement at Dolland's Moor, also pro-
duced rusticated Iron Age Coarse Ware, a
continental trait that can again be linked into the
Highstead sequence and paralleled by the French
material from Eurotunnel sites in the Pas-de-Calais
area. This settlement, and others in the area that
represent similar periods of occupation, with their
associated, relatively large ceramic assemblages,
continue the emerging theme of a landscape that,
314
for most of its history, witnessed considerable and
long-term phases of occupation.
The remaining archaeological periods repre-
sented at Holywell can be dealt with more
summarily. From the fourth century BC onwards,
ceramic quantities are low, and in terms of land-
use, the majority of the area's later history is likely
to be confined to that of pasture or marginal land.
All the post-Iron Age ceramics are paralleled from
other Channel Tunnel sites, including two Roman
settlements and a number of small-scale areas of
Anglo-Saxon occupation with structures. This mate-
rial, then, fits comfortably into local trends for the
'Belgic', Roman and later periods and the 1987-8
excavations at Holywell Coombe represent an
unusually accurate microcosm of the broader
archaeological picture presented by the Channel
Tunnel excavations as a whole.
 PART SEVEN

Present-day Ecology of the

Folkestone Escarpment
R.C. Welch
 Modern sUrface soils
(1) INTRODUCTION
The chalklands of southern Britain are a familiar
tract of country with its own characteristic flora,
fauna and ecology (Smith, 1980). There is regional
variation in the distribution of species on the
Chalk, much depending on the proximity to the
coast and on precise location and aspect. Sites in
the extreme south-east of England tend to have
greater numbers of species, not only because the
temperatures are slightly warmer but also because
some south-facing slopes are able to support ther-
mophilous species at the northern limit of their
European ranges.
This chapter provides an inventory and descrip-
tion of the soils, flora and fauna of the Folkestone
escarpment compiled between 1987 and 1990. The
importance of this area of calcareous grassland was
recognized when in 1951 the escarpment, and
some adjacent ancient woodlands, were declared a
Site of Special Scientific Interest by the Nature
Conservancy (part One). In 1986 much of the site
appeared to be under threat from the imminent
construction of the Channel Tunnel, a threat that
led to the work described here. The main British
Rail terminal was to be built immediately along the
base of the escarpment and included tunnel portals
into Sugarloaf Hill and Castle Hill. In 1987 staff of
the Institute of Terrestrial Ecology (ITE) com-
menced what was to be a four year study
monitoring the flora and fauna on the escarpment,
within the boundaries of the SSSI, and between
1987 and 1992 the Institute of Freshwater Ecology
(lFE) surveyed the aquatic fauna and flora of three
chalk streams crossing the construction site.
Where known, any recent historical data have
also been included. Although there were often sig-
nificant differences both between transects and
between sampling sites on individual transects, the
data have, for the most part, been pooled. The
botanical data have been pooled by year, in order
to identify any changes in the frequency of species
during the construction of the terminal. The ter-
restrial invertebrate data have been pooled by
transect, so as to emphasize any similarities or dif-
ferences in the fauna of different sections of the
escarpment. This also enables identification of
species recorded from the slopes surrounding
Holywell Coombe. Only a limited amount of infor-
mation is available for the fen area in Holywell
Coombe, which could have provided the best com-
317
parison with the palaeontological data described in
Part Five. Any similarities between the fossil and
modern flora and fauna have been identified, but
many of the species represented by Late-glacial and
early Post-glacial assemblages (part Five) are from
climates very different to that of the present day
and either no longer occur in the British Isles or are
found only in remote northern arctic-alpine habi-
tats. Although the modern flora and fauna present
on the Folkestone escarpment have much in
common with those from calcareous downland
elsewhere in southern England, they have unique
compositions that result not only from the extreme
southerly geographical location, but also from the
proximity to continental Europe.
(2) MODERN SURFACE SOILS
J. A. Catt
(a) Introduction
This description of the modern surface soils of
Holywell Coombe and the main rail terminal area
at Cheriton is intended to link the earlier sections
(part Three) on geology, Quaternary sediments and
buried Quaternary soils to the descriptions below
of the modern ecology of the area.
In England and Wales, soils are classified partly
on the nature of their parent material or materials
and partly on the processes that have modified
those parent materials during later parts of the
Quaternary period (Avery, 1980; Clayden and
Hollis, 1984). The main processes involved in the
development of soils in Britain are:
(1) Chemical weathering of minerals in the
parent material (e.g. decalcification or disso-
lution of calcium and other carbonates).
(2) Downward leaching of soluble materials,
including those released by weathering.
(3) Incorporation of decomposing organic mater-
ial (humus).
(4) Disturbance by plant roots, burrowing ani-
mals, tree-fall, frost action or shrink-swell by
drying and wetting of clays.
(5) Downward movement (eluviation) of soil par-
ticles, usually clay particles, in percolating
water and their redeposition (illuviation) in
subsoil horizons.
(6) Reduction of brown, yellow or red ferric iron
 Present-day ecology of the Folkestone Escarpment
minerals to more soluble, grey ferrous com-
pounds in waterlogged, anaerobic conditions
(gleying).
The relative importance of these various
processes of soil formation varies from site to site
according to changing environmental factors. For
example, gleying can occur where the downward
infiltration of water is impeded by a slowly perme-
able layer of clay (surface water gley soil or
stagnogley), or where groundwater rises close to
the land surface in the bottom of a valley or close
to a natural spring (groundwater gley soil). Fossil
examples of stagnogleyic soils occur within the
Holywell Coombe Late-glacial sequence (Part
Three).
Lateral changes in parent material and the envi-
ronmental factors that determine soil-forming
processes produce soil profiles with different
sequences and thicknesses of horizons. Horizons
are approximately parallel to the land surface and
are differentiated according to strictly defined
properties of chemical and mineralogical composi-
tion, particle size distribution, colour (including
mottling), strength, plasticity, stickiness, cementa-
tion and porosity (Hodgson, 1976) and microfabric
characteristics seen in thin section (Bullock et al.,
1985).
The soil classification system now used in
England and Wales is hierarchical. All the soils of
the country are divided initially into ten major soil
groups; these are in turn divided into variable
numbers of soil groups (43 in all), the soil groups
into soil subgroups (a total of 126) and the soil sub-
groups into soil series (a total of 698 currently
recognized). Within soil subgroups, soil series are
differentiated according to type of parent material,
textural (particle size distribution) characteristics
within specified depths, and the presence or
absence within specified depths of soil material
with a distinctive colour or mineralogy (Clayden
and Hollis, 1984). The stratigraphical age of parent
materials is usually not used to differentiate soil
series, although a distinction is drawn between
soils formed in Quaternary parent materials and
otherwise similar soils in soft pre-Quaternary for-
mations (e.g. Gault Clay).
Although the soil series concept was originally
introduced for the purpose of detailed soil map-
ping (at 1:50 000 scale or larger), and a series
would previously have been defined as an area of
land within which the soils were derived from the
same parent material and had similar profile mor-
phology (sequence and thickness of horizons), in
318
England and Wales it is now considered solely as a
taxonomic unit. As such, series rarely correspond
exactly to areas of land large enough to delineate
as discrete map units, even at 1:50 000 to 1:10 000
scales. Because of natural short-range soil variation,
most map units contain two or more series and are
named after the dominant series present. Soil series
names are often taken from localities where the soil
is extensive or was first recognized.
(b) Effects of bedrock geology
The Cretaceous rocks outcropping in the
Folkestone area form a simple sequence (Folkestone
Sands, Gault Clay and Chalk in ascending order),
which dips gently northwards. Because it is softer
and less permeable, thereby sustaining surface
drainage which causes greater erosion, the Gault
Clay forms a gently undulating east-west valley
between higher land to the south formed by the
Folkestone Sands and the Chalk scarp to the north,
the eastern end of the Vale of Holmesdale. The
main terminal is sited in this valley, which is crossed
by small streams fed by springs rising in shallow
valleys cutting back into the foot of the Chalk
scarp. Soils formed in Gault Clay with little or no
overlying Quaternary sediment (Evesham and
Denchworth series) are widespread in the valley
(Fig. 7.1) and also occur in a small area east of
Castle Hill and due south of Round Hill (plate 4 (a)).
On the rising slopes of the Lower Greensand out-
crop south of the Gault vale, between Newington
and Firs Lane, Cheriton, soils of the Bursledon,
Curdridge and Fyfield series are formed in
Folkestone Sands parent material, again with little
or no Quaternary cover. Likewise, on the steeper
south-facing slopes of the Chalk scarp, soils of the
Wantage series are developed in the pale grey,
slightly argillaceous Lower Chalk, whereas the
Upton series is developed in the pure white, less
muddy Middle and Upper Chalk.
(c) Effects of Quaternary deposits
The main Quaternary (drift) deposits of the area
were formed by downslope movement of soil
materials, principally during the colder episodes of
the Late-glacial, and by the small streams that cross
the Gault vale. The sections studied in Holywell
Coombe (part Three) provided good evidence for
several distinct episodes of downslope movement
of frost-shattered chalk from the scarp face onto
 Modern sUrface soils

be Block ••rl •• gB a.yton ••rl ••

Bz Bur.l.don ••rl •• Ox Oxpa.tur•••rl ••

Da O.nchworth ••rl •• 81 St. Lawr.nc•••rl ••

Ea Ev•• ham ••rl •• Wb Wantage ••rl ••

o
, 500m
,

Figure 7.1 Map of the modem surface soils of the Holywell Coombe site and Folkestone Tenninal area (modified
from figures in a report to Eurotunnel by Reading Agricultural Consultants).

the Gault Clay outcrop. Soils of the Block, Gayton
and St Lawrence series occur where these chalky
deposits overlie Gault Clay near the foot of the
chalk scarp.
Loamy sediment carried northwards from the
Foikestone Sands outcrop, probably during similar
Late Devensian episodes to those responsible for
movement on the chalk slopes, were spread across
southern parts of the Gault vale west of Frogholt
and north of Newington. These form the parent
material of the Oxpasture series.
Clayey and loamy alluvial sediments deposited
during the Holocene form narrow strips along pre-
sent and past courses of the minor streams that
traverse the Gault Clay outcrop. The areas of these
deposits are generally too small to show in Fig. 7.1.
The resulting soils are very variable in terms of
depth to the Gault Clay, particle size distribution,
organic matter and carbonate content, but all are
very wet and strongly gleyed because the ground-
water table is always close to the ground surface
beside the streams.
(d) Description of soU series in the
immediate area
(i) Denchworth series
These stagnogley soils are widespread on the Gault
Clay outcrop. They are clay-rich throughout the
profile and poorly drained because the Gault Clay is
almost completely impermeable below a depth of
about 1. 5 m. The profile is decalcified and often
moderately acid to at least 45 cm depth, though the
topsoil in areas cultivated for arable agriculture has
usually been limed. The topsoil is dark grey in
colour and, under grass or woodland such as
Biggins Wood, may have abundant fine rusty mot-
tles. The subsoil (B) horizons are strongly mottled
in grey and yellowish brown, but the mottling
becomes less prominent in grey and olive colours
with increasing depth.
Because the Gault Clay is rich in the swelling
clay-mineral smectite, the soil structure changes
seasonally. In dry summers, when much water is
lost by evapotranspiration, a polygonal pattern of

319
 Present-day ecology of the Folkestone Escarpment
cracks develops to a depth of about 1 m and the
top few cm under pasture or arable crops break
down into fine granules that act as a mulch, limit-
ing further loss of water by evaporation. In
contrast, in wetter winter conditions the clay
swells to close the subsoil cracks and the profile
becomes much less permeable. Infiltration then
depends upon ploughing, which creates a coarse
topsoil structure, and the presence of root or earth-
worm channels in the subsoil; under arable
cultivation many areas also have artificial drainage
systems.
The pressures and movements in the subsoil
caused by repeated shrink-swell cycles often result
in polished fissure faces and the development of
slickensiding. Beneath the topsoil (A horizon) there
is often a downward transition in subsoil structure
from coarse blocky to prismatic, the latter defined
by the polygonal pattern of vertical cracks, and the
upper surfaces of the prisms are often oblique. In
the deeper subsoil root development is often lim-
ited to the pattern of cracks.
(ii) Evesham series
This soil is also derived from Gault Clay and resem-
bles the Denchworth series, but its upper horizons
are not decalcified. Its A horizons are usually olive
brown and weakly calcareous, but if they are non-
calcareous then abundant carbonate occurs within
35 cm of the surface. The B horizons are mottled
grey and olive, usually without the yellowish
brown colours common in the Denchworth sub-
soil, and the strongly calcareous C horizons
become less mottled with depth and a uniform
light olive brown in colour. The seasonal changes
in structure and permeability are similar to those in
Denchworth soils.
(iii) Oxpasture series
This soil is developed in non-calcareous loamy drift
overlying Gault Clay. The loamy drift is derived
mainly from the Folkestone Sands outcrop and is
usually 50-70 cm thick. Greyish and yellowish-
brown mottles reSUlting from drainage impedance
by the underlying Gault Clay first appear at depths
ranging from 40 to 70 cm. Nevertheless, the ten-
dency towards waterlogging and anaerobic
conditions within the rooting depth of most crops
is much less than in the Denchworth and Evesham
series. Below the dark brown A horizon, the loamy
subsoil to 40 cm depth is usually dark yellowish
brown in colour and often slightly acid.
320
(iv) Bursledon series
The Bursledon series occurs widely on the gentle
dipslope of the Folkestone Sands. The particle size
class of the yellowish brown parent material ranges
from sandy loam to sandy clay loam, which is con-
siderably coarser than that of soil in the Gault Clay
vale. As a result the Bursledon soils are fairly well
drained; below a dark greyish brown A horizon the
subsoil is uniform yellowish brown to at least
40 cm depth, but fine grey, brown and sometimes
reddish mottles indicating some winter waterlog-
ging appear within 70 cm depth, especially over
clayey layers in the Folkestone Sands. In many pro-
files the clay content increases slightly with depth,
partly because of clay layers in the parent material
and partly because of illuviation.
(v) Fyfield series
Soils on the Folkestone Sands that resemble the
Bursledon series, but have sandy loam or coarser
textures and no evidence of subsoil mottling within
70 cm of the surface, are grouped with the Fyfield
series. They occur mainly in a small area of level
land near Stone Farm. The topsoil is dark yellowish
brown friable sandy loam with a weak subangular
blocky structure; this is easily disrupted under
heavy rain, leading to formation of a hard crust,
which can delay germination and emergence of
arable crops. Subsoil horizons often contain slightly
more clay than the A horizon, probably because of
illuviation; they are uniform yellowish brown in
colour and pass to yellowish brown sand or brown
sandstone within 1 m depth. The pH throughout is
neutral or slightly acid. The supplies of plant-avail-
able water are often much less than in other soils in
the area, so drought stress can be a problem in dry
summers.
(vi) Curdridge series
These soils also resemble the Bursledon series but
have finer, clay loam subsoil horizons giving
poorer drainage. Grey and ochreous mottles are
consequently abundant below about 20 cm depth
and rusty mottles are locally common in the top-
soil, especially under grass. The topsoil is often
similar in particle-size distribution to that of
Bursledon or even Fyfield soils, but the downward
increase in clay content is stronger than in either,
again because of clay-rich layers in the Folkestone
Sands and illuviation during development of the
profile.
 Modern sUrface soils
Areas of Curdridge series and Fyfield series are
too small to show separately in Fig. 7.1. They occur
as small patches within the area shown as
Bursledon series.
(vii) Wantage series
These pale grey, strongly calcareous soils, devel-
oped in the grey, slightly muddy Lower Chalk marl
or in thin slope deposits derived from Lower Chalk,
dominate the lower slopes of the south-facing
Chalk scarp. The profile is shallow, with bedrock
usually at depths of less than 40 cm, and corre-
sponds to a rendzina because there is no B horizon
present. However, the Lower Chalk can be pene-
trated by plant roots and holds much water at low
tensions, which is available to plants, so there is
rarely a water-stress problem in periods of drought.
The A horizon is usually silty clay loam or silt loam
with a moderately-developed fine sub angular
blocky structure. The organic matter content
(4-6%) is slightly greater than in other soils and the
pH is slightly alkaline (7.9-8.4).
(viii) Upton series
This is also a grey rendzina, with a strongly cal-
careous silty clay loam or silt loam A horizon
directly overlying white chalk on the steep middle
and upper slopes of the Chalk escarpment. The
organic matter content is slightly greater than in
the Wantage series, but is slowly declining where
these soils are regularly cultivated. Under long-term
grass the organic matter content is, however,
locally sufficient to give the upper part of the A
horizon an almost black colour and a very stable
fine crumb structure, maintained by intense meso-
faunal activity. Where such humose A horizons
exceed 15 cm in thickness and contain more than
about 6% organic carbon, the soil is grouped with
the Icknield series.
Because the purer chalk outcropping on higher
parts of the scarp-slope is harder than the parent
material of the Wantage series, Upton soils are usu-
ally slightly stony. Over the Middle Chalk and
upper parts of the Lower Chalk, the stones are
mainly of chalk itself, but towards the top of the
scarp, where the Upper Chalk outcrops, flint frag-
ments also become increasingly common.
Plants growing in Upton and Icknield soils some-
times show deficiencies of trace elements, such as
copper or magnesium. The problems with copper
arise from its strong bonding to the organic matter,
which renders it unavailable to plants. Magnesium
321
deficiency arises from the lack of clay in the purer
types of chalk.
(ix) St Lawrence series
Where chalky slope deposits extend from the lower
slopes of the Chalk escarpment southwards across
the Gault Clay outcrop, greyish brown calcareous
silty soils are widespread. Soils of the St Lawrence
series occur where the Gault substrate is fairly shal-
low, occurring at depths of 50-80 cm and impeding
downward percolation of rainwater, especially in
winter, so that gleying occurs in parts of the profile
below about 40 cm depth. These soils are usually
calcareous to the surface, but may be locally decal-
cified to no more than 40 cm depth. Beneath a dark
greyish brown A horizon, the subsoil is mottled yel-
lowish brown, light olive brown and sometimes
yellowish red, and greyish brown and white colours
are increasingly abundant with depth. Above the
junction with the Gault Clay the particle-size class
is typically silty clay loam or clay loam, with small
chalk clasts. The St Lawrence series occurs mainly
on the gentle slopes south of the Chalk scarp
between Peene and Cheriton Hill (Fig. 7.1).
(x) Block series
This soil is also derived from chalky slope deposits
over Gault Clay, but occurs in the heads of valleys
such as HolyweU Coombe and those on either
side of Cherry Garden Hill. The chalky slope
deposits are slightly thicker (> 80 cm) in the val-
leys and are influenced for much of the year by a
high groundwater table, which causes gleying
below about 40 cm depth. The Block series is
therefore distinguished from the St Lawrence
series by (a) the greater depth to Gault Clay and
(b) the fact that it is a gleyic soil (influenced by a
groundwater table), whereas the St Lawrence
series is a stagnogleyic soil.
(xi) Gayton series
This soil resembles the Block series, but occurs
only in central parts of the valleys, close to the
springs. Here the influence of the groundwater
table extends closer to the ground surface, so that
grey mottles are abundant at depths of less than
40 cm in the profile (Le. it is a groundwater gley
soil). The Gault Clay is usually below 1 m depth,
but locally rises closer to the surface to give even
more poorly drained soils marked by scattered
patches of rushes (funcus sp.). The drift deposit
 Present-day ecology of the Folkestone Escarpment
above the Gault Clay is similar in other respects
(i.e. in particle-size distribution and carbonate con-
tent) to that giving rise to the St Lawrence and
Block soils.
(3) VEGETATION
(a) Escarpment grassland
The predominantly south-facing chalk escarpment
between Creteway Down, north of Folkestone, to
the east, and The Lince, near Etchinghill, to the
west, was first scheduled as a Site of Special
Scientific Interest (SSSl) by the Nature Conservancy
in 1951 under the National Parks and Access to the
Countryside Act, 1949. The site was renotified by
the Nature Conservancy Council (now English
Nature) in 1987 under section 28 of the Wildlife
and Countryside Act, 1981. SSSIs are areas regarded
as 'of special interest by reason of the flora, fauna
or geological or physiographical features'. The
Folkestone-Etchinghill Escarpment SSSI is described
as follows:
This long, narrow strip of south-faCing scarp
contains a variety of communities ranging
from ash woodland, scrub, and rough grass-
land, dominated by tor grass Brachypodium
pinnatum to areas of shorter sheep's fescue
Festuca ovina grassland. The site represents
a fine example of Kentish downland with a
grassland rich in orchids. Both early and late
spider orchid Ophrys sphegodes and O. fuci-
flora [Plate 4 (a)] are present. Other species
of note include wild cabbage Brassica oler-
acea, candytuft Iberis amara and woolly
thistle Cirsium eriophorum. Scrub on upper
parts of the slopes consists mainly of gorse.
The site is also of entomological interest
especially for Lepidoptera.
The Escarpment is classed as a Grade 2 lowland
grassland site (Ratcliffe, 1977) and is considered as
an alternative to the Wye and Crundale National
Nature Reserve, which is regarded as the best
remaining area of chalk grassland on the North
Downs. The flora of the whole county of Kent was
comprehensively mapped during the 1970s (philp,
1982). Between 250 and 300 species of plant were
recorded from the tetrad (2 km X 2 km) covering
the Castle Hill section of the escarpment, with
over 200 species in most of the neighbouring
downland tetrads.
322
More specific botanical surveys of sites along the
escarpment resulted from proposals for construct-
ing a Channel Tunnel. In the summer of 1974 the
Nature Conservancy Council (NCC) surveyed the
areas of the proposed Channel Tunnel work near
Folkestone (and Dover) for the Department of the
Environment, before this project was abandoned in
January 1975. The results were, however, pub-
lished in 1976 as the 'Channel Tunnel Survey' in a
special issue of the Transactions of the Kent Field
Club. In this Wells (1976) provided brief comments
on the habitat types and associated flora at some 35
individual sites along the escarpment between
Frogholt and Sugarloaf Hill. He also listed 12 'plants
of major interest', eight of them known from chalk
grassland on or in the vicinity of the Folkestone
Escarpment.
With the construction of the Channel Tunnel
about to become a reality, botanists of the England
Field Unit of the NCC, under Dr RJ. Keymer, carried
out a Phase 2 survey of the Folkestone-Etchinghill
Escarpment in March 1986, following the method-
ology of Smith et al. (1985). They divided the
escarpment into 12 areas between Sugarloaf Hill
and the Lime Pit, Peene, within which the plant
communities were noted and full species lists com-
piled (Keymer, 1986). The escarpment grassland
was categorized according to the National
Vegetation Classification (Keymer, 1986; Rodwell,
1992), with most falling into the Chalk Grassland
communities CG4 Brachypodium pinnatum grass-
land and CG5 Bromus erectus-Brachypodium
pinnatum grassland. Most of the former would be
placed in CG4b, the Centaurea nigra-Leontodon
hispidus subcommunity. Small areas of richer turf
at the top of some slopes, in the tank trap, and
where there had been recent hard grazing, were
placed in CG4a the Avenula pratensis- Thymus
praecox subcommunity, with very small scattered
patches of CG2a, Festuca ovina-Avenula praten-
sis grassland, Cirsium acaule-Asperula
cynanchica subcommunity.
In 1987 Eurotunnel contracted the Institute of
Terrestrial Ecology to undertake a baseline ecolog-
ical study on the Folkestone Escarpment as the first
phase of a programme to monitor possible distur-
bance to sites of high conservation interest during
the construction of the Channel Tunnel. This study
was to concentrate on the scarp-slope within the
boundaries of the SSSI. Any vegetation on the land
at the foot of the escarpment would be destroyed
when the site was cleared prior to the construction
of the rail terminal and was already of negligible
conservation interest. Eight permanent botanical
 Vegetation
Fig.7.2 Location of (a) Institute of Terrestrial Ecology (ITE) transects on the Folkestone-Etchinghill escarpment,
1987-91; (b) sampling sites for aquatic invertebrates, 1986-89.
transects were established in July 1987 between
Sugarloaf Hill and Peene Hill (Fig. 7.2). Transects
1-6 were regarded as 'on-site', potentially vulnera-
ble to disturbance from activities associated with
tunnel construction, whereas Transects 7 and 8
were deemed to be 'off-site' and beyond the imme-
diate effects of these activities. On each transect 3
pairs of quadrats, each 1 m 2 , were located near the
top, middle, and bottom of the escarpment slope.
In addition to listing all species of flowering plants
and bryophytes, estimates of cover, sward height,
area of bare ground, and the amount of plant litter,
were recorded for each quadrat annually for the
four years from 1987 to 1990. During this period a
total of 112 flowering plants and 11 bryophytes
(mosses) was recorded, although the total number
of species seen in anyone year ranged from 79 to
91. Differences in the vegetation were often
greater between transects than between different
strata on any given transect. However, the pooled
data provide a good representation of the range of
variation in the present flora on the open chalk
downland of the Folkestone Escarpment. Early in
1990 Cherry Garden Hill and the eastern half of
Cheriton Hill was fenced, prior to the introduction
of grazing by cattle in mid-June. An additional
Transect 9 was established within this area with
the same arrangement of six permanent quadrats,
323
Cheriton
" ITE transects o 0.5 1 km
• Sampling sites tor aquatic
invertebrates
which were recorded for the first time inJuly 1990.
Brachypodium pinnatum was present in every
quadrat recorded on the escarpment during 1988,
1989 and 1990. Only in 1987 was it absent from
five (10.4%) of the quadrats, resulting in a mean
cover of between 47.1 % for the lower quadrats and
61.7% for those on the upper slopes. During the
other three years the mean cover ranged from
52.5% to 75.0%. The ten species recorded from
over half the 198 quadrats during those years are
listed in Table 7.1.
The frequency of occurrence of each species
over the four-year period is shown in Table 7.2. No
data are provided for the vegetation associated
with the wet flushes and the pond in Holywell
Coombe, or for that associated with the scrub and
woodland habitats (see separate accounts below).
During the period 1975-90, various authors
recorded a number of plant species, either on the
escarpment or in meadows and grassy waste
ground at its foot, that did not occur in any of the
ITE quadrats on their nine transects. These are
listed in Table 7.3. Those marked with a dagger
were the subject of a special monitoring pro-
gramme of rare species by Ruth Cox (Welch et al.,
1992). Wells (1976) recorded two additional
species on the railway embankment near Asholt
Wood: Chaenorhinum minus (L.) Huds. and
 Present-day ecology of the Folkestone Escarpment
Table 7.1 The 10 plant species occurring in >50%
of all quadrats recorded on the Folkestone Escarp-
ment 1987-1990.
Brachypodium pinnatum (1.) Beauv.
Festuca rubra 1.
Carex jlacca Schreber
Dactylis glomerata 1.
Sanguisorba minor Scop.
Plantago lanceolata 1.
Pimpinella saxtjraga 1.
Centaurea nigra 1.
Arrhenatherum elatius (1.) Beauv. ex J. & c. Presl
Lotus corniculatus 1.
Medicago arabica (1.) Lange, not recorded else-
where in the area.
Although the nine ITE transects along the
Folkestone Escarpment are outside the area of sur-
face soils discussed by Catt (Figs 7.1 and 7.2), it is
apparent that these are, for the most part, sited on
the well-drained, thin, clayey soils of the Upton
Series, derived from the Middle Chalk. On most
transects, particularly on the higher slopes of the
western half of the escarpment, only the lower
paired quadrats are close enough to the foot of the
scarp to be on the deeper soils of the Wantage
Series, which are developed on the Lower Chalk.
Kershaw et al. (1996) made a more detailed study
of soils in Holywell Coombe, where they found the
steeper slopes to be on the Wantage Series and the
area around the fen to be on the Block and
Evesham Series. Hillwash movement from the
escarpment slopes has been an almost continuous
process since forest clearance in the Neolithic or
early Bronze Age, although the existence of two
palaeosols reflects periods of slope stability during
the Bronze Age and Iron Age. Traditionally cultiva-
tion was centred on either the deeper, moister
soils on the sheltered flat land between the scarp
and the seashore or on the thinner, better drained
soils along the scarp-crest. The escarpment slopes
were too steep to cultivate and were used as sheep
walks. Kershaw et al. (1996) reported a decline in
this usage in recent years, following a gradual dete-
rioration in the quality of the grazing, coupled with
the expense of maintaining fences, leading to
accelerated colonization by scrub. Most of the land
between the foot of the scarpslope and the
A20/M20 had long been under arable cultivation
and Kershaw et al. (1996) provided a list of plant
species recorded from such a field at Holywell in
1989. Not unexpectedly the thin, sun-baked, south-
facing middle and upper slopes of the scarp
provide conditions suitable for a different flora to
that present on the deeper, moister, soils at its
foot. On the top of the scarp, species such as
Festuca ovina, Dactylis glomerata, Scabiosa
columbaria and Avenula pubescens were signifi-
cantly more abundant in 1 m 2 quadrats.
193 (97.5%) Low-growing calcicolous forbs, such as
158 (79.8%) Helianthemum nummularium, Hippocrepis
146 (73.7%)
132 (66.7%) comosa, Cirsium acaule and Centauria scabiosa,
130 (65.7%) favoured the middle to upper slopes. The vegeta-
118 (59.6%)
111 (56.1%)
tion at the base of the scarp typically contained
104 (52.5%) species such as Holcus lanatus, Carex jlacca,
102 (51.5%) Medicago lupulina and Sanguisorba minor.
100 (50.5%)
Although plant macrofossils can provide some
evidence of the ancient flora of this area, the
species preserved in the greatest quantity indicate
extensive wet woodland with Betula, Salix and
Corylus. Nevertheless, the occurrence of some
areas of open calcareous grassland is indicated
from the presence of fossil material from species of
Helianthemum, Origanum, Dryas andJuniperus.
Of the Late-glacial macrofossils recovered approxi-
mately 30 have been identified to species level
(Tables 5.1.1-5.1.6). Thirteen of these have also
been recorded during modern botanical surveys of
the escarpment, with only Cerastium jontanum,
Linum catharticum and the two mosses,
Cratoneuron commutatum and Homalothecium
lutescens, being found within the ITE quadrats. The
remaining surviving species, with very few excep-
tions, were recorded in Asholt Wood and/or
Biggins Wood. Although the latter wood was com-
pletely cleared during construction of the Channel
Tunnel rail ternrinal, some plants and topsoil were
removed for later incorporation in new plantations
on the site (Kershaw et al., 1996).
There is probably no grassland, certainly in low-
land Britain, that has not been influenced in some
way by human activities. The present-day, species-
rich, calcareous grassland, beloved by nature
conservationists, is dependent upon grazing ani-
mals, predominantly domesticated ones. The
intensity, timing, and duration of grazing can all
affect the structure and composition of the vegeta-
tion, as can the species of stock animal. In recent
years any downland vegetation to have escaped the
plough has suffered change reSUlting from the
reduction in stock grazing and the decline in rabbit
numbers following myxomatosis. Even during the
brief period from 1987 to 1990, the ITE surveys
detected a uniform trend for all grassland on the
Folkestone escarpment to become taller, coarser
and to lose species. During 1990 the White Cliffs
Countryside Project reinstated a programme of
management for the whole escarpment from
Cheriton Hill in the west to Sugarloaf Hill in the
east. Most of the grassland on the scarp-slope and
324
 Vegetation

Table 7.2 Plant species and their recorded frequency on the Folkestone-Etchinghill Escarpment in 1988, 1989,
and 1990. Nomenclature follows Clapham, Tutin and Moore (1987)
1987 1988 1989 1990'
Acer pseudoplatanus L. 0 0 0+0
Acbillea millefolium L. 15 15 18 18 + 4
Agrimonia eupatoria L. 5 7 3 2+0
Agrostis capillaris L. 1 0 0 0+0
Agrostis stolonifera L. 0 6 6 8+0
Alopecurus pratensis L. 0 0 0+0
Antboxantbum odoratum L. 0 0 0+0
Antbyllis vulneraria L. 0 0 0+0
Arenaria serpyllifolia L. 0 0 0+0
Arrbenatberum elatius (L.) Beauy. ex]. & c. Presl 29 23 33 15 + 2
Asperula cynancbica L. 5 3 2 1+0
A venula pratensis (1.) Dumon 14 7 17 10 + 1
Avenula pubescens (Hudson) Dumon 16 12 6 8+0
Bellis perennis L. 0 0 0+0
Betonica officinalis L. 0 0 1 1+2
Bracbypodium pinnatum (1.) Beauy. 43 48 48 48+6
Brassica oleracea L. 1 1 0 0+0
Briza media L. 11 5 5 3+0
Bromus erectus Hudson 13 18 21 17 + 6
Bromus bordeaceus L. 5 0 0 0+0
Bromus sterilis L. 1 0 0 0+0
Campanula rotundifolia L. 3 0 0 0+0
Carex flacca Sehreber 36 37 35 36 + 2
Centaurea nigra L. 25 27 24 26+ 2
Centaurea scabiosa L. 9 0 4 6+0
Cerastium fontanum Baumg. 1 0 0 0+0
Cirsium acaule Seop. 20 11 9 8+2
Cirsium arvense (1.) Seop. 2 3 1 1+0
Cirsium eriophorum (L.) Seop. 0 1 0 0+0
Cirsium vulgare (Sayi) Ten 0 2 1 0+0
Clinopodium vulgare L. 3 5 4 2+1
Convolvulus arvensis L. 1 2 1 1+0
Crataegus monogyna ]aeq. 4 3 6 3+0
Crepis capillaris (1.) Wallr. 0 0 0 1+0
Dactylis glomerata L. 25 33 36 32 + 6
Dactylorhiza f fuchsii (Druce) S06 2 1 0 1+0
Danthonia decumbens (1.) DC. 0 0 1+0
Daucus carota L. 8 12 8 16 + 0
Elymus repens (1.) Gould 0 3 2 2+1
Euphrasia agg 2 0 0 2+0
Festuca arundinacea Sehreber 9 25 26 12 + 3
Festuca ovina L. 1 6 12 8+0
Festuca pratensis Hudson 0 0 0 1+0
Festuca rubra L. 35 41 41 35 + 6
Fragaria vesca L. 1 0 0 0+0
Fraxinus excelsior L. 7 13 17 14 + 1
Galium aparine L. 0 1 0 0+1
Galium mOllugo L. 3 3 5 4+0
Galium verum L. 4 1 2 3+0
Gentianella amarella L. 0 1 0+0
Hedera helix L. 0 0 3 2+0
Helianthemum nummularium (1.) Miller 22 20 21 19 + 4
Heracleum sphondylium L. 0 1 2 1+0
Hippocrepis comosa L. 10 7 9 12 + 3
Holcus lanatus L. 3 4 3 4+0
Hypericum perforatum L. 2 2 4 4+0
Hypericum pulchrum L. 1 0 0 0+0
Hypericum tetrapterum Fries 1 0 0 0+0
Inula conyza DC. 3 0 0 0+0
Knautia arvensis (1.) Coulter 0 2 0 0+0
Koeleria macrantha (1edeb.) 0 4 2 1+0
Lactuca serriola L. 4 0 0 0+0
Lathyrus nissolia L. 0 0 0 1+0
Lathyrus pratensis L. 0 0 2+0
Leontodon autumnalis L. 10 0 0 1+0
Leontodon hispidus L. 12 7 1 5+1
Leontodon taraxacoides (Vill.) Merat 0 1 3 0+0
Leucantbemum vulgare Lam. 6 8 3 5+0
Linum catharticum L. 11 6 11 1+0
Lotus corniculatus L. 27 24 25 24+0
Medicago lupulina L. 7 6 4 0+0

325
 Present-day ecology of the Folkestone Escarpment

Table 7.2 Continued

1987 1988 1989 1990·
Ononis repens 1. 1 2 1 0+0
Origanum vulgare 1. 10 10 15 14 + 3
Plcris ecbloldes 1. 0 0 1 0+0
Picris bieracioldes 1. 0 14 20 15 + 3
Pilosella officinarum (L.) 4 3 3 3+0
Pimpinella saxtfraga 1. 23 21 33 31 + 3
Plantago lanceolata 1. 27 31 30 25 + 5
Plantago media 1. 0 0 2 1+1
Poa augustifolia 1. 12 7 14 8+0
Poa pratensis 1. S.s. 5 1 0 2+0
Poa trivialis 1. 0 2 0 0+0
Polygala vulgaris 1. 4 10 3 3+0
Potentilla reptans 1. 0 0 0 1+0
Primula veris 1. 3 2 2 1+0
Prunella vulgaris 1. 8 6 2 2+0
Prunus spinosa 1. 0 2 0 0+0
Quercus robur 1. 0 1 0 0+0
Ranunculus bulbosus 1. 3 5 5 1+0
Rosa canina 1. 4 4 2+0
Rubus fruticosus 1. s.l. 1 1 1 3+0
Sanguisorba minor Scop. 38 33 19 35 + 5
Scabiosa columbaria 1. 3 4 3 2+0
Senecio erucifolius 1. 1 2 2 0+0
Senecio jacobaea 1. 0 2 1+0
Solidago virgaurea 1. 0 4 0+0
Soncbus asper (L.) Hill 0 5 5+0
Soncbus oleraceus 1. 0 1 0 0+0
Succisa pratensis Moench 0 0 4 4+0
Taraxacum agg 5 3 5+0
Tbymus pulegioides 1. 12 9 11 12 + 1
Torilis japonica (Hoult) DC. 0 1 0 0+0
Tragopogon pratensis 1. 2 2 2 4+0
Trifolium pratense 1. 0 2 3+0
Trifolium repens 1. 2 1 2 1+0
Trisetumjlavescens (L.) Beauv. 5 12 13 9+2
Veronica cbamaedrys 1. 0 1 1 1+1
Veronica serpyllifolia 1. 1 0 0 0+0
Vicia sativa ssp nigra 1. 3 2 0 2+0
Vicia cracca 1. 0 2 2 6+0
Viola birta 1. 22 24 27 24 + 1
Viola riviniana Reichenb. 2 1 4+0

BRYOPHYfES (Nomenclature follows Smith, 1980)

Barbula convoluta Hedw. 0 1 1 0+0
Bracbytbecium rutabulum (Hedw.) 0 5 4 0+0
Ceratodon putpureus (Hedw.) Brid. 0 0 0+0
Cratoneuron commutatum (Hedw.) Roth 0 1 0 0+0
Ctenidium molluscum (Hedw.) Mitt. 1 0 0 1+0
Eurbyncbium praelongum (Hedw.) 0 3 1 1+0
Eurbyncbium striatum (Hedw.) Schimp. 1 3 2 4+0
Fissidens adiantboides Hedw. 0 8 3 1+0
Fissidens cristatus Mitt. 0 0 0 1+0
Homalotbecium lutescens (Hedw.) Robins 0 0 0 1+0
Pseudoscleropodium purum (Hedw.) Fleisch. 0 3 2 3+0

Total number of species 79 91 82 86

• The 1990 totals include records from the extra (grazed) transect 9. Totals are given for Transects 1-8 & 9 separately e.g. "Viola birta 24 + r indicates
the species was recorded in 24 of the 48 quadrats on Transects 1-8 & 1 of the 6 quadrats on Transect 9.

326
 Vegetation

Table 7.3 Additional grassland plant species not
recorded in escarpment quadrats
Anacamptis pyramidalis (1.) L.C.M.
Blackstonia perjoliata (1.) Hudson
Bryonia dioica ]acq.
Carduus nutans L.
·Carex caryoPbyllea Latourr.
Carlina vulgaris L.
Conopodium majus (Govan) Loret
Dipsacus jullonum L.
Ecbium vulgare L.
Gymnadenia conopsea (1.) R.Br.
Hypocboeris radicata L.
t Iberis amara L.
Lolium perenne L.
Onobrycbis viciifolia Scop.
Opbioglossum vulgatum L.
Opbrys apifera Hudson
t Opbrys jucijlora CF.W. Schmidt) Moench
t Opbrys sPbegodes Miller
Orcbis ustulata L.
t Orobancbe caryoPbyllacea Sm.
Pastinacba sativa L.
Poa subcaerulea Sm.
Polygala calcarea F.W. Schultz
Potentilla anserina L.
Potentilla erecta (1.) Rausche1
Poterium sanguisorba L.
Stacbys ojficinalis (1.) Trev.
Teucrium cbamaedrys L.
Thymus praecox Opiz
'recorded in Holywell Coombe by NCC (1974).
t rare species whose local populations were individually monitored by
ITE,1987-1991.
along to top of the escarpment was fenced prior to
a carefully controlled programme of stock grazing.
Cattle were used initially to reduce the coarse
grasses, followed by sheep to encourage the more
desirable calcicolous herb species. In recent years
there have been a number of accidental fires on the
escarpment, including Holywell Coombe. The most
frequent, and more extensive, of these have
occurred on Cheriton Hill. This and Cherry Garden
Hill have also been favoured slopes for the dump-
ing of old motor vehicles, which may be linked to
some of the fires. The flora on the latter hillside has
also suffered from its increasing use by motor
cyclists. The construction of the Channel Tunnel
also resulted in an increase in public pressure, with
subsequent trampling of the vegetation, on the hill-
tops along the escarpment. This has been most
severe on the ancient earthworks on Castle Hill,
which provided an ideal vantage point for viewing
the construction of the Folkestone rail terminal. In
addition to human activities, planned or otherwise,
annual fluctuations in climate can have a marked
influence on the vegetative composition of cal-
careous grassland. This is more pronounced on the
steeper scarp-slope, where shallow rooting herbs
may die during exceptionally hot summers and
their loci colonized by the more vigorous invasive
species. Should predictions of climate warming
become a reality, these parts of southeast England
could be the first to be affected.
(b) Escarpment woodland and scrub
Asholt Wood was accorded a Grade 1 woodland
status by Ratcliffe (1977), who described it as lying
at the foot of the chalk escarpment on soil devel-
oped from Gault Clay. The canopy was chiefly of
pedunculate oak, with some ash over hazel and ash
coppice. Field maple and Wych elm were also pre-
sent as coppice species. The ground flora
dominants included dog's mercury Mercurialis
perennis, bramble Rubus Jruticosus agg. and
tufted hairgrass Deschampsia caespitosa. Also pre-
sent were fly orchid Ophrys insectifera, herb paris
Paris quadrifolia and nettle-leaved bellflower
Campanula trachelium.
Although Asholt Wood lies to the west of the
Folkestone-Etchinghill Escarpment, it is considered
to be the best surviving example of semi-natural
ancient woodland on the Wealden exposures of
the Gault Clay. It still possesses areas where cop-
pice management was practiced in recent times
and contains few exotic species. Peterken's (1976)
description of the wood is based on surveys made
in 1972 and 1974. He found the standard trees to
be almost all oaks, with a few ash, all of mid-nine-
teenth century origin and most probably planted.
The coppice is almost entirely an ash-hazel mix-
ture, with a minority component of field maple.
Small patches of sycamore, horse chestnut and
hornbeam coppice are present. A variety of other
tree and shrub species occur sparsely throughout
the wood, particularly invading neglected cop-
piced areas. Peterken considered the ground
dominants to be Mercurialis perennis, Circaea
lutetiana, Deschampsia caespitosa, Rubus Jruti-
cosus and, locally, Hedera helix and Urtica dioica.
The ground flora is further characterized by the
presence of Filipendula ulmaria and Poa trivi-
aliso Peterken recorded 28 species of tree and
shrub, 70 herbs and 13 grasses and sedges (Table
7.4). Following a brief visit in 1986 by NCC Field
Unit staff, Keymer (1986) recorded Populus
canescens, seven additional herb species and four
soil bryophytes in the southern parts of the wood.
These included Ranunculus jicaria, one of four
species that Peterken had expected to be present
but had not found. Drake (1986) recorded a few
plants during his entomological survey, including

327
 Present-day ecology of the Folkestone Escarpment
one additional species, Lotus uliginosus, from a
wide north-south ride.
Biggins Wood, some 400 metres south of the
escarpment, was a much smaller example of
ancient woodland, which had probably survived
earlier clearance because of its wet nature. Prior to
it being clear-felled, during construction of the
Folkestone Channel Tunnel Terminal, D.R.
Helliwell surveyed the wood during 1985 and 1986
and recorded 99 vascular plants (Table 7.4). The
dominant species were Fraxinus excelsior,
Corylus avellana, Arum maculatum, Circaea
lutetiana, Galium aparine and Rubus fruticosus,
which occurred at a frequency of 81-100% in his
quadrats. Keymer (1986) and colleagues also sur-
veyed the wood in 1986 and attributed frequency
categories to the 32 herbaceous species recorded,
the most abundant of which were Ajuga reptans,
Carex sylvatica, Hedera helix, Adoxa moschatel-
tina and Allium ursinum (Table 7.4).
Most other woodland on the escarpment is
either planted or the result of natural scrub inva-
sion. Wells (1976) recorded a number of trees and
shrubs invading the calcareous grassland at various
sites along the escarpment. He noted that pockets
of clay-with-flints along the top of Cheriton Hill
were characterized by Gorse (Wex europaeus). As
the land surrounding the reservoirs on Cherry
Garden Hill has been in the ownership of the
Water Company for the past 100 years, Wells con-
sidered the woodland to be reverted scrub,
although sycamores of greater than 50 years indi-
cated deliberate planting. Ash is the other main
canopy species, with elder and privet forming the
understorey. He found the herb layer to be gener-
ally poor, although Iris foetidissima was present in
large numbers, together with several plants of
Listera ovata. Paris quadrifolia had been
recorded from this site in the past.
K. Kirby surveyed the woodland flora of
Holywell Coombe in May 1985 (KTNC, 1988) and
reported mature trees of beech and sycamore along
the bottom of the slope. He thought that these may
have been planted along the edge of a track in a
hollow-way at the base of the scarp. The estimated
frequency of the woodland species he recorded are
included in Table 7.4.
Drake (1986) briefly described the thin belt of
woodland at the foot of Round Hill as mainly
beech, ash and sycamore, with an understorey of
hawthorn, elder, Clematis vitalba and bramble and
a ground flora of Mercurialis perennis,
Brachypodium sylvaticum, Ranunculus jicaria,
Arctium sp., Ajuga reptans, Galium aparine,
328
Circaea lutetiana, Allium ursinum and Urtica
dioica. Wells (1976) recorded a single specimen of
Cotoneaster horizontalis on Round Hill. This
species has become more widely established on
the escarpment during the past 15 years. Another
introduced species, Quercus ilex, has also become
established on Sugarloaf Hill and Castle Hill.
(c) Holywell Coombe fen and scrub
communities
Ullyett (1880) provided the first description of the
vegetation in Holywell Coombe:
The waters themselves are well hidden by the
abundance of Ranunculaceae pondweeds,
reeds and rushes. The banks round about
[support] Hairy violet (Viola hirta) and two
forms of the wood violet (Viola riviniana
and V reichenbachiana), with cowslips and
primroses. The marsh spot [is the home of]
Golden Saxifrage (Chrysoplenium oppositi-
folium) and ... yellow iris (Iris pseudacorus).
In the gully beyond is Twayblade (Listera
ovata) and ... Garlic (Allium ursinum).
By 1974 (KTNC, 1988), the small marsh formed
around the spring was overgrown and dominated
by Epilobium hirsutum and Eupatorium
cannabinum., with C oppositifolium abundant in
wetter areas. At about the same time, the follow-
ing additional few species were noted (letter from
Mrs I. Moore in KTNC, 1988) Carex caryophyllea,
Equisetum palustre, funcus subnodulosus,
Mentha aquatica, Scrophularia auriculata and
Sparganium erectum. Dr Francis Rose compiled
a list of plant species recorded from Holy Well
marsh and wood between 1981 and 1985 (Rose,
1988; Table 7.5). Compared to other springs on
the Folkestone escarpment, few rare taxa occur
around Holy Well; the vegetation has none of the
interesting nutrient-poor characteristics found in
neighbouring catchments and the species diversity
in the channels is low. These differences have
been attributed to anthropogenic influences
(Haslam, 1987).
Keymer (1986) did not include Holywell
Coombe in his botanical survey of the Folkestone
Escarpment during March 1986. However, his col-
league, Dr K. Kirby, visited the coombe while
conducting a woodland survey in May 1986. He
noted, at the water's edge: Allium (ursinum),
Chrysoplenium (oppositifolium), Carex pendula,
 Vegetation

Table 7.4 Plants of woodland and scrub associated with the Folkestone-Etchinghill Escarpment
Biggins Asholt Escarpment Holywell
Wood Wood woodland Coombe
& scrub KK
DRH RJK GFP RJK 1986
1985/86 CMD 1976 CMD
1986 1986
Acer campestre L. 3 + + + + 0
Acer pseudoplatanus L. + + 0
Adoxa moschatellina L. 4 LA 0
Aesculus hippocastaneum L. + R
Agrimonia eupatoria L.
Agrostis stolonifera L.
Agrostis tenuis Sibth. 1
Ajuga reptans L. 5 A + + +
Alliaria petiolata (Bieb.) Cavara & Grande 0
Allium ursinum L. 2 OILA (+) + 0
Alnus glutinosa (L.) Gaertner + +
Anenome nemorosa L. 1 +
Angelica sylvestris L. 3 0 +
Anthriscus sylvestris (L.) Hoffm. 2
Apium nodiflorum (L.) Lag. 0 (+)
Arctium minus Bemh. 1 + + 0
Arrhenatherum elatius (L.) Beauv. ex].& C. Presl +
Arum maculatum L. 5 F + +
Asplenium scolopendrium L. R
Betula pubescens Ehrh. +
Betula verrucosa Ehrh. +
Brachypodium sylvaticum (Hudson) Beauv. 4 0 + + F
Bromus ramosus Hudson +
Campanula trachelium L. +
Cardamine amara L. +
Cardamine flexuosa With. 2 + +
Cardamine pratensis L. s.1. +
Carex acutiformis Ehrh. L
Carex paniculata L. R
Carex pendula Hudson 4 F + +
Carex remota L. 1 + +
Carex riparia Curtis 0 (+)
Carex strigosa Hudson 1 +
Carex sylvatica Hudson 2 A + +
Carpinus betulinus L. + +
Chamaenerion angustifolium (L.) Scop. +
Chrysosplenium oppositifolium L. R
Circaea lutetiana L. 5 + +
Cirsium arvense (L.) Scop. +
Cirsium palustre (L.) SCop. R + + R
Cirsium vulgare (Savi) Ten. 0 +
Clematis vitalba L. 1 + + F
Comus sanguinea L. 3 +
Corylus avellana L. 5 + + + 0
Cotoneaster horizontalis Decaisne +
Crataegus laevigata (poiret) DC. + +
Crataegus monogynaJacq. 3 + + + + A
Dactylis glomerata L. +
Dactylorhiza!uchsii (Druce) S06 +
Deschampsia cespitosa (L.) Beauv. OIR + + 0
Deschampsia flexuosa (L.) Trin. 2
Digitalis purpuraea L. R
Dryopteris dilatata (Hoffman) A. Gray 0 + +
Dryopteris filix-mas (L.) Schott R + +
Epilobium hirsutum L. (+) + + 0
Epilobium montanum L. +
Epipactis helleborine (L.) Cranz +
Equisetum arvense L.
Equisetum telmateia Ehrh. 2 +
Euonymus europaeus L. 2 0 + 0
Eupatorium cannabinum L.
Euphorbia amygdaloides L. + R
Fagus sylvatica L. + 0
Festuca gigantea (L.) Vill. 1 +
Filipendula ulmaria (L.) Maxim. 3 (+) + +
Fragaria vesca L. +
Fraxinus excelsior L. 5 + + + + A

329
 Present-day ecology of the Folkestone Escarpment

Table 7.4 Continued

Biggins Asholt Escarpment Holywell
Wood Wood woodland Coombe
& scrub KK
DRH RJK GFP RJK 1986
1985/86 CMD 1976 CMD
1986 1986
Galium aparine L. 5 R + + + 0
Galium palustre L. +
Geranium robertianum L. 3 0 +
Geum urbanum L. 4 0 + + R
Glecboma bederacea L. 4 F + +
Hedera helix L. 2 A/F + + F
Heracleum sphondylium L. 2 +
Holcus lanatus L. +
Holcus mollis L. +
Hyacinthoides non-scripta (L.) Chovard ex Rothm. + + +
Hypericum hirsutum I.. 0 +
Hypericum perjoratum I.. 0
Hypericum tetrapterum Fries + +
Ilex aquifolium L. 0
Inula conyza DC. R
Iris joetidissima I.. 2 0 + + 0
Iris pseudacorus L. 1 + +
funcus acutiflorus Ehrh. ex Hoffm. R
funcus effusus L. + +
Lamiastrum galeobdolon (L.) Ehrend. & Polatschek + 0
Lapsana communis L. +
Ligustrum vulgare I.. 3 0 + +
Listera ovata (I..) R. Br. 2 + (+)
Lonicera periclymenum I.. L + R
Lotus uliginosus Schkuhr. (+)
Lythrum salicaria I.. 1
Malus sylvestris Miller 0 +
Mentha aquatica L. (+) + R
Mercurialis perennis I.. + + + F
Ophrys insectifera L. +
Orchis mascula (L.) L. 0 (+) + +
Paris quadrijolia I.. +
Phyllitis scolopendrium (L.) Newman
Pimpinella major (L.) Hudson
Platanthera chlorantha (Custer) Reichenb. +
Poa trivialis L. 3 R + + F
Populus canescens (Aiton.) Sm. +
Populus tremula I.. +
Potentilla reptans L. +
Potentilla sterilis (L.) Garcke + +
Primula vulgaris Hudson 4 LF + +
Prunella vulgaris L. +
Prunus avium (L.) L. 0 R
Prunus spinosa L. 2 + + + + F
Pteridium aquilinum (L.) Kuhn +
Quercus ilex L. +
Quercus robur L. 2 + + + +
Ranunculus auricomus L. 1
Ranunculus jicaria L. 3 0 + + F
Ranunculus repens L. 3 + R
Rhamnus catharticus L. 1
Ribes rubrum L. +
Ribes uva-crispa L. R
Rosa arvensis Hudson +
Rosa can ina (L.) agg. 2 F + + 0
Rubus caesius I.. +
Rubus jruticosus I.. s.1. 5 F + + + F
Rumex acetosa L. +
Rumex acetosella L. +
Rumex obtusifolius L. +
Rumex sanguineus I.. 4
Rumexspp. + +
Salix alba L. +
Salix caprea L. 0 + + +
Salix cinerea L. 2 + +
Sambucus nigra L. (+) + + + F
Sanicula europaea L. 0 + R

330
 Vegetation

Table 7.4 Continued

Biggins Asholt Escarpment Holywell
Wood Wood woodland Coombe
& scrub KK
DRH RJK GFP RJK 1986
1985/86 CMD 1976 CMD
1986 1986
Scrophularia auriculata L. +
Scrophularia nodosa L. +
Silene dioica (1.) Clairv. 4 F +
Solanum dulcamara L. +
Sonchus oleraceus L.
Stachys sylvatica L. 1 + o
Stellaria holostea o +
Stellaria media (1.) Viii. +
Tamus communis L. 2 +
Taraxacum oJjicinale Weber o +
Ulex europaeus L. +
Ulmus carpinifolia G. Sucknow 2 + +
Ulmus glabra Hudson +
Ulmus procera Salisb. + o
Urtica dioica L. 4 R + + + F
Veronica chamaedrys L. 1 +
Veronica montana L. 4 o + +
Veronica ojficinalis L. +
Viburnum lantana L. + + o
Viburnum opulus L. 2 + +
Vida sepium L. +
Viola hirta L. R
Viola odorata L. o
Viola reichenbachiana Jordan ex Boreau F
Viola riviniana Reichenb. 3 o +
Column 1 data from D R Helliwell (pefS. comm.).
0= species present in Biggins Wood but not in any quadrat.
Frequency Classes: 1 = 0-20%; 2 = 21-40%; 3 = 41-60%; 4 = 61-80%; 5 = 81-100%.
Column 2 data from RJ Keymer (1986).
"DAFOR" Frequency classes: A = Abundant; F = Frequent; 0 = OccaSional; R = Rare (L = Local).
+ species recorded, but no frequency given.
Additional species recorded by C M Drake (1986) shown in parenthesis.
Column 3 data from G F Peterken (1976).
Column 4 data from RJ Keymer (1986) and C M Drake 1986 (in parenthesis).
Column 5 data from various sources, mainly D A Wells (1976); KTNC (1988) and lTE (unpublished field notes).
Column 6 data from K Kirby (Woodland Record Card 5.5.86 in KTNC, 1988). Frequency classes as in Columo 2.

Sanicle (Sanicula europaea), Iris joetidissima,
with Epilobium (hirsutum) , Urtica (dioica) and
some Carex paniculata.
During his entomological survey Drake (1986)
found the gravel and silt bed of the spring domi-
nated by Apium nodiflorum and Mentha aquatica_
In a small adjacent area of open wet and peaty
ground, the dominant plants were L pseudacorus,
E. hirsutum, C. oppositijolium, with small amounts
of Carex paniculata and C. pendula. Salix cinerea
was growing at the edge of the fen, surrounded by
tall ash and scrub. In the dry scrub and woodland to
the west the main trees were ash, elder, hawthorn
and blackthorn over a sparse ground flora of
Ranunculus ficaria, Hedera helix, Rubus sp_, Ajuga
reptans and Glechoma hederacea.
All NCC records for the period 1981-86 have
been amalgamated into the single list given in
column 4 of Table 75.
The White Cliffs Countryside Project commenced
management of the Holywell Coombe area in
February 1990_ This initially involved scrub clear-
ance around Holywell Fen_ Later, during the same
year, some scrub on the fen banks was coppiced and
the south facing escarpment slopes on the north
side of the Coombe were cleared of much of the
predominently Crataegus scrub_ Future manage-
ment plans for Holywell Coombe and Sugarloaf Hill
involve the introduction of cattle and sheep in a
grazing programme planned to reduce the coarse
grasses and encourage herbaceous calcicole species.
(d) Plants of marsh, fen and stream
Since April 1987, Dr PoD. Armitage and R.].M_ Gunn
of the Institute of Freshwater Ecology (fonnedy the
Freshwater Biological Association) have been

331
 Present-day ecology of the Folkestone Escarpment

Table 7.5 Holywell Coombe; plants of fen and scrub

Ullyett Nee Rose Nee
1880 1974 1981-85 1981-86
Acer campestre L. + + +
A. pseudoplatanus L. +
Agrimonia eupatoria L. +
Ajuga reptansL. + + +
Allium ursinum L. + + +
Alnus glutinosa (L.) Gaertner +
Angelica sylvestris L. + +
Apium nodiflorum (1.) Lag. + +
Arum maculatum L. +
Asplenium scolopendrium L. +
Brachypodium sylvaticum (Hudson) Beauv. + +
Carex caryoPbyllea Latourr. +
C. jlacca Schreber + +
C. otrubae Podp. + +
C. paniculata L. + +
C. pendula Hudson + + +
C. remota L. + +
Cbrysosplenium oppositifolium L. + + + +
Cirsium palustre (L.) Scop. +
Clematis vitalba L. + + +
Comus sanguinea L. + +
Crataegus monogyna Jacq. + + +
Cynosurus cristatus L. +
Dactylis glomerata L. +
Epilobtum birsutum L. + +
Equisetum arvense L. +
E. palustre L. +
E. telmateia Ehch. + +
Eupatorium cannabinum L. + + +
Fagus sylvatica L. +
Festuca arundinacea Schreber +
Filipendula ulmaria (L.) Maxim. +
Fraxinus excelsior L. + +
Galium aparine L. +
Geraneum robertianum L. +
Geum urbanum L. +
Glecboma bederacea L. + +
Iris foetidissima L. + +
1 pseudacorus L. + +
funcus subnodulosus Schrank + +
Lamiastrum galeobdolon (1.) Ehrend. & Polatschek + + +
Listera ovata (L.) R. Br. +
Mentba aquatica L. + +
Mercurialis perennis L. +
Pimpinella major (1.) Hudson + + +
Poa trivialis L. +
Primula veris L. +
P. vulgaris Hudson +
Prunus spinosa L. +
Ranunculus ficaria L. +
R. repens L. +
Rosa canina L. + + +
Salix cinerea L. + +
Sanicula europaea L. +
Sambucus ebulus L. +
S. nigra L. +
Scropbularia auriculata L. + + +
Sparganium erectum L. +
Urtica dioica L. +
Veronica cbamaedrys L. +
Viburnum lantana L. +
Viola birta L. +
V. reicbenbacbia Jordan ex Boreau +
V. riviniana Reichenb. + + + +

332
 Invertebrate fauna
monitoring streams at risk from construction activ-
ities connected with the Channel Tunnel. These
include the Seabrook Stream, which rises at the
chalk/clay interface north of AshoIt Wood, and the
Pent Stream, which rises from a spring east of
Biggins Wood. Both streams flow south through
built-up areas to the sea. Although most of the IFE
sampling sites are at some distance from the
escarpment, the species recorded during April
1987 (fable 7.6) are probably typical of the flora of
streams in this area. In April 1988 Seabrook 4 and 5
supported very poor growth of Apium/Berula but
no macrophytes were observed at the remaining
stations. In April 1989 Apium/Berula was still pre-
sent at Seabrook 5 and Sparganium was recorded
at Seabrook 4. Seabrook 1 and 3 and Pent 3 sup-
ported only moss and/or algae at <5% cover.
During his entomological survey, Drake (1986)
collected from two spring sites at the source of the
Pent, but found no true aquatic vegetation. One
site was heavily shaded by Epilobium hirsutum,
Filipendula ulmaria, Urtica dioica and Carex
pendula. The other was more open, with abundant
Apium nodiflorum, Mentha aquatica, E. hirsu-
tum, Veronica beccabunga and Glyceria fluitans,
none of which were recorded by IFE just down-
stream at their Pent 1 station. Drake also surveyed
the Elm Gardens site north of AshoIt Wood, but the
only additional marshland species he encountered
was Pulicaria dysenterica CL.) Bernh. Sites in the
St Martin's Plain section of the Seabrook Valley,
near IFE's Seabrook 2 and 3 stations, added only
Table 7.6 Aquatic macrophytes recorded by IFE, April 1987
Stream
Sampling Station 1 2
Agrostis stolonifera L. +
Apium nodiflorum (L.) Lag.
Apium/Berula +
Berula erecta (Hudson) Coville
Carex paniculata L.
Carexsp. +
Equisetum telmateia Ehrh. +
Glyceria jluitans (L.) R. Br. +
Glyceria maxima (Hartm.) Holmberg
Iris pseudacorus L.
Nuphar lutea (L.) Sm.
Phragmites australis (Cav.) Trin. ex Steudel
Rorippa nasturtium -
aquaticum agg. (L.) Hayek
Sparganium erectum L. +
Veronica anagallis -
aquatica L.
Veronica beccabunga L. + +
rndet. filamentous algae + +
% cover including algae 0 24
<1
* not rooted - originated from a pond in the park upstream and became trapped amongst boulders.
333
Caltha palustris L. Keymer (1986) also surveyed
this area and noted a number of plants, many not
necessarily typical of the fen or reedbed communi-
ties in which they were found, which have not
been recorded in those described above: Apium
inundatum CL.) Reichenb., Humulus lupulus L.,
Impatiens glandulifera Royle, Juncus inflexus L.,
Montia fontana L., Myosotis spp., Tussilago far-
fara L., Valeriana officinalis L. Some ten years
earlier Wells (1976) recorded Rubus idaeus L.,
Scirpus sylvaticus L. and Phalaris arundinacea L.,
in addition to several of the above species, from
this general area.
Wells also included a number of ditches and
marshes in his survey of habitat types and identi-
fied a few plants not noted elsewhere by other
recorders: Carex riparia dominated a small marshy
area in permanent grassland SW of Biggins Wood;
Anagalis tenella L. on one bank of a ditch below
Cheriton Hill; Scrophularia nodosa in a ditch west
of Biggins Wood and in a small damp area of ill-
drained land south of Castle Hill, Schoenoplectus
lacustris (L.) Palla and Typha latifolia L. fringing a
small excavated pond south of Castle Hill.
(4) INVERTEBRATE FAUNA
(a) Terrestrial invertebrates
Following the 1973 decision to proceed with the
construction of the Channel Tunnel, staff of the
Seabrook Pent
3 4 5 1 2 3
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+ +
3 2 12 7 0
 Present-day ecology of the Folkestone Escarpment
o metres 50
I I I
Figure 7.3 Location of Institute of Terrestrial Ecology CITE) butterfly transects on the Folkestone-Etchinghill escarp-
ment, 1987-92.
Nature Conservancy Council and members of the
Kent Field Club carried out a number of field sur-
veys of the areas of importance for nature
conservation that were likely to be affected by its
construction. During June and August 1974, insects
from a number of different orders were recorded
on the chalk escarpment between Sugarloaf Hill
and Castle Hill, of which Stubbs (l976a) has tabu-
lated the more noteworthy species. These included
eight species of Lepidoptera, amongst which were
the Adonis Blue butterfly (Lysandra bellargus) and
seven local or rare moth species (listed under
Lepidoptera below), a rare bee (Prosopis annu-
laris), and two rare species of fly, Symphoromyia
immaculata and Paroxyna thommei, the last new
to Britain. In addition, he found a rare clusiid fly
(Paraelusia tigrina) associated with the dead
beech wood at the foot of Round Hill and three
other species of rare fly (Erioptera limbata,
Ptyehoptera longieauda and Xylota jlorum) were
recorded from Asholt Wood. This survey ceased
when the Channel Tunnel Project was abandoned
inJanuary 1975.
In late May and early June 1986 CM. Drake coor-
334
dinated a second entomological survey of the main
sites to be affected by the new Eurotunnel pro-
posal. The results of his pitfall traps and sweep-net
sampling reflect his interest in the Diptera (Drake,
1986). Local amateur entomologists were con-
tracted by NCC to record Lepidoptera, Diptera and
spiders from the area but details have never been
published.
In early September 1986 staff from the Institute
of Terrestrial Ecology's Monks Wood Experimental
Station visited sites in the Folkestone area to select
the location of permanent transects. These were to
be used for the long-term monitoring of flora and
fauna on the escarpment between Sugarloaf Hill in
the east and Peene Hill in the west. Once a moni-
toring programme was agreed and Eurotunnel had
contracted ITE to do the work, a 13-section tran-
sect was established between Sugarloaf Hill and
Castle Hill (Fig. 7.3) on which butterflies were
recorded each year from April to September as part
of the National Butterfly Monitoring Scheme run by
ITE (Pollard, 1977), although in 1987 it was not
possible to start recording until May.
In late May 1987 four transects were established
 Invertebrate fauna
on Sugarloaf Hill, Round Hill, Castle Hill and
Cheriton Hill. Prior to the commencement of
botanical monitoring in July 1987, four additional
transects were established, on the south-east face
of Sugarloaf Hill, above Holywell Coombe, on
Cherry Garden Hill and on Peene Hill (Fig. 7.2).
These were first sampled for invertebrates in
September 1987. All these transects were designed
to provide baseline data of the flora and fauna of
the chalk grassland during 1987. By subsequent
repetitive sampling at the same time of year it was
envisaged that any deleterious effects resulting
from the planned tunnelling and construction of
the cut-and-cover tunnel and the Folkestone
Terminal would be detected. Areas of scrub and
woodland had been purposefully avoided during
selection of the transects, as had the wetter areas
in Holywell Coombe. Although general inverte-
brate monitoring continued until 1989,
modifications to the monitoring programme
resulted in more samples being collected from the
first four transects established in May 1987 (nos 1,
3, 4 and 6 in Fig. 7.2 and subsequent tables).
Monitoring of the Butterfly transect was supervised
by ITE until 1991, when staff of the Kent Trust for
Nature Conservation took over full responsibility
for its continuation.
Although calcareous grasslands have been exten-
sively, and often intensively, studied at numerous
sites throughout southern Britain, results from the
four year monitoring programme of the Folkestone
escarpment by ITE staff revealed how poorly
understood are their associated invertebrate faunas,
and how dangerous it is to make generalizations
from observations at one site. Geographical loca-
tion, site topography, the depth and types of soil
overlying the chalk, together with the aspect, can
all have a profound influence as to which species
frequent a particular site. Although there were
expected differences between the invertebrates
inhabiting the upper and lower sections of the
scarp-slope, not only were these not constant
between the nine transects, but they often differed
in subsequent years on the same transect. Clearly
invertebrates respond to, and are dependent upon,
apparently minor changes in habitat and microcli-
mate. Only in the better studied groups, such as
butterflies, are such precise requirements begin-
ning to be understood. For most species these
remain a mystery or are based on untested
hypotheses of experienced field ecologists. As
could be anticipated, many elements of the present
day fauna of the Folkestone escarpment proved to
differ Significantly from that known to occur at
335
other sites. With its close proximity to continental
Europe, south-east England, and Kent in particular,
is the area where many invertebrate colonists first
obtain a foothold before spreading throughout the
British Isles. Several species, rare elsewhere in
Britain, were found to be locally common, even
abundant, on the Folkestone escarpment. It is
unfortunate that recent invertebrate sampling has
been restricted to the drier scarp-slopes whereas
the fossil material mostly derives from wetland
habitats from the valley floor.
On each transect, pitfall traps were established
at three locations in the top, middle, and bottom
sections of the escarpment slope, whereas D-vac
suction samples were collected only from the top
and bottom sites on each transect. Although ini-
tially all invertebrates were recorded, only the
Mollusca (snails), Isopoda (woodlice), Myriapoda
(millipedes and centipedes), Opiliones (harvest-
man), Araneae (spiders), some Acarina (mites),
Coleoptera (beetles) and Formicidae (ants) were
identified to species level. These are dealt with sep-
arately in the following accounts.
0) Mollusca (land snails)
Twenty-three species of land snails were collected
from the eight ITE transects on the Folkestone
escarpment between 1987 and 1989, both in pitfall
traps and D-vac suction samples. The data are
pooled in Table 7.7 to give totals by transect and
species, but the varying intensity of sampling ren-
ders comparison difficult. A total of six samples
(four D-vac and two pitfall trap) were collected
from transect 3 (Round Hill); five (3 + 2) from tran-
sects 1 and 6 (Sugarloaf and Cheriton Hills); three
(2 + 1) from transect 8 and two (1 + 1) from tran-
sects 2, 6 and 7. Despite these inconsistencies,
Discus rotundatus was the most abundant species
in the majority of samples, accounting for over 26%
of all snails collected. Smith (1980) regarded this as
predominantly a woodland species that also occurs
on open grassland. Trichia hispida was the second
most numerous species, constituting 19% of the
fauna. Although ubiquitous in its distribution, it is a
common constituent of the fauna of chalk down-
land. On the Folkestone escarpment this species,
along with several others, appeared to be most
abundant on Round Hill and on the slopes above
Holywell Coombe. Vertigo pygmaea, accounting
for 11 % of the recorded fauna, favours drier habi-
tats such as closely grazed chalk turf (Smith, 1980),
although this was not evident from the ITE sam-
ples. Pomatias elegans, the most markedly
 Present-day ecology of the Folkestone Escarpment

Table 7.7 Terrestrial Mollusca from Folkestone Escarpment, 1987-1989

Transect" 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Total
Pomatias elegans (Miill.) 17 27 110 10 13 47 20 244
Carycbium trldentatum (Risso) 5 3 9 16 33
Cocblicopa lubrica (Miill.) 2 3 3 1 9
Vertigo pygmaea (Drap.) 5 72 119 85 99 4 7 394
Pupilla muscorum (1.) 1 2 59 17 12 5 14 111
Lauria cylindracea (da Costa) 7 4 225 79 2 1 318
Vallonia costata (Miill.) 4 20 23 19 6 4 8 84
excentrica Sterki 2 2 7 2 1 14
Acantbinula aculeata (Miill.) 2 2
Punctum pygmaeum (Drap.) 7 23 8 2 40
Discus rotundatus (Mull.) 146 38 187 129 10 202 127 100 939
Vitrina pellucida (Miill.) 17 14 75 12 7 9 7 8 149
Vitrea contracta (Westerlund) 2 2
crystallina (Miill.) 7 4 2 6 2 22
Aegopinella nitidula (Drap.) 12 3 6 8 1 14 45
Oxycbilus alliarius (Miill.) 1 5 6
belveticus (Blum) 40 28 3 20 7 28 45 52 223
Cecilioides acicula (Miill.) 5 1 3 3 30 1 25 68
Cernuella virgata (da Costa) 1 1 2 2 2 3 1 12
Monacba cantiana (Montagu) 73 8 15 32 18 1 7 154
Tricbia bispida (1.) 64 138 332 64 13 15 2 40 674
Arianta arbustorum (1.) 1 1 1 4 7
Helix aspersa Miill. 3 6
389 339 1104 594 186 352 259 326 3549
n= 5 2 6 5 2 5 2 3
• See Fig. 7.2.

calcicolous species collected on the escarpment,
made up 7% of the fauna. Other less numerous
species more typical of chalk downland include
Vitrina pellucida, Vallonia costata, V. excentrica
and Punctum pygmaeum.
R.c. Preece (pers. comm.) has added the follow-
ing records for Holywell Coombe and its immediate
surroundings: Cochlicopa lubricella (Porro),
Aegopinella pura (Alder), Oxychilus cellarius
(Miiller) Trichia striolata (Pfeiffer) and Cepaea
nemoralis (1.); Carychium minimum Miiller,
Oxyloma pfeifferi (Rossmassler) and Zonitoides
nitidus (Miiller) were found in the marsh at Holy
Well and both Clausilia bidentata (Strom) and
Cochlodina laminata (Montagu) were recorded
in the local woodland.
With the exception of o. helveticus, which is dif-
ficult to distinguish as a fossil, all the modern
species were present in the hillwash (part Five (3».
On the other hand, it is significant that no trace of
Cernuella virgata, a common species on the chalk
hillsides (fable 7.7), was found in the fossil record,
even in the uppermost levels of hillwash. This
implies that it is a recent introduction to the area.
Approximately 90% of the slugs collected in pit-
fall traps on the Folkestone Escarpment were
Deroceras reticula tum (MUller), the most abun-
dant and widely distributed British species. About
8% of the total consisted of Tandonia sowerbyi
(Ferussac), with very small numbers of four Arion
species (A. ater 1., A. circumscriptus Johnston, A.
hortensis agg., A. intermedius Normand). R.c.
Preece (pers. comm.) found two other species of
slug, Tandonia budapestensis (Hazay) and Limax
maxim us 1., in the vicinity. Slug remains belong-
ing to Limax, Deroceras and Milax were
commonly recovered as fossils in Holywell
Coombe (Fig. 5.3.7), but could not be identified to
species level.
(ii) Isopoda (woodlice)
Only five species of woodlice were recorded
during the ITE monitoring programme in 1988 and
1989. Armadillidium vulgare (Latr.) was by far the
most abundant, accounting for up to 70% of the
fauna in pitfall traps collected during May and June
1988. Harding and Sutton (1985) regarded
Philoscia muscorum (Scop.) as a species charac-
teristic of ungrazed calcareous grassland. On the
Folkestone Escarpment it was the second most
numerous species overall, but was the commonest
recorded in D-vac suction samples, making up 75%
of all individuals being collected from the Holywell
Coombe transect. Suction samples from this and
neighbOuring transects on Sugarloaf Hill and Round
Hill together contained over 90% of all the speci-
mens of both Philoscia and the more widely

336
 Invertebrate fauna
distributed Tricboniscus pusillus Brandt recorded
by this sampling method. Pitfall traps indicated a
more even distribution of Pbiloscia along the
escarpment, with proportionally higher numbers
of T. pusillus on the lower slopes at the western
end. Here Oniscus asellus L., Britain's most com-
monly recorded woodlouse, was also most
numerous, reflecting its preference for moister
habitats. Drake (1986) also recorded this species
from the fen area of Holywell Coombe and from
within Biggins Wood. Occasional specimens of
Platyartbrus boffmanseggi Brandt, a myrme-
cophile usually associated with Lasius species,
especially L. flavus (F.), were recorded from the
Round Hill, Holywell Coombe and Cherry Garden
Hill transects.
Porcellio scaber Latr., which has similar habitat
requirements to Oniscus, was found by Drake
(1986) on the more scrubby sections of Castle Hill
and in wooded sites in Holywell Coombe, at the
foot of Round Hill, in Biggins Wood and in the
Seabrook Valley c.n St Martin's Plain. He also
recorded Ligidium bypnorum (Cuvier), a species
typical of broadleaved woodland and fens, at most
of these sites and Porcellio ? dilatatus Brandt, a
rare species of chalk downland, from Sugarloaf and
Cherry Garden Hills.
(iii) Myrlapoda (millipedes and centipedes)
Millipedes live at the soil-litter interface, with some
species being subterranean in habit. Although a
few acid-tolerant species prefer sandy soils, most
are to be found in base-rich or limestone wood-
lands. Several species extend their range into
grassland and arable and a few can be regarded as
calcicoles. On the Folkestone Escarpment, milli-
pedes were most abundant in pitfall trap samples
from transects on Sugarloaf Hill and Peene Hill. The
shorter turf of Castle Hill supported few species
and fewer individuals.
The pill millipede Glomeris marginata (Villers)
was the most abundant species, accounting for
between 44% and 57% of the fauna. Although it is
predominantly a woodland species, Blower (1985)
recorded it in large numbers in Bracbypodium
grassland. Only two species of snake millipede in
the family Iulidae were collected, with the rarer
subterranean Cylindoiulus nitidus (Verhoeff) out-
numbering the more widely distributed
Tacbypodoiulus niger (Leach). Among the flat-
backed millipedes, Polydesmus inconstans Latzel
accounted for about 75% of the four species
trapped. This species is generally uncommon,
337
although it has occasionally been found abundantly
in limestone quarries. On the escarpment it was
most numerous on Sugarloaf Hill. P. augustus
Latzel, the most eurytopic polydesmid, was most
frequently trapped on adjacent areas of Sugarloaf
Hill and Holywell Coombe. Small numbers of the
more calcicole P. testaceus CL. Koch were trapped
mainly on the upper slopes of Peene Hill and
Sugarloaf Hill. Although Bracbydesmus superus
Latzel occurred in low numbers on most transects
during 1988, in the following year it was locally
common on the lower slopes of Sugarloaf Hill.
During 1988 and 1989, single specimens of
Nanogona pOlydesmoides (Leach) were trapped at
half the transects and a single Opbiodesmus albo-
nanus (Latzel) was collected from the upper slopes
of Sugarloaf Hill. Very few millipedes were
recorded in the D-vac suction samples, with C.
nitidus accounting for over 90% of the specimens.
Drake (1986) recorded one additional species of
millipede, Polydesmus denticulatus c.L. Koch,
from woodland and fen communities in the Lower
Seabrook Valley on St Martin's Plain.
Four species of centipede were recorded in very
low numbers from pitfall traps on the Folkestone
Escarpment transects, their distribution mirroring
that of the millipedes. Approximately 50% of the
specimens trapped were Litbobius microps
Meinert, a species which Barber and Keay (1988)
showed to prefer calcareous soils. Scbendyla
nemoralis (CL. Koch) and L. forficatus (L.) were
collected in ones and twos and a single specimen
of L. muticus CL. Koch was collected from the
lower slopes of Cheriton Hill.
(iv) Opiliones (barvestmen)
Between 1987 and 1989 15 species of harvestmen
were recorded during the ITE's monitoring pro-
gramme. Although several species were collected
in the D-vac suction samples, most (about 80%)
were caught in pitfall traps.
The distinctive calcicolous species, Homalonotus
quadridentatus, accounted for 43.3% of all the har-
vestmen identified (34.3% of all the specimens
collected); this and two more widely distributed
species, Mitostoma cbrysomelas and Nemastoma
bimaculatum, accounted for 87% of this element
of the fauna. Approximately half the specimens of
Nemastoma were trapped on the slopes above
Holywell Coombe. Immature Phalangiidae cannot
be identified with certainty but constituted 20.8%
of the samples. Two other calcicole species were
distributed throughout the length of the escarp-
 Present-day ecology of the Folkestone Escarpment

Table 7.8 Opiliones from the Folkestone Escarpment 1987-1989. Nomenclature follows Hillyard & Sankey
(1989)
Transect 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Total
Nemastoma bimaculatum CF.) 43 373 60 7 5 29 116 101 734
Mitostoma cbrysomelas (Hel1llan) 350 194 364 132 25 59 60 77 1261
Trogulus tricarinatus (L.) 2 1 1 3 2 6 12 27
Anelasmocepbalus cambridgei (Westwood) 11 27 8 10 18 17 22 7 120
Homalenotus quadridentatus (Cuvier) 218 125 235 633 142 151 228 240 1972
O/igoloPbus tridens (C.L. Koch) 44 65 12 3 124
Paroligolopbus agrestis (Meade) 48 4 7 59
meadii (O.P.·c.) 1
Lacinius epbippiatus (C.L. Koch) 34 8 1 43
Pbalangium opilio L. 4 1 1 6 14
Opilio parietinus (Degeer) 4 4
saxatilis c.L. Koch 1 2 11 14
Rilaena triangularis (Hbst.) 32 4 10 22 40 4 14 127
Lopbopilio pa/pinalis (Hbst.) 11 27 4 2 3 5 52
Leiobunum rotundum (Latr.) 4 4
imIn. Phalangiidae 425 192 189 117 34 45 68 124 1194
1219 1013 881 923 274 305 527 608 5750

ment. Anelasmocephalus cambridgei was moder-
ately common on all transects, although the largest
numbers were recorded from above Holywell
Coombe and on Peene Hill. Trogulus tricarinatus
usually occurred singly, with most specimens being
trapped on the south-east facing upper slopes of
Sugarloaf Hill. Samples from Sugarloaf Hill also con-
tained the largest numbers of specimens of
Paroligolophus agrestis and Lacinius ephippiatus.
Numbers of Oligolophus tridens from the Sugarloaf
Hill transects were second only to those recorded
from Holywell Coombe and numbers of Rilaena
triangularis were only exceeded in the Cherry
Garden Hill samples. Immature Phalangiidae were
also abundant on Sugarloaf Hill. The distribution of
the less commonly recorded species is included in
Table 7.8.
Drake (1986) recorded one additional species,
Mitopus morio (F.), from Holywell Coombe fen
and from three sites in woodland and fen along the
Lower Seabrook Valley on St Martin's Plain.
(v) Araneae (spiders)
During the years 1987-89, spiders were collected
from the Folkestone escarpment by means of D-vac
suction samples and pitfall traps. Although the suc-
tion samples contained over six times as many
specimens as the pitfall traps, they yielded a much
higher proportion of immature specimens that
could not be determined to species level. Adult spi-
ders constituted 17.5% of all the specimens
collected. During the summers of 1987 and 1989,
sampling was only undertaken on four transects on
Sugarloaf Hill, Round Hill, Castle Hill and Cheriton
Hill. Only during 1988 were samples from all eight
transects identified. The total numbers of the spi-
ders recorded by both sampling methods have been
pooled in Table 7.10, to provide some indication of
their relative abundance. Differences in the num-
bers of species and specimens recorded from each
transect reflect the differential sampling effort.
The composition of the spider fauna on the
escarpment remained relatively constant in samples
from successive years, with one species of
Linyphiidae dominant. Maso gallicus accounted for
up to 70% of the adult spiders identified from all
transects between Sugarloaf Hill and Peene Hill and
made up over 38% of all specimens collected,
including unidentified immatures. The widespread
abundance of this spider on the escarpment grass-
land was unexpected, as Locket et al. (1974)
recorded it from only seven sites in five counties,
including only one record from Kent prior to 1939.
Although two Cambridgeshire records were from
fenland localities, the remainder were either from
sites on oolitic limestone or overlying the chalk.
Two widely distributed species, Metopobactrus
prominulus and Theridion bimaculatum,
together constituted a further 14.5% of the adult
spiders collected, but as with M. gallicus, this was
the result of their abundance in the D-vac suction
samples. Despite comparatively fewer spiders
having been caught in pitfall traps, the most abun-
dant species, Pachygnatha degeeri, was the fourth
most numerous spider overall (see Table 7.9),
although only amounting to 4.3% of the total fauna.
Although Drake (1986) did not identify any spi-
ders during his survey, he did note one species,
Araneus diadematus, as being recorded from the

338
 Invertebrate fauna
Table 7.9 The 12 most abundant species of spider
recorded from Folkestone Escarpment 1987-1989.
Nomenclature follows Merrett, Locket and Millidge
(1985)
Maso gallicus Simon 1689
Metopobactrus prominulus (O.P. - Cambridge)
Tberidion bimaculatum (1.)
Pachygnatha degeeri Sundevall
Lepthyphantes tenuis (Blackwall)
ericaceus (BIackwall)
Pardosa nigriceps (fhorell)
Gonatium rubens (BIackwall)
Pocadicnemis juncea Locket & Millidge
Meioneta saxatilis (Blackwall)
Pardosa pullata (Clerck)
Clubiona subtilis L. Koch
chalk escarpment from museum and literature
records. Only a single specimen of this common
and widely distributed species was recorded during
the ITE surveys on Sugarloaf Hill (transect 8). The
KTNC (1988) referred to a note on an NCC file
recording Dictyna latens from Holywell Coombe,
where its web enclosed the flowers of a bramble.
The ITE surveys recorded single specimens of this
local spider from the adjacent Round Hill transect
and from Castle Hill.
(vi) Acari (mites)
When the ITE started monitoring the invertebrate
fauna of the chalk grassland on Folkestone
Escarpment, one of the first samples collected on
28 May 1987 was from transect 3 on the upper
slopes of Round Hill. Over 1800 mites were sorted
from the plant debris in the first D-vac suction
sample examined. This represented the fauna col-
lected from 1 m 2 , but this was such a time
consuming task that it was not repeated for any of
the other samples collected on that date, or subse-
quently.
This sample was later sent to Dr]. Schelvis, who
identified some 300 oribatid and gamasid mites
from a representative sub-sample, supplemented by
a few additional species taken from the residue.
The 21 species identified (Table 7.11) can all be
regarded as typical of grassland litter. One species
of Oribatida, Scheloribates pallidulus (C.L. Koch),
accounted for over 40% of the specimens exam-
ined and over 50% of those identified. This species,
together with Amblyseius meridionalis Berl.,
Latilamellobates incisellus (Krahm.), Ceratoppia
bipilis (Herm.) and Xenillus tegeocranus (Herm.),
made up 80% of the mite fauna identified from this
one sample.
As the D-vac suction apparatus is designed to col-
lect insects from the above ground vegetation, it is
not surprising that it is not very efficient at sam-
pling mites living in the litter and upper layers of
the soil. It is highly unlikely that the mite fauna of
the grassland on Round Hill excludes representa-
411
229
tives of the very common families Oppiidae,
191 Suctobelbidae and Tectocepheidae, which were so
190 well represented in the fossil mite fauna from
180
166 Holywell Coombe (see Part Five (5)). Only one pre-
132 sent-day species of mite (the third most abundant),
118
113
L. incisellus, was also found as a fossil in Late-
111 glacial sediments below Sugarloaf Hill. This
lO7 difference in the two faunas is explained by the
fact that the modern material came from the dry
upper slopes of the chalk escarpment, whereas the
Late-glacial deposits had accumulated at the wetter
valley bottom. Although unidentified Actinedida
made up one fifth of the modern mite sample, they
were absent from the fossil material. This is easily
explained by their possessing a very flimsy
exoskeleton, which only rarely survives in archae-
ological or palaeontological contexts.
(vii) Lepidoptera (butterflies and moths)
In May 1987 a 13-section butterfly transect was
established on the Folkestone Escarpment,
between Castle Hill in the west and Sugarloaf Hill
in the east. Details of this transect and the standard
methodology of the National Butterfly Monitoring
Scheme are described in Welch et al. (1988) and
Pollard et al. (1975). In May 1991 part of section 7,
at the foot of Round Hill, was destroyed with the
onset of construction of the A20 extension and two
new sections, 14 and 15, were added (see Fig. 7.3).
Whenever suitable weather conditions permitted,
butterflies were recorded at weekly intervals from
the beginning of April to the end of September
each year. A small four-section transect was also
established in 1987 upon the Cheriton Hill section
of the escarpment, but this was recorded at
monthly intervals over the same six-month period.
In 1990 this transect was duplicated by the addi-
tion of an eastern extension into the newly fenced
and grazed area of Cheriton/Cherry Garden Hill
(see Welch et al., 1992).
The 29 species of butterfly recorded from the
escarpment are listed in Table 7.12 together with
their total numbers for the five years 1987-91.
Numbers for the two Thymelicus species are com-
bined, as it is not possible to identify individuals
seen in flight. There is a single unconfirmed record
of Hesperia comma (1.) from Castle Hill in 1987.
Stubbs (1976a) listed seven local or rare moth
339
 Present-day ecology of the Folkestone Escarpment

Table 7.10 Araneae from the Folkestone Escarpment 1987-1989. Nomenclature follows Merrett, Locket &
Millidge (1985)
Transect 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Total
DICTYNIDAE
Dictyna latens (F.) 1 2
spp. (imrn.) 2 2
AMAUROBIIDAE
Amaurobius spp. (imrn.) 2 2
DYSDERIDAE
Dydera erythrina (Walckenaer) 3 13 6 2 12 6 3 45
spp. (imrn.) 2 3 5 2 2 3 17
GNAPHOSIDAE
Haplodrassus signifer (C.L. Koch)
Phaeocedus braccatus (L. Koch)
Zelotes latreillei (Simon) 1
pedestris (C.L. Koch) 12 3 4 2 22
spp. (imrn.) 2
"
Micaria pulicaria (Sundevall) 1 2
Gnaphosid spp. (imrn.) 5 4 2 5 19
CLUBIONIDAE
Clubiona diversa O.P. - Cambridge 2 3
neglecta o.P. - Cambridge 2 4
rec/usa o.P. - Cambridge 1 1 2
subtilis L. Koch 13 7 35 2 25 4 21 107
"
Agroeca inopina O.P. - Cambridge 1 4 2 7
spp. (imrn.) 2 5 8
Phrurolithus !estivus (C.L. Koch) 1 1
Clubionid spp. (imrn.) 39 22 67 15 34 7 49 234
ZORIDAE
Zora spinimana (Sundevall) 3 3 14 3 3 3 1 30
spp. (imrn.) 14 33 18 2 17 6 10 100
"
TIIOMISIDAE
Xysticus cristatus (Clerck) 1 3 4
erraticus (Blackwall) 2 2 4
espp. (imrn.) 9 4 38 25 15 10 15 116
0XYPtila atomaria (panzer) 1 3 4
ebrevipes (Hahn.) 3 3
esanctuaria (O.P. - Cambridge) 1 2 3
espp. (imrn.) 17 10 52 22 6 23 17 32 179
PHILODROMIDAE
Tbanatus striatus c.L. Koch 1 4 1 2 8
Tibellus oblongus (Walckenaer) 4 9 4 3 3 4 27
TbanatuslTibeUus spp.(imrn.) 67 28 96 61 6 163 13 147 581
SALTICIDAE
Heliophanus flavtpes C.L. Koch 2 1 5
spp. (imrn.) 2 7 12
Neon "reticulatus (Blackwall) 9 9
EUophrys frontalis (Walkenaer) 3 25 3 5 2 40
ethoreUi Kulczynski 1 1
"
Myrmarachne !ormicaria (Degeer) 4 2 3 10
Saltield spp. (imrn.) 15 10 77 41 2 9 4 46 204
LYCOSIDAE
Pardosa nigriceps (Thorell) 31 8 65 21 2 30 2 7 166
pallustris (L.) 1
prativaga (L. Koch) 1
puUata (Cierck) 3 10 11 33 36 16 2 111
spp. (imrn.) 33 67 152 51 23 24 5 45 400
LYCOSIDAE (contd)
Alopecosa pulverulenta (Cierck) 10 5 15
spp. (imrn.) 2
"
Trochosa terricola Thorell 1 2 2 5
spp. (imrn.) 2 5 2 2 4 2 18
Pirata spp. (imrn.) i 1 3 6
PISAURIDAE
Pisaura mirabilis (Cierck) 4 5 2 13

340
 Invertebrate fauna

Table 7.10 Continued

Transect 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Total
HAHNIIDAE
Hahnia montana (Blackwall) 5 1 7
nava (Blackwall) 1 3 42 20 12 3 81
spp. (imIn.) 2 12 4 19

MIMETIDAE
Ero cambridgei Kulczynski 2 3
" furcata (Villers) 2 2 1 2 7
spp. (imIn.) 9 12 7 3 7 38
"
THERIDIIDAE
Episinus angulatus (Blackwall) 3 2 7
spp. (imIn.) 2 6 2 10
Euryopsisjlavomaculata (C.L. Koch) 1 1
Theridion bimaculatum (L.) 37 19 31 68 20 7 10 37 229
pallens Blackwall 1 1 2
Enoplognatha ovata (CIerck) 1
thoracica (Hahn.) 3 5 9
spp. (imIn.) 2 1 1 7
Robertus lividus (Blackwall) 3 1 4
Pholcomma gibbum (We string) 7 3 5 15 1 31
Theridiid spp. (irum.) 45 1 176 64 171 467 924

TETRAGNATHlDAE
Pachygnatha degeeri Sundevall 13 5 54 10 93 16 191
Tetragnathid spp. (imIn.) 2 2

ARANEIDAE
Araneus diadematus Clerck 1
Hypsosinga pygmaea (Sundevall) 3 1 4 1 3 12
Araneid spp. (imm.) 8 9 76 34 9 49 17 203

UNYPHIIDAE
Ceratinella brevipes (Westring) 1 1
scabrosa (O.P. - Cambridge) 27 2 15 3 10 3 61
Walckenaeria acuminata Blackwall 2 2 4
antica (Wider) 6 5 3 15
atrotibialis (O.P. - Cambridge) 2 3
cuspidata Blackwall 4 3 8
furcillata (Menge) 2 15 2 19
incisa (O.P. - Cambridge) 1
monoceros (Wider) 1
unicorn is O.P. - Cambridge 6 9
Dismodocus bifrons (Blackwall) 1 2 1 2 1 7
Metopobactrus prominulus (O.P. - Cambridge) 52 25 70 97 7 120 4 36 411
Gonatium rubens (Blackwall) 49 11 32 10 12 3 15 132
Maso gallicus Simon 412 120 484 148 44 301 72 108 1689
Peponocranium ludicrum (O.P. - Cambridge) 8 38 14 60
Pocadicnemisjuncea (O.P. - Cambridge) Locket 18 21 14 5 6 28 26 118
Oedothoraxfuscus (Locket & Millidge) Blackwall 1 2
Pelecopsis parallela (Blackwall) (Wider) 3 2 5
Cnephalocotes obscurus (Blackwall) 1
Ceratinopsis stativa (Simon) 1
Monocephalus fuscipes (Blackwall) 4 5 9
jacksonella falconeri Oackson) 2
Micrargus herbigradus (Blackwall) 4 8 2 16 8 3 42
subaequalis (Westring) 1 2
Diplocephalus cristatus (Blackwall) 1 1
Panamomops sulcifrons (Wider) 6 4 11 24
Erigone atra (Blackwall) 2
dentipalpis (Wider) 1 2
Agyneta conigera (O.P. - Cambridge) 4 2 1 7
Meioneta beata (O.P. - Cambridge) 3 3
mollis (O.P. - Cambridge) 1 1
rurestris (C.L. Koch) 2 1 3 2 4 12
saxatilis (Blackwall) 19 20 37 6 7 10 14 113
Centromerita concinna (Thorell) 1
Saaristoa abnormis (Blackwall)
Bathyphantes gracilis (Blackwall) 3 6 1 9 21
parvulus (We string) 7 11 8 2 5 34
Kaestneriapullata (O.P. - Cambridge) 1
Stemonyphantes lineatus (L.) 3 4

341
 Present-day ecology of the Folkestone Escarpment

Table 7.10 Continued

Transect 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Total
Lepthyphantes ericaeus (Blackwall) 74 13 23 20 3 36 2 9 180
mengei Kulczynski 7 1 1 1 4 6 20
tenuis (Blackwall) 46 5 29 25 7 45 7 26 190
zimmermanni Bertkau 1
"
Linyphia clathrata (Sundevall)
Indet. immatures,
mostly Unyphiidae 1778 574 2017 1028 266 1660 208 1135 8666
Total number of specimens per transect 2914 1101 3965 1917 627 2961 412 2330 16227
" species 44 38 58 48 41 56 32 37 94
" samples n= 6 2 6 6 2 6 2 3

Table 7.11 Acarina from a D-vac suction sample

collected from the upper slopes of Round Hill on 28
May 1987
ORlBATIDA
Scheloribates pallidulus (C.L. Koch, 1840)
Latilamellobates incisellus (Kramer, 1897)
Ceratoppia bipilis (Hermann, 1804)
Xenillus tegeocranus (Hermann, 1804)
Punctoribates punctum (C.L. Koch, 1840)
Paradamaeus clavipes (Hermann, 1804)
Metabelba papillipes (Nicolet, 1855)
Eupelops occultus (C.L. Koch, 1836)
Archiphthiracarus rectisetosus (parry, 1979)
Scheloribates laevigatus (C.L. Koch, 1836)
Peloptulus phaenotus (C.L. Koch, 1844)
Phthiracarus tardus Forsslund, 1956
Scheloribates latipes (C.L. Koch, 1844)
Achipteria coleoptrata (Linnaeus, 1758)
GAMASIDA
A mblyseius meridionalis Berlese, 1914
Holoparasitus calcaratus (Koch, 1839)
Epicriopsis horridus Kramer, 1876
Neojordensia levis (Oudemans and Voigts, 1904)
Pseudoparasitus centralis (Berlese, 1921)
Pergamasus resinae Karg, 1968
Pergamasus celticus Bhattacharyya, 1963
ACTINEDIDA
Indet.
Total
species from the chalk escarpment between Castle
Hill and Sugarloaf Hill and provided details of their
habitat and status. These were Bembecia scopigera
(Scop.), Eupithecia pimpinellata (Rb.), Gnophos
obscurata (D. and S.) f jasciata Prout, Stenodes
alternana (Steph,), Agonopteryx pallorella (Zell.),
Dichrorampha consortana Steph. and Aspitates
gilvaria (D. and S.). Formjasciata of the Annulet
moth G. obscuratus is known in Britain only from
the downs around Holywell Coombe.
(viii) Formicidae (ants)
During the two years 1988 and 1989, ants were col-
lected from the eight transects on the Folkestone
n % Escarpment in pitfall traps and D-vac suction sam-
128 40.6 ples. Although 11 species of ants were recorded,
20 6.3 two species, Myrmica scabrinodis and M rugin-
18 5.7
12 3.8 odis accounted for approximately 77% of all
9 2.9 specimens caught. A third species of the genus
5 1.6
4 1.3
M. schencki occurred in very low numbers on all
4 1.3 transects except Castle Hill and Cherry Garden Hill,
3 1.0 and with most being trapped on the upper slopes
3 1.0
3 1.0 of Cheriton Hill. The mound-building Lasius flavus
2 0.6 accounted for 13.4% of the ant fauna, but was
2 0.6
2 0.6
patchily distributed along the escarpment. It was
consistently most abundant from the transects on
N % Cherry Garden Hill and Cheriton Hill, whilst absent
22 7.0 or present in low numbers on some other tran-
6 1.9
2 0.6 sects. L. alienus, the fourth most abundant
2 0.6 species, appeared to favour the lower slopes of
0.3
0.3
Holywell Coombe and Cheriton Hill and, to a lesser
0.3 extent, Cherry Garden Hill. These four species
made up 97.5% of the total ant fauna recorded on
N %
the escarpment. Myrmecina graminicola fre-
65 20.6
quently occurs in the nests of the above two
315 100
species of Lasius and was collected from all tran-
sects, mainly in pitfall traps. It has a southern
distribution, with a preference for calcareous soils.
Occasional single specimens of Formica cuniculo-
rum were collected between Castle Hill and
Cheriton Hill. This species is found on southern
heaths and cliff sites. Ponera coarctata is another
species with a distribution restricted to the south
coast of Britain and the Thames estuary. Four spec-
imens were recorded from the lower slopes of
Round Hill. Formica jusca occurred in all tran-
sects, albeit in low numbers, except from that on
the western slopes of Sugarloaf Hill. In the last
mentioned transect the only specimen of Lasius
niger was collected.
Drake (1986) recorded 11 species of ant during

342
 Invertebrate fauna

Table 7.12 Total numbers of butterflies recorded from ITE Transect on Folkestone Escarpment (Castle Hill-
Sugarloaf Hill) 1987-1991
1987 1988 1989 1990 1991
Tbymelicus lineola (Ochs.)/ 179 142 364 105 406
TbymeUcus sylvestris (pada)
Ochlodes venata (Brem. & Grey) 147 90 117 82 114
Erynnis tages (1.) 45 9 45 32 81
Gonepteryx rhamni (1.) 1 6 2 1
Pieris brassicae (L.) 23 62 374 129 133
Pieris rapae (1.) 54 87 155 38 183
Pieris napi (1.) 8 49 13 7 9
Anthocharis cardamines (1.) 2 3 2 3
Callophrys rubi (1.) 2 9 18 15
Lycaena phlaeas (1.) 1 6 12
Cupido minimus (Fuessl.) 25 4 3 2 4
Aricia agestis (D. & S.) 17 21 30 42 71
Polyommatus icarus (Ratt.) 184 90 269 230 209
Lysandra coridon (pada) 1 1 1 1
Lysandra beUargus (Ratt.) 51 45 127 549 411
Celastrina argiolus (1.) 26 88 14
Vanessa atalanta (1.) 38 12 8 20 36
Cynthia cardui (1.) 2 15 2 7 13
Aglais urticae (1.) 108 25 25 22 256
Inachis io (1.) 11 5 3 6 13
Polygonia c-album (1.) 11 14 2 19
Pararge aegeria (1.) 43 54 150 72 106
Lasiommata megera (1.) 6 18 173 144 100
Melanargia galathea (L.) 92 65 146 191 474
Pyronia tithonus (1.) 32 12 64 102 133
Maniolajurtina (1.) 314 121 254 127 218
Coenonympha pamphilus (1.) 163 44 491 422 220
Aphantopus hyperantus (1.) 296 77 186 67 147

his survey of the Folkestone Escarpment, four of Table 7.13 The 16 most abundant species of
which were not recorded in the ITE monitoring Coleoptera recorded in pitfall traps and D-vac suction
programme. He recorded Myrmica sabuleti, a samples from Folkestone Escarpment, 1987-1989.
species of calcareous downland, was recorded Drusilla canaliculata (F.) 3918
from Round Hill, Castle Hill and Cheriton Hill and Rhyzobius litura (F.) 439
Aphthona herbigrada (Curt.) 354
additionally from a grassy slope in the Lower Anotylus sculpturatus (Gr.) 301
Seabrook Valley. M. lobicornis was found on Ptomophagus subvillosus (Goez.) 308
Sericoderus lateralis (Gyll.) 298
Cheriton Hill, and M. rubra from Sugarloaf and Pterostichus madidus (F.) 275
Round Hill. Drake also reported Leptothorax Cypha punctum (Mots.) 273
Apion loti Kirby 218
nylanderi from Sugarloaf Hill. This species is usu- Nargus anisotomoides (Spence) 212
ally found under bark and may have been Phyllobius roboretanus Gred. 209
associated with the wooded scrub at the base of Silpha atrata L. 190
Barypeithes araneiformis (Schr.) 181
the hill. Tachinus signatus Gr. 140
Tachyporus hypnorum (F.) 110
Falagria thoracica Steph. 110
(ix) Coleoptera (beetles)
Beetles are the most important of the few arthro-
pod groups to be well represented as fossils, being three years of the monitoring progralllffie, only the
important palaeoclimatic indicators (part Five (4)). presence of a given species on one or more tran-
In the study of the modem faunas, there were sig- sects is indicated in Table 7.14. For completeness a
nificant differences between the beetles recorded number of additional species recorded during
on the eight transects. Differences between neigh- September 1986, June 1990 and October 1992, by
bouring transects were sometimes greater than sweeping and hand-collecting on the escarpment,
between samples from the upper and lower sec- have been incorporated into Table 7.14. Nearly
tions of individual transects. As sampling intensity 11 000 specimens of 340 species have been
varied considerably between transects over the recorded from the grassland on this chalk

343
 Present-day ecology of the Folkestone Escarpment

Table 7.14 Terrestrial Coleoptera from Folkestone Escarpment 1986-1992. Nomenclature follows Kloet and
Hincks (1997)
Transect 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Total
CARABIDAE
Cychrus caraboides (1.) + + 2
t Carabus granulatus L. + + 3
problematicus Hbst. + 4
violaceus L. + + + + 4
Leistus ferrugineus (1.) + + 2
Notiophilus biguttatus (a+1) (F.) + + + + 7
Trechus quadristriatus (Schr.) + 3
t Loricera pilicornis (F.) + 1
t Bembidion guttula (F.) + 4
lampros (Hbst.) + + + 3
unicolor Chaud. + 1
Pterostichus madidus (F.) + + + + + + + 275
niger (Schall.) + 1
Abax parallelepipedus (pill. and Mitt.) + + + + + 45
Calathus fuscipes (Goez.) +
Platyderus ruficollis (Marsh.) + 1
Amara aenea (Deg.) + + + 3
communis (pz.) + 2
montivaga (Stm.) + 1
Harpalus affinis (Schr.) + 1
latus (1.) + + + 4
parallelus Dei. + + + + 4
rufipes (Deg.) +
Acupalpus meridianus (1.) +
t Licinus depr essus (pk.) + 1
Badister bipustulatus (F.) + + + + + + + 9
Panagaeus bipustulatus (F.) + + + 4
Lebia chlorocephala (Hoffm.) + + 2
Demetrias atricapillus (1.) + + + + 13
Dromius linearis (01.) + + + + 44
melanocephalus Dei. + + + + 70

HYDROPHILIDAE
Cercyon analis (pk.) +
haemorrhoidalis (F.) +
melanocephalus (1.) +
" pygmaea (lIl.) + 1
t Megasternum obscurum (Marsh.) + + + + + + + 24

HISTERlDAE
Abraeus globosus (Hoff.) +

PTILIIDAE
Ptenidium pustllum (Gyll.) +
Acrotrichis rugulosa Rossk. + + 2

LEIODIDAE
Leiodes badia (Stm.) + + + + + + + 78
litura Steph. + + + + 22
" polita (Marsh.) +
tAgathidium laevigatum Er. + + 2
Ptomophagus medius Rey + + + + + + + 81
subvtllosus (Goez.) + + + + + + + + 308
varicornis (Rosen.) + + + 14
Nargus anisotomoides (Spence) + + + + + + + + 212
velox (Spence) + + + + + + 36
wilkini (Spence) + + + 8
Choleva agtlts (lIl.) + + 3
angustata (F.) + + + + + 5
glauca Britt. + + 2
Sciodrepoides watsoni (Spence) + + 2
Catops fuliginosus Er. + 1
grandicollis Er. + 2
nigricans (Spence) + + + + + + + 60
nigrita Er. + 2
tristis (pz.) + + 15
Parabathyscia wollastoni (Jan.) + 1
Colon brunneum (Lat.) + + 2

SILPHIDAE
tSilpha atrata (a+I) L. + + + + + + + + 191
tristis (a+I) m. + + + 79

344
 Invertebrate fauna

Table 7.14 Continued

Transect 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Total
SCYDMAENlDAE
Cepbennium galUcum Gang. + + + + + + 76
Neurapbyes angulatus (MIill. & Kunz.) + + + 11
Stentcbnus coUarls (MIill. & Kunz.) + + + + 9
pustUus (MHll. & Kunz.) + + + + + + 22

STAPHYUNIDAE
Micropeplus stapbyltnoides (Marsh.) + + + + + + 29
Metopsia retusa (Steph.) + + + + 35
t Olopbrum piceum (Gryll.) + 1
Euspbalerum luteum (Marsh.) + 2
t Omalium excavatum Steph. + 1
tPlatystetbus arenarlus (Foure.) + + 4
capito Heer + + + 20
Anotylus complanatus (Er.) + 8
inustus (Gr.) + + + + + + 27
rugosus (F.) + + 2
sculpturatus (Gr.) + + + + + + + + 328
tetracarlnatus (Block) + + 10
Stenus acerls Steph. + + + + + + + 53
brunnipes Steph. + + + 5
clavicornis (Seop.) + + + 6
fulvicornis Steph. + + 2
impressus Germ. + + + + + 91
ludyiFauv. + + + + + + + 32
ossium Steph. + + 2
picipes Steph. + 1
similis (Hbst.) + 1
Paederus ltttoralis Gr. + + + + 15
Sunius propinquus (Bris.) + 3
Otbtus laeviusculus Steph. + 1
myrmecoPbilus Kies. + + 2
punciulatus (a+i) (Goez.) + + + + 11
Leptacinus sp. (I) + + 3
Xantbolinus linearls (a+l) (01.) + + + 5
jarrlgei CoifI. + + 2
"
Pbilontbus decorus (Gr.) 2
+
politus (1..) + 1
varlans (pk.) + 1
varlus (Gyll.) + + + + 4
"
Platydracusfulvipes (Seop.) 2
+ +
latebrlcola (Gr.) + + + + 18
Stapbyltnus aeneocepbalus Deg. + + 2
aterGr. + 1
brunnipes F. + 2
compressus Marsh. + 2
melanarlus Heer + 1
olensMHll. + + + + 9
winklerl Bern. + + 3
"
Quedius boops Gr. + 1
curtipennis Bern. + + + + + 5
ptctpes (Man.) + + + + + + + 15
semtobscurus (Marsh.) + + 6
"
Bolttobius cingulatus (Man.) + 1
SepedoPbilus marsbamt (Steph.) + + + 5
nigrlpennis (Steph.) + + + + + + + 67
pedtcularlus (Gr.) + 1
"
Tacbyporus atrtceps Steph. + 1
cbrysomelinus (1..) + + 2
dispar (pk.) + + + + + 13
bypnorum (F.) + + + + + + + 112
nitidulus (F.) + + + + 32
pallidus Shp. + + 3
solutus Er. + 1
Lamprlnodes saginatus (Gr.) + 1
Tacbtnus marginellus (F.) + 1
t " stgnatus (a+l) Gr. + + + + + + 140
CYPba longicornis (pk.) + 3
punctum (Mots.) + + + + + + + + 273
"
Bracbida exigua (Heer) + + 40
Leptusa pulcbeUa (Man.) + 1
Autalia rlvularls (Gr.) + + 3

345
 Present-day ecology of the Folkestone Escarpment

Table 7.14 Continued

Transect 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Total

STAPHYUNIDAE continued
Falagria caesa Er. +
thoradca Steph. + + + + + + + + 110
"
Calltcerus obscurus Gr. + + 3
Aloconota gregaria (Er.) + + + 14
Amischa analis (Gr.) + + + + 5
cavifrons (Shp.) + + + 5
dedpiens (Shp.) + 1
sorror (Kr.) + 2
"
Alaobia scapularis (SahIb.) 52
+ + + + + + + +
Geostiba drceUaris (Gr.) + + + + 8
Plataraea brunnea (F.) + + + + 21
Liogluta granigera (Kies.) + 4
oblongiuscula (Shp.) + + 4
pagana CEr.) + + + 24
" (Enalodroma) hepatica (Er.)
Atheta + + + 21
A. (Microdota) amicula (Steph.) + + 3
tndubia (Shp.) + 2
liltputana (Bris.) + 1
A. (Lohse GP 2) gagattna (Baudi) + + 4
trinotata (Kr.) + 2
A. (Mocyta) amplicoUis (Muls. & Rey) + + + + + 14
jungi(Gr.) + + + + + + 62
A. (Acrotona) aterrima (Gr.) + 1
muscorum (Bris.) + 1
parvula (Man.) + + + 5
" brunnetpennis (Th.)
A. (s. str.) 1
+
graminicola (Gr.) + 1
triangulum (Kr.) + + 2
A. (Lohse GP 1) crasstcornis (F.) + + + 4
lattcoUis (Steph.) +
A. (Datomicra) sordidula (Er.) +
A. (Dimetrota) atramentaria (Gyll.) + + + 21
nigripes (Th.) + + 2
A. (Chaettda) longicornis (Gr.) + 2
Aleuonota rujotestacea (Kr.) + + 2
Drusilla canaltculata (a+l) (F.) + + + + + + + + 3918
Zyras humeralis (Gr.) + 1
limbatus (pk.) + + 4
Chiloporata longitarsis (Er.) +
Ryobates nigricoUis (pk.) +
subopaca Palm. +
Ocalea bOOta Er. + 1
Oxypoda brachyptera (Steph.) + + 4
umbrata (Gyll.) + 1
" morion (Gr.)
Tinotus 29
+ +
Aleochara btpustulata (1..) + + 7
btlineata Gyll. + 1
lanugtnosa Gr. + 3
ruficomis Gr. + 2
PSELAPHIDAE
t Pselaphus heisti Hbst. +
Bryaxis curtist (Leach) +
Bythinus macropalpus AuI>e +
Tychus niger (pk.) +
Brachygluta haematica (Reich.) + 2
Claviger testaceus Preys. + 6
GEOTRUPIDAE
Geotrupes spintger (a+l) (Marsh.) + 3
SCARABAEIDAE
Colobopterus jossor (1..) +
haemorrhoidalis (1..) +
Aphodius jimetarius (1..) +
Oxyomus sylvestris (Scop.) +
Onthophagus joannae Goljan + + + + + 11
Melolontha melolontha (1..) + 1
BYRRHIDAE
Byrrhusjasdatus (Forst.) + + 2
Chaetophora spinosa (Rossi) + + 28

346
 Invertebrate fauna

Table 7.14 Continued

Transect 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Total
DASCILLIDAE
t Dascillus cervinus (L.) + + + + + + + 37

CLAMBIDAE
Calyptomerus dubius (Marsh.) +

BUPRESTIDAE
Aphanisticus pusillus (01.) + + + 9

ELATERIDAE
Agrypnus murinus (L.) + 3
Athous haemorrhoidalis (F.) + + 4
Agriotes acuminatus (Steph.) + + 2
lineatus (L.) +
pallidulus (Ill.) +
sputator (a+l) (L.) + + + + + + 27

DRIUDAE
Drilus jtavescens (a+l) (Fourc.) + + + + + + + + 62

CANTHARIDAE
Cantharis cryptica Ashe + 1
nigricans (Miill.) + 3
rustica Fall. + 1
Rhagonycha julva (Scop.) + 2
jemoralis (Brull*) +
lutea (Mull.) + + + + + 20
Malthodes pumilus (Br*b.) + + + + + 47

LAMPYRIDAE
Lampyrus noctiluca (I) (L.) + + 11

NITIDUUDAE
Brachypterus urticae (F.) + 1
Brachypterolus pulicarius (L.) + 7
Meligethes aeneus (F.) + + + 9
erichsoni Bris. + 1
erythropus (Marsh.) + + + + + + 16
jtavimanus Steph. + 1
lugubris Stm. + + 3
nigrescens Steph. + + + + 11
obscurus Er. + 9
ovatus Stm. + + + + + 6
planiusculus (Heer) + 20
solidus (Kug.) + 1

CRYPTOPHAGIDAE
Cryptophagus setulosus Stm. + + + + 17
Micrambe vini (pz.) + 2
Atomaria apicalis Er. + + + 6
atricapilla Steph. + + + + 19
fuscata (Schoen.) + 2
nitidula (Marsh.) + + + 16
rubricollis Bris. + + + 7

PHALACRIDAE
Stilbus testaceus (pz.) + + 4
Phalacrus brunnipes Bris. + 2

CORYLOPHIDAE
Sericoderus lateralis (Gyll.) + + + + + + + 298

COCClNELUDAE
Subcoccinella 24-punctata (I) (L.) + + + 74
Rhyzobius litura (a+l) (F.) + + + + + + + + 441
Scymnus haemorrhoidalis Hbst. + 1
t Nephus redtenbacheri (Muls.) + + + + 15
Adalia bipunctata (L.) + 1
" IO-punctata (I..) + 3
tCoccinella 7-punctata (a+I) L. + + 4
Calvia 14-punctata (L.) + 1
Psyllobora 22-punctata (L.) + + 4

347
 Present-day ecology of the Folkestone Escarpment

Table 7.14 Continued

Transect 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Total
ENDOMYCHIDAE
Spbaerosoma ptlosum (pz.) + + + 9

LATHRIDTIDAE
Stepbostetbus lardarius (Deg.) + + + + + 10
Aridius bifasciatus (Reitt.) + + + 3
Enicmus transversus (01.) + + + + + + 77
Corticaria elongata (Gyll.) + 1
impressa (01.) + + + + + + + 86
punctuiata Marsh. + + + + 13
"
Corttnicara gibbosa (Hbst.) + + 8
+

MYCETOPHAGIDAE
TYPbaea stercorea (I..) +

TENEBRIONIDAE
lsomira murina (I..) + + + + + 6
Cteniopus sulpbureus (I..) +

SCRAPTIIDAE
Anaspis frontalis (I..) + 3
bumeralis (F.) + 2
maculata Foure. + 3
puUcaria Costa + 19
regimbarti Schil. + 1

MORDEll1DAE
MordeUistena pseudopumila Erm. +

CERAMBYCIDAE
Grammoptera ruficornts (F.) +

BRUCIDDAE
Brucbus ctsti (pk.) + + + + 5

CURYSOMELIDAE
Oulema melanopa (I..) + + + 3
Cryptocepbalus bilineatus (a+l) (I..) + + + 10
labiatus (I..) + 1
Timarcba goettingensis (I..) + + 3
ChrysoUna polita (I..) + + 3
Sermyiassa balensis (1) (I..) + + + + + 81
Apbtbona atrovirens Foerst. + + + + 75
berbigrada (Curt.) + + + + 359
Longitarsus exoletus (I..) + 5
jlavicornis (Steph.) + + 2
fowleri Allen + 1
gracilis Kuts. + + 2
luridus (Scop.) + + + + + 46
obliteratus (Rosen.) + + 7
pratensis (pz.) + + + 8
succineus (Foud.) + 1
suturellus (Duft.) + + 3
Altica"pusilla Duft. + + + + 13
Batopbila rubi (pk.) + + 3
Crepidodera ferruginea (Scop.) + + + 9
Mantura mattbewsi (Curt.) + + + 27
Derocrepis rufipes (I..) + 5
Cbaetocnema concinna (Marsh.) + + + + 6
bortensis (Foure.) + + + + + 7
SPbaeroderma testaceum (F.) +
Apteropeda orbiculata (Marsh.) + 1
Psylliodes chrysocePbala (I..) + + + 6
Cassida rubiginosa MUll. + + + 4

ATTELABIDAE
Rhyncbaenus germanicus Hbst. +

APIONIDAE
Apion apricans Hbst. + + + + + + 46
atomarium Kirby + + + + 20
carduorum Kirby + 1
curtirostre Genn. + 3

348
 Invertebrate fauna

Table 7.14 Continued

Transect 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Total
APIONIDAE continued
Apion dicbroum Bedel + + + + 5
jlavimanum Gyll. + + 2
"
loti Kirby + + + + + + + 220
marcbicum Hbst. +
onopordi Kirby +
pomonae (F.) + 1
" seniculus Kirby + + + 9
simile Kirby + + 2
tenue Kirby + + 3
virens Hbst. + 3
waltoni Steph. + + + 24

CURCUUONIDAE
Otiorhyncbus clavipes (Bons.) + + 2
TracbYPbloeus alternans Gyll. + + 7
aristatus (Gyll.) + + 12
Pbyllobius pyri (1..) + + + + 7
roboretanus Gred. + + + + + + + + 209
viridicollis (F.) + 1
Barypeitbes araneiformis (Schr.) + + + + + + + + 181
pellucidus (Boh.) + 14
Sciapbilus asperatus (Bons.) + 1
Liopbloeus tessulatus (Miill.) + + + 3
Barynotus squamosus Genn. + + 3
Sitona bisptdulus (F.) + 3
lepidus Gyll. + + + + + 39
lineatus (1..) + + + + + 15
Sitona sulcifrons (Thunb.) + + 2
Hypera plantaginis (Deg.) + + 7
postica (Gyll.) + + 2
Leiosoma troglodytes Rye + 1
Plintbus caliginosus (F.) + + + + + 29
Ortbocbaetes setiger (Beck) + + + + + + 23
Coeliodes rubicundus (Hbst.) + 6
Ceutborhyncbidius troglodytes (F.) + + 3
Ceutorbyncbus asperifoliarum (Gyll.) + 1
assimilis (pk.) + + 3
contractus (Marsh.) + 1
jloralis (pk.) + 2
punctiger Gyll. + + 4
Antbonomus rubi (Hbst.) + + 4
Tycbius junceus (Reich.) + + + 27
Miccotrogus picirostris (F.) + + + + + 15
Gymnetron antirrbini (pk.) + 6
pascorum (Gyll.) + + + + + + + + 35
Rbyncbaenus pratensis (Genn.) + + 6
No. of species per transect 110 94 159 103 107 160 98 68
Total specimens of 340 species 10906
Species names preceded by t are recorded as subfossils by G.R. Coope in Part Five (3).

escarpment during the six year study. As in any
invertebrate sampling programme, most species
occur in very small numbers. Over 28% of the
species recorded were represented by single spec-
imens, 52% by 1-3 specimens, and nearly 72% by
less than ten individuals.
Data from the pitfall traps and D-vac suction sam-
ples collected from 1987-89 have been pooled and
only 16 species totalled more than 100 specimens
(Table 7.13). The staphylinid, Drusilla canalicu-
lata, was collected in equally large numbers both
as larva and adult. It was the most abundant beetle
in pitfall traps from all transects and accounted for
36% of all beetles recorded during this study. It is a
tolerated predator of several species of ant, partic-
ularly Lasius flavus. The second most numerous
species, the coccinellid Rhyzobius litura, consti-
tuted a mere 4% of the coleopteran fauna. It is a
predator of aphids and was the most abundant
beetle in the D-vac samples. About 90% of the
records for this species were of larvae. The
chrysomelid Aphthona herbigrada was the most
abundant phytophagous beetle, although nearly all
specimens were collected on the Castle Hill

349
 Present-day ecology of the Folkestone Escarpment
transect, with over 95% being from the September
1987 D-vac samples. It is monophagous on
Helianthemum nummularium. The only other
abundant phytophagous species were Apion loti,
which feeds principally on Lotus corniculatus, and
the two polyphagous weevils Phyllobius robore-
tanus and Barypeithes araneiformis. The
remaining species in Table 7.13 are either preda-
tors or species associated with the dense litter that
had accumulated beneath the Brachypodium tus-
socks. Silpha atrata is a predator of snails. The
large, mainly predatory, family Staphylinidae
accounted for one third of the species recorded
but nearly 54% of the total specimens. Less than
25% of all species are considered to be phy-
tophagous and these account for about 17% of the
specimens in the samples. Details of two of the
rarer Coleoptera encountered during this survey
have been published elsewhere (Welch, 1989,
1990).
Drake (1986) provided a few additional records
for species recorded by lTE from the escarpment:
Pterostichus madidus and Plinthus caliginosus
from Round Hill, Calvia 14 punctata from
Cheriton West, Batophila rubi from Castle Hill and
Grammoptera rujicornis from Sugarloaf, Holywell
Coombe and Castle Hill. He also added an addi-
tional species, Stenus flavipes Steph. from Round
Hill. This beetle was recorded from Asholt Wood
in September 1986 by ITE, together with the fol-
lowing additional species: Synuchus nivalis (pz.),
Paromalus flavicornis (Hbst.), Tachyporus
obtusus (1.), Leptusa fumida (Er.), Aphodius
equestris (Pz.), Kateretes bipustulatus (Pk.) ,
Brachypterus glaber (Steph.), Meligethes atratus
(01.), Epuraea unicolor (01.), Anaspis rujilabris
(Gyll.), Aphthona lutescens (Gyll.), Chalco ides
aurata (Marsh.), Apion subulatum Kirby, and
Notaris acridulus (1.). Drake also added
Rhizophagus ferrugineus (pk.) and Staphylinus ?
globulifer Fourc. from the woodland belt at the
base of Round Hill, plus Harpalus affinis (Schr.),
Bryaxis bulbifer (Reich.), Timarcha tenebricosa
(F.) and Barynotus obscurus (F.) from the St
Martin's Plain area of the Lower Seabrook Valley.
Drake (1986) also included a list of ten further
species of Coleoptera from the escarpment and
Asholt Wood, based on museum and literature
records. All are common widespread species.
Although many of the species listed by Coope
(part Five (4)) as fossils are almost certainly present
today in the environs of Folkestone, only 18 of the
species identified by him have been recorded
during the recent surveys described above.
350
However, over 90 present-day species have been
recorded, belonging to 20 of the genera deter-
mined by Coope.
(b) Aquatic invertebrates
Calcareous springs and streams, such as those on
the Chalk of southern England, have very distinc-
tive, stable physical and chemical ecologies (Berrie,
1992). Chalk streams are fed largely by aquifers,
and the slow seepage through the rock smoothes
out irregularities in rainfall and stabilizes the water
temperature. Measurements from such streams
tend to produce regular annual hydrographs with
relatively small differences between winter and
summer flows and with no spate conditions.
Moreover, the temperature range in the streams
remains closer to the annual mean than in rivers
receiving more surface runoff. These stable stream
environments have their own distinct faunal com-
positions. Several such local chalk streams have
been investigated.
During June and August 1974 and May 1975, in
association with the abortive Channel Tunnel pro-
gramme of the 1970s, A.E. Stubbs carried out a
survey of cranetlies (fipulidae and closely related
families) in the Seabrook and Saltwood Valleys and
in Holywell Coombe. A complete list of the 98
species recorded has been published (Stubbs,
1976a, b) and included four previously unrecorded
from Kent. Stubbs (1976a) also recorded a rare sol-
dier fly associated with the Lower Seabrook stream.
The following descriptions are from Stubbs
(1976b).
The Seabrook Stream
The Seabrook Stream system originates from
springs at the Gault/Chalk contact in Lince
Coombe and Elm Gardens Wood Coombe. The
stream bed is often shallowly incised into coombe
rock and typically consists of chalk pebbles and silt.
In the lower reaches of the coombes there are
patches of chalky alluvium and throughout there
are frequent seepages on stream banks of various
inclinations. The stream crosses the Gault Clay
largely within Asholt Wood and in places the
stream bed contains large numbers of calcareous
concretions from the Gault. On the Lower
Greensand the deeply incised Seabrook valley cuts
into Sandgate Beds whereas the higher part of the
valley slope is underlain by Folkestone Beds. A
spring-line at the base of the Folkestone Beds has
promoted the development of extensive belts of
 Invertebrate fauna

wet peat with seepage much in evidence. The
stream bed locally contains sandstone clasts and
the banks tend to be either of alluvium or peaty
material.
The Saltwood Stream
This has a drier valley with much of its floor com-
prising pasture land on Sandgate Beds. At the north
end, within a wood called Grange Alders, there is a
seepage belt with peat where the Folkestone Beds
come close to the valley floor.
Holy Well
The chalk scarp springs at Holy Well and in the
Round Hill/Castle Hill areas are comparable with
the headwaters of the Seabrook, though at Holy
Well there is also a marsh in a silted up pool. Holy
Well is fed by three discrete springs, yielding a
combined discharge of -40 litres per minute
(Wright, 1988).
Wimpey Laboratories limited were commissioned
to carry out a range of baseline studies for
Eurotunnel. These included investigations into the
hydrology and water quality of streams in the vicin-
ity of sites considered vulnerable to the new
construction proposals. A summary of their find-
ings concerning the physical and chemical
characteristics of the Saltwood, Seabrook and Pent
Streams are provided in Table 7.15.
Drake (1986) conducted an entomological
survey of the main sites to be affected. Although
essentially a survey of terrestrial invertebrates, a
few aquatic samples were collected from the
Seabrook Stream and the spring east of Biggins
Woods, which is the source of the Pent Stream. In
addition, a number of sweep net samples were col-
lected from various types of fen vegetation both in
the Arpinge Range-Elm Gardens section of the
Upper Seabrook Valley, and from the St Martin's
Plain section of the Lower Seabrook Valley. These
samples contained a number of adult insects that
have been abstracted from Drake (1986) and incor-
porated into Table 7.16 below.
In 1987 P.D. Armitage and R.J.M. Gunn of the
Freshwater Biological Association, latterly the
Institute of Freshwater Ecology (IFE), were con-
tracted by Eurotunnel to survey a number of
streams in the Folkestone and Ashford areas of
Kent. Those associated with the Folkestone
escarpment were the Saltwood, Seabrook and Pent
Streams, from which initial samples were collected
during the spring, summer and autumn of 1987.
Monitoring of the first two streams continued, at
least once a year during April, until 1992 and all
invertebrates collected have been identified,
where possible, to species level. Samples from the
Pent Stream were identified only to family as the
first sampling station, situated approximately
200 m from its source near Biggins Wood, was
destroyed later that year during levelling of the site
for construction of the Channel Tunnel Terminal.
A complete list of all aquatic invertebrates
recorded during the period 1987-89 has been
incorporated into Table 7.16. With the notable
exception of the Coleoptera, the identification of
most insect orders was based on larvae, but many
Diptera cannot be identified beyond the generic
level at this stage, requiring adults or pupae for a
specific determination.
By chance two of the sites at which Drake
(1986) collected aquatic samples were very close
to two chosen by Armitage and Gunn (1987)
as IFE's permanent monitoring locations. IFE's

Table 7.15 Environmental characteristics of three escarpment streams (1986)

Stream Saltwood Seabrook Pent
Sampling Station 1 2 3 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3
% Silt & clay 12 4 5 7 5 13 3 38 52 2
% Sand 18 28 6 43 13 20 81 37 62 23 12
% Pebbles & gravel 61 62 48 47 65 54 6 25 0 17 33
% Boulders & cobbles 9 6 41 3 17 25 <1 35 0 8 53
Discharge rate (category) 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
Velocity (category) 3 3 4 4 4 4 3 4 2 2 4
Distance from source (km) 1.7 2.0 3.3 2.0 2.8 3.4 4.3 5.5 0.2 0.9
2.4
Total oxidized N~ (mg 1-1 N) 3.5 3.8 2.63 2.63 4.52
Alkalinity (mg 1- CaC03) 250 250 250 241 249 216 216 330 250 250 250
Chloride (mg 1-1 CI) 30 30 30 29 85 59 59 41 30 30 30
Discharge Rate: Category 1 = <0.31 m 3 S-1
Velocity: Category 2 = >10-25; 3 = >25-50; 4 = >50-100 cm S-1
Data from Wimpey Laboratories Ltd (1986)

351
 Present-day ecology of the Folkestone Escarpment

Table 7.16 Aquatic invertebrates of escarpment streams and fens (1986-1989)

Key:
IFE aquatic samples collected by P.D. Armitage and R.J.M. Gunn (1987-1992)
SWI &2 =Saltwood Stream (fR1636)
Sbl, 2, 3 & 4 =Seabrook Stream, 1 & 2 (fR1737), 3 & 4 (fR1836)
PI =Pent Stream (fR2037)
NCC samples collected by C M Drake (1986)
25 &29 =aquatic samples from Seabrook Stream (TRI738)
22 included with Sb3 (fR1836)
SbU =sweepnet samples from Upper Seabrook Stream: Elm Gardens (fR1737-38)
Sb L : St Martin's Plain (fR17 -1836)
11 =aquatic samples from spring at source of Pent Stream (fR2037)
10 in Holywell Coombe (TR2238)
" "
(see Plate 4(a) for location)
± =R.C. Preece (1992)
Saltwood Seabrook Pent He
---
SW SW Sb Sb Sb Sb Sb Sb
1 2 29 25 1 2 3 4 U L 11 PI 10
HYDROZOA
Hydrididae +

TRICLADIDA
Planariidae +
Polycelis jelina (Dalyell) + + + + + + + +
Dugesia polycbroa group (Schmidt) +
tigrina (Girard) +

MOLLUSCA
Hydrobiidae
Potamopyrgus jenkinsi (Smith) + + + + + + + + + ±
Lymnaeidae
Lymnaea palustris (Miill.) +
peregra (Miill.) +
truncatula (Mull.) + ±
Ancylldae
Ancylus jluviatilis (Mill!.) + +
Succineidae
Oxyloma pjeifferi (Rossmiissler) +
Succinea sp. + +
Zonitidae
Zonitoides nitidus (Mull.) + + ±
sp. +
Sphaerudae +
Spbaerium lacustre (Miill.) +
Pisidium casertanum (poll) + + + + + + ±
milium Held + ±
nitidum Jenyns + + +
personatum Maim + +
subtruncatum Maim + + + + + + ±
sp. +

OLIGOCHAETA
Naididae
Opbidonais serpentina (Mull.) +
Nais communis group Piguet + +
elinguis Miill. + + + +
"
Tubificidae +
Aulodrilus pluriseta (piguet) + + + + +
Limnodrilus claparedeanus Ratzel +
bof!meisteri Claparecte + +
udekemianus Claparecte +
Potamotbrix bammoniensis (Michaelson) +
Psammoryctides barbatus (Grube) + + +
Rbyacodrilus coccineus Vejdarsky + + + + + +
Spirosperma velutinus + + +
Tubifex ignotus (Stole.) +
tubifex (Mull.) + + + +
Enchytraeidae (indet.) + + + +
Lumbricudidae +
Lumbriculus variegatus (Mull.) +

352
 Invertebrate fauna

Table 7.16 Continued

Saltwood Seabrook Pent He
---
SW SW Sb Sb Sb Sb Sb Sb
1 2 29 25 1 2 3 4 u L 11 PI 10
OUGOCHAETA conttnued
Lumbricudidae conttnued
Stylodrllus beringtanus Claparede + + +
lernant (Grube) +
sp. + +
"
Lumbricidae +
Eisentella tetraedra (Savigny) + + + + +
indet. Lumbricidae + + + + + +
HIRUDINEA
Glossiphoniidae +
BatracobdeUa paludosa (Carena) +
Glosstpbonta complanata (1.) + + + + + + +
HelobdeUa stagnalis (1.) + +
Erpobdellidae +
Erpobdella octoculata (1.) + + + + +
HYDRACARINA (indet.) + +
CRUSTACEA
Asellidae
AseUus meridianus Racovitza +
Gammaridae +
Gammarus pulex (1.) + + + + + + + + + +
llyocyprididae
Ryocyprts brady; Sars ±
cyprididae
Psycbrodromus oltvaceus (Brady & Nonnan) ±

EPHEMEROPTERA
Ephemeridae
EPbemera dantca Miill. + + + +
Leptophlebiidae
HabroPblebtafusca (Curt.) + + + +
Paraleptopblebta submargtnata (Steph.) + + + +
Baetidae +
Baetts muttcus (1.) +
rbodani (Picket) + + + + + + + + + +
tenaxEaton +
vernus Curt. + + + + + + +
tenaxjvernus +
"
Centropttlus luteolum (Miill.) + + +
PLECOPTERA
Nemouridae +
Ampbtnemura standfusst Ris + + + +
Nemoura cinerea (Retz.) + +
errattca Claassen + + + + + + + +
Nemurella ptctett (picket) + + + +
Leuctridae
Leuctrafusca (1.) +
sp. +
ODONATA
Coenagriidae
Iscbnura elegans (van der Linden) + +
HEMIPTERA
Veliidae +
Velta caprat Tom. + + +
Coxididae
Stgara dlsttncta (Fieb.) +
Nepidae
Nepa cinerea L. +
COLEOPTERA
Dytiscidae
Agabus guttatus (pk.) +
Ilybtusfultgtnosus (F.) +
indet. Dytiscidae +

353
 Present-day ecology of the Folkestone Escarpment

Table 7.16 Continued

Saltwood Seabrook Pent He
----
SW SW Sb Sb Sb Sb Sb Sb
1 2 29 25 1 2 3 4 u L 11 PI 10
COLEOPTERA continued
Hydrophilidae
Anacaena globulus (pk.) + +
Helophorus brevipalpis Bedel +
indet. Hydrophilidae +
Hydraenidae
Limnebius truncatellus (Thnb.) +
Scirtidae +
Blodes sp. + + + + + + + +
Microcara testacea (L.) +
Cyphon coarctatus Pk. +
Elmidae
Blmis aenea (Milll.) + + + + + + + +
Limnius volkmari (pz.) + + + + + +
Riolus cupreus (Mull.) + + + + +
subviolaceus (Mill!.) + + + +

MEGALOPTERA
Sialidae
Sialis juliginosa Picket + + +

NEUROPTERA
Osmylidae
Osmylus julvicephalus (Scop.) + +

TRICHOPTERA
'caseless'
Rhyacophilidae +
Rhyacophila dorsalis (Curt.) + + + + + +
septentrionis McLach. + +
Philopotamidae
Wormaldia sp. + +
Polycentropodidae +
Plectrocnemia conspersa (Curt.) + + + + + + + +
geniculata McLach. + +
Polycentropus flavomaculatus (picket) +
Psychomyiidae +
Tinodes unicolor (picket) + +
waeneri (L.) +
sp. + +
Lype phaeopa (Steph.) +
reducta (Hagen) + +
"
Hydropsychidae
Hydropsyche angustipennis (Curt.) +
julvipes (Curt.) + + +
siltalai Dohler + + + + + +
'cased'
Glossosomatidae
Agapetus juscipes Curt. + +
sp. + +
Hydroptilidae
Hydroptila sp. +
Lepidostomatidae +
Crunoecia irrorata (Curt.) + + + +
Limnephilidae +
Halesus digitatus/radiatus + + + + + +
Halesus radiatus (Curt.) +
Micropterna lateralis/sequax +
sequax (McLach.) + + + + +
Potamophylax cingulatus/
latipennis + + + + + + + +
Chaetopteryx villosa (F.) + + +
Limnephilus auricula Curt. +
lunatus Curt. +
Sericostomatidae +
Sericostoma personatum (Spence) + +
Georidae
Silo pallipes (F.) +
sp. +
"

354
 Invertebrate fauna

Table 7.16 Continued

Saltwood Seabrook Pent He
SW SW Sb Sb Sb Sb Sb Sb
1 2 29 25 1 2 3 4 U L 11 PI 10
TRICHOPTERA continued
Beraeidae
Beraea maurus (Curt.) + +
pullata (Curt.) +

DIPTERA
Ceratopogonidae (indet.) + + + + +
Chironomidae (fanypodinae) +
Apsectrotanypus trijascipennis (Zett.) + + + + +
Macropelopia sp. + + + +
Natarsia sp. +
Procladius sp. +
Tbienemannimyia group + + +
Zavrelimyia group + +
Chironomidae (prodiamesinae) +
Odontomesa julva (Kieff.) +
Prodiamesa olivacea (Meig.) + + + + + +
sp. + + +
Chironomidae (Orthocladiinae)
Brillia modesta (Meig.) + + + + + +
Chaetocladius sp. + + +
Epoicolcladius flavens (Malloch) +
Eukiefferiella sp. +
Heleniella ornaticollis (Edwards) +
Orthocladius/Cricotopus sp. + + + + + +
Parametriocnemus stylatus (Kieff.) + + + +
Paratrissocladius sp. + + +
Rheocricotopus sp. + + + + +
Symposiocladius sp.
'acutilabis' +
sp. + +
Tvetenia calvescens (Edwards) +
sp. + + + +
Chironomidae (Chironomini) +
Polypedilum sp. + + + + +
Chironomidae (Tanytarsini) +
Micropsectra/Tanytarsus + + + +
Rheotanytarsus sp. + +
Stempellinella sp. + +
Dixidae +
Dixa nubilipennis Curt. + + + +
submaculata Edwards + +
"
Empidae
Chelifera 'type' + + + + + +
Hemerodromia 'type' + + + +
Muscidae
Limnophora sp. + + +
Psychoididae
Pericoma diversa Tomn. +
trivialis Eaton + +
sp. + +
Ptychopteridae +
Ptychoptera albimana CF.) +
lacustris Meig. + + + +
paludosa Meig. +
Simuliidae +
Simulium angustitarse gpo (Lund.) + + + +
costatum Fried. +
noelleri Fried. +
ornatum group + + + + + +
(Wilhelmia) sp. +
sp. + + +
Stratiomyidae
OJrycera sp. + + + + + +
TipuJidae +
Dicranota sp. + + + + + + + +
Eloeophila sp. + + + +
Limonia nubeculosa Meig. +
sp. + + +

355
 Present-day ecology of the Folkestone Escarpment
Table 7.16 Continued
Saltwood
SW SW
1 2
DIPTERA continued
Tipulidae continued
Limoniini indet.
Nephrotoma sp. + +
Pi/aria sp. + +
Rhyph%phus sp. +
Tipu/a maxima Poda + +
montium Egger
Pent 1 sampling station was within 200 m of
Drake's site 11, where he collected aquatic sam-
ples from two adjacent springs and a sweep net
sample from the associated fen vegetation (see
Fig. 7.2). By comparing the two adjacent lists in
Table 7.16, the unidentified hydrobiid snail in
IFE's Pent 1 samples can be assumed with reason-
able confidence to be Potamopyrgus jenkinsi
(=antipodarum) , the only species of that family
recorded both at Site 11 and in other samples
from the Seabrook and Saltwood Streams.
However, although Polycelis jelina was the pla-
narian most frequently recorded by IFE and was
found by Drake at Site 11, two other species were
collected in the Seabrook Stream. In this case the
identity of the Pent specimens must, therefore,
remain uncertain. As Drake's (1986) aquatic
sample no 22 was collected in the Lower
Seabrook Stream within approximately 100
metres of IFE's Seabrook Stream sample Sb3, the
two data sets have been merged in Table 7.16. Six
species of aquatic insect were recorded by Drake
in 1986 but were not found by IFE between 1987
and 1989: two mayflies, Ephemera danica and
Baetis tenax; four caddisflies, Rhyacophila
septentrionis, Plectrocnemia geniculata, Halesus
radiatus and Chaetopteryx villosa; and an
unidentified chironomid fly, Prodiamesa sp.,
which could well be the P. olivacea recorded by
IFE. In addition, Drake recorded four species of
Coleoptera in sweep-net samples, all in the family
Staphylinidae, which are characteristic of marsh
and fen habitats: Dianous coeruleus (Gyll.) and
Lesteva longoelytrata (Goeze) by the spring at
the source of the Pent Stream and Stenus palli-
tarsis Steph. and Paederus riparius (L.) in
Phragmites fen in the Lower Seabrook Valley. He
also mentioned museum or literature records for
356
Seabrook Pent He
---
Sb Sb Sb Sb Sb Sb
29 25 1 2 3 4 u L 11 PI 10
+
+
+ + + + +
+
Hydroporus jerrugineus Steph., H planus (F.)
and Elodes ? pseudominuta Klausn. from this
stream valley.
In addition to the aquatic species recorded by
Drake from stream-side vegetation, particularly in
the upper and lower reaches of the Seabrook
Stream, he also collected the occasional aquatic
species some distance from water. While sweeping
rides in the southern parts of Asholt Wood he
recorded the caddisfly Limnephilus auricula and
the stonefly Nemoura cinerea, which have been
included with those species listed in Table 7.16
from the Upper Seabrook Stream. Single specimens
of three species of water beetle, Haliplus Jluvi-
atitis Aube, H obliquus (F.) and Helophorus
brevipalpis, were recorded by Welch et al. (1990)
from D-vac suction samples from ITE's Round Hill
transect on the Folkestone Escarpment in June
1989. Fragments ofthe last species were identified
from a similar sample collected on Castle Hill in
June 1988. Although recorded during sampling for
terrestrial invertebrates, these three species have
been omitted from Table 7.14.
Besides recording the species of aquatic inverte-
brates listed in Table 7.16 on a presence or absence
basis, Armitage and Gunn (1987) provided a mea-
sure of abundance for each family recorded at each
sampling station. By summing the Log Categories
of Abundance for each of the samples collected in
the spring, summer and autumn of 1987, they were
able to identify the major constituents of the fauna.
The Gammaridae (all presumed to be Gammarus
pulex) were consistently the most abundant family
(species) in all except the Saltwood 1 and Seabrook
4 samples, where they were outnumbered by the
hydrobiid snail Potamopyrgus jenkinsi and by
tubificid worms respectively. The other common
families in the IFE samples, ranked in descending
 Discussion and conclusions
order of abundance, were the mayfly family
Baetidae (ranked third between Hydrobiidae and
Tubificidae), Simuliidae (black flies), Sphaeriidae
(orb and pea mussels), Elmidae (riffle beetles) and
Orthocladiinae (non-biting midges).
Drake (1986) collected one aquatic sample (no
10) from the spring at Holy Well, in which he
recorded 15 species, five of which were not taken
elsewhere in the locality: two snails, Lymnaea
palustris and Oxyloma pfeifferi, the mayfly Baetis
muticus, the caddisfly Polycentropus Jlavomacu-
latus and the cranefly Limonia nubeculosa.
During June 1974 Stubbs recorded a total of 69
species of cranefly when comparing habitats along
the length of the Seabrook Stream and at the chalk
spring in the Holy Well area. Some additional
species were recorded during a second visit to
Holy Well in May 1975. As these records have been
published (Stubbs, 1976a), they have not been
incorporated into Table 7.16. R.C. Preece also sam-
pled the spring at Holy Well in 1992, finding
several new molluscs and adding records for the
ostracods Psychrodromus olivaceus and Ilyocypris
bradyi (Table 7.16), two species well represented
in the fossil record (part V(6)).
(5) DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS
The chalk escarpment between Creteway Down,
north of Folkestone, and The Lince, near
Etchinghill, has been recognized for over a century
for the richness of its flora and associated fauna.
Indeed, it was one of the earliest SSSIs to be sched-
uled (in 1951) under the National Parks and Access
to the Countryside Act (1949) and it still enjoys
protection following renotification by the NCC
(now English Nature) under section 28 of the
Wildlife and Countryside Act (1981). The chalk
escarpment has two valuable features. It is south-
facing and therefore is warm and thus attractive to
thermophilous species that are at the northern
edge of their range. Second, there are springs and
fen habitats (Holy Well), which are scarce in south-
east England.
This stretch of the escarpment is of major impor-
tance botanically. Cherry Garden Hill is the classic
site where the late spider orchid (Ophrys fuciflora)
was first discovered in Great Britain. It still occurs
there, and a small population also survives in
Holywell Coombe. In Britain this plant is restricted
to a few locations in East Kent, on the North
Downs between Wye and Folkestone (philp, 1982).
This orchid, together with the eady spider orchid
357
(Ophyrs sphegodes) and the bedstraw broomrape
(Orobanche caryophyllacea) are three nationally
rare plants listed on Schedule 8 to the Wildlife and
Countryside Act (1981) and specially protected by
law. These and other notable plants present on the
Folkestone escarpment, such as wild cabbage
(Brassica oleracea), candytuft (Iberis amara) and
woolly thistle (Cirsium eriophorum), are restricted
to the chalk grassland, but O. caryophyllacea,
which parasitizes Galium mallugo, also occurs on
fixed sand-dunes behind Sandwich Bay (Philp,
1982). According to the National Vegetation
Classification (Keymer, 1986; Rodwell, 1992), most
of the communities on the Folkestone escarpment
belong to Brachypodium pinna tum grassland
(CG4) or Bromus erectus-Brachypodium pinna-
tum grassland (CG5).
A valuable comparison between the chalk grass-
lands of the Folkestone area and northern France
has been provided by Rose (1972). He found much
in common in their basic components, although
there are some important differences. For example,
Bromus erectus, an important dominant of chalk
grasslands in south-east England, is very rare in
northern France, whereas Brachypodium pinna-
tum is equally common within 50 km of
both coasts. Rose listed Ophrys fuciflora and
Orobanche caryophyllacea amongst a small
number of species that range from France into East
Kent, but no further into Britain. He did not regard
the Strait of Dover as a significant obstacle to the
northward spread of these plants, all of which have
light seeds easily carried by the wind. Instead the
restriction, within Britain, of these and Iberis
amara to Kent can be attributed to climatic factors
(Wells, 1969; Smith, 1980).
Holywell Coombe and its surrounding area also
support an outstanding assemblage of insects,
including many local and rare species. A number of
nationally rare flies, moths and butterflies occur.
Especially notable is the polymorphic annulet moth
(Gnophos obscuratus), for which this is the only
known British locality for the formfasciata. In
addition, the nationally rare straw belle moth
(Aspitates gi/varia) also occurs.
It is not possible to establish how long any of
these rare plants or insects have been present on
the Folkestone-Etchinghill escarpment, because
none of them have been recovered as fossils. The
fossil record from Holywell Coombe indicates that
closed woodland existed until the eady Bronze Age
(Part Five), so it is extremely unlikely that chalk
grassland communities, as seen today, extended
back beyond about 4000 yr BP. These communities
 Present-day ecology of the Folkestone Escarpment
therefore have no long pedigree and would seem
to be the anthropogenic products of Neolithic and
Early Bronze Age forest clearances (Parts Five and
Six), the open character of which has been main-
tained by grazing animals, both domestic and wild.
This is the reason why the modem grassland com-
munities have relatively few species in common
with the fossil assemblages (Part Five). The fossil
record does, however, provide an important his-
torical perspective on the development of the
present-day fauna and flora for the period between
13000 and 7500 yr BP, as represented by organic
fossils in the waterlogged sediments of Holywell
Coombe. Not only have remains of plants, beetles,
molluscs and vertebrates been preserved, but also
those of fungi, algae, mites, caddisflies, ostracods
and even calcareous granules from earthworms.
Fossil spiders and ants have also been found, but
unfortunately there has to date been minimal study
of these groups in the Quaternary, so no specialist
accounts can be provided. The sediments above
the water-table are oxidized and no longer contain
organic fossils, so knowledge of the downland ecol-
ogy since 7500 yr BP relies on calcareous fossils.
These upper sediments contain abundant shells
of land snails, so for this group at least the record
can be extended from the early Late-glacial up to
the present day. It would be wrong to assume that
the modem open-country communities have
existed unchanged since the Bronze Age. Some
species could not be found alive on the chalk
escarpment, an example being Monacha cartu-
siana, a local snail that occurred throughout most
of the hillwash, although empty shells of this
species were found between Round Hill and Castle
Hill (R.C. Preece, pers. comm.). Conversely, the
helicelline snail Cernuella virgata, so common on
the downs today, was completely absent in the hill-
wash, suggesting that it is a recent colonist.
The intensity, timing and duration of grazing can
all have an effect on the structure and composition
358
of the vegetation, as can the species of grazer. In
recent years any downland vegetation to have
escaped ploughing is likely to have suffered
changes resulting from the reduction in stock graz-
ing and the decline in rabbit numbers following
myxomatosis. Even during the brief period of this
survey (1987-90) there was a trend for all grassland
on the Folkestone escarpment to become taller,
coarser and for it to lose species. Tor grass
(Brachypodium pinnatum), in particular, has
expanded at the expense of herb-rich grassland.
Changes are also observable in the freshwater
communities. No trace of the rare bivalve Pisidium
tenuilineatum, frequent in the early to mid
Holocene tufas (part Five), could be found in the
modern streams. Several of these, however, were
dominated by the introduced hydrobiid
Potamopyrgus jenkinsi, now thought to be
conspecific with the New Zealand species
P. antipodarum (Ponder, 1988).
All the quantitative modem data presented here
resulted from surveys conducted by the Institute of
Terrestrial Ecology and the Institute of Freshwater
Ecology. These surveys were undertaken in order
to detect any deleterious effects upon the natural
environment that might be caused by the con-
struction of the Channel Tunnel and to recommend
measures to mitigate them. Monitoring continued
throughout the construction phase, during which
no significant changes attributable to this activity
were found. It is most unusual to have quantitative
data of this kind for such a diverse range of organ-
isms from such a small area and almost unique to
have comparable data on fossil assemblages from
the same site. These data are therefore extremely
important not only in shOWing the extent to which
the faunas and floras have changed during the his-
tory of the valley, but also in providing an
invaluable baseline for monitoring future change,
whatsoever its cause.
PART EIGHT

Synthesis
R.C. Preece
 The geological sequence at Holywell Coombe
(1) THE GEOLOGICAL SEQUENCE AT
HOLYWELL COOMBE
The sedimentary sequence in Holywell Coombe,
representing the Late-glacial and Post-glacial periods,
has been established on the basis of 180 boreholes,
together with specially excavated trenches and sec-
tions exposed during the construction of the
Channel Tunnel (Fig. 1.4). From this stratigraphy,
and from detailed analyses of the sediments, their
properties and contained fossils, the general
sequence of events in the history of the valley has
been reconstructed as summarized in Fig. 8.1. A
precise chronological framework is provided by
more than thirty-five new radiocarbon age determi-
nations. Volumetrically, Late-glacial sediments
account for over 70% of the valley infill and these
will be discussed first, followed by an account of the
events that occurred during the Post-glacial.
(a) 'B0lling' and earlier
The earliest Pleistocene deposits in Holywell
Coombe are sediments that accumulated in marshy
hollows at the foot of Sugarloaf Hill. One of these
marshes was in front of what appears to be the toe
of a foundered mass of Gault Clay. This interpreta-
tion is based on the anomalous rises in the
apparent surface of the Gault Clay in comparable
positions in several parallel borehole transects, and
the occurrence of a distinct scar in the corre-
sponding position on the side of Sugarloaf Hill. The
marsh deposit here began to accumulate during the
'B011ing phase' of the Late-glacial Interstadial
(13 000-12 000 yr BP), so it follows that the land-
slip must have occurred before this period. The
interdigitation of landslide debris and 'coombe
rock' in the toe of the Castle Hill landslide indicates
that the principal failure here took place in the
Late-glacial (Griffiths et al., 1995; Birch and
Griffiths, 1996; Varley et al., 1996).
A single northern beetle, Nebria gyllenhali,
recovered from the base of Trench 4, might possi-
bly have been derived from some pre-Interstadial
sediments. Apart from this, and the landslipped
material discussed above, there is no evidence for
any pre-Interstadial Pleistocene deposits, except
perhaps for a veneer of chalk debris that was
found resting on the surface of the Gault Clay in
several places.
361
The humic chalk muds that accumulated in the
marshes produced well-preserved pollen, demon-
strating a predominance of herbs including
Helianthemum, Filipendula, Epilobium,
Thalictrum, Geranium, Valeriana dioica, Succisa
pratensis and Plantago. Macrofossils of Scirpus,
funcus, Carex, Angelica sylvestris, Cerastium
fontanum, Silene vulgaris, Diplotaxis muralis,
Linum catharticum, Origanum vulgare and
Chaenorhinum minus have also been recovered.
Loeskypnum badium, a moss previously unknown
from the British Pleistocene (preece and Stevenson,
1993), is also noteworthy. Associated mosses
includedAmblystegium riparium, Calliergon cus-
pidatum, Campylium stellatum, Cratoneuron
commutatum and C. filicinum. Oribatid mites
were frequent amongst the moss remains. The
occurrence of tree birches (Betula pubescens) has
been indicated not only by the presence of a bark
beetle (Scolytus ratzeburgt) generally associated
with them, but also by the pollen, fruits and even
timbers themselves. In addition to tree birch, other
woodland plant remains include willow (Salix sp.)
and juniper (juniperus communis). The palaeo-
botany therefore depicts a marshland valley floor
with scattered birch and willow trees, while on the
chalk hillsides, open landscape prevailed, support-
ing a variety of herbaceous communities, together
with juniper scrub.
These same inferences can be made indepen-
dently from faunal evidence, which points to a
base-rich marsh with areas of bare mud but little or
no standing water, although enough to support
larvae of the caddisfly Limnephilus extricatus and
a few water-beetles. The molluscan fauna at this
time was extremely impoverished, consisting of no
more than 17 taxa, and usually far fewer in individ-
ual samples. No woodland snails are represented
but open-ground and wetland communities were
dominated by Vallonia species and Pupilla mus-
corum (large form), with Vertigo genesii, Catinella
arenaria and Lymnaea truncatula. Cochlicopa
nitens, today a rare species known only from a few
calcareous fens in central Europe, constitutes a
new record for the British Late-glacial (Preece,
1992b). The striking absence of Carychium mini-
mum, so abundant in many wetland habitats today,
means that it would be hard to find an exact
modern analogue for this fauna. This assemblage is
attributable to zone y (Kerney et al., 1980), the ear-
liest of the molluscan zones and the only one not
 ~

PLANT FOSSILS ANIMAL FOSSILS INTERPRETATION :c c:

.., Terminotogy
~ c:g 1l 1
'6
c: -u ii used here
Pollen zones Coleoptera Climate QC (MCRR'j Archaeology ~ ~~ t!: ~
OTIT~~------~------4-------~---------4~------4-~~~~------4---------~~----~
Mectiaeval and o
lalMartefacts
IAonacha cantiana Ero
IiI 1il
.D
I Romano-British ::>
Helix .aspersa Grassland en
2 ""eI_
3 I
III
I Monacha c:at1usiana
2850 1: 70 0."-3558
I ~
co
No pollen 3430 ~ 90 0."-3223 Scrub regenerahon Iron Age""elaas
3515;t; 80 0. ... -2090 in the buried soC!
~
1111'1111 Slope stability
Grassland
.8
.D
preserved e ::>
_Age
F(8xinus. Prunus
No beetles 80s taurus Residual &enJb arteIads and midden en
charcoal Vallonia • 4470 ~ 90 0 .... -3224
_ _ _ ;u,
AId·marks
Sus Forest etearance
Pomatias elegans 562O:t.1O OaA-2091 beneath hillwash
I--- to
preserved o
Evidence of Marine sheIs
in top of tufa
:~ T T
Acicula-
forest recession (food refuse)
to
Cl
6 Eupatorium
o
T Spe""",,,,". 'E ..!.
a:- cannabinum d ... en
ID temty/o· ro
T T 1l .... ~ o
OJCychiIus cellarius Apodemus No archaeology 0..
~ 7 ii 1l
syfvaticust t!:
7500 1: 100 51-3410 ii
~ flavicotlis 7650 1: SO 0-27"
w t!:
T T CotyIus .~n.a . I I---
~ 8 Discus rorundatus c Ciethrionomys
Ulmus Closed
z T hazel woodland co
o Hazel-nuts
~
ID T T 8630 ~ 120 0....·2157
o
a: ID
« T
o CoryIus IIvsRana 898O.t. 100 S.·3411
o 9 Chscus t'UderIItus bt- .....-b..f,,;;,~­
Q
c..vus_ 1230 :t 75 0-2710
r-----
C
«
T T Eucnemis capucina
L.icinus depfV!SSUS
4
T
Sus scro'a 9240 :t 10
9305:t 115
8460 :t 140
0-2719
51-3395
0.....208&
T MAX 15-24°. T MIN -8 to +6
\ ~
co
~
.Vv.-"'"¥,,Vy _
Betula •
"-Ius Talpa europaea TMAX 15-21". TMIN -4 to +6~
a: IS30 ::I: 75 0-2711 .8
I< ........... It " PinUS sylvestns
.. .. II: It Jun~ communis
Betulanana
Aei:~!"vitrea Ia
Bembidion octomaculatum 9760:t 100 0-2721
1820 ::I:: 10 0xA-230&6
Jumper scrub TMAX17-18°.TYIN-2tO+4° . . . .
TMA)( 10-11°. T MIN -16to +1"
SUdden
amelioration
i
:t
~
8.;, ~
Cl...
::::::::: • ;gr!l,!,i~e..a! __ _ /lembidiondauricum Arctic·alpine
0I0phrum ".,.ole 1900 :t 100 0 ....·2606 and snow·patch ~
10 Dryas OCfOpetala Columella columella I3 TyAX 5-11°. TMIN -16to +0 0
a
,. " ", ..... " Arpedium quadrum
10160::1: 110 O....·2608i communities

o C)
' ...H~_9~'!.." Loch
Q; til
Olro
c ~ Lomond
o '" No beetles
0<>0 Slope erosion ~o
No pollen Stadial
preserved

11 '" ()
preserved ...
]
1l -0
:ll
Abida· Trichia· ii s:: co
BirCh charcoal Ar;an.a- SoreJt aranellS 11 37O.t. 150 o.A· Slope stability t!: e '"
C.
Nesovirrea 11 520 .t. va 0xA-2353
Stable climate ~ "0 ~
TMAX 35_15°. TMIN -18 to +4 0
IIJlllIlJl1 Notaris aelhiops 11 530 i. 160 0aA- l!?
~
<:)
o '" "
.. c
BorttaphiJuS hermingianus 12 11 82O.t. 140 0-2720
9 Slope erosion «
<'" .'!!
~
PycnogIypto lunda 11130.t. 140 0xA-'97, IOOl)'as ~
12 TMAX 13-14.
" TMIN -15 to +3°. . - . Sudden
cooling co
12150.t. 110 0-2712 I Marsh communities

Betula-
Gramineae
Tree birCh
Pupilla· Vaflonta
y Scolyrus ratzeburgi
80s primigenius 12280.t. 140 o-A,"752J birch~Iand
I ~
Ol
:ll
s::
'"c.
·iii
0>
Cochlicopa niter,s Slope stability
__ octomaCu_11 TMAX 17_18°. TMIN -7 to .20
~ f ~
~
13 13160.t. 400 Od·1751 ~
Land·&fipping
Erosion of valley

Figure 8.1 Summary diagram of the Late-glacial and Post-glacial history of Holywell Coombe. 1Mutual Climatic Range Reconstructions based on beetle data.
 The geological sequence at Holywell Coombe
previously recognized at this, the type locality for
the scheme (preece, 1993, 1998a).
These sediments yielded rich and diverse beetle
assemblages, which indicate temperate conditions
and demonstrate that the thermal maximum of the
Late-glacial occurred at this time, with summer
temperatures at least as warm as, or even warmer
than, those of the present day. Estimates derived
from Mutual Climatic Range Reconstruction
(Atkinson et al., 1987) suggest maximum July tem-
peratures of about 17° to 18°C and minimum
winter temperatures of about -7 to -2°C.
Thermophilous beetles from these marsh deposits,
such as Bembidion octomaculatum, whose
modern range just reaches the extreme south-east
of England, had a geographical range that was
much more extensive at this time, when it reached
sites as far north as western Cumbria and the Isle
of Man. The depauperate molluscan communities
at this time cannot therefore have been caused by
climatic severity, but must have resulted from
retarded immigration.
An unexpected discovery, near the base of
Trench 4, was a small weevil, Micrelus ericae, that
feeds exclusively on ling (Calluna vulgaris) and
cross-leaved heath (Erica tetralix). The presence
of heathland in a local environment so dominated
by chalk may seem anomalous but, as it is repre-
sented by a single specimen, it would appear that
any acid soils were only of very limited extent.
Other heathland taxa have been recovered from
younger Late-glacial sediments at Holywell Coombe
and are discussed in the appropriate section below.
Vertebrate fossils were scarce, but did include a
scapula of aurochs (Bos primigenius) dated to
12280 ± 140 yr BP from Trench HV. When found
this was a new record from the British Late-glacial,
but Late-glacial dates have since been obtained
from aurochs bones excavated from caves in
Derbyshire and the West Country. The Folkestone
specimen, however, remains the only example
found stratified within a Late-glacial sequence from
an open context. The only other vertebrate fossils
recovered from this part of the sequence were vole
teeth, representing the grassland genus Microtus,
although it was not possible to identify the species.
(b) 'Aller~d'
The transition from the 'B011ing' to the 'Aller0d'
phase of the Late-glacial Interstadial is not easy to
define from a study of the stratigraphy. In several
sections the marsh sediments, which accumulated
363
between about 13 100 and 11 800 yr BP, are over-
lain by chalk rubbles, indicating the reactivation of
slope erosion possibly as a result of climatic deteri-
oration. Some of these marsh deposits now occur
to the east and up-slope of the present axis of the
valley. It is clear that subsequent erosion from the
flanks of Sugarloaf Hill has given rise to fans of
chalk colluvium (solifluction) that have caused a
westward displacement of the valley axis.
In Section BS, the darker, more organic upper
horizons of the marsh deposits produced rich
assemblages of mites, including species that sug-
gested an increase in woodland cover. Some
predatory meso stigmatic mites were also recov-
ered. Several of these could be identified to species
level, one of the very few occasions where it has
been possible to do this with fossil gamasid mites.
Aquatic or amphibiOUS oribatids, so common in
comparable levels at the classic Dutch Late-glacial
site at Usselo, were not represented in the samples
analysed.
Also present were rich assemblages of beetle,
including northern species such as Pycnoglypta
lurida, Boreaphilus henningianus and Notaris
aethiops. The occurrence of these species suggests
that this part of the 'Aller0d' was colder by about
4°C in mean July temperature than the preceding
'B011ing' phase. A trunk of birch, dated to 12 150 ±
110 yr BP, was excavated from the upper part of
this lower organic horizon, providing a date for the
beginning of this cooling event. The switch from
organic sedimentation to the emplacement of the
chalk rubbles, and deformation of the lower
organic beds, appears to have coincided with the
culmination of the same cooling trend.
For the most part, the chalk rubbles overlying
the marsh deposits lack any obvious bedding and
appear to have resulted from erosion of the flanks
of Sugarloaf Hill and Round Hill. In some sections
they reach thicknesses of 2-3 m. They are gener-
ally unfossiliferous but, in the Main Section,
occasional fragments of wood were recovered,
probably derived from earlier sediments. In Section
BS, organic lenses were present within this coarse
unit. These yielded molluscan assemblages con-
taining Trichia hispida, Nesovitrea hammon is and
Arianta arbustorum, assignable to zone z, quite
different from those in the underlying 'B011ing'
marsh sediments, where the molluscan assem-
blages belong to zone y (full details of this zonation
scheme are given in Part Five (3); Fig. 8.1). These
organic lenses were therefore not merely detached
and reworked portions of the lower organic hori-
zons. Although only a small sample (sample 8) was
 Synthesis
available, it too produced a beetle fauna with sev-
eral northern species (e.g. Pycnoglypta lurida,
Notaris aethiops and Anthophagus alpinus).
The marked changes in the land snail and beetle
faunas in the transitional period between the
'B011ing' and 'Aller0d' do not coincide precisely.
The land snails from the 'Moss layer' and above,
including the levels associated with the dated birch
trunk in Section BS, are essentially the same as the
assemblages below, which were associated with
thermophilous beetles, such as Bembidion
octomaculatum. The change from a zone y to a
zone z molluscan assemblage, however, had
occurred before the emplacement of the organic
sediments represented by sample 8, indicating a
lagged response with respect to that of the beetles.
These changes take place within a single pollen
assemblage zone (the Betula-Gramineae p.a.z.),
although it is noteworthy that in Trench HV there
is a progressive decline inJuniperus before, and a
sustained minimum after, 12280 ± 140 yr BP. No
substantial changes in the plant macrofossil record
were apparent. Betula and Carex spp. remain
common and Juniperus, Salix, Valeriana and
Gramineae remains were also recovered.
The brief period of active erosion from the
chalk slopes, responsible for the emplacement of
up to 3 m of rubble, can be bracketed between
about 11 800 and 11 500 yr BP (Preece, 1992a).
However, as noted above, the first sign of sudden
cooling, revealed by the appearance of northern
beetles, occurred at about 12 100 yr BP. The delay
of perhaps two to three centuries between the cli-
matic deterioration and the first signs of erosion
from the chalk slopes suggests that some climatic
threshold needed to be crossed to initiate the
process. Once it was initiated, impressive amounts
of erosion occurred, such that in several profiles
the thickness of chalk rubble emplaced during this
time far exceeds that produced during the
Younger Dryas. The emplacement of these chalk
rubbles seems to have been partly responsible for
the westward displacement of the position of the
valley axis (Fig. 3.7).
There is now much experimental data on the
weathering and breakdown of different types of
chalk under carefully controlled laboratory condi-
tions (e.g. Williams, 1980; Lautridou et al., 1986).
These experiments have confirmed that, when sat-
urated, chalk is a highly frost-susceptible material.
In periglacial times, distintegration must have been
rapid, with measurable amounts of weathering
occurring within a single season, and complete pul-
verization of material in the active layer being
364
achieved over a period of a few hundred years. It is
difficult to obtain precise quantitative information
on the climate at this time, since the chalk rubbles
themselves are unfossiliferous. However, the beetle
assemblages from organic deposits immediately
below and within this unit suggest maximum July
temperatures of about 13-15°C and winter tem-
peratures as low as -18° up to 4°C. It is likely that
ground temperatures hovered around zero for
much of the year. Such a regime is likely to pro-
mote active disintegration and down-slope
movement of chalk debris, provided that the
ground is saturated (e.g. Williams, 1980).
Higher in the profiles, usually as the sediments
become finer, a prominent grey soil forms an impor-
tant marker horizon. This is not preserved
everywhere but was present in several adjacent
boreholes on the eastern limb of the interfluve in
transect 4 and in several sections within Holywell
Coombe (Fig. 3.6). Micromorphological analyses
have confirmed the pedogenic origin of this horizon.
In particular, the Ah horizon shows extensive incor-
poration of humus, some gleying and evidence of
decalcification and mineral weathering. The subsoil
horizons, in places, contain evidence for weak clay
illuviation and deep soil structure. Other analyses,
such as magnetic susceptibility, loss-on-ignition (and
organic carbon), and the concentration data of shells
and calcitic (earthworm) granules, all show
enhanced values through this horizon, which further
supports this interpretation (Figs 3.13 and 3.23).
This is the first site in Britain where clay illuviation
has been observed in the 'Aller0d soil', although it
has been recorded in comparable soils elsewhere in
Europe (Van Vliet-Lanoe, 1990). Clay illuviation is
typical of, though not strictly confined to, well-
drained temperate forest soils, so its occurrence at a
time when birch forest was well established at
Holywell Coombe is not unexpected.
The character of this soil varies according to its
position within the landscape. In poorly-drained
valley floor sites over Gault Clay, it is a calcareous
gley soil (e.g. SP2); on lower valley sides, where it
is developed in coombe deposits over Gault Clay, it
is a stagnogleyic brown earth (e.g. SP1); on slightly
steeper slopes on the Gault Clay it is a stagnogleyic
pararendzina while, on steeper slopes on the
Chalk, Kerney (1963) described rendzinas at Dover
Hill and Castle Hill. The occurrence of mottles in
some of the profiles indicates gleying and suggests
seasonal waterlogging. Analyses of the Mollusca
through the soil in these different settings also
reveal varying proportions of damp and dry-ground
taxa (Fig. 5.3.26).
 The geological sequence at Holywell Coombe
Charcoal fragments, identified as birch and
willow, were present within the soil and, together
with the shells of the snail Arianta arbustorum,
have been used to radiocarbon-date this horizon.
Although the overall range was 11 BOO-II 300 yr BP,
most of the dates cluster tightly around 11 500 yr BP
(Table 4.1). From this soil there was very close
agreement between the dates based on charcoal
and those based on shell. It is theoretically possi-
ble, although extremely unlikely, that some of the
charcoal may have been derived from earlier sedi-
ments; however, derivation can be automatically
excluded in the case of Arianta arbustorum,
because in the British Devensian this species did
not occur before the 'Aller0d' (Kerney, 1963;
Evans, 1972).
Rich Upper Palaeolithic industries are known
from comparable deposits in northern France
(Fagnart, 1993, 1997; Limondin, 1995), The
Netherlands (Bos and Janssen, 1996; Stapert, 1986;
Stapert and Veenstra, in press) and Germany
(Baales and Street, 1996), but no Upper Palaeolithic
artefacts have been recovered from Holywell
Coombe. The charcoal in the 'Aller0d soil' may
therefore be the product of natural fires, which are
commonplace in the boreal forests of Canada and
Siberia, which may provide crude analogues of
Late-glacial conditions. The charcoal is likely to
have resulted from local fires, rather than from
redistribution by wind over any great distance. The
report by Kerney (1963) not only of abundant
charcoal, but also fragments of chalk with burnt
upper surfaces, in identical horizons at Folkestone,
Upper Halling and elsewhere, supports this sug-
gestion. Evans (1986) likewise reported that many
of the shells in the Pitstone Soil at its type locality
were calcined, indicating intense local burning.
The 'Aller0d soil' at Holywell Coombe did yield
occasional vertebrate fossils. All the identifiable
specimens were teeth, mostly belonging to the
common shrew (Sorex araneus), but some were
attributable to Microtus, although the species
could not be determined.
Kerney (1963) found that there were substantial
increases in the numerical abundance of land snails
in the 'Aller0d soil' and that the diversity of species
was much greater. Some of the new arrivals, such
as Abida secale and Helicella itala, have rather
southern ranges at the present day. Their appear-
ance, coupled with the episode of pedogenesis, led
Kerney (1963) to conclude that climatic ameliora-
tion had occurred. As expected, almost every
profile of this soil was oxidized and lacked both
pollen and beetle remains, but in Trench HV the
365
comparable horizon (322-327 cm), which yielded
seeds dated at 11 530 ± 160 yr BP (OxA-2345), was
still waterlogged and some beetles were recovered
(sample 9). Although this sample was not rich, the
assemblage did include occasional northern
species, such as Notaris aethiops and
Otiorhynchus dubius. Far from indicating a
warmer temperature than at the present day, a
cooler climate is suggested, with maximum July
temperatures estimated to have been between
13°C and 15°C and winter temperatures of -18°C
to 4°C. Evidence from numerous other sites in
Britain suggests that the 'Aller0d' phase was simi-
larly cool (e.g. Coope, 1977). Pollen was also
preserved in the levels associated with the 'Aller0d
soil' (322-335 cm) in Trench HV. The spectra were
little different from earlier levels, being dominated
by Betula, Gramineae and Salix. Juniperus was
hardly represented.
The extent of soil development is often used to
provide an estimate of the duration of pedogene-
sis, but it is rarely possible to match such figures
against an independently derived absolute chronol-
ogy. At modem rates of decalcification, recorded
from arable soils of SE England (Bolton, 1977), it
can be estimated that the stagnogleyic brown earth
in profile SP1 would have taken at least 3600 years
to form. As the dates from the soil horizon dis-
cussed above cluster tightly between 11 810 ±
120 and 11 370 ± 150 yr BP, and since no radiocar-
bon plateau has yet been identified for this period,
this estimate is too high by at least 3000 years. If
such calculations are valid, this would imply that
the rate of decalcification during the 'Aller0d' was
5-10 times greater than in modem arable soils. It
was suggested earlier that possible reasons for this
discrepancy may include (a) the presence of birch
woodland, (b) greater rainfall, or (c) a higher mean
annual temperature than at present, the last of
which has already been eliminated on the basis of
the beetle evidence.
The formation of this soil horizon in different
parts of the valley indicates a cessation of slope ero-
sion and a period of relative stability. This switch
from active slope erosion to one of stability sug-
gests that another climatic threshold had been
crossed. It is difficult to define the character of this
threshold with any precision, but it would seem to
have involved a stabilization of the climate to tem-
peratures above zero for much of the year, with a
near-continous vegetation cover becoming estab-
lished. Such a cover would have bound the surface
of the ground, retarded down-slope movement and
allowed pedogenesis to proceed. The available
 Synthesis
radiocarbon dates suggest that this state of affairs
lasted for about 500 years, still 3000 years short of
the time apparently required for pedological devel-
opment. The stability of the surface, coupled with
the absence of extensive down-slope movement
from the steep slopes above, make any marked
increase in rainfall at this time very unlikely. Thus
explanation (b) seems improbable, leaving only the
possibility that extensive birch woodland clothed
the landscape, as in explanation (a), and that this
enabled pedogenesis to proceed at the rapid rate
implied by the constraints of the dating evidence.
(e) Younger Dryas (Loch Lomond
Stadial)
In places the 'Allen"d soil' shows signs of severe
post-depositional disturbance. In the Main Section
detached portions of the soil were apparent (Fig.
3.11), in the southern part of Section BS, the soil
rose at an extremely acute angle (Fig. 3.24), sug-
gesting cryoturbation, and at Cherry Garden, the
soil had been displaced by major shearing (Fig.
3.26). Similar disturbances, in the form of striking
folds and imbricate thrusting, resulting from fore-
shortening, were described from Dover Hill by
Kerney (1963), who attributed them to mass-slid-
ing down the hillside, at a time when the chalk
muds were saturated. Other cryoturbation struc-
tures affecting Late-glacial sediments have been
reported elsewhere in Kent, including the segre-
gation of coarse clasts into 'nests', and evidence of
small-scale horizontal and vertical movement. Such
features characterize active layer processes in areas
of discontinuous permafrost (Ballantyne and
Harris, 1994).
Above the soil at Holywell Coombe are further
chalk muds and rubbles, generally showing little
sign of bedding. The chalk fragments are primarily
subangular to subrounded and have obviously been
worn during their emplacement by the action of
water. These sediments are generally unfossilifer-
ous, except for some of the finer material.
Fossiliferous chalk muds that accumulated towards
the end of the Younger Dryas, and which yielded
plant and insect fossils as well as snails, were pre-
sent in Trench 6 in the valley below Horseshoe
Spring. There a coarse gravel, presumably
emplaced during the coldest part of the Younger
Dryas, became finer towards its top and was over-
lain by 50 cm of chalk muds. The lower part of
these muds yielded an impoverished beetle assem-
blage that included arctic-alpine and snow-patch
366
species, such as Helophorus glacialis, Olophrum
boreale, Bembidion dauricum and Arpedium
quadrum. These same taxa together with another
species, Bembidion difficile, were recorded from
a comparable horizon in Holywell Coombe during
the earlier study (Coope, 1980). All of these species
have boreo-montane distributions at the present
day and none of them occurs in the British Isles.
The occurrence of these beetles suggests mean July
temperatures of between 5°C and 11°C and winter
temperatures of between -16°c and O°C, consis-
tent with the occurrence of the cryoturbation
structures, mentioned above. It should be noted,
however, that these temperature estimates do not
represent the climatic minimum of the Younger
Dryas, which occurred some 500 years earlier and
must have been even more severe.
The arctic-alpine snails Columella columella and
Vertigo genesii, together with several other north-
ern species, were also present in the chalk muds.
These occur with some southern species, such as
Abida secale and Helicella itala, which are today
absent from the Scandinavian mainland. These Late-
glacial land snail assemblages are thus composed of
a peculiar mixture of biogeographical elements that
have no modern analogue. The coexistence of
Trichia hispida (scarce beyond about 60°N) and
Columella columella is particularly striking since
their modem distributions hardly overlap (Kerney,
1963; Kerney et al., 1983). The survival of these
'southern' species into the Younger Dryas means
that there is surprisingly little difference between
the molluscan faunas from these chalk muds and
those from the 'Aller0d soil', except that Trichia
hispida has become overwhelmingly dominant.
Both assemblages are assigned to zone z.
Pollen was absent in the basal 20 cm of the
chalk muds in Trench 6, but plant macrofossils
were present and also reflected an arctic-alpine
community with Betula nana, Arenaria ciliata,
Helianthemum cf. canum, Dianthus cf. deltoides,
Saxifraga oppositifolia, Pedicularis palustris,
Ranunculus Sect Aconitifolii, Papaver (Sect.
Scapiflora) and Dryas octopetala, the plant after
which this period is named. Mosses included
Amblystegium riparium, Campylium stellatum,
Cratoneuron commutatum, C. filicinum and
Thamnobryum alopecurum. Radiocarbon dates of
10 160 ± 110 and 9900 ± 100 yr BP were obtained
from a single fragment of Salix wood from the
base of this unit and confirm a terminal Younger
Dryas age.
Kerney et al. (1980) recovered an important
plant macrofossil assemblage from an organic silt
 The geological sequence at Holywell Coombe
(Sample A) of Younger Dryas age in Holywell
Coombe proper. This included many of the species
listed above, as well as some not encountered
during the present study, of which Anthriscus
sylvestris, Chrysanthemum leucanthemum and
Stella ria neglecta were all new to the British Late-
glacial. Macrofossil remains of two heathland
plants, Empetrum sp. and Arctostaphylos uva-ursi,
were also found in the earlier study. Pollen of
Empetrum nigrum and fruitstones of A. uva-ursi
were similarly recovered from Late-glacial deposits
at Brook, Kent (Kerney et al., 1964).
(d) The early to mid Post-glacial
During the present investigation, the transition
from the Late-glacial to the early Post-glacial was
well represented in both trenches in the Horseshoe
Spring valley (Trenches 5 and 6), but not in any of
the sections in Holywell Coombe itself, where sed-
iments belonging to the very early Post-glacial were
generally missing. Organic sediments, dated to
9960 ± 170 yr BP (Q-1508), were discovered in a
trial pit excavated in Holywell Coombe in 1968
(Kerney et al., 1980), but clearly they must be very
localized.
Although sedimentation was continuous across
the Late-glacial/Post-glacial transition in the two crit-
ical trenches (5 and 6), it proved difficult to locate
the precise boundary, because it did not correspond
with a change in lithology. For example, a sudden
change in the composition of the beetle assem-
blages within the chalk muds in Trench 6 has been
used to define this boundary. The arctic-alpine and
northern species were replaced by assemblages rich
in southern thermophiles. For instance Bembidion
octomaculatum, present during the 'Bolling
phase' of the Late-glacial Interstadial, reappeared,
indicating a sudden climatic amelioration with
maximum July temperatures jumping to about
17 -18°C and minimum winter temperatures some-
where between - 2°C and + 4°C.
There appears to have been no corresponding
change in the species composition of the land snail
communities, but the taxa already present did
become more numerous. Major changes in the mol-
luscan assemblages occurred some 20 cm higher,
where they coincided with the change in lithology.
As at the beginning of the Late-glacial the arrival of
new land snail species, consequent on climatic
improvement, lagged behind the appearance of
newly colonizing thermophilous beetles.
Although beetle remains occurred thoughout
367
the chalk muds in Trench 6, the pollen record only
began at about the level at which warmer condi-
tions were indicated by the beetles. The
progressive rise in the frequency of Juniperus
pollen was also suggestive of climatic amelioration.
Tree and shrub pollen peak at about 60% of the
total land taxa. A single grain of the northern dwarf
shrub Cornus suecica was recovered from Trench
6 and pollen of Parnassia palustris was recorded
from the earliest Post-glacial levels in both
Trenches 5 and 6. The plant macrofossils also
showed a change with Betula nana replaced by
B. pubescens,juniperus seeds becoming more fre-
quent and the strictly arctic-alpine elements
disappearing. Other macrofossils included sainfoin
(Onobrychis viciijolia), marsh thistle (Cirsium
palustre/arvense), small scabious (ct. Scabiosa
columbraria) and violets (Viola spp.). The
palaeobotany therefore indicates the development
of juniper scrub and rich herbaceous communities.
Thus both fauna and flora indicate marked climatic
amelioration sometime after 10 160 ± 110 yr BP but
before 9820 ± 90 yr BP. However, it must be
remembered that an important radiocarbon
plateau occurred at this time (Part Four), so the
apparent abruptness of this change is somewhat
exaggerated.
In Trench 5, near the head of the Horseshoe
Spring valley, the beginning of the Post-glacial was
represented by chalk muds overlain by a thin
organic deposit dated to 9760 ± 100 yr BP, which
from micromorphological evidence is thought to
have accumulated in perhaps as little as a century.
Below this level, and similarly throughout the chalk
muds in Trench 6, there was a steady fall in the fre-
quency of Trichia hispida from values exceeding
35% at the end of the Younger Dryas to totals of
5-10% at the very beginning of the Post-glacial.
Xerophile and rupestral species such as Abida
secale, Pupilla muscorum and Columella col-
umella showed similar declines. The last has a
typical arctic-alpine modem range (Fig. 5.3.18) and
is often said to indicate very cold conditions. The
record from Holywell Coombe shows that this is
not always the case. Here, as expected, it occurred
in the Younger Dryas, but it survived the thermal
rise at the beginning of the Post-glacial and
occurred in sediments with high values of
Juniperus pollen (Trench 5). It was only finally
eliminated with the development of a denser vege-
tational cover, causing a reduction of areas of bare
and stony ground. This reinforces the view that
modem relict populations of arctic-alpine taxa have
survived at places like Upper Teesdale, because of
 Synthesis
the maintenance of unshaded habitats, rather than
for any direct climatic reason (cf. Turner et al.,
1973; Preece, 1997).
Above the basal organic deposit in Trench 5, tufa
began to form, indicating a resurgence of spring
activity. Near its base, the tufa had a fairly coarse
texture with many onchoids, but became finer
higher in the sequence. A suite of hygrophilous
snails (Vertigo moulinsiana, V. substriata,
Zonitoides nitidus, Vitrea crystallina), unknown
from the Late-glacial, appeared at, or just above, the
base of the tufa. Others, such as Carychium mini-
mum, showed marked increases in frequency.
These assemblages are attributable to zone a
(Kerney et al., 1980). The rare bivalve Pisidium
tenuilineatum was found in the tufa in both the
Horseshoe Spring and Holywell Coombe valleys, as
was the spring-dwelling ostracod Psychrodromus
olivaceus. The latter still lives in the present stream
in Holywell Coombe, but P. tenuilineatum appears
to have become extinct.
These changes were paralleled in Trench 6,
where they occurred within weakly humified
organic silts rather than tufa. Although the mollus-
can faunas indicate the presence of base-rich
marshes, the occurrence of the bivalves Pisidium
milium and P. subtruncatum, together with a
range of water-beetles (e.g. Acilius sp., Hydraena
riparia, Hydrobius juscipes, Anacaena sp.,
Laccobius sp. and Enochrus sp.), suggests that
there were also some permanent water-bodies.
Despite remaining permanently waterlogged
since its formation, the basal 70 cm of the tufa in
Trench 5 lacked pollen. This is entirely a reflection
of the coarse texture mentioned above. However,
the equivalent levels in Trench 6, being organic
silts, did produce pollen spectra and these were
dominated by Betula and Pinus sylvestris with
Salix, Gramineae and Cyperaceae. Trees and
shrubs account for up to 80% of the total pollen in
these horizons. Macrofossil records include tree
birch (Betula pubescens), Populus (probably P.
tremula), Moehringia trinervia, Eupatorium
cannabinum and Filipendula ulmaria. No trace
of any arctic-alpine plants was found and juniper
seeds occurred only at the very base of the unit.
This suggests that woodland, comprising almost
equal amounts of birch and pine, had become
established in the valley with a variety of shrubs.
The amount of ground occupied by predominantly
herbaceous communities was relatively low.
After about 9500 yr BP, hazel (Corylus avellana)
spread into the valley and over 80% of the pollen
from corresponding levels is represented by this
368
species alone. Hazel-nuts were also common, par-
ticularly in the organic parts of the tufa (e.g.
Trench 3, 220-265 cm). Other macrofossils of
trees and shrubs included Betula, Salix, Prunus,
Cornus sanguinea and Populus. Fruit-stones of
Crataegus monogyna were also recovered from
equivalent horizons in the original study (Kerney
et al., 1980). Pollen of Pinus sylvestris occurred,
but its local presence was not confirmed by macro-
fossils. Spores of alpine lady-fern, Athyrium
distentijolium, a plant that in Britain is now
restricted to the Scottish Highlands (Page, 1988),
were present in Trench 6 (40-45 cm). Herbs were
especially scarce, but some macrofossils of wetland
taxa (Carex spp., Menyanthes trijoliata, Scirpus
sp.) were recovered. The mosses included
Cratoneuron commutatum, Eurhynchium stria-
tum, Tbamnobryum alopecurum and specimens
tentatively referred to Eurhynchium swartzii and
Homalothecium sericeum.
The establishment of hazel-dominated woodland,
with its closed canopy, brought about profound
changes in the molluscan communities. Species
intolerant of shade (e.g. Pupilla muscorum,
Vallonia pulchella, Vertigo geyerl) were progres-
sively eliminated and other heliophiles, such as
Vertigo angustior, were only able to flourish for a
brief period at the time of the transition from wet
grassland to shaded marsh. Shade-demanding taxa,
such as Carychium tridentatum, rose to domi-
nance. The presence of Discus ruderatus, a
boreo-continental species now extinct in Britain
but characteristic of mollusc zone b, is particularly
noteworthy. Its association with Lauria cylin-
dracea (a mediterranean and atlantic species with a
European distribution like that of !lex) demon-
strates sympatric occurrence during the early
Post-glacial of species with allopatric modern
ranges, just as occurred with other taxa during the
Late-glacial.
The beetle fauna also reveals some significant dif-
ferences from that which occurred earlier in the
Post-glacial. A swamp community with some open
water habitats clearly existed, but the most signifi-
cant development was the arrival of a range of
species indicative of broad-leaved woodland, both
within the swamp itself and probably also on the
chalk hillsides above. Several of these are depen-
dent upon the rotten wood of deciduous trees as a
source of food for their larvae. These include three
species of eucnemids (Melasis buprestoides,
Eucnemis capucina and Dirhagus pygmaeus)
found uniquely at this time (sample 14). Other note-
worthy species apparently making their first
 The geological sequence at Holywell Coombe
appearance include Platynus assimilis, Licinus
depressus, Prosternon tessellatum, Denticollis
linearis, Anaglyptus mysticus, Pogoncherus
hispidulus, Taphrorynchus cf. villifrons,
Coenorhinus aeneovirens and Rhyncolus elonga-
tus. The beetles suggest maximum July
temperatures of 15-24°C and minimum winter tem-
peratures between about -8°C and + 6°c.
The vertebrate fossils from these levels are also
consistent with the presence of deciduous wood-
land. Larger species include red deer (Cervus
elaphus) and wild boar (Sus scrofa) from the
organic tufa in Trench 3, dated to between about
8900 and 9300 yr BP. Smaller taxa include mole
(Talpa europaea), from a sample immediately
above a level dated at 9530 ± 75 yr BP in Trench 6,
common shrew (Sorex araneus), wood
mouse/yellow-necked mouse (Apodemus sylvati-
cus/jlavicollis) and bank vole (Clethrionomys
glareolus). A fox jaw (Vulpes vulpes) found in the
tufa during construction work in the vicinity of
Trench 6 probably also dates from this period.
Fungal spores belonging to the Sordariaceae
(Cercophera-type), which are common on the
dung of various animals (Van Geel et al., 1983),
were frequent in the early Post-glacial organic
deposit (25-45 cm) in Trench 6, further indicating
the presence of vertebrates at this time. Similarly,
dung beetles were present in penecontemporane-
ous organic tufa in Trench 3.
After about 8600 yr BP further changes occurred.
Although the pollen record is still dominated by
hazel, increases are seen in the amounts of elm, (to
values of about 15%) and oak, (5%). In the level in
Trench 3 dated to about 7650 ± 80 yr BP, there is a
Significant increase in the frequency of lime (Tilia)
to values of about 20%. This record is one of the
earliest for Tilia in Britain, although Waller (1993)
suggested that it was present in East Sussex as early
as 8500 yr BP. Above this point, which roughly
coincides with the level of the present water-table,
the pollen record ceases. Similarly, no beetles were
preserved in any sediments younger than about
9000 yr BP. They were absent in the fine-grained
tufa above 220 cm in Trench 3 and throughout the
tufa sequences in the other trenches. Macrofossils
were also generally absent from these levels, with
the notable exception of the fruits (technically
cypselas) of hemp agrimony (Eupatorium
cannabinum). These not only resist oxidation, but
even survive the chemical procedures carried out
during pollen preparation. Such fruits have been
recognized in many tufas, where they are often the
only plant material to survive (e.g. Preece, 1979;
369
Preece et al., 1986).
The molluscan record, however, persists in
levels above the water-table. The replacement of
Discus ruderatus by D. rotundatus, which has
been widely recognized in many Post-glacial tufa
sequences (e.g. Evans et al., 1978; Kerney et al.,
1980; Preece, 1978, 1980; Preece and Robinson,
1984; Willing, 1985; Preece and Day, 1994), and
which defines the base of zone c, has here been
dated at 8630 ± 120 yr BP. Further changes
occurred after 7650 ± 80 yr BP. Oxychilus cellarius
appeared, as did Spermodea lamellata, Leiostyla
anglica and Acicula fusca, indicating closed wood-
land. These assemblages belong to mollusc zone d.
The number of land snails (excluding slugs)
reached a maximum (> 35 species) in these mol-
luscan communities, a richness that cannot be
matched at any single site in Britain today. Several
of the species, in particular S. lamellata, L. anglica,
Vertigo pusilla and Vertigo alpestris, have modern
distributions that are clearly relict from much
wider mid Post-glacial ranges (cf. Kerney, 1976b),
which may possibly be linked to the Post-glacial
thermal optimum (Kerney, 1968).
Towards the top of the tufa in Trench 3, there is
evidence of some forest recession. This is best seen
in the summary diagram (Fig. 5.3.27), where the
principal shade-demanding snails (terrestrial group
'B') are plotted as a single curve. Unfortunately,
independent confirmation from pollen analyses
cannot be provided as these sediments occur
above the water-table and so lack pollen. It has thus
not been possible to date the cessation of tufa for-
mation with any precision, but it would seem likely
that this occurred at about 6000 yr BP. In the upper-
most levels of the tufa in the Main Section,
fragments of marine shells were also recovered.
The occurrence of these is indicative of human
presence and it is tempting to attribute the forest
disturbance to anthropogenic activities during the
late Mesolithic. In this connection, the discovery of
a single microlith at the junction between the tufa
and the hillwash may also be significant.
Anthropogenic disturbance of the vegetation is
thought to have led to colluviation, which may
have disrupted the local hydrology and brought
tufa deposition to an end.
Compared with events that occurred during the
Late-glacial, geomorphological activity along the
chalk escarpment during the early Post-glacial was
quiesent but not negligible. The Danton Pinch land-
slide, for example, must have occurred after 7620
± 80 yr BP, since shells of this age were present in a
horizon buried by landslip material. Snails of typical
 Synthesis
Late-glacial character were recovered from soils
horizons within this upper material, indicating that
the whole sequence was inverted, a suggestion
confirmed by a date of 10 510 ± 110 yr BP (R.e.
Preece, unpublished data).
(e) The late Post-glacial
Chalky silt C'hiIlwash') forms the upper part of the
Holywell Coombe succession, representing the late
Post-glacial. This rests directly on Late-glacial
deposits on the valley sides and over the inter-
fluves, but in the axes it mantles the tufa. Two
buried soil horizons have been recognized in this
unit. The earliest, which occurs at the base and is
the most prominent, has yielded decorated pot
sherds belonging to the Early Bronze Age, as well
as some Neolithic pottery and flint-work. The
upper horizon was much less distinct and only
became apparent after the Main Section had been
left exposed for over a week, allowing differential
drying to pick out its higher clay content. Artefacts
from this level were predominantly of Early Iron
Age date.
Micromorphological analyses have again con-
firmed the pedogenic origin of these two horizons.
There are some pedological differences between
them. The upper soil is browner, contains more
charcoal and chalk fragments and has a greater
porosity (-30%) and better defined structure. In
the Main Section an earlier weathering horizon had
developed at the top of the Post-glacial chalk silts
(131-135 cm), immediately below the tufa. This
was more strongly weathered, as its chalk frag-
ments were small and rounded, whereas
glauconite, derived from the Gault Clay, had been
decomposed to such an extent that none remained
in the fine sand fraction. This soil also had larger
and more diffuse ferruginous and manganiferous
concentrations. In none of these soil horizons were
there features indicative of prolonged periods of
pedogenesis, but all three can be classified as
stagnogleyic rendzinas (Avery, 1980).
The hiIlwash (much of it transported soil from
the higher slopes), and especially the soil horizons
developed within it, show the effects of magnetic
enhancement of topsoil by the pedogenic forma-
tion of fine-grained magnetite in the stable
single-domain/superparamagnetic grain-size range.
Mineral magnetic measurements thus offer a ready
means of confirming the presence of palaeosols in
a stratigraphic sequence, a technique applied to all
the studied sections at Holywell Coombe (Part
370
Three). Calcite granules produced by earthworms
(Fig. 3.10) provide a further means of identifying
buried soils. These granules were found in increas-
ing numbers upwards through every palaeosol at
the site and were so common that they were read-
ily observed in thin sections (Plate 3).
The dating of these buried soils has proved prob-
lematic. Charcoal (mostly Fraxinus and Prunus)
from the lower half of the soil at the base of the
hiIlwash produced the unexpectedly early date of
5620 ± 90 yr BP (OxA-2091). This supports the sug-
gestion made earlier that tufa had ceased to form
by this date. On the other hand, a shell date (using
Arianta arbustorum) from the identical level
proved to be somewhat younger, 4470 ± 90 yr BP
(OxA-3224). During the present study, this was the
only pair of dates in which the shell date proved to
be significantly younger than that based on char-
coal. However, it is the younger shell date that
conforms with the archaeological evidence.
Although Neolithic material was recovered from
this level, most of the artefacts belong to the Early
Bronze Age. Greater consistency was obtained
from dating the upper soil, from which the deter-
mination based on charcoal, 3515 ± 80 yr BP
(OxA-2090), was statistically indistinguishable from
the one based on Arianta shell, 3430 ± 90 yr BP
(OxA-3223). Both these dates are older than the
estimates based on archaeological evidence, which
suggested an Early Iron Age date.
The interpretation of the molluscan record
through the hiIlwash is also not straightforward.
As noted above, tufa deposition ceased as the hiIl-
wash began to accumulate, although the two
events might well be related, perhaps through dis-
ruption of the local hydrology by colluviation. The
molluscan fauna from the soil at the base of the
hiIlwash is not dissimilar to that from the very top
of the tufa. Vallonia and Trichia dominate and
Pomatias elegans is also common. Slug remains
(Deroceras/Limax and Milax) are abundant.
Although essentially an open-country fauna (zone
e), a significant number of shade-demanding
species such as Carychium tridentatum,
Acanthinula aculeata, Discus rotundatus and
Acicula fusca also occur, albeit at relatively low
frequencies. It is noteworthy that these taxa have
an increased abundance in the upper soil horizon,
suggesting that this episode of pedogenesis was
accompanied by the regeneration of scrub. These
differences are apparent despite the fact that some
faunal mixing is likely to have taken place (cf.
Carter, 1990). Between and above the two soils,
the molluscan faunas are more typically those of
 The geological sequence at Holywell Coombe
grassland. Vallonia excentrica, Pupilla musco-
rum, Vertigo pygmaea and Helicella itala point to
this conclusion. The occurrence of Vallonia pul-
chella and Succinea oblonga (in Trench 3)
suggests that the grassland was quite moist and per-
haps not completely vegetated. The latter species
is scarce in Britain today but still occurs at some
sites in Kent (Kerney, 1976b), although not in
Holywell Coombe.
Apart from the differences between the faunas
from the soils and those from the intervening units
of hillwash, other biostratigraphical changes are
discernible. Monacha cartusiana is absent from
the basal soil but occurs at low frequency immedi-
ately above it and extends almost to the top of the
hillwash. In southern England this species is at the
northern limit of its range (Kerney, 1970), but it no
longer lives in Holywell Coombe, although dead
shells were collected on the slopes of Round Hill.
Above the upper soil the garden snail, Helix
aspersa, first appears, defining the base of mollusc
zone f, as does Monacha cantiana. It is commonly
believed that H. aspersa was introduced by the
Romans either accidentally or deliberately as food.
The artefacts associated with these levels include
Romano-British and later material and lend support
to this belief. A direct AMS date of 2850 ± 70 yr BP
obtained from the earliest fragment of H. aspersa
needs to be treated with caution, because the snails
may have incorporated quantities of 'dead carbon'
into their shell, so producing an age anomaly (d.
Goodfriend and Stipp, 1983).
Returning to the archaeological evidence, the
abundance of artefacts from the Late Neolithic(Early
Bronze Age transition and from the Early Iron Age,
makes it clear that the valley was occupied during
at least these two distinct periods. In the areal
excavation carried out in 1988, adjacent to the
Main Section, further evidence of occupation was
discovered. A 'hollow way' with associated fea-
tures, including post-holes, further pottery of
Beaker tradition and midden material, all point to
occupation during the earlier period. The middens
consisted of small concentrations of shells, mostly
winkles (Littorina littorea) and limpets (Patella
vulgata), together with bone scatters, composed
almost exclusively of domestic cow, but including
a single pig tooth. A radiocarbon date of 3650 ±
50 yr BP (Q-2713) was obtained from one of the
cow bones, confirming that these middens belong
to the Early Bronze Age. The ring ditches on the
southern flank of Castle Hill, excavated in 1992,
also seem to date from this period or perhaps a
little earlier. It is clear that hillwash formation was
371
initiated by anthropogenic activity at about this
time. In this connection it is significant that ard-
marks, indicating early agricultural activity, were
discovered on the surface below the base of the
hillwash (part Six).
The evidence of occupation during the Early
Iron Age is less clear-cut and depends largely on
the abundance of artefacts of this date recovered
primarily from the upper soil. The quantity of later
artefacts is considerably less and most are probably
derived from the manuring of agricultural land. If
the evidence from finds of various 'Belgic' -Roman
and Early Medieval ceramics is pooled, a distinct
pattern of land use history is suggested:
(1) Abandonment or possibly intermittent pasture
from ca. 500 Be to AD 25.
(2) A phase of probable agricultural use from ca.
AD 25 to 125/150.
(3) A return to pasture or non-agricultural use
from ca. AD 150 to 1075 (with only a very ten-
tative possibility of Saxon activity or visitation
during the seventh century).
(4) A second phase of probable agricultural use
between ca. AD 1075-1225/50.
(5) A final phase with only sporadic occurrences
of domestic rubbish, presumably from farm-
yard manure, throughout the medieval and
later periods. This indicates either a change in
rubbish disposal habits, long phases of pas-
ture/non-agricultural use, or possibly both,
particularly between ca. AD 1400 -1700 and
from 1850 onwards.
All these conclusions are based on a study of the
hillwash in the Main Section and adjoining area.
Elsewhere in the valley, the hillwash has not been
studied in such detail. Nevertheless, some differ-
ences are apparent. As in the Main Section, the
hillwash in Trench 3 had a thick buried soil hori-
zon at its base but here the extracted charcoal
produced a date of 3980 ± 70 yr BP (OxA-2347).
This date is perhaps more in keeping with the
archaeological evidence from the Main Section,
where late Neolithic/Early Bronze Age artefacts pre-
dominated the assemblages from the soil at the
base of the hillwash. There was insufficient time to
excavate artefacts from Trench 3, so the associated
archaeology is unknown. Moreover, no trace of an
upper soil was found in this trench, although
whether it was genuinely missing or subsumed
within the basal soil is unknown. The hillwash
above the soil yielded Helix aspersa and it seems
likely, therefore, that it accumulated during the
 Synthesis
Romano-British period or later. The hillwash over-
lying the tufa in Trench HV also contained H.
aspersa throughout and would thus seem to have
formed at this later period.
Although the archaeological evidence indicates
that the hillwash continued to accumulate during
the Romano-British period and subsequently, it is
noteworthy that there was no trace of the heli-
celline snails Cernuella virgata or Candiduta
intersecta. Both are abundant on the chalklands of
southern Britain today and the former occurs on
the hillsides overlooking Holywell Coombe (Table
7.7). This strongly supports suggestions that both
these species are relatively recent arrivals in Britain
(Kerney, 1966).
The variations in the pattern of colluviation in dif-
ferent parts of the valley are not entirely
unexpected. The borehole evidence indicates that
the hillwash thickens both down-slope and down-
valley. It is very thin on the interfluves and upper
slopes, reflecting its emplacement as the product of
slope erosion following forest clearance. Deposition
is concentrated in various topographic hollows that
have acted as sediment traps. It appears that the hol-
lows closest to the contributing slopes were infilled
first and only subsequently were more distal areas
supplied. This is suggested by the differences in the
basal radiocarbon dates and the number of soils rec-
ognized within the hillwash. Other complicating
factors are likely to involve the derivation of material
from older soils upslope, the incorporation of other
constituents during cultivation and mixing by bio-
turbation (cf. Carter, 1990).
(2) GENERAL CONCLUSIONS AND
COMPAruSONS~SITES
ELSEWHERE
The foregoing outline of the environmental history
of Holywell Coombe has identified a number of sig-
nificant phases of soil erosion and slope stability. It
is therefore worth considering whether any of
these may have regional significance and how they
might equate with comparable sequences else-
where.
(a) The Late-glacial period
The sequence of events reconstructed at Holywell
Coombe differs markedly from the traditional and
long accepted view of Late-glacial climatic
changes. The original interpretation suggested by
372
Iversen (1954) involved two interstadials that were
separated by cold intervals in which the tempera-
tures fell to levels low enough to inhibit the
growth of trees in North-west Europe. The earlier
of the two interstadials was of minor intensity and
was named the 'B0lling Interstadial', whereas the
later one, termed the 'Aller0d Interstadial', was
seen as the more important event. This interstadial
was followed by about a thousand years of cold,
more or less arctic climate, before the gradual tem-
perature rise that ushered in the Post-glacial
period. Although this reconstruction of climatic
history has had a long and distinguished career
throughout Europe, and has indeed been exported
to as far afield as South America, it does not accord
with the climatic picture that emerges from the
study of Late-glacial Coleoptera (Coope, 1969;
Coope and Brophy, 1972; Osborne, 1972; Atkinson
et at., 1987), from the isotopic records from
the lake sediments at Gerzensee in Switzerland
(Siegenthaler et at., 1984) nor from the Greenland
ice cores (Dansgaard et at., 1989; Alley et at., 1993;
Taylor et at., 1993; Stuiver et al. 1995; Lowe et at.,
1995; see Fig. 8.2). Several of these studies sug-
gested that the Late-glacial climate was even more
unstable than had been assumed. For example,
work on Late-glacial marine sediments off the
Norwegian coast, where sedimentation rates were
unusually high, revealed four periods of cooling
preceding the Younger Dryas and a further brief
cold spell between 9900 and 9600 yr BP (Ko<;;
Karpuz and]ansen, 1992; Haflidason et at., 1995).
The Late-glacial cold episodes were punctuated by
warmer spells when it seems that sea-surface
temperatures rose by -5°C within a decade
(Haflidason et at., 1995).
The Holywell Coombe sequence, although lack-
ing such high resolution, conforms well to this
alternative pattern of climatic changes in the Late-
glacial in which there is an intense climatic
amelioration at about 13 000 yr BP, with tempera-
tures reaching levels as warm as or warmer than
those of the present day. Subsequently there was a
succession of climatic oscillations that led to a pro-
gressive decrease in temperatures that culminated
in the episode of more or less arctic climate that is
still referred to as the 'Younger Dryas'. The climate
then became suddenly warmer at, or shortly
before, 10 000 yr BP and almost immediately
reached thermal values equivalent to those of the
present day. This view of the Late-giacial climate is
essentially of a single, asymmetrical climatic oscil-
lation in which there is much complexity in the
fluctuations in temperature from its thermal maxi-
 General conclusions and comparisons with sites elsewhere

Gerzensee - Dye 3 -
Lake sediments Deep ice core

metres
metres
(f) o h 18 0 _
"C 6 1760
C
."
(f)
1770

-
::J
0
.s:: 8
1780
Ii
IIi 10 1790
~ 2
."
<ll
>- 1800
c 12
0
...
.0 3 1810
."
u 14
0 1820
'5
."
II: 4 1830
16
I I I I I I I I I I
-10 0 10 -11 -10 -9 -8 -7 -6 -36 -34 -32 -30 -28

Reconstructed mean annual %0 %0

temperature ("C)

Figure 8.2 Similarity of events at the Late-glacial/Post-glacial transition

A. Estimated mean annual temperatures based on Mutual Climatic Range Reconstruction of fossil beetles (Atkinson
et al., 1987).
B. Radiocarbon-dated 0 180 profile along a 4 m long sediment core from Lake Gerzen in Switzerland.
C. 0 180 profile along 150 m of the deep ice core from Dye 3 in South Greenland (Dansgaard et al., 1989).

mum at 13 000 yr BP to its thennal minimum during
Younger Dryas times. Much of this complexity is
reflected in the stratigraphy, sedimentology and
palaeontology of the Holywell Coombe deposits.
In the discussion of the regional significance of
the Holywell Coombe sequence there is a problem
of terminology. Much of the earlier work on the
Late-glacial stratigraphy and molluscan palaeontol-
ogy of south-east England was carried out by
Michael Kerney thirty years ago, when the tradi-
tional view of the Late-glacial climate was generally
accepted. Since the terms 'B011ing' and 'Aller0d'
were extensively used then to describe the mollus-
can assemblages and pedological events (the
'Aller0d soil'), it has been useful to retain both
terms in these discussions. However, it must be
emphasized that these terms do not carry the cli-
matic implications of the traditional viewpoint, but
are used in the chronostratigraphical sense of
Mangerud et al. (1974) to distinguish early
('B011ing'), middle ('Aller0d') and late ('Younger
Dryas') phases of the Late-glacial. On occasions the
term 'Late-glacial Interstadial' (sensu Lowe and
Gray, 1980) is used as an informal name for the
'B0lling' and 'Aller0d' phases together. As
explained in the Introduction, none of the sedi-
ments at this site have been assigned to an 'Older
Dryas' cold phase, which traditionally would be
placed between the 'Bolling' and 'Aller0d'.
An examination of the dated succession at
Holywell Coombe demonstrates that a range of sed-
iments, reflecting a complex climatic history,
accumulated during the 'Late-glacial Interstadial'.
The basal marsh deposits accumulated under tem-
perate interstadial conditions during the early
'Bolling' phase, between ca. 13 000 and
12000 yr BP. A sudden deterioration of climate
occurred at about 12 100 yr BP and activation of
slope processes followed after about 11 800 yr BP,
leading to the accumulation, in places, of several
metres of chalk rubble. A major period of pedoge-
nesis, resulting in the formation of the 'Aller0d soil'
between about 11 500 and 11 000 yr BP, coincided
with relative slope stability, but erosion of the
valley slopes was subsequently renewed, leading to
the deposition of further chalk rubble during the
'Younger Dryas'. Not only is there a clear lithos-
tratigraphical separation between the 'B0lling'
marsh deposits and the 'Aller0d soil', but there are
also important biostratigraphical differences

373
 Synthesis
between them. Furthermore, the intervening chalk
rubbles were not emplaced by a single mass move-
ment event, for in places organic horizons are
interbedded with them, implying a complex accre-
tionary history. Some might argue that these chalk
rubbles represent the 'Older Dryas' cold phase, but
the interbedded organic horizons point to even
greater climatic complexity, rendering the use of
that term unhelpful.
No fossiliferous pre-interstadial sediments were
discovered at Holywell Coombe, although they are
known from northern France. At Conty, south of
Saleux in the Somme Valley, a very restricted land
snail fauna (mostly just Pupilla, Catinella and
Vitrina) has recently been recovered from levels
older than 12 300 ± 120 yr BP (N. Limondin-
Lozouet, pers. comm.). Significantly, species of
Vallonia, which behave as thermophiles and have
been used to distinguish between Pleniglacial and
Late-glacial loesses in this area (Limondin, 1995),
were absent.
Many problems arise when attempts are made to
use fossil data to infer climate. Most of the early
approaches were based entirely on palaeobotanical
data. It is well known that factors such as soil and
light are also important in the distribution and rela-
tive abundance of many plant species. Nutritional
deficiencies can also play an important role in
inhibiting the vegetational development at the
beginning of the Late-glacial (Van Geel et al., 1984,
1989; Pennington, 1986). Consequently it can be
very hard to disentangle these influences from
those of climate. A further problem is the fact that
climatically significant taxa often occur only at low
frequency, leaving doubts as to whether they actu-
ally lived locally or were derived from further
afield. Even when recovered as macrofossils,
demonstrating local presence, there is likely to
have been a significant temporal lag between the
instigating climatic change and the arrival of
responding taxa. Moreover, the response of differ-
ent groups of organisms is bound to have varied,
those with more active powers of dispersal, such
as beetles, reacting far more rapidly than other,
more pedestrian, taxa (cf. Wright, 1984). Biotas
appear to have been thrown into the greatest
disharmony during periods of ameliorating climate,
whereas when the climate deteriorated, responses
of the various groups coincided more closely
(Lowe and Walker, 1984, fig. 4.11; Walker et al.,
1994). The preservation of such a diverse range of
fossil groups at Holywell Coombe is unusual and
has led to a greater understanding of the differen-
tial responses of various organisms and has
374
provided a clearer idea of the magnitude of many
of the temporal lags (Fig. 8.1).
The sudden cooling at about 12 100 yr BP has
been recognized, largely on beetle evidence, at a
number of other British sites. Although the beetles
suggest that this deterioration was less severe than
that at about 11 000 yr BP, at the beginning of the
Younger Dryas, the geomorphological response, at
least in Holywell Coombe, was equally marked.
Indeed, in places the thickness of chalk rubbles
emplaced between the basal organic marsh
deposits and the 'AUer0d soil' far exceeds that pro-
duced during the Younger Dryas. There is thus a
significant difference between events at Holywell
Coombe and those at many upland Late-glacial sites
where there was 'little direct evidence for contin-
ued periglacial activity in the Interstadial' save for
some minerogenic inwash into some Scottish lake
basins (Lowe and Walker, 1984: 338). This conclu-
sion therefore needs reappraisal.
Few sites, either in Britain or on the continent
have yielded clear evidence for intra-interstadial
cooling (e.g. Tipping, 1991). An 'Older Dryas'
phase was recognized at Famechon, Picardie, from
palynological evidence (Emontspohl and
Vermeersch, 1991), although Sanchez Goni (1996)
has questioned this interpretation and other
claimed 'Older Dryas' occurrences in northern
France. However, evidence for an 'Older Dryas'
event has recently been claimed at Conty in the
Selle Valley, where basal marsh deposits that
formed during the B0lling chronozone are overlain
by a thin bed of calcareous silt, thought to reflect
erosion on the slopes comparable to that recorded
at Holywell Coombe (Antoine, 1997). Likewise
deposits reflecting an episode of erosion separating
sediments that accumulated in the B011ing and
AUer0d chronozones have also been reported from
St Pouange in the Seine Valley (Leroyer, 1997).
There have been some suggestions that the
decline in, for example, birch pollen and a rise in
the frequency of non-arboreal taxa, seen in many
continental pollen diagrams at around 12 000 yr BP,
may have been caused by climatic dryness, rather
than a sharp fall in temperature (Van Geel and
Kolstrup, 1978; Kolstrup, 1982, 1991). However,
in the recent study of the classic Dutch Late-glacial
section at Usselo, Van Geel et al. (1989) considered
that the observed environmental changes cannot
have been caused solely by aridity but may have
involved a fall in temperature, even though this
was not detected in the beetle record. The active
erosion and downslope movement of chalk debris
observed in Holywell Coombe at about this time
 General conclusions and comparisons with sites elsewhere
also suggest relatively wet soil conditions and a
colder climate, although not necessarily high rain-
fall.
One important reason for the apparent differ-
ence between sites in northern Britain and
Holywell Coombe would seem to be that the latter
is embayed into the chalk escarpment. As chalk is
extremely susceptible to frost-shattering (e.g.
Williams, 1980; Lautridou et al., 1986), even the
most short-lived cold oscillation is likely to have
produced substantial bodies of slurry, particularly
at the foot of slopes as steep as those of Sugarloaf
Hill. In other words, the climatic signal is amplified
in areas of frost-sensitive bedrock and gives only a
muted response (Le. insignificant lenses of minero-
genic inwash) in areas of hard crystalline bedrock.
It is also possible that a climatic gradient existed
across the British Isles, with the more maritime
western locations experiencing significantly differ-
ent regimes from those in south-east England. For
example, Watts (1980), Lowe et al. (1994) and
Coope and Lemdahl (1995) have drawn attention
to the regional variation across Europe in the
strength of expression of various climatic events in
the Late-glacial.
Kerney (1963, 1965) reported similar Late-glacial
successions on the Chalk in a number of dry valleys
in southern England. At Dover Hill, about 2 km east
of Holywell Coombe (Fig. 2.2), a thick (ca. 4.5 m)
Late-glacial succession of chalk muds and rubbles,
resting on shattered chalk, was divided by a fossil
rendzina soil. Kerney pointed out that the chalk
muds (at this and at comparable sites) are not
solifluction deposits in the generally accepted
sense, but they accumulated by periodic incre-
ments, probably in the form of sheets of chalky
slurry carried by the water released from melting
snow or by the thawing of frozen ground. The mol-
luscan succession from Dover Hill is very similar to
those of equivalent age reported here (Part Five
(3)). When the Dover Hill molluscan data were
plotted on an absolute, rather than as a percentage
frequency basis, important changes became appar-
ent (Kerney, 1963, fig. 3). First, there was a sharp
numerical increase in species abundance about
50 cm below the base of the 'AUer0d soil'. This was
followed, a few centimetres higher, by the appear-
ance of a range of newly colonizing species, some
of which have rather southern modern distribu-
tions. These changes were taken to mark the onset
of interstadial conditions rather than the initiation
of pedogenesis. Above the 'AUer0d soil' there was a
general decline in the number of shells, with the
notable exception of Trichia hispida, although sig-
375
nificantly there were no extinctions of any of these
supposedly moderate thermophiles. Kerney (1963:
248), using the Iversen zonation (Table 1.1), inter-
preted this as evidence 'that the climate of zone III
was probably not as severe as that of zone 1'.
Kerney (1963) also noted that a more subdued
numerical increase occurred in the lower part of
the sequence, which he correlated with the
'B011ing Oscillation (zone Ib) of Denmark'.
Despite the obvious similarities between the
molluscan successions at Dover Hill and Holywell
Coombe, the early part of the sequences are not
easy to relate in detail. At Dover Hill, it appears that
erosion from the chalk hillsides occurred more or
less continuously throughout the Late-glacial.
Moreover, the molluscan faunas throughout are
essentially those of dry ground. In Holywell
Coombe, on the other hand, there are marked
changes of facies with early marsh communities in
the valley bottom succeeded by dry-ground assem-
blages derived from the chalk hillsides above. The
molluscan assemblages throughout the interval that
Kerney correlated with zone I (and that would now
be assigned to zone y) are very restricted in terms
of the number of species, with virtually no addi-
tional taxa arriving during the entire period. It is
therefore unclear exactly how the basal marsh
deposits in Holywell Coombe relate to the lower
part of the Dover Hill sequence. From the available
dates it would appear that they cover a longer
period than the horizon that Kerney specifically
correlated with zone lb.
A further problem relating to differences in the
dating of the 'Aller0d soil' at the two sites has,
however, been resolved. Kerney had reported a
conventional date of 11 934 ± 210 yr BP (Q-463),
based on charcoal collected from the upper half of
the soil. As noted above, this date related to a level
almost one metre above that taken to mark the
beginning of the 'Aller0d'. This determination is
significantly older than any of the AMS dates
reported from the 'Aller0d soil' in Holywell
Coombe (Preece, 1991; Part Four). Here dates
greater than 11 800 always relate to molluscan
assemblages belonging to zone y. The association
of this early date with a typical zone z assemblage
at Dover Hill was therefore anomalous. Fortunately,
not all the charcoal fragments had been used for
the original date and there was sufficient material
left over to obtain some new AMS determinations.
Dates of 11 220 ± 110 yr BP (OxA-3238) and 11 100
± 110 yr BP (OxA-3239) have recently been
obtained from the upper and lower halves of this
soil (preece, 1994). It turns out that a transcription
 Synthesis
error had occurred with the original date and the
correct value for Q-463 should have been 11 550 ±
135 yr BP (preece, 1994). This revised date now fits
well with the AMS determinations recently
obtained from the same horizon as well as the
other AMS dates from the 'Aller0d soil' elsewhere
in southern Britain (preece, 1994).
It is now necessary to discuss whether the
sequence of events seen at Holywell Coombe is
typical of other dry valleys in Kent and elsewhere.
The obvious site that has been studied in similar
detail is the Devil's Kneadingtrough, near Brook
(Figs 1.1 and 2.1), about 16 km north-west of
Folkestone (Kerney et al., 1964). Here much ofthe
valley is floored with shattered chalk debris that
extends as fans onto the Gault Clay plain beyond
the escarpment, where it overlies marsh deposits
ascribed to the 'Aller0d Interstadial'. The intense
period of erosion responsible for the formation of
the fans has been taken to be the Younger Dryas.
Unlike the situation at Holywell Coombe, no evi-
dence for any interstadial deposits of Late-glacial
age was found within the Devil's Kneadingtrough
itself.
At Brook, the key section in the Late-glacial
deposits was provided by 'Borehole III', located
in the middle of a southern lobe of debris (Kerney
et al., 1964). In this borehole, basal chalk gravel
passed into a light grey calcareous mud
(330-338 cm below surface), which was overlain
by a grey, highly calcareous quartzitic silt with
fine plant debris (295-300 cm) and by an organic
detritus mud (290-295 cm). This last unit was
covered by chalk muds (277-290 cm). The
organic sequence culminated with a thin marsh
soil with charcoal (274-278 cm), which in tum
was covered by a thick series of chalk muds and
silts assigned to the Younger Dryas. A radiocarbon
date of 11 900 ± 160 yr BP (Q-618) was obtained
from the organic detritus mud, which was inter-
preted as representing the early part of the
'Aller0d Interstadial'. This date was virtually iden-
tical to the now discredited date obtained from
the 'Aller0d soil' at Dover Hill, which conflicted
with others obtained from the comparable hori-
zon in Holywell Coombe. Suspicion therefore fell
on the interpretation of Q-618 as a comparable
'Aller0d' date (Preece, 1992a). Fortunately, mate-
rial from Borehole III still existed, enabling new
age determinations to be undertaken. Two pairs
of measurements on both the 'humic' and 'humin'
fractions of the organic detritus mud have been
undertaken using conventional and AMS dating.
The conventional ages (SRR-4829) were 12 185 ±
376
50 yr BP (humic fraction) and 12235 ± 50 yr BP
(humin fraction) and the AMS dates were 12 145
± 100 yr BP (AA-I0709; 'humic fraction) and
12 115 ± 80 yr BP (AA-10707; 'humin fraction').
These new dates are remarkably consistent and
can be combined to give a pooled mean of 12 190
± 30 yr BP (Preece, 1994). They indicate that the
organic detritus mud, originally dated to
11 900 yr BP, is the equivalent not of the 'Aller0d
soil', but rather of the 'B011ing' marsh deposits of
similar age seen at the base of the sequence in
Holywell Coombe (Preece, 1992a). The true
equivalent of the 'Aller0d soil' in Borehole III is
the so-called 'marsh soil' some 15 cm higher in
the sequence. An AMS date of 11 170 ± 70 yr BP
(AA-I0706) has now been obtained from charcoal
from this horizon confirming this suggestion
(Preece, 1994).
Below River Hill, part of the Lower Greensand
escarpment near Sevenoaks, about 75 km NW of
Folkestone, an organic clay was found beneath
solifluction lobes attributed to the Younger Dryas.
This organic deposit yielded pollen, dominated by
Betula, and a radiocarbon date of 12 250 ±
280 yr BP (GX-0793) (Skempton and Weeks, 1976).
Although described as a 'fossil soil', it is unlikely to
be so in the strict pedological sense, since it
yielded pollen, which seldom survives any appre-
ciable weathering. The radiocarbon date is again
identical to those obtained from the basal B011ing
marsh deposits in Holywell Coombe, which
demonstrably pre-date the 'Aller0d soil'.
Kerney et al. (1964) calculated that about a
third of the chalk eroded from the Devil's
Kneadingtrough was still present within a radius
of about 1 km from its source. As the authors
pointed out, even this astounding figure is likely
to be a serious under-estimate, since a consider-
able amount of calcium carbonate was probably
carried out of the area in suspension or in solu-
tion or lost by subsequent weathering. This
erosion was thought to have been accomplished
entirely during the Younger Dryas. The history of
the Devil's Kneadingtrough is therefore very differ-
ent from that of Holywell Coombe, where the
valley had already been deeply incised some time
before the Younger Dryas; indeed, before the Late-
glacial itself.
At Holywell Coombe it was not possible to map
the fans of chalk debris to their terminal limits,
since these extended across what was then the A20
and into an area occupied by an industrial estate. It
is therefore not possible to provide comparable vol-
umetric estimates that encompass the sediments in
 General conclusions and comparisons with sites elsewhere
full measure. One fact is clear: the volume of the
sedimentary infill falls a long way short of filling the
cavity of the coombe. This raises the interesting
question of the original formation of the coombe
(Part Three (4)) and the absence of any pre-Late
Devensian sediments. The volumetric discrepancy
between the sedimentary infill and the size of the
valley does suggest that the coombe has a pre-Late
Devensian origin, but it is impossible to be more
precise.
The existence of pre-Devensian scarp-face
coombes in the vicinity of Folkestone has been
alluded to recently in connection with a site at
Folkestone Battery (TR 231359), first noted by
Mackie (1851). Here Ipswichian (Last) Interglacial
gravels, containing bones of Hippopotamus, are
thought to have been derived from the nearby
escarpment on the basis of their composition and
angularity (Bridgland et at., 1995). Clasts of tufa
within these gravels indicate the existence of inter-
glacial springs, similar to those that operated in the
Post-glacial in Holywell Coombe, implying the exis-
tence of a pre-Devensian precursor of this
chalkland valley system.
Outside Kent, probably the best-studied chalk-
land site representing this period is at Pitstone in
the Chiltern escarpment of Buckinghamshire (Fig.
1.1). Evans (1966) described both transverse and
longitudinal sections through the infill of two
scarp-face coombes exposed by quarrying at this
locality. Above a basal unbedded chalk rubble
(coombe rock) were deposits of weakly stratified
chalk muds and fine rubbles, within which a
prominent palaeo sol (the 'Aller0d soil') had
formed. This soil was overlain by coarse chalk and
flint gravels of Younger Dryas age. In places this
buried soil, unlike that seen in Holywell Coombe,
had an obvious double profile, with a weaker
lower horizon occurring intermittently a few cen-
timetres below the main horizon. Evans (1966)
thought that the intervening chalk muds reflected
a temporary cold phase between two periods of
soil formation. Although the upper horizon con-
tained a few additional species (notably Trichia
hispida), the molluscan faunas from both soil hori-
zons belong to zone z. Both episodes of
pedogenesis therefore relate to events within the
'Aller0d', rather than to any earlier interstadial
period (contra the suggestion by Jones and Keen,
1993: 178). Rose et at. (1985: 362) have recently
suggested that 'the soil of the Windermere
Interstadial be known as the Pitstone Soil'. A map
of south-east England showing the location of sites
with this soil is provided (Fig. 1.1). Some AMS
377
dates have recently been obtained from charcoal
from the uppermost 1.5 cm of the main soil hori-
zon at Pitstone. These produced quite a wide
scatter of ages but the most reliable date was said
to be 10900 ± 130 yr BP (Evans, 1986). This is sub-
stantially younger than the cluster of dates from
the 'Aller0d soil' at Holywell Coombe and else-
where in southern England (Preece, 1991, 1994;
Preece et at., 1995). Largely for this reason the
Late-glacial soils on the North Downs and
Chilterns can only be correlated provisionally. The
possibility exists that more than one episode of
pedogenesis may have occurred during the later
part of the Late-glacial.
Good transverse and longitudinal sections
through Late-glacial colluvial deposits flooring a dry
valley have recently been described from the Isle
of Wight (Preece et at., 1995). At Watcombe
Bottom, near Ventnor (SZ 544773), the 'Aller0d
soil' was clearly observable within this sequence.
As at Pitstone, the soil horizon had a double pro-
file, but only in a few places. A radiocarbon date of
11 690 ± 120 yr BP was obtained from fragments of
charcoal from the lower horizon. Micromor-
phological studies through the entire sequence
here revealed pedogenic features both below,
within and above the 'Aller0d soil' showing that it
is not a 'buried' soil in the strict sense, but part of a
vertical sequence representing a single complex
soil with transported, accretionary and welded
components (preece et at., 1995).
Comparable Late-glacial soils have been
described on the Continent, particularly in the
Low Countries, where they have been preserved
by burial beneath coversand. The Stabroek Soil of
Belgium has been dated between 13 000 and
12000 years BP (paepe, 1971), suggesting that it
equates with the 'B0lling' interstadial marsh sedi-
ments at Holywell Coombe. At Opgrimbie, in the
coversand area of Belgium, two distinct intersta-
dial complexes have been recorded within dune
sediments (Paulissen and Munaut, 1969). The
interstadials were represented by polleniferous
organic sediments, infilling a hollow, that passed
laterally into 'bleached layers', reSUlting from
weathering, towards the crest of the dune. The
lower horizon was attributed on pollen evidence
to the 'B011ing' and dated at 12240 ± 190 yr BP,
whereas the upper horizon was ascribed to the
'Allen~d' and correlated with the 'Usselo Soil' of
the Netherlands. A radiocarbon date of 11 910 ±
170 yr BP was obtained for this horizon. Paulissen
and Munaut (1969) defined the lower bleached
horizon as the 'Opgrimbie Soil', noting that it was
 Synthesis
more strongly weathered than the upper horizon.
No true soil of 'B011ing' age has been reported
from the North Downs, but an undated soil at
Cherhill, Wiltshire, has yielded zone y molluscan
assemblages (Evans, 1968; Evans and Smith, 1983)
and would appear to be a potential British equiv-
alent of the Stabroek or Opgrimbie Soils. A date
of 13 180 ± 230 yr BP (Q-473) was obtained from
'a thin seam of dark structureless organic mater-
ial' below the 'Aller0d soil' at Holborough in the
Medway Valley (Kerney, 1963: 215). This again
would appear to relate to the B0lling basal marsh
deposits in Holywell Coombe. The 'Aller0d soil'
in southern England can be correlated with the
Roksem Soil of Belgium (Paepe, 1971), the 'Belloy
Soil' of Northern France (Van Vliet-Lanoe et al.,
1992) and the 'Usselo Soil 'of the Netherlands
(Van Geel et al., 1989; Huijzer, 1993) the last of
which, according to radiocarbon dating, formed
between 11 800 and 11 000 years BP. It is note-
worthy that no trace of pine charcoal, which is
said to characterize the Usselo Soil, has been
recovered from any equivalent site in Kent
(Kerney, 1963; this study, Table 5.1.4), but this
difference may simply reflect the presence of
sandy substrates in the Low Countries, which
would have favoured pine.
Previous studies on the sedimentary infills of dry
valleys in Kent have frequently found a significant
loessic contribution. At Halling, for instance, the
basal brown silts were clearly partly loessic in
origin (Kerney, 1971), as are similar sediments at
North Cliff, Broadstairs, which also underlie a com-
plete Late-glacial sequence (Kerney, 1965). In East
Kent there are even deposits of primary loess,
exceeding 1 m in thickness, such as at Pegwell Bay
(Pitcher et at., 1954) and at Reculver (Preece,
1990) at the eastern end of Herne Bay. The strati-
graphical context of such occurrences led to the
suggestion that loess accumulated principally
during the early part of the Late Devensian
(Kerney, 1965). This suggestion has recently been
confirmed by thermoluminescence crL) dates that
fall in the range 20-10 000 years BP (most in the
earlier part) for the Pegwell Bay and Reculver
loesses (Wintle, 1981; Parks and Rendell, 1992).
Most of these deposits, sometimes mapped as 'head
brickearth' by the Geological Survey, have been
decalcified and are therefore unfossiliferous.
However, a restricted molluscan assemblage, com-
prising just five taxa and typical of loess faunas
from elsewhere, has recently been reported from
Reculver (preece, 1990).
There is evidence for younger episodes of loess
378
accumulation. At Brook, for example, chalk silts
that accumulated during the Younger Dryas were
shown to be partly loessic in origin (Kerney et al.,
1964: 154). At Kiln Combe, Sussex, and at
Chariton, Hampshire, two chalk valleys in the
South Downs, some of the younger Post-glacial
sediments were also found to have a significant
loess-derived component (Bell, 1983), although
this was probably re-worked. Since loess accumu-
lation appears to have been so extensive in East
Kent during the Late Devensian (Catt, 1977, 1979),
it is perhaps surprising that the amounts of loess
in both the Late-glacial and Post-glacial sediments
at Holywell Coombe are so low. The maximum
loessic contributions are calculated to be no more
than about 15% and usually very much less (Staines
and Catt, this volume). It is possible that more
loess was present in earlier units that have since
been removed by erosion, possibly as the result of
prehistoric agriculture (Favis-Mortlock et al.,
1997).
The absence of pre-Late Devensian sediments
within Holywell Coombe has already been men-
tioned. The fact that most of the sedimentary infill
accumulated during the Late-glacial seems extra-
ordinary in view of the shortness of this period
(3000 to 4000 years), as compared with the much
greater length of time of the remainder of the last
cold stage (perhaps as much as 80 000 to 90 000
years). The lack of Full Glacial sediments in chalk-
land dry valleys in southern Britain appears to be
almost universal (Kerney, 1963). Only one excep-
tion has been reported, from a dry valley at Halling
in the Medway Valley in Kent, where a Full Glacial
sequence, with a possible interstadial horizon,
occurred stratigraphically beneath a typical Late-
glacial profile (Kerney, 1971). The widespread
accumulation of loess in East Kent during the early
part of the Late Devensian suggests that the cli-
mate may have been both too cold and too dry for
very much solifluction and frost-shattering to have
occurred. Only when the climate became wetter
and the mean annual temperatures rose did these
processes commence to any extent. There was
clearly an important erosion event in the Late
Devensian; the complete absence of pre-Late-
glacial sediments in a valley that apparently
reached its maximum volume in the Late
Devensian points to complete removal of earlier
sediments at that time, some of which might be
preserved in distal fans beyond the study area and,
following reworking, in deposits such as those at
Folkestone Battery.
 General conclusions and comparisons with sites elsewhere
(b) The Post-glacial period
At the beginning of the Post-glacial, active erosion
from the hillsides became negligible and tufa began
to form in the two valleys of the Holywell Coombe
system. The onset of tufa formation in the very
early Post-glacial has now been observed in many
sites in southern Britain (Preece, 1978; Willing,
1985; Pentecost, 1993), but the former view that
such deposits formed almost exclusively during the
warmer and wetter 'Atlantic Period' must now
been abandoned. Indeed, at Holywell Coombe tufa-
ceous sediments formed even during the
Late-glacial. In Trench 4 many of the moss remains,
dated to 13000-12 000 yr BP, were encrusted with
carbonate and in Trench HV there was a thin
deposit of tufa immediately below the 'Aller0d
soil', the latter dated to 11 530 ± 160 yr BP. There is
only one other British site where tufa formation
during the Late-glacial has been recorded. At
Caerwys in North Wales, organic silts within a thin
tufa at the base of a thick Post-glacial sequence
yielded a typical Late-glacial molluscan fauna and a
radiocarbon date of 11 725 ± 120 yr BP (preece and
Turner, 1990).
Radiocarbon dates from organic materials within
the tufa allow an estimation of the rates of tufa for-
mation. In general, rates of accumulation for the
nodular (onchoidal) facies are higher (12.3 cm/IOO
years) than those of the fine-grained lithologies
(3 cm/IOO years). These rates are broadly compa-
rable to others calculated from sites such as
Sidlings Copse, Oxfordshire, where granular tufa
accumulated at 4.6 cm/IOO years, whereas the fine-
grained facies formed more slowly at only
1.3 cm/IOO years (preece and Day, 1994).
Tufa continued to form at Holywell Coombe
until about 6000 yr BP. The decline in tufa forma-
tion after about 6000-5000 yr BP appears to have
been a widespread phenomenon in southern
Britain (preece, 1978; Willing, 1985). Today most
sites of tufa deposition in this country are inactive,
although precipitation on a very minor scale can
still be observed in certain hard-water streams,
including the present spring at Holy Well. Various
hypotheses have been advanced to explain this late
Post-glacial decline (Goudie et al., 1993; Griffiths
and Pedley, 1995). These hypotheses fall loosely
into those that attribute the decline to climatic
change and those that prefer an anthropogenic
explanation.
In support of the anthropogenic hypothesis, it
must be remembered that springs responsible for
the formation of tufa would have been a very attrac-
379
tive source of fresh water for early humans, as is sup-
ported by the occurrence of Mesolithic artefacts in a
number of tufa deposits. These include the tufas at
Blashenwell, Dorset (Clark, 1938; Preece, 1980b),
Prestatyn, N. Wales (Clark, 1938), Cwm Nash, S.
Wales a.G. Evans, unpublished), Gerrard's Cross,
Buckinghamshire (R.e. Preece, unpublished),
Cherhill, Wiltshire (Evans and Smith, 1983) and
Newlands Cross, Co. Dublin (preece et al., 1986). At
Holywell Coombe too, marine shells of presumed
anthropogenic origin were found in the upper levels
of the tufa and a single microlith was recovered from
the base of the overlying hillwash, both facts under-
lining the potential human influence on the site by
the early Post-glacial.
Several of the anthropogenic hypotheses link the
cessation of tufa formation to the effects of defor-
estation, which is likely to have significantly
disrupted the local hydrology by causing increased
run-off. In the Blashenwell tufa, the molluscan evi-
dence does indeed suggest some thinning of the
woodland cover in the upper levels (Preece,
1980b). Likewise, at Holywell Coombe there is
clear evidence for woodland recession towards the
top of the tufa. It is therefore tempting to link the
two events. However, forest disturbance does not
invariably disrupt the fragile tufa-forming ecosys-
tem. At Newlands Cross, for example, the
molluscan evidence, combined with the occur-
rence of microscopic charcoal, points to forest
disturbance at a slightly earlier date (-7600 yr BP),
but this did not result in the cessation of tufa for-
mation and there is evidence of woodland
regeneration in the upper levels of the tufa at that
site (preece et al., 1986).
The environmental impact of Mesolithic com-
munities on the chalkland landscape has been the
subject of much recent debate (Bush and Flenley,
1987; Bush, 1988, 1989, 1993; Thomas, 1989).
Much of this debate has centred on a site at Willow
Garth in the Yorkshire Wolds, where Bush and
Flenley (1987) and Bush (1993) described a pollen
sequence, from which they claimed chalk grassland
plant communities persisted through the period of
the forest optimum and survived to the present
day. These authors argued that the grassland com-
munities were maintained by Mesolithic activities.
Thomas (1989) challenged this interpretation on a
number of grounds, pointing to two substantial
breaks in the sequence at Willow Garth, preclud-
ing demonstration of continuity, and to the fact
that pollen analysis cannot distinguish between
chalkland grasses and those from other habitats,
such as marshes.
 Synthesis
The evidence of Mesolithic forest disturbance is
often hard to recognize in the fossil record. Such
disturbance, unless large-scale or very close to the
sampling site, is unlikely to be detectable in the
pollen record. Standard palynological analyses at
several classic Mesolithic sites, such as Star Carr,
Yorkshire (Walker and Godwin, 1954), and
Thatcham, Berkshire (Holyoak, 1980), have repeat-
edly failed to provide evidence for disturbance. It
was only when very fine sampling (1 mm slices) for
pollen, combined with charcoal particle analysis,
was undertaken at Star Carr that sufficiently high
resolution was finally obtained to recognize signs
of disturbance (Day, 1993).
Molluscan analyses, which can give much
stronger local signals, frequently provide evidence
for disturbance that is undetectable in the pollen
record, as for example at Newlands Cross (preece
et al., 1986). It is clear that a combination of mol-
luscan and fine-scale pollen analyses, with their
different levels of spatial resolution, allows a clearer
insight into environmental history than either tech-
nique in isolation. Since conditions required for the
preservation of pollen and shells are generally
rather different, this is seldom possible.
Land snails can give only a general picture of the
character of the vegetation because, unlike many
insects, they are not restricted to specific food
plants. It may not always be possible to distinguish
tall rank grassland and open woodland, since the
ecological requirements of several snails are ful-
filled by both these habitats (d. Cameron and
Morgan-Huws, 1975). Consequently, the molluscan
records at the Mesolithic/Neolithic transition are
not always easy to interpret. At the Rille Butts sec-
tion within the Devil's Kneadingtrough, Brook,
there are indications from the snails of woodland
thinning at the end of zone d. The rise in the fre-
quency of Pomatias elegans (and associated
changes) occurs within a buried soil yielding
Neolithic artefacts and a radiocarbon date of 4540
± 105 yr BP (Burleigh and Kerney, 1982). At Brook,
the change to grassland occurred sometime after
this date, although coexistence of open-country
and woodland taxa renders a detailed reconstruc-
tion of the vegetation difficult.
The prevailing view is that chalk landscapes
were wooded in Mesolithic times and the evidence
from Holywell Coombe would certainly support
this notion. Here some thinning of the woodland
cover does appear to have occurred after
-7500 yr BP, but more extensive clearance took
place during the Neolithic and especially during
the Early Bronze Age, from which there is abundant
380
evidence for occupation in the form of post-holes
and other structures (part Six). Ard-marks buried by
hillwash demonstrate that ploughing took place
during the Early Bronze Age or even earlier. Indeed,
the hillwash itself probably results directly from
ploughing on the slopes above the site. The forest
clearance would seem to have been more or less
permanent, although there was some regeneration
of scrub during the Early Iron Age.
Many chalkland sites in Britain and France
demonstrate a broadly similar history of clearance
and land use, although individual histories are
bound to be site-specific (Kerney et al., 1964;
Evans, 1972: 363; Evans and Valentine, 1974; Bell,
1982, 1983; Preece and Robinson, 1984; Ellis,
1986; Allen, 1992; Limondin, 1995). Godwin's
(1967) view that there had been insignificant ero-
sion on the chalklands of southern England in the
later Post-glacial is now challenged by the results
of work at such sites, which show that clearance
led to slope instability and substantial accumulation
of hillwash.
Detailed study of stratified assemblages of arte-
facts in colluvial sediments, such as the hillwash,
has proved to be particularly valuable (Part Six).
First, it enables an independent assessment of the
radiocarbon dating evidence. Second, the abun-
dance of artefacts from specific periods is strongly
suggestive of phases of occupation and arable land-
use. This is especially important in the case of
Holywell Coombe because there the pollen record
does not extend into sediments younger than about
7500 yr BP. Third, the degree to which artefacts of
different ages are mixed together in the colluvial
deposits may give a good indication of the integrity
or otherwise of the molluscan assemblages from
the same horizons.
The gap in the pollen record between the mid
Post-glacial and the present is partly filled by the
sequence from Frogholt, about 4 km west of
Holywell Coombe. There, Godwin (1962)
described the pollen succession from a valley peat
that was dominated by herbs with subordinate
hazel (Corylus), alder (Alnus) and oak (Quercus).
Beech (Fagus) also occurred at low frequency.
Radiocarbon dates demonstrated accumulation
between about 3000 - 2000 yr BP. Virtually nothing
has been published on the local vegetational his-
tory of the last two millennia. It might be possible
to reconstruct something from documentary
sources but this is beyond the scope of the present
study.
The chalklands of southern Britain are a familiar
tract of country with a characteristic flora, fauna
 General conclusions and comparisons with sites elsewhere
and ecology (Smith, 1980). The present vegetation
of the Folkestone-Etchinghill escarpment, and its
associated invertebrates, has also been studied as
part of the monitoring programme funded by
Eurotunnel and TML (Kershaw et al., 1996; Part
Seven). The predominantly south-facing chalk
escarpment between Creteway Down, north of
Folkestone, to the east and The Lince, near
Etchinghill, to the west, was first scheduled as a
Site of Special Scientific Interest by the Nature
Conservancy in 1951 and re-notified by the Nature
Conservancy Council in 1987. The primary reasons
for designation were botanical, since this strip of
downland contains abundant orchids, including
both early and late spider orchid (Ophrys sphe-
godes and O. fuciflora) , as well as bedstraw
broomrape (Orobanche caryophyllacea) , three
nationally rare species listed on Schedule 8 to the
Wildlife and Countryside Act 1981 that are spe-
cially protected by law. Other noteworthy plants
include wild cabbage (Brassica oleracea) , can-
dytuft (lberis amara) and woolly thistle (Cirsium
eriophorum). This stretch of downland is also of
considerable entomological interest, especially for
Lepidoptera (part Seven). It includes, for example,
the only British locality for the fasciata form of the
annulet moth (Gnophos obscuratus).
The Folkestone to Etchinghill SSSI includes
Asholt Wood, which abuts the western end of the
escarpment. Although regarded as one of the best
examples of semi-natural ancient woodland on the
Wealden exposures of Gault Clay, Peterken (1976)
found that the standard trees, mostly oak (Quercus)
and ash (Fraxinus), were all of mid-nineteenth cen-
tury origin and most probably planted. Parts of the
wood are still managed as coppice, mainly ash and
hazel (Corylus), a traditional practice which doubt-
less considerably pre-dates the Victorian planting.
Although Biggins Wood was clear-felled during
construction of the Channel Tunnel Terminal, it
too was a woodland of ancient origin. Most other
woodland along the base of the escarpment is the
result of natural scrub invasion of the grassland,
supplemented by some tree-planting. The lands sur-
rounding the reservoirs at Cherry Garden have
been in the ownership of the Water Company for
the past 100 years. Wells (1976) considered the
woodland there to be reverted scrub with
sycamore (Acer pseudoplatanus) , planted about 50
years ago. Traditionally the open grasslands of
chalk downland have been grazed by sheep, but
this practice has been in decline on the Folkestone
escarpment in recent decades. This, together with
the decline in rabbit numbers following myxo-
381
matosis, has resulted in Tor grass (Brachypodium
pinnatum) becoming dominant at the expense of
the typically rich herb flora associated with chalk
grassland.
The results of quantitative surveys of the princi-
pal species of plants and invertebrates recorded by
the Institute of Terrestrial Ecology between 1987
and 1991, from transects at various locations along
the escarpment, are reported here (part Seven). All
these transects were sited in open chalk grassland,
avoiding areas of invading scrub, and all data pre-
sented refer to this main biotope. There were no
systematic surveys of the wetland areas in Holywell
Coombe or within any of the woodland areas.
However, the limited data available from recent
surveys of such areas, conducted by staff of the
former Nature Conservancy Council (now English
Nature) and others are reviewed. In addition,
results of aquatic surveys carried out by the
Freshwater Biological Association (now Institute of
Freshwater Ecology) on the major chalk streams of
the Folkestone escarpment are also reported. These
surveys were undertaken in order to assess any
detrimental effects on the natural environment that
might have resulted from the construction of the
Channel Tunnel. No such effects were found that
could be directly attributed to this cause.
The surveys nevertheless not only provide a
detailed inventory of the present fauna and flora,
but also form a baseline against which to monitor
future environmental change. From these data it
will be possible to determine any effects resulting
from the recent reintroduction of cattle and sheep
grazing on the escarpment. The data also show that
conditions now are very different from those that
existed as recently as the mid Post-glacial and lend
support to the notion that the open chalk down-
land results from, and is maintained by,
anthropogenic activity that can be traced back to
the Neolithic and Early Bronze Age. It would be
wrong, however, to assume that modern chalk
grassland communities of plants and animals have
histories that extend back to the earliest episodes
of forest clearance. Comparison of land snail assem-
blages in the hillwash, for example, reveals the
presence of some species (e.g. Monacha cartu-
siana) that no longer live in Holywell Coombe and
others, such as Cernuella virgata, so common
there today, that are completely absent from the
fossil record. Clearly human activity has been a
major influence in shaping and changing the land-
scape by alterations in agricultural practices and
management, such as scrub clearance, grazing of
stock and tree-planting. Future impact may well
 Synthesis
result from the increased recreational use of sensi-
tive habitats.
This multidisciplinary study of Holywell
Coombe has added enormously to the rather
meagre amount of palaeoecological and archaeo-
logical data on the Late-glacial and Post-glacial
history of the British chalklands. For the first time
it has been possible to compare in detail mollus-
can, plant and insect records for much of the
critical period at the Late-glaciallPost-glacial tran-
sition. A detailed chronology has been provided
by radiocarbon dating involving many AMS deter-
minations. It has also been possible to provide a
historical perspective of the successional devel-
opment of the present fauna and flora, which
itself is of considerable biological interest. The
molluscan zonation scheme defined from
Holywell Coombe (Kerney et at., 1980) has been
refined and now includes the full complement of
zones (y to f), which have been integrated more
closely with other fossil data and tied to a firm
chronology. This zonation scheme has been rec-
ognized over much of southern Britain (Preece,
1978; Willing, 1985) and may be broadly applica-
ble to sites in northern France (d. Limondin 1995;
Limondin-Lozouet, 1997, 1998) and possibly else-
where in NW Europe (R. Meyrick, unpublished
data).
The investigation described in this volume has
382
set an important precedent in terms of Earth
Science conservation; a rescue excavation within a
threatened geological SSSI funded by the devel-
oper. Although routine in the archaeological world,
thanks to the Government's Planning Policy
Guidance No 16, the adoption of this strategy for
an Earth Science site is unique in Britain. Important
new information has been discovered that will
lead, it is hoped, to the redefinition of the site
boundaries to incorporate the hitherto unknown
sequences near Horseshoe Spring. Although not
included in the original SSSI, this area boasts the
thickest and most detailed early Post-glacial tufa
sequence. Despite the construction of the cut-and-
cover tunnel and the A20 extension, late
Quaternary sediments survive in undisturbed parts
of Holywell Coombe where, it is hoped, they will
be conserved for future study. It remains to be seen
to what extent the environmental history of
Holywell Coombe is representative of comparable
sites elsewhere.
The work presented here has shown the record
at Holywell Coombe to extend from the period
when Britain was physically united with the
European mainland, during the Late-glacial and
early Post-glacial when sea-level was low, to the
present-day when, for the first time in the last 8500
years, this island has once again been linked to
Europe, this time by the Channel Tunnel.
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Nature, 289, 479-480.
Wooldridge, S.W. (1927) The Pliocene Period in
the London basin. Proceedings of the
Geologists' Association, 38, 49-132.
Wooldridge, S.W. and Linton, D.L. (1939)
Structure, surface and drainage in south-east
England. Transactions of the Institute of British
Geographers, No. 10, 124 pp.
Wooldridge, S.W. and Linton, D.L. (1955)
 References
Structure, surface and drainage in south-east
England. George Philip, London, 176 pp.
Worssam, B.C. (1963) Geology of the Country
around Maidstone. Memoir of the Geological
Survey of Great Britain.
Worssam, B.c. (1973) A new look at river capture
and at the denudation of the Weald. Institute of
Geological Sciences Report No. 73/17, 23 pp.
Wright, H.E. (1984) Sensitivity and response time
of natural systems to climatic change in the Late
Quaternary. Quaternary Science Reviews, 3,
91-13l.
Wright, R. (1988) Spring line survey, Etchinghill-
Holywell scarp SSSI. Unpublished report for
Eurotunnel.
404
Yates, T.J.S. (1986a) The selection of non-marine
molluscan shells for radiocarbon dating. Ph.D.
thesis, University of London.
Yates, T.J.S. (1986b) Studies of non-marine mol-
luscs for the selection of shell samples
for radiocarbon dating. Radiocarbon, 26,
457-463.
Yates, T.J.S. (1988) The detection of diagenetic
changes in non-marine shells prior to their sub-
mission for 14C dating. In: Olsen, S.L. (ed.)
Scanning electron microscopy in archaeology.
British Archaeological Report, International
Series, 452, 239-248.
Index
Page numbers in bold type refer to figures and page numbers in italics refer to tables.
A20 extension 6, 6, 7, 9, 263,
339,382
Abida secale 65, 115, 184, 187,
190, 192, 193, 196,
200-201,207,209,365,
366, 367
Acanthinula aculeata 184,
192,370
Acari (mites) see Part Five (5)
also 339,342
Accelerator mass spectrometry
(AMS) see also
Radiocarbon dating 10,
110-111
Acer see also maple 142, 228
Acer pseudoplatanus 381
Achenheim 200
Achillea millifolium 221
Aciculafusca 184, 187, 190,
204,208,209,369,370
Acilius 227, 368
Actinedida 339
Adonia variegata 228
Adoxa moschatellina 328
Aegelsee Oscillation 12
Aegopinella 184, 190,207,209
Aegopinella nitidula 184, 187,
190,192,193,204
Aegopinella pura 192, 336
Mrica, North 199, 201
Agabus bipustulatus 220
Agabus guttatus 222
Agonopteryx pallorella 342
Agonum ericeti 227
Agonum fuliginosum 222
Agonum gracile 222 Alps 142,200,201,202
Agonum moestum 220 Amblyseius meridionalis 339
Agonum sexpunctatum 222 Amblystegium riparium 361,
Ajuga reptans 328,331 366
Alder see also Alnus 141, 143, Amblystegium serpens 64,154
146,147,228,380 Anacaena 227, 368
Algae 149-157 Anagalis tenella 333
Alkham valley 17,21,22 Anaglyptus mysticus 225, 228,
All-Over-Cord (AOC) Beakers 369
292,298 Anapsis rUfilabris 350
Allef(3d Ancholme Valley, Lincolnshire
chronozone 11, 253, 362, 251
373, 374 Anelasmocephalus cambridgei
phase of Late-glacial 338
Interstadial 11, 12, 13, Angelica sylvestris 137, 361
231,235,362,363-366, Anglian Stage 22
376,377 Anglo-Saxon pottery 268-269,
'Aller0d Interstadial' 3, 11, 12, 270,273,308,309,310
372,373,376 Annulet moth see also Gnophos
'Aller0d soil' see also Pitstone obscuratus 342,357,
Soil Plate l(a), Plate 3, 381
3,4,12,13,35,37,40, Anobium 228
46,51,52,60,61,62, Ants see also Formicidae
63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 342-343
69-70,71,72,74,75, Anthophagus alpinus 222, 231,
77,80,81-82,83-85, 364
94,96,98,99,100,101, Anthostomella 150, 155
102,104, 115, 11~ 133, Anthostomella fuegiana 150,
199,200,255,264,364, 155
365,366,373,374,375, Anthriscus sylvaticus 140, 367
376, 377, 378, 379 Apennines 142
Allium ursinum 328 Aphodius 223, 229
Alnus glutinosa see also Alder Aphodius equestris 350
141, 143, 146, 147, 228, Aphthona herbigrada 349
380 Aphthona lutescens 350
405

Apion 228
Apion loti 350
Apion subulatum 350
Apium/Berula 333
Apium inundatum 333
Apium nodijlorum 331, 333
Apodemus sylvaticus or A.
jlavicollis see also Wood
mouse or Yellow-necked
mouse 256, 257, 369
Aquatic macrophytes 333
Arachnida see Mites and
Spiders
Araneae see also Spiders
338-339,339,340-342
Araneus diadematus 338
Archaeology see also
Prehistory, Part Six
Arctic-alpine species 140, 200,
208, 366, 367, 368
Arctium sp. 328
Arctostaphylos uva-ursi 140,
367
Ard-marks see also Plough
marks 284, 285, 286,
287,288,371,380
Arenaria ciliata 130, 137, 140,
142,366
Arianta arbustorum 52, 65,
81,82,113,114,115,
116,118,176,184,190,
196, 207, 209, 363, 365,
370
Arion ater 336
Arion circumscriptus 336
Arion hortensis agg. 336
Arion intermedius 336
Arionidae 44
Armadillidium vulgare 336
Armeria maritima 140
Armitage, Dr P.D. 331, 351
Arpedium quadrum 224, 231,
366
Arpinge 18, 351
Arrow-heads 280,296
Artefacts
arrow-heads 280, 296
composition of flint
assemblage 271
dimensions and ratios of
complete flakes 294,
295
fabric groups, distribution by
context 270
Index
flint, illustrations 278, 280,
283,296,
flint, technological aspects
279
Late Bronze Age and Early
Iron Age 270-273, 306
microlith 270,281,369,379
minimum number of pots
(Neolithic-Early Bronze
Age) 298
Neolithic-early Bronze Age
265-281, 284-289,
291-302
pottery, illustrations
274-277,282
previous finds 263
proportion of worked flints
from each context 284
stratigraphical occurrence
26~267
Arum maculatum 328
Ash see also Fraxinus 142, 148,
228,327,328,370,381
Ashford 17,21,22,26,351
Asholt Wood 148, 323, 324,
327,333,334,350,356,
381
Aspidiphorus orbiculatus 223
Aspitates gilvaria see also
Straw belle moth 342,
357
Athous haemorrhoidalis 228
Atlantic chronozone 253,362
Atropacarus striculus 238
Athyrium distentifolium 155,
156, 368
Aurochs see also Bos
primigenius 51, 79, 255,
256,257,258,259,363
Austria 159
Avenell's Cottages 202
Avenula pratensis-Thymus
praecox subcommunity
(CG4a) 322
Avenula pubescens 324
Baetidae 357
Baetis muticus 357
Baetis tenax 356
Bank vole see also
Clethrionomys glareolus
257,369
Barbados 116
Baris picicornis 229
406
Barynotus obscurus 350
Barypeithes araneiformis 350
Basel 252
Batophila rubi 350
Beachy Head see also Cow Gap
3,4
Beaker period 264,265,
268-269,270,273,
274-277,279,284,289,
291,292,293,294,295,
296, 297, 298, 299, 300,
301,302,311,312,313
Bedrock
effect on geomorphology
21-26
effect on soils 318
lithology 20-21
mineral magnetic
characteristics 86, 88,
91,92,93,
mineralogy 76, 79
source materials 90-91,91,
92,93
Bedstraw broomrape see also
Orobanche
caryophyllacea Plate
4(b), 327, 357, 381
Beech see also Fagus 143, 146,
228, 380
Beetles see Coleoptera see Part
Five (4); also 343-350
'Belgic' pottery 268-269,270,
282,308,309,310,314
Belgium 22, 123, 142,377,378
Belle Tout, Sussex 292, 293,
299
Belloy Soil 378
Below Sugarloaf (Hill) see also
'Section Below Sugarloaf
9,39,133
Bembecia scopigera 342
Bembidion biguttatum 220,
225
Bembidion dauricum 224,
226,231,366
Bembidion dentellum 225
Bembidion difficile 232,366
Bembidion doris 220
Bembidion gilvipes 220
Bembidion guttula 221, 222
Bembidion obliquum 220
Bembidion octomaculatum
219,225,226,229,231,
363,364,367
 Index

Bembidion schueppeli 221, modem fauna 335-336, Early Post-glacial 256-257

222,224,225
Bembidion unicolor 220
Bembidion varium 220
Berger-Parker index see also
Species diversity index
45,209,211
Berkshire 202, 257, 380
Betula see also Birch Plate
4(d), 134, 141, 142, 143,
144,146,152,55,156,
221,223,228,232,324,
364, 365, 368, 374
alba 221
nana 140, 146, 366, 367
pubescens 64, 137, 141,221,
361, 367, 368
verrucosa 221
Betula-Gramineae assemblage
zone 134-140, 146, 364
Betula-Pinus sylvestris
assemblage zone 141, 146
Betula nana-Dryas octopetala
assemblage zone 140
Biggins Wood 148, 319, 323,
324, 328, 333, 337, 351,
381
Biogeographical significance of
site 5
Biostratigraphy see Part Five
beetles see Coleoptera see
Part Five (4)
climatic implications 229,
230,
faunal changes 214-218,
219
laboratory analysis 213
modem fauna 345-350,
343,344-349
reconstruction of local
environment 219, 229
sampling 213
caddisflies and other aquatic
insects 232-233
Chironomidae (midges) 233,
356
Mites See Part Five (5)
Mollusca see Part Five (3)
analysis of faunal changes
181-196
faunal history, review of
204-208
laboratory analysis
159-169
336
notes on identification
169-181
predation 204,205
preservation 169
reversed coiling 204
sampling 159-169
selected species, notes on
199-203
zonation 204-208
ostracods See Part Five (6)
comments on species of
interest 250-252
modem faunas 353, 357
faunal analyses of the
profiles 245-250
taxonomy and problems of
identification 245
sampling and treatment of
data 242
stratigraphical occurrence
253
palaeobotany See Part Five
(1 and 2)
algae 149-157
bryophytes see mosses
charcoal 130, 133, 137
early Post-glacial
vegetation on Chalk
147-148
fungi 149-157
mosses 130, 130, 132,
133, 134, 136, 139, 140,
143, 144, 148
notable plant records
142-143
non-pollen microfossils
149-157,151
plant macrofossils 130,
130, 131-132, 133, 134,
135-136,137,137,138,
139, 140, 144
pollen 123-129
preservation 143
taphonomy 143
vegetational history
133-142
wood 130, 130, 133, 134,
135,
vertebrates see Part Five (7)
identification and
interpretation 254
Late-glacial 254-256, 365
Bronze Age and Iron Age
257-260
Biotite 91
Bioturbation 43, 103,312,372
Birch see also Betula 63, 143
Blanket peat 153
Blashenwell, Dorset 379
Bledius 222
Block series 319, 321, 322, 324
Bodmin Moor, Cornwall 231
Bohemia 159
Bolling
chronozone 11, 13,56,362,
373,374
phase of Late-glacial
Interstadial 11, 12, 13,
37,231,235,361-363,
362,364,367,376,377,
378
'Bolling Interstadial' 3, 11, 12,
13,372,373,375
Bollingso, Denmark 13
Boreal chronozone 253,362
Boreaphilus henningianus
221,222,226,231,235,
363
Borehole survey Plate l(c), 8,
9,33-42,34-35,36,361
Bos primigenius (Aurochs) 51,
79,255,256,257,258,
259,363
Bos taurus see also Cattle 256,
257,258,259,260,288,
371
Bossington 253
Botrychium 134
Brachydesmus superus 337
Brachypodium pinnatum 322,
323,357,358,381
Brachypodium pinnatum
grassland (CG4) 322, 357
Brachypodium sylvaticum 328
Brachypterus glaber 350
Brachysomus echinatus 228
Bradleystrandesia fuscata 248,
253
Brassica oleracea see also Wild
cabbage 322, 357, 381
Braunton Burrows, Devon 199
Bridge 303
Bristlecone pine chronology
116,118
Broadstairs 4, 69, 378

407

Bromus erectus 357
Bromus erectus-Brachypodium
pinnatum grassland
(CG5) 322, 357
Bronze Age
ard-marks 284,285,286,
287,288,371,380
hollow way 287 - 288
mammals 256, 257-260
post-holes 288-290
pottery 274-277,282,
295-308,298
ring ditches Plate 2(d), 37,
263,273,313,371
settlement features 265-272
Brook see also Devil's
Kneadingtrough 3, 4, 17,
21,23,24,69-70,112,
137,142,145,146,200,
202,367,376,378,380
Bryaxis bulbifer 350
Bryophyte see also Moss 85
Buckinghamshire 12, 112, 252,
376, 379
Buergenerula 151
Bursledon series 318, 319, 320
Butterflies see also Lepidoptera
334,339-342,343
Butterfly transects 334
Byrrhidae 220
Caddisflies see also Trichoptera
232,356,361
Caerwys, Clwyd 85,379
Calathus erratus 222
Calcareous gley soil 81, 82, 364
Calcitic granules see also
Earthworm granules
Plate 3D, 43-44, 44,
364,370
Calcitic spicules 85, 87
Calliergon cuspidatum 144,
361
Callis Wold, North Humberside
298
Calluna heatWand 237
Calluna vulgariS 139, 221, 227,
363
Caltha palustris 220
Calvia 14 punctata 350
Cambridgeshire 338
Campanula trachelium 327
Campylium stellatum 361, 366
Canada 365
Index
Candidula intersecta 372
Candona sp. 245
Candona candida 243, 248,
250-251
Candona neglecta 252, 253
Candytuft see also lberis
amara 322,327, 357,
381
Cantabrica 142
Canterbury 308, 309, 310
Canterbury Archaeological
Trust 13, 43, 263
Canterbury type ware 308, 309,
310
Capel-Ie-Feme 312
Carabidae 219, 221, 224
Carabus arvensis 225
Carabus granulatus 221
Carabus monilis 221
Carabus nemoralis 221,225
Carbonate analyses see also
Loss-on-ignition analyses
43,70, 71,72,73,364
Carex 151, 156,200,219,220,
221,222,223,227,228,
361, 364, 368
Carex caryophyllea 327, 328
Carex flacca 324
Carex nigra group 130
Carex paniculata 331
Carex pendula 328, 331, 333
Carex riparia 333
Carex rostrata 153
Carex sylvatica 328
Carpinus see also Hornbeam
228
Carychium minimum 175,
184, 187, 190, 192, 193,
196,207,209,336,361,
368
Carychium tridentatum 184,
187, 190, 192, 193, 202,
207,209,211,368,370
Caryophyllaceae 134, 137, 140,
141
Castle Hill 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8,
9,17,18,24,25,36,37,
38,40,41,43,56,58,
69,83,263,273,312,
313,317,318,322,323,
327,328,333,334,335,
337,338,339,342,343,
349, 350, 351, 356, 358,
361
408
Catenary variation 83, 364
Catinella arenaria 177, 181,
192, 193, 196, 199, 205,
208,361,374
Cattle see also Bos taurus/Bos
primigenius 51, 79, 255,
256, 257, 258, 259, 260,
288, 371
Cauldham Hill 312
Cavernocypris subterranea
243,245,247,250,252,
253
Cecilioides acicula 45, 52, 102,
103, 159, 202
Centaura nigra-Leontodon
hispidus subcommunity
(CG4b) 322
Centauria scabiosa 324
Centipedes see also Myriapoda
337
Cepaea 176
Cepaea nemoralis 336
Cerambycidae 228
Cerastoderma edule see also
Cockle 287
Ceratoppia bipilis 339
Cernuella virgata 212, 336,
358,372,381
Cervus elaphus see also Red
deer 52, 257, 259, 369
Cerastiumfontanum 137, 324,
361
Cetonia aurata 229
Chaenorhinum minus 137,
138,323,361
Chaerophyllum 220
Chaetarthria seminulum 220
Chaetopteryx villosa 356
Chalco ides aurata 350
Chalk 20,318
Marl 21, 33,
Middle 324
lithology 21
Lower 89,90,91,92,93,100
stratigraphy 21
weathering of 86, 364
Chalk grassland 123, 147-148,
212,322-327,324,
325-32~327,379,381
Chalton, Hampshire 263,378
Channel Tunnel
boreholes for 20,21
construction of 5, 7, 361,
381,382

modified alignment of 6
Project 25, 334
sites 303,305,312-314
Survey 322
threat posed by 5, 6, 7, 317,
322, 358
Charcoal 130, 364, 370
Cherhill, Wiltshire 378, 379
Cheriton 13, 312, 317, 318,
323,350
Cheriton Hill 321, 323, 324,
327,328,333,335,337,
338,339,342,343
Cherry Garden 5, 6,17,37,65,
66,70,82,83,104,
104-105,133,366,381
Mollusca 174, 195, 196
soil 366
vertebrates 254, 255
Cherry Garden Hill 18, 321,
323, 327, 328, 335, 337,
338, 339, 342, 357
Chilterns 22, 23, 377
Chloritic Marl see also
Glauconitic Marl 21
Cholsey4
Chronozones11,12,362
Chrysanthemum
leucanthemum 140, 367
Chrysomelidae 221
Chrysoplenium oppositifolium
328,331
Cicindela campestris 225
Circaea lutetiana 327, 328
Cirsium 222
Cirsium acaule 324
Cirsium eriophorum see also
Woolly thistle 322, 357,
381
Cirsium palustre/arvense 367
Clacton, Essex 296,297,301
Cladium mariscus 150, 223
Clasterosporium 151
Clausilia bidentata 192,336
Clayden, J.D. 254
Clematis vitalba 328
Clethrionomys glareolus (Bank
vole) 257, 369
Climate 26
Climatic reconstructions 362
Climatological data see also
Meteorological data
26-27,28-29
Clivina fossor 224, 225
Index
Closterium didymotocum 151,
154
Coarse Ware Beaker 301,304,
308,313,314
Coccinellidae (,lady-birds') 228
Coccinella septempunctata 228
Cochlicopa 159,169,178,179,
180, 187, 199
Cochlicopa lubrica 159, 169,
178, 179, 180, 187, 199,
205
Cochlicopa lubricella 159, 169,
178, 179, 180, 187, 199,
205,336
Cochlicopa nitens 159, 169,
178, 179, 180, 187, 192,
199,205,208,361
Cochlicopa repentina 199
Cochlodina laminata 190,336
Cockle see also Cerastoderma
edule 287
Coelostoma orbiculare 220
Coenorhinus aeneovirens 225,
228,369
Col see Pass 21, 25
Colekitchen Coombe 21
Coleoptera (beetles)
Modem fauna 343-350, 343,
344-349
Section Below Sugarloaf
214-218
Trench 3 214-218
Trench 4 Plate 4(c),
214-218
Trench 6 214-218
Collared urns 313
Colluvial deposits see also
Hillwash, Solifluction
deposits 25, 33-68, 88,
89,92,112,263,265,
363,370,371,378,380
Colluviation 263, 318, 324, 369,
370, 372
Colluvium see also Hillwash,
Solifluction deposits
33-68,88,89,92,112,
263, 265, 363, 370, 371,
372, 380
Columella 169
Columella columella 52, 184,
187, 190, 192, 193, 196,
199,207,209,366,367
Columella edentula 192, 193,
199
409
Colymbetes 220
Common shrew see also Sorex
araneus 254, 255, 256,
257,365,369
Compositae 134, 140, 141,221
Compton Beauchamp 4
Coniochaeta 154
Conopodium majus 140
Conty, near Saleux see also
Somme Valley 374
Coombe Deposits 20
Coombe Farm 21
'Coombe Rock' 23, 361, 377
Coombe valleys see also Dry
valleys 17, 23, 375-378
Copt Point 20
Cordilliera 142
Corer, percussion 8, 10
Corixidae ('water boatmen')
233
Cornus 229
Corn us sanguinea 141, 368
Cornus suecica 140, 146, 367
Cornwall 229, 231
Correlation of sections 67, 68
Corylus avellana see also Hazel
141, 143, 146, 147, 148,
228, 324, 368, 369, 380,
381
Corylus avellana assemblage
zone 141, 143, 146
Corylus avellana-Ulmus
assemblage zone 141,
143, 146
Cotoneaster horizontalis 328
Coversand 377
Cow Gap, Beachy Head 3, 4
Cox, Ruth 323
Cranefly 357
Crataegus monogyna see also
Hawthorn 143, 220, 229,
331, 368
Cratoneuron commutatum 51,
64, 154, 324, 361, 366,
368
Cratoneuron Jilicinum 361,
366
Creeting St Mary, Suffolk 298
Creteway Down 312, 313, 322,
357,381
Croydon, Surrey 4, 22
Cruciferae 137
Crundale 304
Cryoturbation 80, 366

Cryptocandona vavrai 249,
250,252,253
Cryptorhynchus lapathi 223
Ctenacaridae 234
Cunrrbria 199, 200, 363
Curculionidae 221
Curdridge series 318, 320-321
Cut-&-cover section Plate 2(b),
Plate 3, 9, 37, 43, 58,
60,61,62,70,94,95,
96,98,99,100,104,
105, 133
molluscs 173, 193, 194
sediments 60, 61, 62, 70, 94,
95,96,98,99,100,104,
105
soils 60, 61, 62, 70
vertebrates 255
Cut-and-cover tunnel 5, 7, 8, 39,
264,290,382
Cwm Nash, South Wales 379
Cyanobacteria 85
Cyclocypris laevis 243,245,
248,251,253
Cylindoiulus nitidus 337
Cyperaceae 134, 137, 140, 141,
146,223,368
Cytilus sericeus 220,221,223
Czechoslovakia 159, 199, 200
Dactylus glomerata 324
Dagnall 252
Dalopius marginatus 227
Danton Farm 25
Danton Pinch 5,18,369
Darent, River 21
Debarya 154, 156
Decalcification 317, 364
rates in various soils 83-85,
365
Deep Trench 1 see also Main
section 45,46
Deep Trench 2 see also Main
section 45, 46
Denchworth series 318,
319-320,319
Denham 147
Denmark 3, 201, 375
Denticollis linearis 225, 227,
369
Department of Environment
322
Department of Transport 6
Deporaus betulae 223
Index
Derbyshire 252,258,363
Deroceras/Limax see also Slug
remains 176, 181, 190,
336,370
Deroceras reticulatum 336
Deschampsia caespitosa 327
Deurnian see also Diestian,
Miocene 22
Devensian see also Last glacial
stage 11, 20, 23, 24
Deverel-Rimbury tradition
27~277, 296, 301, 303,
313
Devil's Kneadingtrough see also
Brook 3, 4, 23, 69-70,
376,380
Devon 199, 258
Dianous coeruleus 356
Dianthus cf. deltoides 138,
140, 366
Dichrorampha consortana 342
Dictyna latens 339
Diestian see also Deurnian,
Miocene 22
Dimlington Stadial see also Last
glacial maximunrr 11, 23
Dinoflagellate cysts 149, 155
Dinychus undulatus 237
Diplotaxis muralis 137, 361
Diptera 238,334,351
Dirhagus pygmaeus 225, 228,
368
Discus rotundatus 184, 187,
190,193,201,202,207,
209,335,369,370
Discus ruderatus 184, 187,
190,192,193,201,202,
207,209,368,369
Displacement of valley axis
37-38,41,363,364
Dogger Bank 19,20
Dolland's Moor 305,314
Dorcatoma dresdensis 228
Dorchester 255
Dorset 123, 255, 379
Dover 4
Dover Hill 3, 4, 18, 69, 83, 366,
375,376
Dovre Mountains 224
Drainage, of Weald 22
Drake, c'M. 334
Drusilla canaliculata 349
Dry valleys
asymmetry 25
410
infills 12, 23, 89
origin of 23, 24
Dryas octopetala 138,140,
324,366
Dryops sp. 225
Dublin, County 379,380
Dung
beetles 229
nwugi152, 155, 156
Durrington Walls 297, 301
Dvorce near Lysa (Bohemia)
159
Dye 3 see also Greenland and
Ice core records 373
Dyschirius 221
Dyschirius globosus 220,221,
224
Dytiscidae ('water beetles') 220
Dytiscus 227
Early Pleistocene 18
drainage of Croydon area 22
wave-cut platform 22
Early spider orchid see also
Ophrys sphegodes 322,
327, 357, 381
Earth Science conservation
382
Earthworm granules see also
Calcitic granules plate
3D, 43-44, 44, 364, 370
East Anglia 146, 292
Ebbsfleet Ware 295, 297
Edible winkle see also Littorina
littorea 265,272,371
Elaphrus cupreus 220
Elaphrus riparius 221
Elateridae ('click-beetles') 227,
228
Elm see also Ulmus 141, 142,
147,369
Elm Gardens site 333
Elm Gardens Wood Coombe
350
Elmidae ('riffle beetles') 357
Blodes ? pseudominuta 356
Elstead, Surrey 146
Eluviation 317
Empetrum sp. 140, 367
Empetrum nigrum 367
English Nature see also Nature
Conservancy Council
322,357,381
Enochrus 227, 368

Ephemera danica 356
Epidote 91
Epilobium 134,361
Epilobium hirsutum 328, 331,
333
Epuraea unicolor 350
Equisetum 220, 225
Equisetum arvense 223
Equisetum fluviatile 153
Equisetum palustre 223, 328
Erica tetralix 139, 221, 363
Eriophorum 221
Eriophorum vaginatum 150
Erioptera limbata 334
Erosion (episodes of) 88,364,
372,374-375,379
Essex 251,296,297,298,301
Etchinghill20, 21, 323, 357,
381
Eucnecosum brachypterum
222
Eucnemis capucina 225, 228,
368
Euconulus 176
Euconulus alderi 176
Euconulus fulvus 176, 175
Eucypris pigra 244, 245, 248,
250,251,252,253
Eucypris virens 244, 245, 248,
252,253
Eupatorium cannabinum see
also Hemp agrimony 54,
138,141,143,328,368,
369
Eupithecia pimpinellata 342
Eurhynchium striatum 368
Eurhynchium swartzii 368
Eurotunnel 5, 7, 312, 314, 322,
334,351,381
Eusphalerum minutum 220
Evesham series 318,319,320,
324
Fabaeformiscandona
fabaeformis 243, 251,
253
Fagus see also beech 143, 146,
228, 380
Fakenham, Suffolk 298
Famechon, Picardie 374
Festuca ovina 322, 324
Festuca ovina-Avenula
pratensis grassland
(CG2a) Cirsium acaule-
Index
Asperula cyanchica
subcommunity 322
Fennoscandia 143, 224
Filicales 141
Filipendula (ulmaria) 134,
138,141,220,327,333,
361,368
Fine Ware Beakers 274-275,
296,297,298,299,300,
304,312,313,414
Finland 201
Flandrian see also Holocene and
Post-glacial period 11,
13,23,367-372
Flint-work
chronology and implications
291-292
industries, condition and raw
material 293
technological aspects
293-295
traditions and illustrated
material 292-293
Floristic comparison between
S.E. England and N.
France 357
Fly orchid see also Ophrys
insectifera 327
Folkestone, 17, 18, 22, 26, 27
Folkestone Battery 377,378
Folkestone Beds (Lower
Greensand) 20, 146,
350,351
Folkestone-Etchinghill
Escarpment
Frontispiece, 5,17,25,
322,323,324,327,328,
334,335,336,337,339,
343,356,357,381
Folkestone Golf Course 263,
313
Folkestone Sand Quarry 313
Folkestone Sands 318,319,320
Folkestone Terminal 5, 273,
290,312,317,324,327,
328,335,351,381
Folkestone Warren 20, 25
Fomes 228
Foraminifera
North Atlantic 12
Forest clearance 39, 212, 358,
369, 379-380
Formica cuniculorum 342
Formica fusca 342
411
Formicidae see also Ants
342-343
France 20, 123, 200, 201, 202,
212,365,374,378,380,
382
Fraxinus (excelsior) see also
Ash 148, 228, 327, 328,
370,381
Freshwater Biological
Association see also
Institute of Freshwater
Ecology 331,351,356,
358,381
Frethun 312
Frogholt 18, 143, 146, 319, 322,
380
Frost, incidence of 26
Full glacial 378
Fungal hyphae 152
Fungi 149-157
Fungi diversi 152, 155
Fyfield series 318, 320
Gaeumannomyces 150-152,
156
Galeruca tanaceti 221
Galium aparine 328
Galium mallugo 357
Gamasida see Part Five (5)
Gammarus pulex 356
Gaps, in escarpment 18,21,25
Garden snail see also Helix
aspersa 54, 184, 190,
203,208,371,372
Gault Clay Plate 2(b), 3, 20,
21,25,33,38,43,45,
46,48,51,52,54,56,
58,60,61,64,69,70,
71,72,73,76,79,80,
81,82,83,84,89,90,
91,92,93,101,104,
318,319,320,321,322,
327,350,361,364,370,
376,381
Gayton series 319,321-322
Gelasinospora 152
Gelasinospora reticulispora
152
Geological Conservation
Review (GCR) 5
Geological sequence at
Holywell Coombe
361-372
Geological Survey 36, 378

Georissus crenulatus 223
Geotrupes 229
Geniste der Gail near Villach
(Austria) 159
Gentiana 222
Geranium 134,361
German Post-glacial oak
chronology 118
Germany 118, 200, 201, 222,
365
Gerrard's Cross,
Buckinghamshire 379
Gerzensee 372, 373
Gerzensee Oscillation 12
Gilboa, New York 234
GISP, ice core 118
Glacio-eustatic lowering of sea-
level 19
Glauconite 89,370
Glauconitic Marl 3, 20, 21, 33,
34-35,63,73,76,80,
83,89,90,91,92,93,
96,104
Glechoma hederacea 331
Gley/Gleying see also
Calcareous gley soil 76,
81,82,83,84,88,318,
319,364
Glomeris marginata 337
Glomus 152, 154, 155, 156
Glomusjasdculatum 152, 156
Glyceria jluitans 333
Gnophos obscuratus form
jasciata 342, 357, 381
Gramineae see also Grasses 134,
140,141,146,152,364,
365, 368
Grammoptera ruficornis 350
Grange Alders 351
Gransmoor, Yorkshire 231
Grasses see also Gramineae 146,
225
Grazing, effects on vegetation
147,323,324,327,331,
358,381
Great Harrowden,
Northamptonshire 4
Greenland, see also ice cores
12,118,232,372,373
Greensand chert 22
Grey Chalk 21
Grimston Ware 301
GRIP, ice core 118
Grooved Ware 265,270,
Index
274-275,293,296,297,
313
Grypus equiseti 223
Gorse see also Ulex europaeus
328
Gough's Cave, Somerset 258
Gould Pond, Maine (USA) 152
Gunn, R.].M. 331, 351
Gypsum 169, 176
Haematite 89
Haisborough-Terschelling rise
19,20
Halesus radiatus 356
Haliplus jluviatilis 356
Haliplus obliquus 356
HaIling 378
Hampshire 147, 253, 263, 378
Harpalus affinis 350
Harvestmen see also Opiliones
337-338,338
Hastings Beds 20
Hawthorn see also Crataegus
monogyna 143,229,
331,368
Hazel see also Corylus avellana
143,147,148,228,327,
328,368,369,380,381
Hazel-nuts 37, 54, 223, 368
Head brickearth 378
Hedera helix 327,328,331
Helianthemum 134, 137, 324,
361
Helianthemum canum 137,
138,366
Helianthemum nummularium
324,350
Helicella itala 184, 190, 192,
196,207,208,209,365,
366,371
Helicigona lapidda 190,
Helix aspersa see also Garden
snail 54, 184, 190, 203,
208,371,372
Helliwell, D.R. 328
Helodidae 220
Helophorus 220
Helophorus brevipalpis 356
Helophorus gladalis 224, 226,
231,232,366
Hemp agrimony see also
Eupatorium
cannabinum 54, 138,
143,369
412
Herne Bay 378
Herpetocypris 245
Herpetocypris reptans 243,
248,251,253
Hesperia comma 339
Heterocypris salina 248, 253
Hieracium 138, 140
High Weald 20
Highstead near Chislet 303,
304,305,313
Hildesborg (Schonen) 159
Hillwash 3, 24, 34-35, 36,
38-42,67,70,71,72,
74, 75, 77, 78, 82,
84-85,89,97,98,99,
100,101,102,265,370,
371,372,379
archaeology from see Part
Six; 370, 371
origin 263
period of formation 88
soils within 39, 46, 49, 53,
67,71,74,75,77,
82-83,85,370
thickness 34-35, 36, 38,39,
39,372
Hippocrepis comosa 324
Hippodamia tredecimpunctata
228
Hippopotamus 377
Hockwold cum Wilton 292,
293,299
Hodonin to Mikulcice
(Czechoslovakia) 159
Holborough 3, 69, 378
Holcus lunatus 324
Hollow/Hollow Way 256, 258,
264,265,269,270,273,
285,286,287-288,288,
289,290
Holocene see also Flandrian and
Post-glacial period 13,
23,24,367-372,
379-382
Holy Well 25, 251, 252, 273,
323,328,336,351,357,
379
Homalonotus quadridentatus
337
Homalothedum lutescens 324
Homalothedum sericeum
368
Hornbeam see also Carpinus
228

Horseshoe Spring see also
Trench 5 Plate 2(c), 9,
17,18,25,37,54,70,
73,82,84,85,102,103,
368,382
Horseshoe Spring valley 17, 24,
33,35,61,257,367,368
Human modification of
landscape 25, 39, 100,
147,272,357-358,379,
381
Humulus lupulus 333
Hyalopterus pruni (Salix-
aphid) 228
Hydraenidae 220
Hydraena riparia 220, 227,
368
Hydrobiusjuscipes 220,227,
368
Hydrophilidae 220, 227
Hydroporus 220
Hydroporus jerrugineus 356
Hydroporus planus 356
Hypnoidius riparius 223
Hypnum227
!beris amara see also
Candytuft 322, 327, 357
Ice core records see also
Greenland, GISP and
GRIP 118, 232, 372
lie de Re 201
Ilex 368
Illuviation of clay 76,80,81,
83-84,317,320,364
Ilybius 220
Ilyocypris sp. 245
Ilyocypris bradyi 244,245,
247,248,250,251,252,
253,353,357
Ilyocypris inermis 244, 247,
250,251,252,253
Impatiens glandulifera 333
Insects see Part Five (4)
Institute of Freshwater Ecology
(IFE) 317, 331, 333, 334,
351,356,358,381
Institute of Terrestrial Ecology
(ITE) 317, 322, 323, 324,
336,337,339,350,358,
381
Insularity (of Britain) 5, 18, 19
Invertebrate fauna, modem
aquatic 350-357, 352-356
Index
terrestrial 333-350 Juniperus communis-
Acari (mites) 339,342 Gramineae assemblage
Araneae (spiders) 338-339, zone 140-141, 142, 143,
339 146
Coleoptera (beetles) Jura 201, 252
345-350,343,344-349
Formicidae (ants) 342-343 Kateretes bipustulatus 350
Isopoda (woodlice) Kent 17, 19,202,224,225,296,
336-337 297,303,304,309,310,
Lepidoptera (butterflies) 313,322,335,338,350,
334,339-342,343,381 351,357,376,377,378
Mollusca (land snails) Kent Field Club 334
335-336, 336 Kent Trust for Nature
Myriapoda (millipedes and Conservation (KTNC)
centipedes) 337 328,335,339
Opiliones (harvestmen) Kent's Cavern, Devon 258
337-338,338 Kerney, Dr Michael 3, 373
Ipswichian see also Last Keymer, Dr R.J. 322
Interglacial 20, 377 Kildale, Yorkshire 251
Ireland 118, 199,201,251,379, Killarney Oscillation 12
380 Kiln Combe, Sussex 263,378
Iris joetidissima 328, 331 Kingston Down 303, 305
Irispseudacorus 200,328,331 Kirby, Dr K. 328
Irish oak chronology 118
Iron Age 272-273,279, Labiatae 137
281-282,283,289, Laccobius 220,227,368
290-291,293,296, Lacinius ephippiatus 338
302-308,311-314 Lake Gosciaz 118
Iron hydroxide 169 Lake Holzmaar 118
Iron sulphides 169 Lake sediments 12, 118, 232, 372
Ironstone 89, 91, 92, 93 Lake Soppensee 118
Irthlinborough Beaker barrow Lanting and van der Waals
255,260 scheme 296, 297, 300
Islay 200 Land-bridges 17, 19, 123
Isle of Man 231, 363 Landslips 18,20,25,33,36,37,
Isle of Thanet 304 41,66,361,369-370
Isle of Wight 4, 146, 147,202, Land snails see also Mollusca
377 158-212
Isopoda see also Woodlice Cut-&-Cover Section 159,
336-337 173, 193, 194
Italy 252 modem fauna 335-336, 336
Itford Bottom, Sussex 263 Main Section 159,160-161,
162-163, 181-187, 182,
juncus 137, 223, 225, 227, 321, 183
361 Section Below Sugarloaf Hill
juncus inflexus 333 (BS) 159, 173, 193-196
juncus subnodulosus 328 Trench 3159,166-167,186,
Juniper see also juniperus 190-192
134,140,141,142,225, Trench 4159,168, 188, 192
324,361,364,365,36, Trench 5 (Horseshoe Spring)
368 170-171,189, 192-193
Juniperus communis see also Trench 6 172, 191, 192
Juniper 140, 141, 142, Trench HV 159 , 164-165,
361,364,365,367,368 185, 187-190
413

Langney Point, Eastboume,
Sussex 20
Lasius alienus 342
Lasiusflavus 337,342,349
Lasius niger 342
Last glacial maximum see also
Dimlington Stadial 11
Last glacial stage see also
Devensian and
Weichselian 11
Last Interglacial see also
Ipswichian 20,377
Late Devensian 11, 12,319,
377,378
Late-glacial, definition 11
Late-glaciaVearly Post-glacial
pine chronology 118
Late-glacial Interstadial 11 , 12,
13,147,362,373
Late-glacial/Post-glacial
boundary Plate 2(a), 56,
58,118,367,373
Late spider orchid see also
Ophrys fuciflora Plate
4(a), 322,327, 357, 381
Late Weichselian 12, 20
Lathkill Dale, Derbyshire 252
Latilamellobates incisellus 237,
339
Lauria cylindracea 192, 368
Lauroppia splendens 238
Leguminosae 141
Leaching 317
Leiostyla anglica 187, 190, 193,
201,208,209,369
Leistus rufescens 221
Leistus spinibarbis 219
Lenham Beds see also Miocene,
Pliocene 20, 22
Lepidoptera see also Butterflies,
Moths 322, 334, 334,
339-342, 343
Leptothorax nylanderi 343
Leptusa fumida 350
Lesteva heeri 225
Lesteva longoelytrata 356
Licinus depressus 225, 226,
227, 369
Ligidium hypnorum 337
Limacid slugs see also Slug
remains and
Deroceras/Limax 176,
181,190,336
Limax maxim us 336
Index
Lime see also Tilia 141, 143,
147,228,369
Lime Pit, Peene 322
Limnebius truncatellus 220
Limnephilus auricula 356
Limnephilus extricatus 232,
233, 361
Limnobaris pilistriata 221,
223,228
Limnocythere inopinata 252,
253
Limnozetes rugosus 240
Limonia nubeculosa 357
Limonite 89
Limpet see also Patella vulgata
265, 288, 371
Linaceae 137
Lince Coombe 350
Lince, The 322, 357, 381
Linum catharticum 137, 138,
324,361
Lincolnshire 19, 199,251
Linyphiidae 338
Listera ovata 328
Lithobiusforficatus 337
Lithobius microps 337
Lithobius muticus 337
Little Stour 17, 21
Littorina littorea see also
Edible winkle 265, 272,
288,371
Liverworts 85
Uanilid, South Wales 231
Lobourg River, 22
Loch Fadd, Bute 251
Loch Lomond Stadial see also
Younger Dryas 3,11, 12,
58, 115, 118,362,
366-367
Loeskypnum badium 139, 140,
143,148,361
Loess 43, 71, 72, 73, 76, 83,
374,378
London Basin 22
Loricera pilicornis 221,225
Loss-on-ignition analyses see
also Carbonate analyses
and Organic carbon
analyses 43, 364
Lotus corniculatus 350
Lotus uliginosus 328
Low Countries 377, 378
Lower Chalk 20,21,25,89,90,
91,92,93,100,318,
321, 324
414
Lower Greensand 20,318,350,
376
Lycoperdon 223
Lycopodium 143, 150,151
Lycopodium selago 134
Lymnaea palustris 357
Lymnaea truncatula 361
Lysandra bellargus (Adonis
Blue butterfly) 334
M20 6,37
Madeira 201
Magnetic susceptibility 43,
86-105,364
Frequency dependent 90
Low frequency 89
Magnetic hysteresis
parameters 90
Ratio SIRM/Xlf 90
Remanence coercivity 90
Remanence ratios
(lRM/SIRM) 90
Saturation isothermal
remnant magnetization
90
Magnetite 89, 90, 92, 99
Maidstone 22, 146
Main section Plate l(a) and
1(b), 9, 45, 46, 94, 95,
96,97,98,99,101,264,
363,366,369,370,371
Series 1
charcoal 133
molluscs 161-162,
181-184, 182
sediments 45,49, 70, 71,
74,77,82-85,94,95,
96,97,98,99,101
soils 70, 71, 74, 77,82-85,
270, 272
vertebrates 255
Series 2
molluscs 162-163, 183,
184-187
sediments 45, 47
Malham Tam, Yorkshire 252
Maloideae 142
Maple see also Acer 142, 228
Marcasite 89, 90, 91, 92, 93, 169
Martlesham Heath, Norfolk 298
Marsh deposits see also Paludal
deposits 37, 40, 361,
362, 373, 374, 376, 377,
378

Mayflies 356
Maso gallicus 338
Medicago arabica 324
Medicago lupulina 324
Medieval pottery 268-269, 270,
281-282, 308, 309,
310-311
Medway, River 21
Medway Valley 378
Megarthrus hemipterus 225,
227
Melasis buprestoides 225, 228,
368
Melbourn Rock 21
Meligethes atratus 350
Mentha aquatica 328, 331, 333
Menyanthes trifoliata 368
Mercurialis perennis 327,328
Merstham, Surrey 21,22
Mesolithic
forest disturbance 369,
379-380
marine shells 265,369,379
microlith 270, 273, 280, 369,
379
Meteorological data see also
Climatological data
26-27,28-29
Methwold, Norfolk 298
Metopobactrus prominulus 338
Micrelus ericae 139, 221, 363
Microlith 270, 273, 280, 369,
379
Micromorphology Plate 3, 63,
76,79-85,364,367,
370,377
Microspectra/Tanytarsus 233
Microtus sp. see also Vole 254,
255,257,363,365
'Nlidden'142,265,272,285,
286
Middle Chalk 20,21, 318, 321,
324
Middle Devensian 142, 143
Middle Pleistocene 18, 22, 147
Middle Weichselian 11
Milax see also Slug remains
176,181,190,336,370
Mildenha11!Whitehawk Ware
297,313
Millipedes see also Myriapoda
337
Mineral magnetic analyses
86-105, 370
Index
Mineralogy 70, 73, 74, 75, 76,
77, 78, 79
Miocene see Lenham Beds 22
Mites see Part Five (5)
Mitopus morio 338
Mitostoma chrysomelas 337
Moehringia trinervia 138, 141,
368
Mole, River 21
Mole see also Talpa europaea
58,255,256,257,259,
369
Monacha cantiana 184, 192,
208,371
Monacha cartusiana 184, 208,
202-203,208,209,358,
371,381
Monks Wood Experimental
Station 334
Montia fontana 333
Moore, Mrs I. 328
Mortlake style 313
Moss see also Bryophyte 85,
130, 144
'Moss layer' see also Section
Below Sugarloaf 63, 64,
235,364
Mollusca see also Land snails
Cherry Garden 174,195,196
Cut-&-Cover Section 173,
193,194,
Main Section 160-161,
162-163, 181-187, 182,
183
Modem fauna 335-336, 336
Section Below Sugarloaf Hill
173, 193-196
Trench 3 166-167, 186,
190-192
Trench 4168,188,192
Trench 5 (Horseshoe Spring)
170-171,189, 192-193
Trench 6172,191,193
Trench HV 164-165,185,
187-190
Molluscan zonation scheme 5,
204-212,382
Moths see also Lepidoptera 334,
339-342
Motte and bailey (Castle Hill)
18,25,263,327
Mururoa (pacific) 116
Mussel see also Mytilus edulis
265,288
415
Mutual Climatic Range
Reconstruction (MCRR)
230,231,362,363,373
Myosotis spp. 333
Myriapoda see also Millipedes
and Centipedes 337
Myrmecina graminicola 342
Myrmica lobicornis 343
Myrmica rubra 343
Myrmica ruginodis 342
Myrmica sabuleti 343
Myrmica scabrinodis 342
Mytilus edulis see also Mussel
265,288
Myxomatosis 324, 358, 381
Myxomycetes 223
N~stved 240
Nannocandona faba 244, 250,
252,253
Nanogona polydesmoides 337
National Butterfly Monitoring
Scheme 334, 339
National Parks and Access to
the Countryside Act
(1949) 322, 357
National Vegetation
Classification 322, 357
Nature Conservancy see also
Nature Conservancy
CouncilS, 317, 322, 381
Nature Conservancy Council
(NCC) see also English
Nature 5,322,331,334,
339,357,381
Nebria gyllenhali 219, 231, 361
Nemastoma bimaculatum 337
Nemoura cinerea 356
Nesovitrea hammon is 175,
184, 187, 196, 204, 205,
207,209,363
Nesovitrea petronella 190, 202,
203
Netherhale Farm, Thanet 304
Netherlands, The 19, 151, 153,
240,365,374,377,378
New Zealand 358
Newlands Cross, Dublin 251,
379, 380
Newington 5, 20, 318, 319, 323
Nomenclature, stratigraphical
11-13,11
Non-analogue assemblages 209,
361,366,368

Norden 12
Norfolk 298
North America 12, 251
North Downs 17, 18,20,21,22,
123,201,273,313,357,
377, 378
coombe valleys of 17
geomorphological history
21-24
Late-glacial sites of 3
North Sea Basin 19, 147
North Sea shorelines 19
North Wales 379
Norway 200, 201, 224, 372
Notaris acridulus 350
Notaris aethiops 221,223,226,
231,363,364,365
No tiophilus palustris 220, 221
Oak see also Quercus 141, 143,
146,147,148,228,369,
380,381
Ochthebius minimus 219,220,
221
'Older Dryas' 11, 13, 231, 373,
374
Older Dryas chronozone 11, 362
'Oldest Dryas' 11, 12, 13
Oligolophus tridens 338
Olophrum assimile 220
Olophrum boreale 224, 226,
231,366
Olophrum piceum 225, 227
Ombrotrophic peat 153
Oniscus asellus 337
Onobrychis viciifolia see also
Sainfoin 138,141,142,
143,148,367
Opgrimbie 377
Opgrimbie Soil 378
Ophiodesmus albonanus 337
Ophrys fuciJlora see also Late
spider orchid Plate 4(a),
322,357,381
Ophrys insectifera see also Fly
orchid 327
Ophrys sphegodes see also Early
spider orchid 357,381
Opiliones see also Harvestman
337-338,338
Oppiidae 339
Organic carbon analyses see
also Loss-on-ignition
analyses 43,70,364
Index
Oribatid mites see Part Five (5);
also 339,342, 361
Origanum 324
Origanum vulgare 137, 361
Orobanche caryophyllacea see
also Bedstraw
broomrape Plate 4(b),
327, 357, 381
Orthocladiinae (non-biting
midges) 357
Ostracoda see Part Five (6);
Modem faunas 353, 357
Trench 3247-248,247
Trench 4248
Trench 5 (Horseshoe Spring)
248-250,249
Trench 6 250
Trench HV 245-247,246
Otiorhynchus 223, 228
Otiorhynchus dubius 223, 224,
365
Otiorhynchus fuscipes 223
Otiorhynchus ovatus 221,223
Otiorhynchus rugifrons 221,
223,224
Oxfordshire 23,379
Oxpasture series 319,320
Oxted, Surrey 3
Oxychilus alliarius 187
Oxychilus cellarius 187, 190,
208,209,336,369
Oxychilus helveticus 336
Oxycoccus palustris 153
Oxyloma pfeifferi 177, 192,
336,357
Oxygen isotope data 12, 158,
373
Oxytelus 220
Oxytelus rugosus 225
Pachygnatha degeeri 338
Paddlesworth 20, 22
Paederus riparius 356
Paines Hill, Surrey 252
Palaeoecology see Part Five
Palaeogene strata 22
Palaeogeographical context 17
Palaeolithic (Upper) 365
Palaeomycology 149-157
Paludal deposits see also Marsh
deposits 37, 40, 361,
362,373,374,376,378
Panagaeus cruxmajor 222,
226
416
Papaver alpinum 142
Papaver radicatum 142
Papaver sect. Scapiflora 138,
140,142,366
Paperaveraceae 140
Paraclusia tigrina 334
Paralister purpurascens 227
Paris quadrifolia 327, 328
Parnassia palustris 367
Paroligolophus agrestis 338
Paromalus jlavicornis 350
Paroxyna thommei 334
Particle-size distribution 70, 71,
72,73
Pas-de-Calais 312, 314
Pass see col 21
Patella vulgata see also Limpet
265, 288, 371
Patrobus assimilis 222
Patrobus atrorufus 224, 225
Paul, Dr e.R.e. 169
Pegwell Bay 378
Peterborough Ware 297,312,
313
Petrobus septentrionis 224
Pebble Coombe 21
Pedicularis palustris 142, 366
Pedogenesis 12, 69-85, 86-105,
364,365,370,373,375,
377
Pedology 63, 69-85
Peene 21,321
Peene Hill 323, 334, 335, 337,
338
Pen-y-Cae, Brecon 252
Pent Stream 323,333,351,351,
356
Peridinium 149, 155
Percussion corer 8, 10
Periglacial processes see also
Periglaciation 33, 36,63,
64,364,374-375,378
Periglaciation 23, 24
Permafrost 366
Perthshire 200
Petrography of sediments and
buried soils 69-85
Phalacrus substriatus 219
Phalangiidae 337, 338
Phalaris arundinacea 333
Philoscia muscorum 336
Phoresy 238
Phormidium 85
Phosphuga atrata 222, 227

Phragmites 153, 356
Phyllohius roboretanus 350
Phyllodecta 228
Pin Hole, Derbyshire 258
Pine see also Pinus sylvestris
141,146-147,368,378
Pinus 143, 143, 146-147
Pinus sylvestris see also Pine
141,146-147,228,368,
378
Pisidium 159, 190
Pisidium casertanum 190, 192,
193
Pisidium milium 190, 193, 368
Pisidium obtusale 193
Pisidium personatum 190
Pisidium subtruncatum 190,
193,368
Pisidium tenuilineatum 190,
202,203,358,368
Pitstone, Buckinghamshire 4,
12,13,112,365,377
Pitstone Soil see also 'Aller0d
soil' 4, 17, 13, 112,365,
377
Pitt Rivers, General 263
Placoderma 228
Plagiodera versicolora 223, 228
Planning Policy Guidance No.
16382
Plantago 134, 361
Plant macrofossils
Cut-&-Cover Section 133
Main Section 13 7
Section Below Sugarloaf (BS)
133,138
Trench 3134
Trench 4131-132,137,138,
139, 140, 143
Trench 5 (Horseshoe Spring)
134
Trench 6135-136, 137, 138
Trench HV 130,144
Plantation Farm 292
Plateumaris discolor Plate
4(c), 221, 223
Plateumaris sericea 221
Platyarthrus hoffmanseggi 337
Platynus assimilis 225,227,369
Platystethus 220
Platystethus cornutus 225
Plectrocnemia geniculata 356
Pleniglacial see also Full glacial
374
Index
Plenus Marl 21
Plesiosejus italicus 239
Plinthus caliginosus 350
Pliocene
sands see also Lenham Beds
20
wave-cut platform 22
Plough marks see also ard-marks
284,285,286,287,288,
371,380
Poa trivialis 327
Podsolization 88
Pogonocherus hispidulus 225,
228, 369
Pollen
Brook 145
Comparison with other
sequences in south-east
England 143
Taphonomy and preservation
143
Trench 3126
Trench4125
Trench 5 (Horseshoe Spring)
127
Trench6128
Trench HV 124
Summary diagram 129
Polycelis jelina 356
Polycentropus flavomaculatus
357
Polydesmus augustus 337
Polydesmus denticulatus 337
Polydesmus inconstans 337
Polydesmus testaceus 337
Polypodium 143
Polyporus caudicinus 227
Polytrichum 227
Pomatias elegans 184, 187,
190,193,335,370,380
Ponera coarctata 342
Populus 138, 141, 143,223,
228,368
Populus tremula 141, 147, 368
Populus canescens 327
Porcellio ? dilatatus 337
Porcellio scaber 337
Portugal 201
Post-glacial period see also
Holocene and Flandrian
11, 13, 367-372,
379-382
Post-glacial thermal optimum
369
417
Post-holes 264, 270, 285, 286,
288-289,291,371,380
Potamocypris 245
Potamocypris julva 244, 249,
250,251,252,253
Potamocypris pallida 245
Potamocypris zschokkei 247,
250,251-252,253
Potamopyrgus jenkinsi (=
antipodarum) 356, 358
Pottery
Belgic, Roman and later
308-311
fabrics 270,
Late Bronze Age - Iron Age
302-308
Neolithic - Early Bronze Age
295-302
Preboreal 11 , 362
Preboreal pine chronology 118
Preece,R.C.254,336,357,358
Prehistory see Part Six
ard-marks 284, 285, 286,
287,288,371,380
early settlement features 265
Early Iron Age 290
Early Iron Age soil horizon
272
evidence of agricultural
activity 272, 273,
284-288,371
evidence of occupation 272,
273
flint-work 291-295
HollowlHollow Way 265,
269,270,273,285,286,
287-288,288,289,290,
371
Late Bronze Age - Early Iron
Age features 270-272
Late Neolithic 292-295
Late Neolithic - Bronze Age
transition 284-289
Later Bronze Age 289-290
Mesolithic 291, 292
midden 142, 265, 272, 285,
286,371
Middle or Late Iron Age -
post-Medieval 290
post-holes 270, 285, 286,
288-289,291,380
pottery 295-302
the 1987 excavation 264-284
the 1988 excavation 284-291

Prestatyn, North Wales 379
Prionocypris serrata 252
Prodiamesa sp. 356
Prodiamesa olivacea 356
Prosopis annularis 334
Prosternon tessellatum 225,
227,369
Provenance of sediments
70-76,86-105
Prunus 141, 142,368,370
Prunus padus 141
Pselaphus heisei 221,223
Pseudocandona compressa
249,253
Pseudocandona marchica 242,
243,245,248,249,250,
251,252,253
Pseudoparasitus venetus 238,
239
Psychrodromus olivaceus 243,
245,247,249,250,252,
253,353,357,368
Psychrodromus robertsoni 252
Pterostichus diligens 221,222,
225
Pterostichus gracilis 220, 227
Pterostichus madidus 350
Pterostichus melanarius 227
Pterostichus minor 225, 227
Pterostichus nigrita 220, 222
Pterostichus oblongopunctatus
227
Pterostichus strenuus 220, 225
Ptychoptera longicauda 334
Puccinia 152
Pulicaria dysenterica 333
Pulvilli 239
Punctum pygmaeum 181, 187,
208, 336
Pupilla 181, 207, 374
Pupilla muscorum 184, 187,
190, 192, 193, 196, 197,
199-200,205,208,361,
367,368,371
Pycnoglypta lurida 221, 222,
231,235,363,364
Pyrenees 201
Pyrite 89,91, 169
Pyrite spherules 153, 154, 155,
156, 157
Quercus see also oak 141, 143,
146, 147, 148, 227, 228,
369,380,381
Index
Quercus ilex 328
Rackham292
Radiocarbon dating see Part
Four
AMS measurements 110,
111-112
comparisons of shell
carbonate and organic
materials 114-115
conventional measurements
111
Late-glaciallPost-glacial
boundary 118
of 'Aller0d soil' 115, 116, 365
of shells of land snails
112-115
plateaux 117-118
possible calibration of Late-
glacial age estimates
115-117
pretreatment 109-112
of colluvial sequences 112
RainfallJprecipitation 26
Ranunculaceae 328
Ranunculus 220
Ranunculus aconitijolius 142
Ranunulusficaria 327, 328, 331
Ranunculus platanijolius 142
Ranunculus seguieri 142
Ranunculus sect. Aconitifolii
138, 140, 142, 366
Reculver 378
Red deer see also Cervus
elaphus 52,257,259,
369
Red fox see also Vulpes vulpes
257,259,369
Reid, Clement 23
Rendzina soil 3, 69, 83, 84-85,
321,364
Reseda lutea 229
Reseda luteola 229
Reservoir effects 112, 115
Response (of biota to
environmental change)
361-372,374
Rhamphus pulicarius 223, 228
Rhine-Thames, river 18, 22
Rhizophagus ferrugineus 350,
356
Rhyacophila septentrionis 356
Rhyncolus elongatus 225, 228,
369
418
Rhyzobius litura 349
Rilaena triangularis 338
Ridge-and-furrow field systems
25
Ring ditches (burial mounds)
Plate 2(d), 37, 263, 273,
313,371
River Hill near Sevenoaks 376
Roksem Soil 378
Roman coins 263
Romans!Roman period 203,
209,263,268-269,270,
273,279,282,308,309,
310,314,371,372
Rosa 229
Rosaceae 141
Rose, Dr Francis 328
Round Hill 6, 7, 9, 18, 24, 25,
26,33,37,60,203,318,
323,328,334,335,336,
337,338,339,342,343,
350,351,356,358,363,
371
Rubus fruticosus agg. 327, 328
Rubus idaeus 333
Russia (former USSR) 200, 233
Rusticated Beaker 276-277,
298,299
Rye, East Sussex 308,311
Sainfoin see also Onobrychis
viciijolia 138, 141, 142,
143,148,367
Salix see also willow 58, 134,
140,141,223,225,228,
324,361,364,365,366,
368
Salix cinerea 331
Sambucus 229
'Sand in Clay-with-flints' 22
Sandettie Bank 20
Sandgate Beds 20, 350, 351
Sandtun near Hythe 309
Sandwich Bay 357
Sanguisorba minor 324
Sanicula europaea 331
Saltwood Stream 323,351,351,
356
Saltwood Valley 350
Saxifraga 141
Saxijraga oppositijolia 140,
366
Scabiosa columbraria 324, 367
Scandinavia 142, 200, 366

Scheloribates pallidulus 339
Schelvis, Dr J. 13,339
Schendyla nemoralis 337
Schizothrix 85
Schizotus pectinicornis 228
Schoenoplectus lacustris 333
Scirpus 137, 223, 227, 361, 368
Scirpus sylvaticus 333
Scolytus ratzeburgi 139, 221,
223,361
Scotland 115,143,155,201,
251,368,374
Scottia sp. 245, 252, 253
Scottia pseudobrowniana 245
Scymnus redtenbacheri 221
Scrophularia auriculata 328
Scrophularia nodosa 333
Scrophulariaceae 137
Seabrook Stream 18, 323, 333,
350,351,351,356,357
Seabrook Valley 343, 350
Sea-level history 18-20
Section below Sugarloaf (Hill)
Plate l(d), 9, 43, 63, 64,
363, 364, 366
beetles 63
mites 63, Part Five (5), 363
molluscs 63
plant macrofossils Plate 4(d),
63, 133
sediments/soils Plate l(d),
63,64
Sediment thicknesses 34-35,
36,37-39,38,39,39
Sejidae 239
Sejus curtipes 239
Sejus longipes 238
Sejus mutilus 239
Sevenoaks see also River Hill 376
Shakespeare Cliff, Dover 5,20
Shannon index see also Species
diversity index 45
Shoebury, Essex 298
Siberia 365
Sidlings Copse, Oxfordshire 379
Silene cf. acaulis 140
Silene vulgaris 137, 139, 361
Simplocaria semistriata 220
Simuliidae 357
Sinistral shells see also Reversed
coiling 204
Silpha atrata 350
Site of Special Scientific Interest
(SSSI)
Index
Folkestone-Etchinghill
Escarpment 5, 17, 18,
317,322,324,336,381
Holywell Coombe 5,382
Sitona 228
Slope deposits see also
Hillwash, Solifluction
deposits 3, 33-68, 60,
83-85,88,89,91,94,
95,99,101,102,103,
104,263,363,370,371,
372,375,376
Slovakia 159
Slug remains 44-45, 176, 181,
190,336,370
Snail Down, Wiltshire 298
Snow-patch species 224, 366
Sordariaceae (Cercophera type)
151,152,155,369
Soil
classification system 318
description of soil series in
the immediate area
319-322
effects of bedrock geology
318
effects of Quaternary
deposits 318-319
development processes
317-318
modem surface soils
317-322,319
Soil moisture deficit (SMD) 26
Soil profiles (SP1, SP2) Plate 3,
61, 79-81,8~ 364,365
Soil stratigraphic units 12
Solifluction deposits see also
Slope deposits 3, 23,
37-39,83-85,91,99,
101, 102, 103, 104, 363,
375,376,378
periods of formation 88
thickness 37, 38, 39
Solifluction lobe(s) 23, 69, 376
Somme Valley, France 374
Sorex araneus see also
Common shrew 254,
255,256,257,369
South America 372
South Downs 3, 20, 378
South Wales 231, 252, 379
Spain 201
Sparganium 228, 333
Sparganium erectum 328
419
Species diversity index see also
Berger-Parker and
Shannon index 44-45,
209,211
Spermodea lamellata 187, 190,
201,208,209,369
Sphaeriidae 357
Sphaerius acaroides 219, 222
Sphaeozetes orbicularis 240
Sphagnum 227, 240
Spiders see also Araneae 334,
338-339,339,340-342
Spirogyra 154
Spring sapping 23
St Lawrence series 319, 321,
322
St Martin's Plain 333, 337, 338,
350, 351
St Pouange, Seine Valley 374
Stable isotopes 158
Stabroek Soil 377, 378
Staffordshire type ware 308
Stagnogleyic soils 318,319,321
Stagnogleyic argillic brown
earth 81,97, 104, 364,
365
Stagnogleyic pararendzina 82,
364
Stagnogleyic rendzina 83,97,
101, 105, 370
Staphylinidae 220, 222, 224,
350, 356
Staphylinus ? globulifer 350
Star Carr, Yorkshire 257, 380
Stellaria neglecta 140, 367
Stempellina 233
Stenodes alternana 342
Stenus 222
Stenus flavipes 350
Stenus pallitarsis 356
Stonefly 356
Stour, River 21,22
Gap 21
Stowting 17, 21
Stubbs, A.E. 350
Strait of Dover 19,20,22,357
Straw belle moth see Aspitates
gilvaria 342, 357
Stuppington Lane kiln near
Canterbury 309, 310
Subatlantic chronozone 362
Subboreal chronozone 362
Succinea oblonga 177, 192,
193, 371

Succineidae 169, 177, 222
Succisa pratensis 134, 361
Suctobelbella 241
Suctobellidae 339
Suffolk 202, 298
'Sugarloaf gap' 21
Sugarloaf Hill 6, 8, 9, 17, 18, 24,
25,36,37,39,63,64,
317,322,323,324,328,
331,334,335,336,337,
338,339,342,343,350,
361,363,375
'Sulphur Bed' 20
Sump 3 see also Main section
Plate 1(b), 45, 46, 48,
133, 176, 181-184
Sunshine 27
Surrey 3,21,22, 146,252
Sus scrofa see also Wild
boar/pig 52, 257, 258,
259, 369, 371
Sussex 3, 4, 20, 146, 147,201,
202,251,263,292,293,
299,308,310,311,369,
378
Sweden 140, 201, 233
Switzerland 12, 200, 232, 372,
373
Symphoromyia immaculata
334
Synuchus nivalis 350
Tachypodoiulus niger 337
Tachyporus obtusus 350
Talpa europaea see also Mole
58,255,256,257,259,
369
Tanacetum vulgare 221
Tandonia budapestensis 336
Tandonia sowerbyi 336
Taphrorynchus villifrons 225,
228, 369
Taraxacum officinale 140
Tarn Moor, Cumbria 199
Taxus see also Yew 142
Tectocepheidae 339
Tectocepheus velatus 236
Tectocepheus concurvatus 236
Temperature
mean February 26
mean July 26
Terracettes 25
Texture of sediments 43
Tbalictrum 134, 361
Index
Tbalictrum minus 130
Thames estuary 342
Tbamnobryum alopecurum
366, 368
Thatcham, Berkshire 257,380
Thatcham Reedbeds 202
Tberidion bimaculatum 338
Thermoluminescence dates 378
Tbymelicus 339
Tilia see also Lime 141, 143,
147,369
Tilling Green, Rother Valley,
Sussex 20
Timarcha tenebricosa 350
Tipulid (crane-fly) larvae 350
Totland Bay, Isle of Wight 202
Transmanche Link (TML) 5, 6,
61, 381
Trechus obtusus 225
Trechus rivularis 222
Trechus secalis 220,221,222
Trenches, construction of 8, 42
Trench 3 9, 52, 53, 368, 369,
371
beetles 224-229
molluscs 166-167, 186,
190-192
plant macrofossils 134
pollen 126
ostracods 247-248,247
sediments 52, 53, 73, 76, 79,
104
vertebrates 255
Trench 4 9, 54, 55, 361, 363,
379
beetles Plate 4(e), 219-221
molluscs 168, 188, 192
plant macrofossils 131-132
pollen 125
ostracods 248
sediments 35, 54, 55, 103
Trench 5 (Horseshoe Spring)
Plate 2(e), 9, 42, 56-58,
57,367,368
molluscs 170-171,189,
192-193
plant macrofossils 134
pollen 127
ostracods 248-250,249
sediments 54, 56, 57, 102, 103
vertebrates 255
Trench 6 Plate 2(a), 9, 43,
58-61, 58, 59, 366, 367,
368,369
420
beetles 223-229
molluscs 172, 191, 193
plant macrofossils 135-136
pollen 128
ostracods 250
sediments Plate 2(a), 56, 58,
59,104
vertebrates 255
Trench HV 9,50,51-2,363,
364,365,372
molluscs 164-165, 185,
187-190
plant macrofossils 130,144
pollen 124
ostracods 245-247,246
sediments 50,51-2,94,95,
96,97,100,101,102
vertebrates 255
Trichia 64, 176, 184, 208, 370
Trichia hispida 52, 64, 115,
176, 184, 187, 190, 192,
193,196, 204,207,
209,335,363,366,367,
375,377
Trichia striolata 176, 209, 336
Trichocellus placidus 222
Trichoderma pubescens 222
Trichoniscus pusillus 337
Trichoptera see also Caddisflies
232,356,357,361
Trogophloeussp.225
Trogulus tricarinatus 338
Trollius 222
Tubificid worms 357
Tufa 3,23,24,37,51,52,54,
56,89
distribution 41
fabric analyses 85-86
formation 85-86
magnetic properties 94, 97,
100, 102, 103
marine shells in, 265, 369,
379
microdetrital tufa 85
onchoidal tufa 85, 86
periods of formation 368,
379
plant impressions in, 144
rates of growth 379
phytoherm tufa 85
thickness 38,39,39
Turf-bank lobes 65
Tussilago farfara 333
Typha latifolia 333
 Index

Ulex europaeus see also Gorse
328
Ulmus see also Elm 141, 142,
147, 228, 369
Umbelliferae 134, 137
University Museum of Zoology,
Cambridge 13,254
University of Cambridge 7, 123
Upchurch-type ware 308,309,
310
Upper Palaeolithic 365
Upton 4
Upton series 318, 321, 324
Upper Chalk 318,321
Upper Halling 3,365
Upper Teesdale see also
Widdybank Fell 200, 368
Uranium-Thorium ages 116-117
Urtica dioica 141, 327, 328, 331
Usselo 151, 152, 153, 156,237,
240,241,363,374
Usselo Soil 377, 378
Vaccinium 227
Vale of Holmesdale 23,318
Valeriana dioica 134,361,364
Valeriana officinalis 333
Vallonia 169, 175, 181, 190,
207,208,361,370,374
Vallonia costata 175, 187, 190,
192, 193, 196, 336
Vallonia excentrica 169, 184,
190,209,336,371
Vallonia pulchella 169, 187,
192,193,196,205,207,
368, 37l
Vegetation
escarpment grassland
322-327,324,325-326,
327
escarpment woodland and
scrub 327-328, 329-331
fen and scrub communities
328-331,332
marsh, fen and stream
331-333,333
Vegetational history 133-142
Notable plant records
142-143
Comparison with other
sequences in south-east
England 143-146
Timing of the arrival of trees
in Britain in the early
Post-glacial 146-147
Nature of early Post-glacial
vegetation on chalk
147-148
Velhe, Jazero near Hrhov
(Slovakia) 159
Veronica beccabunga 333
Vertebrates see Part Five (7)
Cut-&-Cover Section 61, 255
Main Section 255,256
Trench 3 255
Trench 5 (Horseshoe Spring)
255
Trench 6255
Trench HV 255
Vertigo 176
Vertigo alpestris 208, 369
Vertigo angustior 190, 192,
200, 368
Vertigo genesii 181, 187, 192,
193,196,198,200,205,
208,361,366
Vertigo geyeri 187, 193,200,
368
Vertigo moulinsiana 190, 192,
193,209,368
Vertigo pusilla 190, 192, 193,
208,209,369
Vertigo pygmaea 190, 335, 371
Vertigo substriata 176, 190,
193,209,368
Viburnum 141
Viola hirta 328
Viola reichenbachiana 328
Viola riviniana 328
Viola spp. 367
Vitrea 207
Vitrea contracta 187, 193
Vitrea crystallina 193, 368
Vitrina pellucida 196, 205,
208, 336, 374
Vole see also Microtus 254,
255,257
Vulpes vulpes see also Red fox
257,259,369
Wales,
North 199
South 231,252
WandIe, River 22
gravel 22
Wantage, Oxfordshire 23
Wantage series 318, 319, 321,
324
Warren, The see also
Folkestone Warren 20,
21
Watcombe Bottom, near
Ventnor, Isle of Wight 4,
377
Wateringbury 85, 146
Weald 17
Weald-Artois anticline 18
Weald Clay 20
Weasenham lings 292
Weathering history 86-105
Weichselian 20
Late 20
Middle 11
West Country 363
West Overton, Wiltshire 253
Westwell17,21
Wey, River 21
White Chalk 21
White Cliffs Countryside Project
324, 331
Widdybank Fell see also Upper
Teesdale 200
Wild boar/pig see also Sus
scrofa 52, 257, 258,
259, 369, 37l
Wild cabbage see also Brassica
oleracea 322, 357
Wildlife and Countryside Act
(1981) 322, 357, 381
Willow see also Salix 58,361,
366
Willow Garth, Yorkshire 147,
379
Wiltshire 253, 298, 378, 379
Wind 27
Windmill Hill 292, 293
Windermere Interstadial 11 , 12,
377
Wingham 143
Winnal Moors near Winchester,
Hampshire 147
Wood remains Plate 4(d), 130
Wood mouse or Yellow-necked
mouse see also
Apodemus 256,257,
369
Woodlice see also Isopoda
336-337
Woolly thistle see also Cirsium
eriophorum 322, 357
Wye 17, 21, 357
Wye and Crundale National

421
 Index
Nature Reserve (now 252,255,257,379,380
WyeNNR) 322 Younger Dryas (Loch Lomond
Stadial) 3, 4, 11, 12,23,
51,52,58,115,118,
Xenillus tegeocranus 339 140,142,146,224,231,
Xylota jlorum 334 232, 364, 366-367, 372,
374,376,377,378
chronozone 11, 362, 373
Yew see also Taxus 142 Stadia111
York 255 Yugoslavia 142
Yorkshire 123,147,231,251,
422
Zonation
molluscan 204-212,362,382
pollen 11, 133-142, 143,
146,362,375
Zones
mollusc 204-212, 361, 362
pollen 11, 133-142, 143,
146,362
Zonitoides nitidus 187, 190,
336, 368
Zygorbatula propinquus 238
 ERRATUM
FOR

LATE QUATERNARY ENVIRONMENTAL

CHANGE IN
NORTH-WEST EUROPE.
Excavations at HolyweU Coombe, South - east England

Edited by R. C. Preece and D. R. Bridgland

Please note that due to an unfortunate printing mistake on pages 126 and 189, some text is
missing.

On the following pages you will find the correct details. Please accept our apologies for any
inconvenience caused.
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~ '"
~ ,$ ~.~ at!; ;§ ~ Pollen assemblage
~ ~ I'(» $ qf $ ~ ~ '"
-.$TJi.,,; .t;'" ~ zone
;$ f?~ I R ~ (i;~ §-! ;;, <.> <Ii
'" .~rrr ~
r~Q.~ ~ C,)~ V:J$ $~f" ~ ~r:s:. ":J~ is -$" IP ~§ 'v
'v ""
c
~ 169
"'I .~ V~,~ r7 ~ ? "'~ 225 Cory/us avellana - U/mL

. . 395
~
\--'i ~ PI 147

P 272 I----
~ \ ~ Cory/us avellana
J , RU. . 227 I---!
, I;
/ ~, ~ ,
:
,
No pollen
, I: ,
, , : :;
-----' --' --' 96 -.:
I f"'l f" I I I I I I I I f " I' r"'l1"'T' I' r" roT' I' I' I' I' I I I I' I' I' ~ 1'1'1'1'1'1'1'11 -T
o 0 20 40 60 80 20 0 o 20 0 0 0 0 20 40 0 20 o 20 40 60 80 100 120 20 40 60 80 100
A Acer U Umbelliferae Pt Pteridium aquifinum IP + I Pteridophytes I: x10' grains em" % Total land pollen
% Total land pollen (LP) I I I": I":
J Juniperus communis P Plantago R Rumex acetosa
+ single grain Sp Din Ind
C Cruciferae

Figure 5.1.3 Pollen diagram from Trench 3. Spectra are dominated by pollen of Cory/us avellana; remains of hazel-nuts were also common below 220 em (Figure
3.16)_
 .~
'"
<0", E ~
~~
'" ~ '" E ~!!:! f.l)ca~
~~ E E ~ "-=:; .~ " . ~~
~ " ~ .§ "'" "" 0
.~ ~ " 0,"
o~
~ ~ E '"~!!:! ~.g~ :~t; .2!!:!
'" ~ ~ ~.~
.2 '" "'""'''''" ~ ~
" '" ~~.~ :g
-" .!!' ~~~ ~ ~ ~ .~ ~~~ ~ ~~ § -g co::::'"ttl
~ ~~ ..... Q)
'"~"'l:l'"c::
'-~ .~" ",,,-0 ~.~
" " {g.!::::
_ 0
.0-'=
'" " ~8 "8
~
E
~"- ~ ::::::::Q)o..
~-2E '"g. '"~ 5. ~ ~
.c "'~ "
Co"
Co'" 0,,,,
E
:£
0:;
.S
E
.~
G f.I) i::.2 '" 0 '" :::
E '" ~~ .~ .~ :~ ",0 0 .~ ~ " " ~e
~ ;g
"~ ~'" '"t' o E ~
~ ~.2 ~~<U '" '- '" Q ~ ~~
0,0 0, 0, _ :oS'S
Radiocarbon "c '"'" ~ ~ ,g " 0 Q
g ~:c: .2J:2 CtI g. ~
!~l! .2~
013 co:::""
CtI
Q)
~
<..) ~ 'g~ .=
:§~ §- ~ " " 13 ~ ~ ~ ~ ~:e " '" ~ ~ .~ ~ ~~ "0
dates (yr BP) em
~~ .c :g; '" 0 '" Q '" -.l <.)..::(::> 0" '"
0..<1)<':> :;
~~ 0::0 0.. « ~ ~ ~~ <3 ~ ~~~ ". <.:> <.:> ~~~ ::E~ ~~~ ~ ~ ~~ «<.:> G56 ~ is Pollen assemblage zone
50 _ I I .1 + I 1 _ + +
883 I _ II
• I • I _
I I I I I
282
•I • •
••
' _ 1 1 II
.+ I_
275 • I • • •• I ••
••• •
157 I
• I • • I •
•• •• ••
804 I • I • I I I I •
100
•.
• I I - I I 1+_
••
497 I I • I • I
310
74
•
-
•• •
.1 I I
•••
I • •
+ •
I
--.- .. •• .-- • I
I
+. I_

•• ••• • - I
•• •
crusts 97
56 + • + +
150 •• • •• •_I • •
. ·T I • - + • + + + I
.'1 208 - I I. • • I I I I
T' T 1281
T T
T
562 +
-
-
-
. I-
I.
•• ••
• I • •• ••••
I I •
I
I
- --- - --
• t I I I I
638 I • + + - I I
• + I
I. T••
200 T'?1518
-
_.1. I I.
•• I.
I_ • I I I I
I I + I
I I b
T T 370 I. I• II I•
- II. - +
T 580 I.
••
-- -- •••
.1 •
I + I +
T T • I I • • I • • + + ••
•••
T 525 + I • I I • + I-
- + I •

9460 ± 140 __ 250

T T 1122
T
.,. ••• T-
- II. •• I •
• •• •
- - •• •• + I
~
I • +
•
Corylus aveffana

T 1m
T T
ID~T ••1

'i T 237 ~ ~ r!tl t~ ~u .11

,..-
T 1 216 I .1 I I +
T T 339
300 T
• I
I. I I
•
I .- I Betula· Pinus sylvestris
T T 204 1- •_ II
.-1 I a
T 262 • • I • I
T T
~~~
112
.- ~r
- •• +
•I •r •
9760 ± 100 304
350

'/ + Juniperus communis·

- ../ ", 1~~
J~~
z Gramineae
/' l~ +
400 1)' ---:..
fTTTl rrrrl rrrrr' r r fTTTTT1 I" rrn r r I I I I II I I II" I" rrrrrrn r r rrn r r r r f"Tl I" rrn r f"Tl r rrrrrrr' r r r r r r r rrn r r r
000 20 0 20 0 0 0 20 0 o 0 0 20 20 o 0 0 o 0 0 0 0 o 0 2000000000 000 %
+ Single shell

Figure 5.3.13 Molluscan diagram through Trench 5 (Horseshoe Spring), showing a detailed succession from the beginning of the Post-glacial until just after about
8000 yr BP, The humic silts below the tufa (390-345 cm) show rising values ofJuniperus pollen (Figure 5.1.4), suggesting climatic amelioration at the beginning of the
Post-glacial. The zone z assemblages here are therefore likely to belong, at least in their upper part, to the early Post-glacial (see also data from Trench 6).