Phyiscs Master New

INTERFERENCE
Topics
 Two source interference
 Double-slit interference
 Coherence
 Intensity in double slit interference
 Interference from thin film
 Michelson’s Interferometer
Text Book:
PHYSICS VOL 2 by Halliday, Resnick and Krane (5th Edition)
TWO-SOURCE INTERFERENCE
When identical waves from two sources overlap at a

point in space, the combined wave intensity at that
point can be greater or less than the intensity of either
of the two waves. This effect is called interference.
The interference is constructive when the net intensity

is greater than the individual intensities.
The interference is destructive when the net intensity is
less than individual intensities.
Maximal constructive
interference of two
waves occurs when their
phase difference is 0, 2,
4 , … (the waves are in-
phase)
Complete destructive interference of two waves occur when

their phase difference is , 3 , 5 , … (the waves are 180o out
of phase)
INTERFERENCE PATTERN PRODUCED BY WATER

WAVES IN A RIPPLE TANK
Maxima: where the shadows show the crests and valleys

Minima: where the shadows are less clearly visible
DOUBLE-SLIT INTERFERENCE
A train of plane light waves is incident on two narrow parallel

slits separated by distance d (<<). The interference pattern
on the screen consists of bright and dark fringes.
 Consider two coherent sources S1 and

S2 separated by a distance ‘d’ and kept
at a distance ‘D’ from the screen.
 For D>>d, we can approximate rays r1
and r2 as being parallel.
 Path difference between two waves
from S1 & S2 (separated by a distance
‘d’) on reaching a point P on a screen at
a distance ‘D’ from the sources is S1b =
d sin .
For maximum at point P

S1b = m m = 0, 1, 2, . . .
Which can be written as,
d sin  = m m = 0, 1, 2, . . .
m = 0 is the central maximum.
For minimum at point P
S1b  (m  21 )  m = 0, 1, 2, . . .
Which can be written as,
d sin   (m  21 )  m = 0, 1, 2, . . .
• For small value of , we can make

following approximation.
sin   
y
sin   tan  
D
• Path difference:
y d
d sin   S1b 
D
mth maximum is located at

ym given by
m  ym

d D
or
D
ym  m
d
where m = 0, 1, 2, . . .
Separation between adjacent maxima

(for small ) is independent of m
y  y m1  y m
D D
 (m  1) m
d d
D
y 
d
The spacing between the adjacent
minima is same the spacing between
adjacent maxima.
YOUNG’S DOUBLE SLIT EXPERIMENT
• Double slit experiment was first

performed by Thomas Young in 1801.
• So double slit experiment is known as
Young’s Experiment.
• He used sun light as source for the
experiment.
• In his experiment, he allowed sun light
to pass through narrow opening (S0)
and then through two openings (S1
and S2).
Problem: SP 41-1
The double slit arrangement is illuminated by light of
wavelength 546nm. The slits are 12mm apart and the
screen on which interference pattern appears is 55cm
away.
a) What is the angular position of (i) first minima and (ii)
tenth maxima?
b) What is the separation between two adjacent
maxima?
Problem: E 41-2
Monochromatic light illuminates two parallel slits a

distance d apart The first maximum is observed at
an angular position of 15°. By what percentage
should d be increased or decreased so that the
second maximum will instead be observed at 15° ?
Problem: E 41-5
A double-slit arrangement produces interference

fringes for sodium light (wavelength = 589 nm) that
are 0.23° apart. For what wavelength would the
angular separation be 10% greater ? Assume that the
angle  is small.
Problem: E 41-8
In an interference experiment in a large ripple tank
(see Fig 41-2) the coherent vibrating sources are
placed 120 mm apart. The distance between
maxima 2.0 m away is 180 mm. If the speed of the
ripples is 25 cm/s, calculate the frequency of the
vibrating sources.
Problem: E 41-11
Sketch the interference pattern expected from using two

pin-holes rather than narrow slits.
COHERENCE A SECTION OF INFINITE WAVE
For interference
pattern to occur, the
phase difference at
point on the screen
must not change with A WAVE TRAIN
time. OF FINITE LENGTH L
This is possible only when the two sources are completely

coherent.
If the two sources are completely independent light sources,
no fringes appear on the screen (uniform illumination) . This
is because the two sources are completely incoherent.
A WAVE TRAIN
OF FINITE LENGTH L
Common sources of visible light emit light wave trains of

finite length rather than an infinite wave.
The degree of coherence decreases as the length of wave
train decreases.
Two waves are said to

be coherent when
they are of :
• same amplitude A WAVE TRAIN

OF FINITE LENGTH L
• same frequency
• same phase or are of Laser light is highly coherent whereas

a constant phase
a laboratory monochromatic light
source (sodium vapor lamp) may be
difference partially coherent.
INTENSITY IN DOUBLE SLIT INTERFERENCE
 Electric field components at P due to S1 and S2 are,
E1= E0 sin ωt & E2= E0 sin (ωt + ) respectively.
 Resultant field E = E1 + E2
Resultant of E1= E0 sin ωt & E2= E0 sin (ωt + )
Phasor  Rotating vector.

ADDITION OF TWO VECTORS USING PHASORS
E2 E0 Let two vectors be, E1= E0 sin ωt &
E0 E2= E0 sin (ωt + )

E1
Resultant field E = E1 + E2
ωt + 
ωt
Resultant of E1= E0 sin ωt & E2= E0 sin (ωt + )
From phasor diagram,

E = E1 + E2 E0
= E sin(t + ) E2 
E 
= 2E0 cos  sin(t + )
But  = /2. So above eqn can be E
 E0
written as, E1
ωt
E = 2 E0 cos(/2) sin(wt+/2)
 E = 2 E0 cos(/2) sin(wt+/2)
 So intensity at an arbitrary point P on the screen due to

interference of two sources having phase difference ;

I  4 E cos  
2
0
2
2

  4  0 cos   2
2
where   E2 is intensity due to single source
0 0
PHASE AND PATH DIFFERENCE
Phase difference Path difference


2 
Path difference  corresponds

to phase difference of 2.

  4  0 cos  
2
2
where   E 2 is intensity due to single source
0 0
Since   2dsin/ ,
2  d sin  
  4  0 cos 
 
  
From above equation,
At maxima :   2 m  or d sin   m
At minima :   ( 2 m  1)  or d sin   (m  1 ) 
2
where m  0,  1,  2, . . .
Problem: SP 41-2
Find graphically the resultant E(t) of the following wave

disturbances.
E1 = E0 sin t
E2 = E0 sin (t + 15o)
E3 = E0 sin (t + 30o)
E4 = E0 sin (t + 45o)
Problem: E 41-15
Source A of long-range radio waves leads source B by 90

degrees. The distance rA to a detector is greater than the
distance rB by 100m. What is the phase difference at the
detector?
Both sources have a wavelength of 400m.
Problem: E 41-18
Find the sum of the following quantities (a) graphically,
using phasors; and (b) using trigonometry:
y1 = 10 sin (t)
y2 = 8.0 sin (t + 30°)
INTERFERENCE FROM THIN FILMS
 A film of thickness of the order of a

micron.
 Thickness of the film is comparable

with the wavelength.
 Greater thickness spoils the coherence

A soapy water film on a
of the light to produce colour. vertical loop viewed by
reflected light
The region ac looks bright or dark for an observer depending

on the path difference between the rays r1 and r2.
Phase change on Reflection
It has been observed that if the medium beyond the interface
has a higher index of refraction, the reflected wave undergoes a
phase change of  (=180o).
If the medium beyond the interface has a lower index of
refraction, there is no phase change of the reflected wave.
Phase changes on reflection at a

junction between two strings of
different linear mass densities.
OPTICAL PATH
• Distance traveled by light in a medium in the time interval
of ‘t’ is d = vt
• Refractive index n = c/v
• Hence, ct = nd
• nd  Optical path.
• Optical path is the distance traveled by light in vacuum in

same time ‘t’.
• If n is wavelength in the film of refractive index n and  is

the wavelength in vacuum then n =  / n
Equations for Thin Film Interference:

Normal incidence (i = 0)
Path difference = 2 d + (½) n

BACK SURFACE
Constructive interference:
2 d + (½) n = m n m = 1, 2, 3, . . . (maxima)
Destructive interference:
2 d + (½) n = (m+½) n m = 0, 1, 2, . . . (minima)
WEDGE SHAPED FILM
In wedge – shaped thin film,

constructive interference occurs in
certain part of the film [2 d + (½) n =
m n] and destructive interference in
others [2 d + (½) n = (m+½) n].
Then bands of maximum and

minimum intensity appear, called
fringes of constant thickness.
Problem: SP 41-3
A soap film (n=1.33) in air is 320nm thick. If it is

illuminated with white light at normal incidence, what
color will it appear to be in reflected light?
Problem: SP 41-4
Lenses are often coated with thin films of transparent

substances such as MgF2 (n=1.38) to reduce the
reflection from the glass surface. How thick a coating is
required to produce a minimum reflection at the center
of the visible spectrum? ( wavelength = 550nm)
Problem: E 41-23
A disabled tanker leaks kerosene (n=1.20) into the Persian
Gulf, creating a large slick on top of water (n = 1.33).
(a)If you look straight down from aeroplane on to the region
of slick where thickness is 460nm, for which wavelengths
of visible light is the reflection is greatest?
(b)If you are scuba diving directly under this region of slick,
for which wavelengths of visible light is the transmitted
intensity is strongest?
Problem: E 41-25
If the wavelength of the incident light is λ = 572 nm,

rays A and B in Fig 41-24 are out of phase by
1.50 λ. Find the thickness d of the film.
Problem: E 41-29
A broad source of light (wavelength = 680nm) illuminates

normally two glass plates 120 mm long that touch at one
end and are separated by a wire 0.048mm in diameter at
the other end. How many bright fringes appear over 120
mm distance?
Newton’s rings (sample problem 41-5):
Constructive interference
2d = (m - ½)  (n = 1 for air film)
d  R R2  r 2
1
  r  
2 2
 R  R 1    

 R  
r R  1 using binomial expansion

 1 r 
2
 r2
d  R  R 1     . . . 

 2R 
 2R
Newton’s rings
Substituting d in
2d = (m - ½) 
we get
r  m  21   R
m  1, 2, . . . (maxima)
Problem: E41-33
In a Newton’s ring experiment, the radius of curvature R of

the lens is 5.0m and its diameter is 20mm.
(a) How many ring are produced?
(b) How many rings would be seen if the arrangement is
immersed in water (n = 1.33)?
(Assume wavelength = 589nm)
MICHELSON’S INTERFEROMETER
 Light from an extended monochromatic

source P falls on a half-silvered mirror M.
 The incident beam is divided into reflected

and transmitted beams of equal intensity.
 These two beams travel almost in

perpendicular directions and will be
reflected normally from movable mirror
(M2) and fixed mirror (M1).
 The two beams finally proceed
towards a telescope (T) through
which interference pattern of
circular fringes will be seen.
 The interference occurs because
the two light beams travel
different paths between M and M1
or M2.
 Each beam travels its respective
path twice. When the beams
recombine, their path difference is
2 (d2 – d1)
The path difference can be changed
by moving mirror M2. As M2 is
moved, the circular fringes appear to
grow or shrink depending on the
direction of motion of M2. New rings
appear at the center of the
interference pattern and grow
outward or larger rings collapse
disappear at the center as they
shrink.
For the center of the fringe pattern to
change from bright dark and to bright
again, the path difference between two
beams must change by one
wavelength, which means that mirror
M2 moves through a distance of /2. If
N fringes cross the field of view when
mirror M2 is moved by d, then
d = N (/2)
d is measured by a micrometer
attached to M2. Thus microscopic
length measurements can be made by
this interferometer.
Problem: SP 41-6
Yellow light (wavelength = 589nm) illuminates a Michelson

interferometer. How many bright fringes will be counted as
the mirror is moved through 1.0 cm?
MICHELSON’S INTERFEROMETER Problem: E41-40
An airtight chamber 5.0 cm
long with glass windows is
placed in one arm of a
Michelson’s interferometer as
indicated in Fig 41-28 . Light of
wavelength λ = 500 nm is used.
The air is slowly evacuated
from the chamber using a
vacuum pump. While the air is
being removed, 60 fringes are
observed to pass through the
view. From these data find the
index of refraction of air at
atmospheric pressure.
QUESTIONS – INTERFERENCE
What is the necessary condition on the path length difference

(and phase difference) between two waves that interfere (A)
constructively and (B) destructively ?
Obtain an expression for the fringe-width in the case of

interference of light of wavelength λ, from a double-slit of slit-
separation d.
Explain the term coherence.
Obtain an expression for the intensity of light in double-slit

interference using phasor-diagram.
QUESTIONS – INTERFERENCE
Draw a schematic plot of the intensity of light in a double-slit
interference against phase-difference (and path-difference).
Explain the term reflection phase-shift.
Obtain the equations for thin-film interference.
Explain the interference-pattern in the case of wedge-shaped

thin-films.
Obtain an expression for the radius of mth order bright ring in

the case of Newton’s rings.
Explain Michelson’s interferometer. Explain how microscopic

length measurements are made in this.
B.TECH FIRST YEAR
ACADEMIC YEAR: 2020-2021
COURSE NAME: ENGINEERING PHYSICS

COURSE CODE : PY1001
LECTURE SERIES NO : 01 (ONE)
CREDITS : 4
MODE OF DELIVERY : ONLINE (POWER POINT PRESENTATION)
FACULTY : DR. VIPIN KUMAR
EMAIL-ID : Vipin.kumar@jaipur.manipal.edu
DATE OF DELIVERY: 30 March 2021
“UNDERSTAND THE BASIC
SESSION OUTCOME PRINCIPLES OF WAVE OPTICS”
ASSIGNMENT
QUIZ
MID TERM EXAMINATION –I
ASSESSMENT CRITERIA’S
END TERM EXAMINATION
Diffraction
Topics
 Diffraction and wave theory of light
 Single-slit diffraction
 Intensity in single-slit diffraction
 Diffraction at a circular aperture
 Double-slit interference and diffraction
combined
 Multiple slits
 Diffraction gratings
 Dispersion and resolving power
 X-ray diffraction
Text Book:
PHYSICS VOL 2 by Halliday, Resnick and Krane
Diffraction v/s Interference
 Bending of light around the obstacle.  Meeting of two waves.
 The interfering beam originate from  The interfering beam originate from
continuous distribution of sources discrete number of sources.
(Huygens’ principle).  The superposition of waves coming
 The waves emerging from different from two different wave front
paths of the same wave front originating from the same source,
superimpose with each other to produce Interference pattern.
produce Diffraction pattern.  The width of the interference fringes
 The width of the diffraction fringes are may/ may not be equal.
not equal.  Minimum intensity point will be
 Minimum intensity point will not be perfectly dark.
perfectly dark  Bright fringes in the interference
 Bright fringes in the diffraction pattern pattern are of uniform intensity.
are not of same intensity.
DIFFRACTION AND WAVE THEORY OF LIGHT
The phenomenon of bending of light around the edges of

obstacles or slits, and hence its encroachment into the region
of geometrical shadow is known as diffraction.
For diffraction effects to be noticeable, the size of the object
causing diffraction should have dimensions comparable to the
wavelength of light falling on the object.
Diffraction pattern of razor blade viewed in

monochromatic light
• Diffraction pattern occurs when coherent wave-fronts of light
fall on opaque barrier B, which contains an aperture of
arbitrary shape. The diffraction pattern can be seen on screen
C.
• When C is very close to B a geometric shadow is observed
because the diffraction effects are negligible.
Ꙫ A single slit placed between a distant light source and a

screen produces a diffraction pattern.
Ꙫ It will have a broad, intense central band called the
central maximum
Ꙫ The central band will be flanked by a series of narrower,
less intense secondary bands called side maxima or
secondary maxima
Ꙫ The central band will also be bordered by a series of
dark bands called minima.
Ꙫ The diffraction pattern consists of the central maximum
and a series of secondary maxima and minima.
Ꙫ The pattern is similar to an interference pattern as
shown in figure.
• Both the incident and emergent
wave-fronts are plane (the rays are
parallel) i.e., both the source and the
screen are effectively at infinite
distances, from the aperture causing
diffraction.
• Fraunhofer diffraction is a special
limiting case of the more general
Fresnel diffraction.
• In laboratory Fraunhofer diffraction
is realized by using converging lenses
for conversion of spherical wavefront
into plane wavefront and vice versa.
• The incident wave fronts

are spherical or
cylindrical. i.e., the
source of light is at a finite
distance from the
diffracting aperture. The
screen on which the
diffraction pattern is
displayed is also at a finite
distance from the
diffracting aperture.
SINGLE-SLIT DIFFRACTION
All the diffracted rays arriving at P0 are in-phase.

Hence they interfere constructively and produce maximum
(central maximum) of intensity I0 at P0.
⁕The finite width of slits is the basis for understanding Fraunhofer diffraction.
⁕According to Huygens’s principle, each portion of the slit acts as a source of light waves.
⁕Therefore, light from one portion of the slit can interfere with light from another portion.
⁕The diffraction pattern is actually an interference pattern.
⁕The different sources of light are different portions of the single slit.
At point P1,
path difference between r1
and r2 is
(a/2) sin
So the condition for first minimum,

a 
sin  
2 2
or a sin   
This is satisfied for every pair of rays, one of which is from upper half
of the slit and the other is a corresponding ray from lower half of the
slit.
At point P2,
path difference between
r1 and r2 is (a/4) sin
So the condition for second minimum,
a 
sin   or a sin   2
4 2
This is satisfied for every pair of rays, separated by a distance a/4.
In general, the condition for m TH minima,
a sin   m m   1,  2,  3, . . .
There is a secondary maximum approximately half way between
each adjacent pair of minima.
Problem: 1
A slit of width a is illuminated by white light. For what value

of a does the minimum for red light ( = 650nm) fall at  =
15o?
Problem: 2
In P-1, what is the wavelength ’ of the light whose first
diffraction maximum (not counting the central maximum)
falls at 15o, thus coinciding with the first minimum of red
light?
Problem: E42-5
A single slit is illuminated by light whose wavelengths are

a and b, so chosen that the first diffraction minimum of
a component coincides with the second minimum of the
b component.
(a) What is the relationship between the two
wavelengths?
(b) Do any other minima in the two patterns coincide?
INTENSITY IN SINGLE – SLIT DIFFRACTION
• Aim is to find an expression for the intensity of the entire
pattern as a function of the diffraction angle.
• The phase difference between two waves arriving at point P
from two points on the slit (with separation x) is,
2
  x sin 

Phasor showing
a) Central maximum
b) A direction slightly shifted
from central maximum
c) First minimum
d) First maximum beyond the
central maximum
(corresponds to N = 18)
From diagram,

E  2 R sin
2
Em
Also  
R
Combining,
Em 
E  sin
 2
2
sin 
Or , E  Em


where  
2
 is the phase difference

between rays from the top
and bottom of the slit.
So we can write,
2
 a sin 

 a
So,    sin 
2 
2
2  sin  
The intensity    E 2  Em  
  
2
 sin  
  m   where  m  Em is the max. intensity
2
  
From the above eqn., for minima, sin  0
   m where m  1,2,3,.....
or, a sin   m where m  1,2,3,.....
The intensity distribution in

single-slit diffraction for three
different values of the ratio a/
Problem: SP42-3
Calculate, approximately, the relative intensities of the

maxima in the single slit Fraunhofer diffraction pattern.
Problem: SP42-4
Find the width  of the central maximum in a single slit

Fraunhofer diffraction. The width can be represented as the
angle between the two points in the pattern where the
intensity is one-half that at the center of the pattern.
Problem: E42-11
Monochromatic light with wavelength 538 nm falls on a slit

with width 25.2m. The distance from the slit to a screen is
3.48m. Consider a point on the screen 1.13cm from the
central maximum. Calculate (a)  (b)  (c) ratio of the
intensity at this point to the intensity at the central
maximum.
DIFFRACTION AT A CIRCULAR APERTURE
DIFFRACTION PATTERN DUE TO A CIRCULAR APERTURE

The mathematical analysis of diffraction by a circular aperture
shows that the first minimum occurs at an angle from the

central axis given by sin   1.22
d
where d is the diameter of aperture.
The equation for first minimum in single slit diffraction is

sin  
a
where a is the slit width
In case of circular aperture, the factor 1.22 arises when we divide the
aperture into elementary Huygens sources and integrate over the
aperture.
Raleigh’s criterion for optical resolution: The images of two closely
spaced sources is said to be just resolved if the angular separation of
the two point sources is such that the central maximum of the
diffraction pattern of one source falls on the first minimum of the
diffraction pattern of the other.
  R is the smallest angular
R  sin11.22 
 d
separation for which we
since R is very small, it can be appoximated as
can resolve the images of

R  1.22 two objects.
d
a. Not resolved
b. Just resolved
c. Well resolved
Problem: SP42-5
A converging lens 32mm in diameter has a focal length f of 24

cm. (a) What angular separation must two distant point
objects have to satisfy Rayleigh’s criterion? Assume that  =
550nm. (b) How far apart are the centers of the diffraction
patterns in the focal plane of the lens?
DOUBLE-SLIT INTERFERENCE AND DIFFRACTION COMBINED
Interference
I  , INT  I m, INT cos β 

2
Diffraction
 sin α 
2
I , DIF   m, DIF  α 
 
Interference + Diffraction
2
 sin α 
I  m cos  2
 
 α 
Each of the two slits is divided into N zones. Electric field at P is

found by adding the phasors. There is phase difference of  =
/N between each of the N phasors where  is the phase
difference between1st phasor and Nth phasor.
Adding all the phasors, we get the resultant E1 due to the first slit.
 is the phase difference between the light waves at the point P,
emitted from bottom edge of the first slit and top edge of the
second slit. E2 is the resultant due to the second slit. E is the
resultant of E1 and E2.
From the figure,

E   2E1 sin
2
 
where       
2 2
or     (   )
    
Also sin  sin    cos  .........( A )
2 2 2   2 
 
and  (d  a) sin 
2 
 a
Adding  sin  to both sides of above eqn, we get,
2 
 
 d sin  which is 
2 
Substituting this in eqn( A ), we get,

sin  cos
2
From sin gle  slit diffraction, we have ,
the electric amplitude at P due to one slit,
 sin  
E1  Em  
  
  sin  
 E   2E1 sin ie, E   (2Em )  cos
2   
2
 sin  
     m (cos)2  
  
DOUBLE-SLIT
INTERFERENCE PATTERN
PATTERN
Problem: SP42- 6
Ina double slit experiment, the distance D of the screen

from the slits is 52cm, the wavelength is 480nm, slit
separation d is 0.12mm and the slit width a is 0.025mm.
a) What is the spacing between adjacent fringes?
b) What is the distance from the central maximum to the
first minimum of the fringe envelope?
Problem: SP42- 7
What requirements must be met for the central maximum

of the envelope of the double-slit interference pattern to
contain exactly 11 fringes?
MULTIPLE SLITS
Multiple slit arrangement

will be the interference
pattern multiplied by the
single slit diffraction
envelope. This assumes
that all the slits are
identical.
MULTIPLE SLITS
Condition for principal

maxima,
d sin  = m 
where d is the
separation between
adjacent slits.
Location of principal
maxima is independent
of number of slits.
MULTIPLE SLITS
Intensity pattern for

(a) Two-slit diffraction
(b) Five-slit diffraction
(diffraction effect is
neglected)
MULTIPLE SLITS
Width of the maxima: Central maximum
 The pattern contains central maximum with minima on
either side.
 At the location of central maximum, the phase difference
between the waves from the adjacent slits is zero.
 At minima, the phase difference is such that,
2
  where N is the number of slits
N
 Corresponding path difference is,
   
L    
 2  N
MULTIPLE SLITS
Width of the maxima: Central maximum
   
L    
 2  N
 Also we know,
L  d sin 0
 From the equation, for given  and
 d sin 0
N d if we increase number of slits (N),
 then the angular width of principal
sin 0 
Nd maximum decreases. ie the
 principal maximum becomes
0  sharper.
Nd
MULTIPLE SLITS
Width of the maxima: Other principal maxima
For the mth principal

maximum at  by a
grating: d sin = m .
For the first minimum
at  +  after the mth
principal maximum
λ
d sinθ  θ  mλ 
N
MINIMUM AT θ
+θ
mth PRINCIPAL
MAXIMUM AT θ
MULTIPLE SLITS
Width of the maxima: Other principal maxima
λ
d sinθ  θ   mλ 
N
  
d sin  cos
   cos  sin
   m 
 1   N
d   d cos 
sin  m   N

m  d cos   m   N

  ANGULAR HALF WIDTH OF mTH
N d cos  PRINCIPAL MAXIMUM AT 
The principal maximum become sharper as

MINIMUM AT θ
number of slits (N) increases +θ
mth PRINCIPAL
MAXIMUM AT θ
MULTIPLE SLITS
Problem: SP43- 1
A certain grating has 104 slits with a spacing of d = 2100 nm.

It is illuminated with yellow sodium light ( = 589 nm). Find
(a) the angular position of all principal maxima observed
and (b) the angular width of the largest order maximum.
MULTIPLE SLITS
Problem: E43-5
Light of wavelength 600 nm is incident normally on a

diffraction grating. Two adjacent principal maxima occur at sin
 = 0.20 and sin  = 0.30. The fourth order is missing. (a) what
is the separation between adjacent slits? (b) what is the
smallest possible individual slit width? (c) Name all orders
actually appearing on the screen with the values derived in (a)
and (b).
DIFFRACTION GRATINGS
 The diffraction grating, a useful device for
analyzing light sources, consists of a large number
of equally spaced parallel slits.
 A transmission grating can be made by cutting
parallel grooves on a glass plate with a precision
ruling machine. The spaces between the grooves
are transparent to the light and hence act as
separate slits.
 A reflection grating can be made by cutting
parallel grooves on the surface of a reflective
material. The reflection of light from the spaces
between the grooves is specular, and the
reflection from the grooves cut into the material
is diffuse.
Grating spectrometer
m=0 m=1 m=2 m=3
Sample spectra of visible light emitted by a gaseous source

Problem: SP43-2
A diffraction grating has 1.20 x 104 rulings uniformly

spaced over W= 2.50cm. It is illuminated at normal
incidence by yellow light from sodium vapor lamp which
contains two closely spaced lines of wavelengths 589.0nm
and 589.59nm. (a) At what angle will the first order
maximum occur for the first of these wavelengths? (b)
What is the angular separation between the first order
maxima of these lines? (c) How close in wavelength can
two lines be (in first order) and still be resolved by this
grating? (d) How many rulings can a grating have and just
resolve the sodium doublet lines?
Problem: E43-9
Given a grating with 400 rulings/mm, how many orders of

the entire visible spectrum (400-700nm) can be produced?
A grating has 315 rulings / mm. For what wavelengths in the

visible spectrum can fifth-order diffraction be observed?
Problem: E43-11
White light (400 nm <  < 700 nm) is incident on a grating .

Show that, no matter what the value of the grating spacing d,
the second- and third-order spectra overlap.
DISPERSION AND RESOLVING POWER
The ability of a grating to produce spectra that permit precise

measurement of wavelengths is determined by two intrinsic
properties of the grating, (1) Dispersion (2) Resolving power
Dispersion
Dispersion is useful quantity in distinguishing wavelengths that are
close to each other, a grating must spread apart the diffraction lines
associated with the various wavelengths.
Angular separation between spectral lines
Dispersion
Difference between wavelength of spectral lines
Δθ
D 
Δλ
Dispersion
Δθ
D 
Δλ
d sin = m 
Differentiating the above equation,
d cos   = m 
Δθ m
D 
Δλ d cos θ
To achieve higher dispersion we must use a grating of smaller
grating spacing and work in higher order m .
Resolving power
Ability of the grating to resolve two nearby spectral lines so that
the two Lines can be viewed or photographed as separate lines.
To resolve lines whose wavelengths are close together, the lines
should be as narrow as possible.
For two close spectral lines of wavelength 1 and 2, just
resolved by the grating, the resolving power is defined as
 1   2
R   1  2 
 2
Resolving power
We have,
Δθ m 
D   
Δλ d cos θ N d cos 
Putting second equation in first equation,
  
 
 N d cos   
m
 d cos 

R  Nm

Resolving power increases with increasing N
DISPERSION AND RESOLVING POWER Intensity patterns of two close
lines due to three gratings A, B, C.
Resolving power
N = 5,000
d = 10 m
R = 5,000
D = 1.0 x 10-4 rad/m
N = 5,000
d = 5 m
R = 5,000
D = 2.0 x 10-4 rad/m
N = 10,000
d = 10 m
R = 10,000
D = 1.0 x 10-4 rad/m
Problem: SP43-3
A grating has 9600 lines uniformly spaced over a width

3cm and is illuminated by mercury light.
a) What is the expected dispersion in the third order, in
the vicinity of intense green line ( = 546nm)?
b) What is the resolving power of this grating in the fifth
order?
Problem: SP43-4
A diffraction grating has 1.20 X 104 rulings uniformly spaced

over a width W = 2.50cm. It is illuminated at normal
incidence by yellow light from a sodium vapor lamp. This
light contains two closely spaced lines of wavelengths 589.0
nm and 589.59 nm. (a) At what angle does the first
maximum occur for the first of these wavelengths? (b) What
is the angular separation between these two lines (1st
order)? (c) How close in wavelength can two lines be (in first
order) and still be resolved by this grating? (d) How many
rulings can a grating have and just resolve the sodium
doublet line?
Problem: E43-17
The sodium doublet in the spectrum of sodium is s pair of

lines with wavelengths 589.0 and 589.6 nm. Calculate the
minimum number of rulings in a grating needed to resolve
this doublet in the second-order spectrum.
Problem: E43-21
In a particular grating, the sodium doublet is viewed in

third order at 10.2 to the normal and is barely resolved.
Find (a) the ruling spacing and (b) the total width of
grating.
X-RAY DIFFRACTION
For the observation of diffraction phenomenon by grating, the

grating space should have the dimension of the wavelength of
the wave diffracted. Since the x-ray wavelength and the inter-
planar spacing in crystals are of the same order, a crystal can be
a suitable grating for observing the diffraction of x-rays.
x-ray diffraction
producing Laue’s
pattern
X-ray tube
X-RAY DIFFRACTION
 When a monoenergetic x-ray beam is
incident on a sample of a single crystal,
diffraction occurs resulting in a pattern
consisting of an array of symmetrically
arranged diffraction spots, called Laue’s
spots.
 The single crystal acts like a grating
with a grating constant comparable
with the wavelength of x-rays, making A Laue pattern of a
the diffraction pattern distinctly visible. single crystal.
 Since the diffraction pattern is decided Each dot
by the crystal structure, the study of represents a
the diffraction pattern helps in the point of
analysis of the crystal parameters. constructive
interference.
X-RAY DIFFRACTION
A plane through a crystal of NaCl
NaCl crystal (a0 = 0.563nm)
NaCl unit cell

X-RAY DIFFRACTION
(a) Electron density contour of an organic molecule

(b) A structural representation of same molecule
The x-rays are diffracted by the electron concentrations in the

material. By studying the directions of diffracted x-ray beam, we
can study the basic symmetry of the crystal. By studying the
intensity, we can learn how the electrons are distributed in a unit
cell.
X-RAY DIFFRACTION
Bragg’s Law
 In every crystal, several sets of parallel planes called the Bragg
planes can be identified.
 Each of these planes have an identical and a definite
arrangement of atoms.
 Different sets of Bragg planes are oriented at different angles
and are characterized by different inter planar distances d.
X-RAY DIFFRACTION
Bragg’s Law
 Glancing angle. ie angle
between the incident x-ray beam
and the reflecting crystal planes.
For constructive interference of
diffracted x-rays the path
difference for the rays from the
adjacent planes, (abc in the
figure) must be an integral
number of wavelength.
ie 2d sin  = n 
X-RAY DIFFRACTION
Problem: SP43-5
At what angles must an x-ray

beam with wavelength = 0.110
nm fall on the family of planes
in figure if a diffracted beam is
to exist? Assume material to
be sodium chloride (a0 =
0.563nm)
X-RAY DIFFRACTION
Problem: E43-25
A beam of x-rays of wavelength 29.3 pm is incident on a

calcite crystal of lattice spacing 0.313 nm. Find the smallest
angle between the crystal planes and the beam that will
result in constructive reflection of the x-rays.
QUESTIONS – DIFFRACTION
Discuss the diffraction due to single-slit. Obtain the

locations of the minima and maxima qualitatively.
Obtain an expression for the intensity in single-slit

diffraction pattern, using phasor-diagram.
Calculate, approximately, the relative intensities of the first

three secondary maxima in the single-slit diffraction
pattern.
Discuss qualitatively diffraction at a circular aperture.

Explain Rayleigh’s criterion for resolving images due to a

circular apperture.
Obtain an expression for the intensity in double-slit

diffraction pattern, using phasor-diagram.
Discuss qualitatively the diffraction due to multiple slits

(eg, 5 slits).
Obtain an expression for the width of the central

maximum in diffraction pattern due to multiple slits.
Obtain an expression for the width of a principal

maximum at an angle in diffraction pattern due to
multiple slits.
Obtain an expression for dispersion by a diffraction

grating.
Obtain an expression for resolving power of a diffraction

grating.
Discuss Bragg’s law for X-ray diffraction.

B.TECH FIRST YEAR

LECTURE SERIES NO : 03 (THREE)
CREDITS : 4
DATE OF DELIVERY: 08 December 2021
“UNDERSTAND THE BASIC
SESSION OUTCOME PRINCIPLES OF WAVE OPTICS”
QUIZ
MID TERM EXAMINATION –I
ASSESSMENT CRITERIA’S
POLARIZATION
TOPICS
▪ POLARIZATION OF ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES
▪ POLARIZING SHEETS
z
▪ POLARIZATION BY REFLECTION
▪ DOUBLE REFRACTION
Text Book:
PHYSICS VOL 2 by Halliday, Resnick and Krane (5th Edition)
POLARIZATION
➢ Interference/Diffraction: gives an idea about the wave nature of the
wave but do not give the idea about the nature of the wave (i.e. the light
wave is longitudinal/transverse or they are vibrating linearly/circularly
etc.)
➢ Polarization deals with such properties

z of light.
➢ only e.m. waves/transvers waves (such as: light waves) show

polarization effect but sound waves/longitudinal waves do not show
Polarization effect as in case of longitudinal waves the vibration is only
along the direction of the propagation of the waves.
POLARIZATION OF ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES
Example: Polarized Microwaves

➢ The EM Wave generated by the transmitter is polarized in the plane of the page, with its electric
vector (E) parallel to the axis of the transmitting antenna. The receiving antenna can detect this
wave with maximum effectiveness if its antenna also lies in the plane and parallel to E. If the
receiving antenna were rotated through 900 about the direction of propagation, no signal would
be detected.
➢ Unpolarized light: electric field vector vibrates in

more than one direction/random direction.
➢ Polarized light: electric field vector vibrates in a

specific direction.
z
➢ the process of converting unpolarized light to Plane electromagnetic wave
polarized light is known as Polarization.
➢ By convention, we define the direction of polarization of the wave to be the
direction of the electric vector.
➢ The plane determined by electric vector and direction of propagation of wave is

called plane of polarization (XY plane in figure)
POLARIZATION OF TRANSVERSE WAVES
z
➢ By convention, we define the direction of

polarization of the wave to be the direction of
the electric vector.
➢ The plane determined by electric vector and

direction of propagation of wave is called
plane of polarization (xy plane in figure)
Plane electromagnetic wave
➢ Representation of a linearly polarized wave

with the electric field vibrating in the
vertical direction viewed from along the
direction of propagation.
➢ Representation of an unpolarized wave

viewed along the direction of propagation
(perpendicular to the page). The transverse
electric field can vibrate in any direction
in the plane of the page with equal
probability.
➢ An equivalent representation of the unpolarized wave, as two waves linearly polarized

at right angles to one another and with a random phase difference between them.
Polarized and UnPolarized Light
➢ Unpolarized light is symmetrical

about the direction of propagation as it
vibrates in all direction
➢ Polarization: describes the orientation

of the vibration
➢ Plane of Polarization:
➢ Plane of vibration:
POLARIZING SHEETS
➢ POLARIZATION by transmission
➢ Polaroid → Polarizing material
➢ In polarizing sheet certain polarizing

directions are present.
➢ The sheet transmit only those wave train components having electric field vector
vibrating parallel to this direction and absorb if vibrates perpendicular.
➢ The polarizing direction is established during the manufacturing process.
MUJ – Jaipur BE-PHYSICS – POLARIZATION

POLARIZING SHEETS
➢ Two polarizing sheets whose

transmission axes make an angle
 with each other. Only a
fraction of the polarized light
incident on the analyzer is
transmitted through it.
➢ P2 rotated about the direction of propagation then there are two different positions,
1800 apart, where transmitted light intensity falls to zero.
➢ At these positions the polarizing directions of P1 and P2 are at right angles to each
other.
POLARIZING SHEETS
If E is the magnitude of electric vector, only E cos 

(y component) passes through the polaroid.
Transmitted intensity:-
I = Im cos2  [Law of Malus]
where Im → maximum intensity (i.e.  = 0 or 180 degree)
➢ Example of POLARIZATION by TRANSMISSION:- POLAROID FILTER
MUJ – Jaipur BE-PHYSICS – POLARIZATION

POLARIZING SHEETS
1. Two polarizing sheets have their polarizing directions parallel so that the intensity Im
of the transmitted light is a maximum. Through what angle must either sheet must be
turned if the intensity is to drop by one – half???
2. A beam of light is linearly polarized in the vertical direction. The beam falls at normal
incidence on a polarizing sheet with its polarizing direction at 58.8 to the vertical. The
transmitted beam falls, also at normal incidence, on a second polarizing sheet with its
polarizing direction horizontal. The intensity of the original beam is 43.3 W/m2. Find
the intensity of the beam transmitted by the second sheet.
3. The magnetic field equations for an em wave in space are Bx = B sin (ky + t), By =
Bz = 0.
(a) What is the direction of propagation?
(b) Write the electric field equations.
(c) Is the wave polarized? If so, in what direction?
POLARIZATION BY REFLECTION
➢ If light is incident on the surface of a
dielectric material at polarizing angle
of incidence, (p= Brewster’s angle)
the reflected light is completely plane
polarized and the transmitted ray is
perpendicular to reflected ray.
n = tan p
➢ This expression is called Brewster’s law,
and the polarizing angle p is sometimes
called Brewster’s angle.
➢ n varies with wavelength for a given

substance, Brewster’s angle is also a
function of wavelength.
When angle of incidence is p, it is

observed that, p + r = 90
From Snell’s Law,

n1 sin p = n2 sin r
Therefore
n1 sin p = n2 sin (90- p)
n1 sin p = n2 cos (p)
So n2/n1 = tan p
If 1st medium is air then,
n = tan p [Brewster’s Law]
Polarization of light by stack

of glass plates
Unpolarized light is incident at

the angle p. All reflected lights
are polarized perpendicular to
the plane of figure. After passing
through the several layers, the
transmitted wave no longer
contains any appreciable
component polarized
perpendicular to the figure.
Problem: SP44-2
We wish to use a plate of glass (n = 1.50) in air as polarizer. Find the

polarizing angle and angle of refraction.
Problem: E44-12
When red light in vacuum is incident at the polarizing angle on a certain glass
slab, the angle of refraction is 31.8. What are (a) the index of refraction of the
glass and (b) the polarizing angle?
DOUBLE REFRACTION
• In optically isotropic substances (liquids, amorphous
solid such as glass, and crystalline solids having cubic
symmetry) the speed of light and the index of refraction
are independent of the direction of propagation in the
medium and of the state of polarization of light.
• In anisotropic substances (eg. Calcite, quartz), the speed

of light and the index of refraction depend on the direction
of propagation in the medium.
DOUBLE REFRACTION
A view through a
BIREFRINNGENT CRYSTAL,
showing the two images that
result from the two different
indices of refraction.
DOUBLE REFRACTION
Unpolarized light incident on a birefringent
material (eg. calcite crystal) splits into an
ordinary (o) ray and an extraordinary (e) ray.
These two rays are polarized in mutually
perpendicular directions.
The o-wave travels in the crystal with the same speed vo in all directions. The
o-ray obeys Snell’s Law of refraction. The crystal has a single index of
refraction no for o-wave.
The e-wave travels in the crystal with a speed that varies with direction from
vo to ve. It does not obey the Snell’s Law. The index of refraction of the crystal
varies with direction from no to ne for the e-wave.
DOUBLE REFRACTION
Principal indices of refraction (no, ne) of some doubly refracting crystals for sodium light
Crystal Formula no ne no-ne

Ice H2O 1.309 1.313 +0.004
Quartz SiO2 1.544 1.553 +0.009
Wurzite ZnS 2.356 2.378 +0.002
Calcite CaCO3 1.658 1.486 -0.172
DOUBLE REFRACTION
The characteristic direction in the crystal
in which vo = ve is called optic axis. The
speeds are most different in the direction
perpendicular to optic axis.
A point source S inside a double-refracting crystal produces a spherical wave

front corresponding to the ordinary ray and an elliptical wave front
corresponding to the extraordinary ray. The two waves propagate with the
same velocity along the optic axis.
QUESTIONS – POLARIZATION
Sketch the schematic graph of a travelling

electromagnetic wave showing the electric and magnetic
vectors.
Explain the law of Malus with a diagram.
Explain with diagram, the polarization of reflected light,

incident at Brewster’s angle.
Explain the method of producing plane-polarized light by

refraction in a stack of glass plates.
QUESTIONS – POLARIZATION
Explain the phenomenon of double refraction with a

diagram indicating the directions of polarizations for the
two beams.
Sketch schematically the wave surfaces produced by a

point source in calcite explaining the reason for this.
Explain circular polarization of light and its production

with a diagram.
Explain optical activity with a diagram.

B.TECH FIRST YEAR

LECTURE SERIES NO : 04 (FOUR)
CREDITS : 4
DATE OF DELIVERY: 26 April 2021
“UNDERSTAND FOUNDATION OF
SESSION OUTCOME QUANTUM PHYSICS”
QUIZ
MID TERM EXAMINATION –II ASSESSMENT CRITERIA’S
INTRODUCTION TO QUANTUM PHYSICS
TOPICS
• Blackbody Radiation & Plank’s Hypothesis
• The Photoelectric Effect
• The Compton Effect
•
4
BLACKBODY RADIATION & PLANK’S HYPOTHESIS
INTRODUCTION
Origin of thermal radiation –

- heated object radiates---- Photon
Concept of oscillators
5
Definition of a Black-Body
Black-Body Radation Laws
1- The Stefan-Boltzmann Law
2- The Wien‘s Displacement Law
3- The Rayleigh-Jeans Law
4- The Planck Law
6
Definition of a black body

An object that absorbs
all incident radiation.
A small hole cut into a

cavity is the most
popular and realistic
example.
None of the
incident radiation
escapes.
7
• radiation is absorbed
• causes a heating of the cavity walls.
• The oscillators in the cavity walls vibrate
• cavity walls re-radiate at wavelengths
corresponding to the temperature of the cavity,
producing standing waves in the cavity. Some
of the energy from these standing waves can
leave through the opening. The electromagnetic
radiation emitted by the black body is called
black-body radiation.
8
•The black body is an ideal absorber of

incident radaition.
•The emitted "thermal" radiation from a black
body characterizes the equilibrium
temperature of the black-body.
•Emitted radiation from a blackbody does not
depend on the material of which the walls are
made.
Ex. Lamp black (96%) and platinum black
(98%)
9
At about 6000 K (not shown in

Figure shows Intensity of blackbody
fig.), the peak is in the center of
radiation versus wavelength at
the visible wavelengths and the
three temperatures
object appears white.
10
Basic Laws of Radiation
1) All objects emit radiant energy.
2) Hotter objects emit more energy than colder

objects (per unit area). The total power of
the emitted radiation increases with
temperature.
This is Stefan-Boltzmann Law.
3) The peak of the wavelength distribution

shifts to shorter wavelengths as the black
body temperature increases. This is Wien’s
displacement Law. 𝝀𝐦𝐚𝐱 𝐓 = 𝐜𝐨𝐧𝐬𝐭𝐚𝐭𝐧𝐭
11
Black-Body Radiation Laws (1)

 Stefan Boltzmann Law.
P =  Ae T 4
P = power radiated from the surface of the

object(W)
T = temperature (K)
= 5.670 x 10-8 W/m2K4 (Stefan-Boltzmann
constant)
A = surface area of the object (m2)
e = emissivity of the surface (for a blackbody e =1).
12

 Wien’s Displacement Law.
lm T = constant = 2.898 × 10-3 m- K, or lm  T-1
Where lm - peak of the wavelength distribution

in the black body emission spectrum.
T- equilibrium temperature of the blackbody.

(A black-body reaches thermal equilibrium
when the incident radiation power is balanced
by the power re-radiated).
13
Thermal radiation from Different Objects.

Find the peak wavelength of the blackbody
radiation emitted by each of the following.
A. The human body when the skin temperature is

35°C
B. The tungsten filament of a light bulb, which

operates at 2000 K
C. The Sun, which has a surface temperature of

about 5800 K.
14
 The Rayleigh-Jeans Law.
2 πck B T
This law tries to explain the distribution I (λ , T ) =
of energy from a black body. λ4
I (l,T) dl is the intensity or power per
unit area emitted in the wavelength
interval dl from a blackbody.
15
kB – Boltzmann's constant
T- equilibrium blackbody
temperature Rayleigh-Jeans Law
c- velocity of light.
*It agrees with experimental

measurements for long
wavelengths.
* It predicts an energy
output that diverges
towards infinity as
wavelengths grow smaller.
The failure has become known as the
ultraviolet catastrophe.
16

2 π hc 2 1
I(λ, T) =
 The Planck Law λ5 hc
λk B T
e - 1
This law too explains the distribution of

energy from a black body.
I (l,T) dl is the intensity or power per unit

area emitted in the wavelength interval dl
from a blackbody. Only the extra quantity
(compared to the Rayleigh-Jeans Law)
coming here is the constant known as
Plank’s constant introduced by Max Plank in
this revolutionary theory.
17
. In short the law fitted the experimental

data for all wavelength regions and at all
temperatures.
But for this to happen, Plank made two bold and

controversial assumptions concerning the nature of the
oscillators in the cavity walls.
18
1) The energy of an oscillator can have only

certain discrete values E n
E n = nhf
where n is a positive integer called a

quantum number, f is the frequency of
oscillation, and h is a constant called Planck’s
constant. Energy of the oscillator is
quantized. Each discrete energy value
corresponds to a different quantum state,
represented by the quantum number n .
19
2) The oscillators emit or absorb energy only

when making a transition from one quantum state
to another.
Difference in energy will be integral multiples of hf.
If it remains in one quantum state, no energy
is emitted or absorbed.
to n = ∞
E n
4hf 4
Figure shows allowed energy 3hf 3

levels for an oscillator with
ENERGY
frequency f, and the allowed
2h 2
f
Transitions. hf 1
0 0
20
The results of Planck's law
 the denominator [exp(hc/lkBT )] tends to infinity

faster than the numerator (l-5), thus resolving the
infrared catastrophe.
i.e. I (l,T)  0 as l 0.
 for very large l,

hc
exp(hc / λkBT ) - 1 ≈ ⇒ I ( λ , T) → λ- 4 kBT
λkBT
 From a fit between Planck's law and experimental
data, Planck's constant was derived to be
h = 6.626 × 10-34 J.s
21
Planck hypothesis
Planck law
Weins law- at low
wavelength
Rayleigh jeans law- at
high wavelength.
2 π hc 2 1
I(λ, T) =
λ5 hc
λk B T
e - 1
THE PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT
What is Photoelectric Effect?

Apparatus for studying Photoelectric Effect
T – Evacuated
glass/ quartz tube
E – Emitter Plate/
T
Photosensitive
material /Cathode
C – Collector Plate /
Anode
V – Voltmeter
A - Ammeter
32
Experimental Observations
1. When plate E is illuminated by light of
suitable frequency, electrons are emitted
from E and a current is detected in A.
2. Photocurrent
produced Vs
potential difference
applied graph
shows that
maximum kinetic
energy of the
emitted electrons,
Kmax = e Vs
33
3. Maximum kinetic energy of the

photoelectron is independent of light
intensity.
4. Electrons are emitted from the surface of the

emitter almost instantaneously.
5. No electrons are emitted if the incident light

frequency falls below a cutoff frequency.
6. Maximum kinetic energy of the

photoelectrons increases with increasing
light frequency.
34
Classical Predictions
1. If light is really a wave, it was thought that
if one shine light of any fixed wavelength, at
sufficient intensity on the emitter surface,
electrons should absorb energy continuously
from the em waves and electrons should be
ejected.
2. As the intensity of light is increased (made it
brighter and hence classically, a more
energetic wave), kinetic energy of the
emitted electrons should increase.
35
4. Ejection of photoelectron should not

depend on light frequency
5. Photoelectron kinetic energy should not

depend upon the frequency of the
incident light.
In short experimental results

contradict classical predictions.
36
Einstein’s model of the photoelectric effect
A photon of the incident light gives all its

energy hf to a single electron (Absorption
of energy by the electrons is not a
continuous process as envisioned in the
wave model) and Kmax = hf - 
 is called the work function of the metal.

It is the minimum energy with which an
electron is bound in the metal.
38
All the observed features of photoelectric effect
could be explained by Einstein’s photoelectric
equation.
1. Equation shows that Kmax depends only on
frequency of the incident light.
2. Almost instantaneous emission of photoelectrons
due to one -to –one interaction between photons
and electrons.
3. Ejection of electrons depends on light frequency
since photons should have energy greater than
the work function  in order to eject an electron.
4. The cutoff frequency fc is  related to by fc =  /h.
If the incident frequency f is less than fc , no
emission of photoelectrons.
39
Einstein predicted that a

graph of the maximum
kinetic energy Kmax Vs
frequency f would be a
straight line, given by the
linear relation,
Kmax = hf - 
And indeed such a linear
relationship was observed.
And this work won Einstein his Nobel Prize in 1921

40
eV0 =Kmax
• Q. ultraviolet light of wavelength 350 nm and
intensity 1 w/m2 is directed to a potassium
surface .
(a) Find the maximum kinetic energy of the
photoelectrons.
(b) if 0.5% of the incident photons produce
photoelectrons , how many are emitted per
second if the potassium surface has an area
of 1.00 cm2 .
Work function of potassium is 2.2eV.
Q. Under favorable circumstances the human
eye on detect 10-18 J of the electromagnetic
energy. How many 600 nm photon does this
represent?
THE COMPTON EFFECT
Introduction
E  p c m c
2 2 2 2 4
Here E is the total energy of the particle

E = m c2
P and m are the momentum and mass of the particle.
expression for the

momentum of a particle P = mv
v = speed of the particle & c = speed of light in

vacuum
49
THE COMPTON EFFECT
SUMMARY OF PHOTON PROPERTIES

Relation between particle and wave properties of light
Energy, frequency, and wavelength, E = hf = hc / l

Also we have relation between momentum and
wavelength of a photon as follows
For light, m = 0,  E= pc . Also c= lf

E hf h
p= = =
c λf λ
50
THE COMPTON EFFECT
What is Compton Effect ?

Compton (1923)
measured intensity of
scattered X-rays from
solid target (scattering of
X-rays from electrons), as
function of wavelength scattered beam
for different angles. In

such a scattering, a shift
in wavelength for the
scattered X-rays takes
place, which is known as
Compton Effect.
51
In the scattering
process, the total
energy and total
linear momentum of
the system must be
conserved.
THE COMPTON EFFECT
Experimental Observations
Compton could explain the experimental result by
taking a “billiard ball” type collisions between
particles of light (X-ray photons) and electrons in
the material.
56
THE COMPTON EFFECT
The graphs for three nonzero angles show two peaks,

one at l0 and one at l’ > l0 . The shifted peak at l’ is
caused by the scattering of X-rays from free electrons.
Shift in wavelength was predicted by Compton to
depend on scattering angle as
h
λ' - λ0  (1 - cos θ)
me c
This is known as Compton shift equation, and the
factor is h called the Compton wavelength.
me c h
= 0.00243 nm
mec
57
THE COMPTON EFFECT
Q. Compton scattering at 45°

X-rays of wavelength l0 = 0.20 nm are scattered from
a block of material. The scattered X-rays are observed
at an angle of 45° to the incident beam. Calculate
their wavelength.
Q. Calculate the energy and momentum of a

photon of wavelength 700 nm.
64
THE COMPTON EFFECT
Q. A 0.00160 nm photon scatters from a free

electron. For what photon scattering angle does
the recoiling electron have kinetic energy equal
to the energy of the scattered photon?
66
Q.
TOPICS
• Photons and Electromagnetic Waves

• The Quantum Particle
• de Broglie hypothesis
• Davisson-Germer Experiment
• Quantum particle
• The Uncertainty Principle
1/18/2021 MUJ
BE-PHYSICS-INTRODUCTION TO QUANTUM PHYSICS-2018-19 1
PHOTONS AND ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES
Photons and Electromagnetic Waves

Evidence for wave-nature of
light
• Diffraction
• Interference
Evidence for particle-nature

of light
• Photoelectric effect
• Compton effect
1/18/2021 MUJ
2
•Light exhibits diffraction and interference

phenomena that are only explicable in terms of wave
properties.
• Photoelectric effect and Compton effect can only
be explained taking light as photons/ particle
• This means true nature of light is not describable in
terms of any single classical picture.
•In short, the particle model and the wave model of
light compliment each other.
1/18/2021 MUJ
3
De Broglie
The Wave Properties of Particles
We have seen that light comes in discrete units

(photons) with particle properties (energy and
momentum) that are related to the wave-like
properties of frequency and wavelength.
1/18/2021 MUJ
4
de Broglie Hypothesis
h
 Planck’s constant
h  6.63 1034 Js
de Broglie wavelength
p
and
f= E Energy of the particle
h
frequency of the particle
1/18/2021 MUJ
5
p = momentum of the particle,

h h p = m v for a non-relativistic particle
λ= =
p mv m = mass of the particle
V = velocity of the particle
The electron accelerated through a potential

difference of V has a non relativistic kinetic energy
1
2
mv eV
2
m = mass, v = velocity
p=mv = 2me V
1/18/2021 MUJ
6
Q. find the kinetic energy of the proton whose
de- broglie wavelength is 1fm.
Q. Find the de Broglie wavelength of (a) a 46 g
golf ball with a velocity of 30 m/s, (b) an
electron with a velocity of 107 m/s.
1/18/2021 MUJ
Davisson & Germer experiment
Energy of the
electron beam,
the angle at
which they reach
the target , and
position of the
detector could be
varied.
1/18/2021 MUJ
Results
For beam of 54eV energy have sharp maximum
in the electron distribution occurred at angle
50o .
1/18/2021 MUJ
2dsin𝜽 = 𝒏𝝀
d = 0.091nm
mv=(2mk.E)1/2 & 𝜽= 65o
This experiment confirmed de- Broglie

relationship p = h /.
Subsequently it was found that atomic beams,

and beams of neutrons, also exhibit diffraction
when reflected from regular crystals. Thus de
Broglie's formula seems to apply to any kind of
matter.
1/18/2021 MUJ
10
Now the dual nature of matter and radiation is

an accepted fact. And it is stated in the principle
of complementarity. This states that wave and
particle models of either matter or radiation
compliment each other.
1/18/2021 MUJ
11
Q. A particle of charge q and mass m has been

accelerated from rest to a nonrelativistic speed through
a potential difference of V. Find an expression for its de
Broglie wavelength.
Q. (a) An electron has a kinetic energy of 3.0

eV. Find its wavelength. (b) Also find the
wavelength of a photon having the same
energy.
1/18/2021 MUJ
12
Q. In the Davisson-
Germer experiment, 54.0
eV electrons were
diffracted from a nickel
lattice. If the first
maximum in the
diffraction pattern was
observed at = 50.0°,
what was the lattice
spacing a between the
vertical rows of atoms in
the figure?
1/18/2021 MUJ
13
THE QUANTUM PARTICLE
What is a Quantum Particle?
Quantum particle is a model by which

particles having dual nature are represented.
We must choose one appropriate behavior for
the quantum particle (particle or wave) in
order to understand a particular behavior.
1/18/2021 MUJ
15
Now to build a localized entity from an

infinitely long wave, waves of same
amplitude, but slightly different frequencies
are superposed. The result of superposition of
two such waves are shown below.
1/18/2021 MUJ
17
If we add up large number of waves in a similar

way, the small localized region of space where
constructive interference takes place is called a
wavepacket, which represents a particle.
In the figure, large

number of waves are
Combined. The result
is a wave packet,
which represents a
particle.
1/18/2021 MUJ
18
Mathematical Representation of a wave packet
superposition of two waves of equal amplitude, but

with slightly different frequencies, f1 & f2 and
wavelengths, traveling in the same direction are
considered. The waves are written as
(
y = A cos k 1x - ω1 t
1
) and (
y2 = A cos k 2 x - ω2 t )
The resultant wave is, y = y1 + y2
Δk Δω k1 + k2 ω1 + ω2
[ (
y = 2A cos
2
x-
2
t )] (
cos
2
x-
2
t )
1/18/2021
Amplitude varies
MUJ
with t and x
19
Beat
Where k = k1 – k2 and  = 1 – 2. frequency
The resulting wave oscillates with the average
frequency, and its amplitude envelope varies
according to the difference frequency.
1/18/2021 MUJ
20
This envelope can travel through space with a different

speed than the individual waves. This speed is called
the group speed or the speed of the wave packet (the
group of waves)
The group speed, υg =

(Δω 2) =
Δω
(Δk 2) Δk
For a superposition of large number of waves to form a
wave packet, this ratio is
dω
υg =
dk
1/18/2021 MUJ
21
A realistic wave is characterized by two different

speeds. The phase speed, the speed with which
single wave moves, which is given by
& the group speed, the speed with which the

envelope moves. This is given by
In general these two speeds are not the same.
1/18/2021 MUJ
22
Relation between group speed and phase speed
ω
we have, υphase = = f λ
k
i.e., ω = k υphase = k υp
dω d ( kvp ) dυp
But υg = = =k + υp
dk dk dk
Substituting for k in terms of , we get

dυp
g = p – 
dλ
1/18/2021 MUJ
23
THE UNCERTAINTY PRINCIPLE
Quantum theory predicts that, it is fundamentally

impossible to make simultaneous measurements
of a particle’s position & momentum with
infinite accuracy. This is known as Heisenberg
uncertainty principle. The uncertainties arise from
the quantum structure of matter.
For a particle represented by a single wavelength

wave existing throughout space,  is precisely
known, and according to de- Broglie hypothesis, its p
is also known accurately. But the position of the
particle in this case becomes uncertain.
1/18/2021 MUJ
31
In short ( x ) ( px) ≥ h / 4
Also ( E ) ( t) ≥ h / 4
1/18/2021 MUJ
32
Locating an electron
The speed of an electron is measured to be
5.00 x 103 m/s to an accuracy of 0.0030%.
Find the minimum uncertainty in determining
the position of this electron. [0.386 mm]
The Line Width of Atomic Emissions

The lifetime of an excited atom is given as 1.0 x 10-8 s.
Using the uncertainty principle, compute the line width
f produced by this finite lifetime? [8.0 × 106 Hz]
1/18/2021 MUJ
33
Q. Find the minimum kinetic energy of a

proton confined within a nucleus having a
diameter of 1.0 x 10-15 m. [5.21 MeV]
1/18/2021 MUJ
34
QUESTIONS
10. Which are the features of photoelectric effect-experiment
explained by Einstein’s photoelectric equation? [2]
11. Sketch schematically the following graphs with reference to
the photoelectric effect: (a) photoelectric current vs applied
voltage (b) kinetic energy of most-energetic electron vs
frequency of incident light. [1EACH]
12. Explain Compton effect. [2]
13. Explain the experiment on Compton effect. [5]
14.Derive the Compton shift equation. [5]
15. Explain the wave properties of the particles. [2]
16. Explain a wavepacket and represent it schematically. [2]
17. Explain (a) group speed (b) phase speed, of a wavepacket.
[1+1]
1/18/2021 MUJ
QUESTIONS
20. Show that the group speed of a wavepacket is equal to the
particle speed. [2]
21. Explain Heisenberg uncertainty principle. [1]
22. Write the equations for uncertainty in (a) position and
momentum (b) energy and time. [1]
1/18/2021 MUJ
QUANTUM MECHANICS
TOPICS
• Interpretation of quantum mechanics

• Wave function and its significance
• Schrodinger equation
• Particle in a box, Particle in a well of finite height
• Tunnelling through a potential barrier and its
applications
• The simple harmonic oscillator (No derivation)
MUJ 1
1
AN INTERPRETATION OF QUANTUM MECHANICS
Experimental evidences proved that both

matter and electromagnetic radiation exhibit
wave and particle nature depending on the
phenomenon being observed.
Making a conceptual connection between particles

and waves, for an electromagnetic radiation, we
have the probability per unit volume of finding a
photon in a given region of space at an instant of
time as
Probability
Probability/V ∞ N/V  E2
MUJ
V 2
2
• The amplitude of the de Broglie wave
associated with a particle is called
probability amplitude, or the wave
function, and is denoted by .
In general, the complete wave function  for

a system depends on the positions of all the
particles in the system and on time and can
be written as (rj,t) = (rj) e–it , where rj is
the position vector of the jTH particle in the
system.
MUJ 4
4
2
|| is always real and positive,
proportional to the probability per unit
volume,.
If  represents a single particle,
||2 the probability density
the probability per unit volume that the
particle will be found at any given point in
the volume.
MUJ 6
6
One-Dimensional Wave Functions and
Expectation Values
 = Wave function for a particle moving
along the x axis
P(x) dx = ||2 dx is the probability to find
the particle in the infinitesimal interval dx
around the point x. The probability of finding
the particle in the arbitrary interval a ≤ x ≤ b is
b
Pab  
a
 2 dx
MUJ 7
7
The probability of a particle being in
the interval a ≤ x ≤ b is the area
under the probability density curve
from a to b.
The total probability of finding the particle is 1.
Forcing this condition on the wave function is called
∞
normalization: 2
 dx  1
∫
-∞
The wave equation satisfied by  is the Schrodinger
equation and  can be computed from it. All the
measureable quantities of a particle, such as its
energy and momentum, can be derived from a
knowledge
MIT-
MUJ
MANIPAL of . BE-PHYSICS-QUANTUM MECHANICS-2010-11 8
8
eg, the average position at which one expects to
find the particle after many measurements is
called the expectation value of x and is defined by
the equation 
x    x  dx


The expectation value of any function f(x)

associated with the particle is

f (x)    f (x)  dx


MUJ 9
9
The important mathematical features of a physically
acceptable wave function (x) for a system are
(i) (x) may be a complex function or a real function,
depending on the system;
(ii) (x), must be finite, continuous and single valued
every where;
(iii) The space derivatives of , must be finite,
continuous and single valued every where;
(iv)  must be normalizable.
MUJ 10
10
Q. A wave Function for a particle

A particle wave function is given by the
–ax2
equation  (x) = A e
(A)What is the value of A if this wave function
is normalized?
(B) What is the expectation value of x for this
particle?
MUJ 11
11
Q. A particle limited to the x axis has the wavefunction  (x)

= ax between x=0 and x=1;
 (x) = 0 elsewhere.
(a)Find the probability that the particle can be found

between x=0.45 and x=0.55.
(b) find the expectation value 𝑥 of the particle

position.
MUJ 12
12
THE SCHRÖDINGER EQUATION
The appropriate wave equation for matter waves was developed

by Schrödinger. Schrödinger equation as it applies to a particle
of mass m confined to moving along x axis and interacting with
its environment through a potential energy function U(x) is
 2 d2
 2
 U  E
2 m dx
Where E is a constant equal to the total energy of the system.
MUJ 13
13
THE SCHRÖDINGER EQUATION
 2 d2
 2
 U  E
2 m dx
The above equation is referred to as the one-
dimensional, time-independent Schrödinger
equation.
Application of Schrödinger equation to the

PARTICLE IN A BOX or particle in an
infinite square well.
MUJ 14
14
Schrodinger’s equation can not be derived from
other basic principle of physics; it is a basic
principle in itself.
MUJ 15
PARTICLE IN A BOX
In figure (a), a particle of mass m and velocity v,

confined to bouncing between two impenetrable
walls separated by a distance L is shown. Figure
(b) shows the potential energy function for the
system.
MUJ 16
16
PARTICLE IN A BOX
U(x) = 0, for 0 < x < L,
And U (x) =  , for x < 0, x > L
Since U (x) =  , for x < 0, x > L ,
(x) =0 in these regions.
Also (x =0) =0 and (x =L) =0.
Only those wave functions that satisfy these
boundary conditions are allowed.
In the region 0 < x < L, where U = 0, the
Schrödinger equation takes the form
d2 2m
 E  0,
dx2  2
MUJ 17
17
PARTICLE IN A BOX
2
d 2 2 mE 2mE
2
  k , where k  2
2
or k 
dx  
The most general form of the solution to the
above equation is (x) = A sin(kx) + B cos(kx)
where A and B are constants determined by the
boundary and normalization conditions.
Applying the first boundary condition,

i.e., at x = 0,  = 0 leads to
0 = A sin 0 + B cos 0 or B=0 ,
and at x = L ,  = 0 ,
0 = A sin(kL) + B cos(kL) = A sin(kL) + 0,
MUJ 18
18
PARTICLE IN A BOX
since A  0 , sin(kL) = 0 .
 kL = n ; ( n = 1, 2, 3, ………..)
2 n 
k  or L  n 
 L 2 
2mE 2mE
k  ,  kL L  n
 
Each value of the integer n corresponds to a
quantized energy value, En , where
 h2  2
En    n Where
2  n = 1, 2 , 3 …..
8mL  h 2
The lowest allowed energy (n  1), E1  2
MUJ
8 mL 19
19
PARTICLE IN A BOX
This is the ground state energy for the particle
in a box. Excited states corresponds to n = 2, 3,
4 ---- have energies given by 4E1 , 9E1 , 16E1 ---.
Energy level diagram for

a particle confined to a
one-dimensional box of
length L. The lowest
allowed energy is
E1 = h2/8mL2.
According to quantum mechanics, the

MUJ
particle can never be at rest. 20
20
PARTICLE IN A BOX
The corresponding nx 
wave functions are
n (x)  A sin  
 L 
To find the constant A, apply
normalization condition 2
 L
2   n  x 
 0 A sin L  dx  1
2
dx  1 or

L
  2 n  x 
A  ½ 1  cos
2
 dx  1
0   L 
2 nx 
solving , we get,  n x   sin 
L  L 
The first three allowed states for a particle
confined to a one-dimensional box are shown next..
MUJ 21
21
PARTICLE IN A BOX
Fig. (a) The wave functions for n = 1, 2, and 3.

Fig. (b) The probability densities for n = 1, 2, and 3.
MUJ 22
22
PARTICLE IN A BOX
A Bound Electron
Q. An electron is confined between two
impenetrable walls 0.20 nm apart. Determine
the energy levels for the states n =1 ,2 , and 3.
Q. An electron is in a box 0.1 nm across, which is the

order of magnitude of atomic dimensions. Find its
permitted energies. [38n2 eV]
Q. Find the expectation value <x> of the position of

a particle trapped in a box L wide.
MUJ 23
23
PARTICLE IN A BOX
A proton is confined to move in a one-dimensional

box of length 0.20 nm. (a) Find the lowest possible
energy of the proton. (b) What is the lowest
possible energy for an electron confined to the
same box?
MUJ 24
24
A PARTICLE IN A WELL OF FINITE HEIGHT
(PARTICLE IN A SQUARE WELL POTENTIAL)
Potential energy
I II III diagram of a well of
U finite height U and
E
length L. A particle is
trapped in the well.
0 L
The total energy E of
X the particle-well
system is less than U
Explain the conditions, U(x) = 0 , 0 < x < L,

U (x) = U , x < 0, x > L
MUJ 25
25
Particle energy = E < U ; classically the particle

is permanently bound.
a finite probability exists that the particle can be

found outside the well even if E < U.
the wave function is generally nonzero in regions I

and III..
In regions II, where U = 0, the allowed wave

functions are again sinusoidal. But the boundary
conditions no longer require that the wave
function must be zero at the ends of the well.
MUJ 26
26
The Schrödinger equation outside the finite well in

regions I and III is:
2
d  2m 2
 (U  E)  C 
2 2
dx 
2 2m
where C  (U  E)
 2
General solution of the above equation is
( x )  A e C x  B e  C x
MUJ 27
27
A must be 0 in Region III and B must be zero in

Region I, otherwise, the probabilities would be
infinite in those regions. Solution should be finite.
ie., the wave functions outside the finite

potential well are
 = A e C x for x < 0
I _
2 m (U E)
where C 

 =B e–C x for x > L
III
MUJ 28
28
Schrodinger equation inside the square well

potential in region II, where U = 0 is
d2 2m
II
+ E  = 0
dx2 ћ 2 II
k2
General solution of the above equation is
    
  
ψII 
 2 mE  2 mE
F sin  
 x  G cos  x 
 
     
    
k   k
MUJ 29
29
wave function outside the potential well decay
exponentially with distance.
so the wave function is countinuous
To determine the constants A, B, F, G, & the

allowed values of energy E, apply the four
boundary conditions and the normalization
condition.
MUJ 30
30
I II III
U E
0 L
Boundary conditions Boundary conditions
ψ I (0)  ψ II (0) ψ II (L )  ψ III(L )
dψ I dψ II dψ II dψ III
 
dx x 0 dx x 0
dx x L dx x L
MUJ 31
31
Wave functions Probability densities
MUJ 32
32
TUNNELING THROUGH A POTENTIAL ENERGY BARRIER
E < U, E- energy of particle, U- height of the

barrier
square barrier with barrier height U
U=constant for width L
= 0 , elsewhere
Since E < U, classically the regions II and III
shown in the next figure are forbidden to the
particle incident from left. But according to
quantum mechanics, all regions are accessible
to the particle, regardless of its energy.
MUJ 33
33
Potential energy function and wave function for a

particle incident from the left on a barrier of height
U and width L. The wave function is sinusoidal in
regions I and III but exponentially decaying in
region
MUJ II. 34
34
. The movement of the particle to the far side of the

barrier is called tunneling or barrier penetration.
The probability of tunneling can be described with a
transmission coefficient T and a reflection
coefficient R.
Because the particles must be either reflected or

transmitted we have, R + T = 1.
MUJ 35
35
An approximate expression for the

transmission coefficient, when T << 1 is
_
2CL
T ≈ e when T << 1
_
2 m (U E)
where C 

This violation of classical physics is allowed by the
uncertainty principle. The particle can violate
classical physics by E for a short time,
t ~ ħ / E.
MUJ 37
37
Q. A 30-eV electron is incident on a square

barrier of height 40 eV. What is the probability
that the electron will tunnel through the barrier if
its width is (A) 1.0 nm? (B) 0.10 nm?
MUJ 38
38
Q. An electron with kinetic

energy E = 5.0 eV is
incident on a barrier with
thickness L = 0.20 nm and
height U = 10.0 eV as
shown in the figure.
What is the probability that the electron (a) will

tunnel through the barrier? (b) will be reflected?
MUJ 39
39
MUJ 40
Q.
MUJ 41
MUJ 42
THE SCANNING TUNNELING
MICROSCOPE
Application of
Tunnel effect.
MUJ 43
THE SIMPLE HARMONIC OSCILLATOR
Quantum treatment of the vibrating charges

(for eg. blackbody emitting radiation) - simple
harmonic oscillators.
restoring force F = -(k x),
The potential energy of the system is, U = ½ k
x2 = ½ m ω2 x2
where ω  k /m
MUJ 44
44
total energy E = K + U = ½ k A2 = ½ m ω2 A2
(classically)
Classically, the particle oscillates between the points
x = A and x = – A, where A is the amplitude of
the motion.
In the classical model, any value of E is allowed,
including E = 0, which is the total energy when
the particle is in rest at x = 0.
The Schrödinger equation for this problem is
 2 d2 ψ 1 2 2
 2
 m  x ψEψ
2m dx 2
MUJ 45
45
The solution of the above equation is given by

C x 2
ψ Be
Where B is a constant determined from the
normalization condition.
mω
where C  and E 1
2
ω
2
( m / 2 ) x 2
ψ Be
MUJ 46
46
The energy levels of a harmonic oscillator are

quantized. The energy for an arbitrary quantum
number n is given by
n = 0 , ground state, E0 = (½)ħω;

n = 1 , first excited state, E1 = (3/2) ħω, and so
on.
MUJ 47
47
U (x)
Energy level diagram

for a simple harmonic = E3
oscillator, = E2
superimposed on the
= E1
potential energy
= E0
function.
x
0
The levels are equally spaced with E = ħω.
The ground state energy is E0 = (½)ħω.
MUJ 48
48
The classical and quantum mechanical probabilities
2
ψn
x
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
x
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
MUJ 49
49
2
ψn
x
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
The blue curves represent the classical probabilities and

2
the red ones the quantum probabilities ψn for a
simple harmonic oscillator.
MUJ 50
50
In classical physics, probability densities are

greatest near the endpoints of its motion where
they have least kinetic energies. This is in sharp
contrast to the quantum case for small n. In the
limit of large n, the probabilities start to resemble
each other.
Quantum mechanical modification to the classical picture
MUJ 51
51
Comparison of energy of particle in a box and a
harmonic oscillator
MUJ 52
Problem # 03
• A quantum simple harmonic oscillator consists of an electron
bound by a restoring force proportional to its position relative
to a certain equilibrium point. The proportionality constant is
8.99 N/m. What is the longest wavelength of light that can
excite the oscillator?
MUJ 55
Which of the wave functions can not have
physical significance in the given interval (why
not ?).
MUJ 56
QUESTIONS – QUANTUM MECHANICS
[MARKS]
1. What is a wave function ? What is its physical
interpretation ? [2]
2. What are the mathematical features of a wave
function? [2]
3. By solving the schrödinger equation, obtain the wave-
functions for a particle of mass m in a one-
dimensional “box” of length L. [5]
4. Apply the schrodinger equation to a particle in a
one-dimensional “box” of length L and obtain the
energy values of the particle. [5]
5. Sketch the lowest three energy states, wave-
functions, probability densities for the particle in a
one-dimensional “box”. [3]
MUJ 57
[MARKS]
6. The wave-function for a particle confined to moving
in a one-dimensional box is
Use the normalization condition

on  to show that [2]
7. The wave-function of an electron is
Obtain an expression for the probability of finding

the electron between x = a and x = b. [3]
MUJ 58
[MARKS]
8. Sketch the potential-well diagram of finite height U
and length L, obtain the general solution of the
Schrodinger equation for a particle of mass m in
it.
[5]
9. Sketch the lowest three energy states, wave-
functions, probability densities for the particle in a
potential well of finite height. [3]
10. Give a brief account of tunneling of a particle

through a potential energy barrier. [4]
11. Give a brief account of the quantum treatment of a

simple harmonic oscillator. [5]
MUJ 59
END
MUJ 60
Objectives:
1. Alignment of Michelson’s Interferometer using He-Ne laser to observe concentric

circular fringes
2. Measurement of the wavelength of He-Ne Laser and Na lamp using circular
fringes
3. Study of fringes of equal inclination and equal thickness using Na lamp
Introduction
The instruments based upon the principle of interference are called interferometers.
These are basic optical tools used to precisely measure wavelength, distance, index of
refraction, and temporal coherence of optical beams etc. It is an amplitude-splitting
interferometers devised by Albert Michelson in 1890, the first American physicist to receive
the Nobel Prize (1907 for work in optics). Michelson and Morley used this interferometer in
their celebrated series of experiments designed to demonstrate the existence of the ether. It is
still an important instrument in today's laboratories and it is being widely used as an
instrument for measuring the wavelength of an unknown light source, to measure extremely
small distance and for investigating optical media.
Construction:
Construction of Michelson
interferometer is shown in Fig. 1. It
consists of two highly polished mirrors
M1 and M2. Two glass plates beam
splitter (BS) and compensatory glass
plate (CP), are placed parallel to each
other between the mirrors at an angle of
450. The rear side of glass plate BS is
semi-silvered such that the light from a
source is equally reflected and
Fig. 1 : Construction of Michelson’s Interferometer
E
Last updated in January 2017 ©NISER

transmitted by it. In this way division of amplitude takes place. From a broad source, let a
monochromatic light of wavelength λ fall on BS. Half of light falling on BS is reflected
towards the mirror M1 and the other half is transmitted towards mirror M2. Hence BS is
known as a beam splitter. In case of sources which are not monochromatic, the glass plate CP
is inserted between BS and M2. The role of CP is explained further in the following
paragraph. After splitting, the two rays are reflected back by the mirrors M1 and M2 and
return to the plate BS. The ray reflected from M1 is transmitted through BS and the ray
reflected from M2 is reflected again by BS. The two rays coming from the two mirrors
interfere and fringes are observed on a screen (for laser) or by naked eye (Na lamp) at E.
Usually one of the mirrors is mounted on a translation stage so that it can be moved back and
forth to observe the change in fringes.
Optical path
The rays falling on mirrors M1 and M2 are derived from the same source originally incident
on plate BS (see Fig. 1). The wave reflected from M1 and entering the eye crosses BS twice.
However the path of the other wave falling on the mirror M2, in the absence of compensating
plate CP, travels totally in air. Thus an extra optical path 2(μ -1)t is introduced where, 't' is
the thickness of the plate and ‘μ‘ is the refractive index of the BS plate for the
monochromatic light used. Presence of CP is not essential if fringes are produced with
monochromatic light. But it produces a serious problem when white light is used. Thus, it
becomes necessary to compensate for the extra optical path 2(μ -1)t for all wavelengths. This
is done by introducing another glass plate CP of same thickness as that of BS parallel to it.
Thus, the two waves will interfere constructively or destructively as per the following conditions of
path difference, Δ:
Δ = 2nλ/2 = n λ (for maxima, n is an integer)
Δ = (2n+1)λ/2 (for minima, n is an integer)
Types of fringes:
Path difference between the two rays can be varied by moving M1. Mirror M1 and the virtual image of
mirror M2 act as the two surfaces of an air film. The fringes formed in Michelson interferometer may
be circular, curved or straight depending upon the nature of the air film.

Concentric circular fringes (fringes of equal inclination):
Concentric circular fringes are obtained when the air film is parallel as shown in Fig. 2. M2'
is the virtual image of M2 and it is parallel to M1. For simplicity, light source L is at the
observer's position. L1 and L2 are the virtual images of L formed by M1 and M2', and are
coherent. Let d be the distance between M1 and M2', therefore the distance between L1 and L2
is 2d. Let θ be the angle between the incident beam originated at P and the reflected beams
from M1 and M2'. Then path difference between light beams from points P’and P" is 2d cosθ.
A maximum (bright fringe) will be formed when 2dcosθ = nλ . For a fixed value of n, λ and
d, the value of θ is a constant, and the contour of the maximum point becomes a ring. The
centre of the ring is in line with the observer and perpendicular to the mirror plane. Each
circular ring corresponds to a particular value of θ. Hence the fringes are known as fringes of
equal inclination.
L2
P’’ L1
2d P’
θ
2d cos θ P’’ P’ ’ P
Fig. 2: Formation of circular fringes
Curved fringes (fringes of equal thickness):

When M1 and virtual image M2' are inclined to
each other, the film enclosed is wedge shaped.
Then curved fringes can be observed as shown
in Fig. 3. These are also known as fringes of
equal thickness. Fig. 3: Formation of curved fringes
Straight line fringes:
When M1 and virtual image M2' intersect,
straight line fringes are obtained around the
point of intersection (see Fig. 4). The path
Fig. 4: Formation of straight line fringes

difference along the line of intersection is zero and therefore, is same for all the wavelengths.
When a source of white light is used we get central achromatic bright fringe. On either side of
central fringe, few coloured straight fringes are observed.
Determination of λ from circular fringes:

Circular fringes are used to determine the wavelength of the source of light. For a given
separation of ‘d’ between the mirrors M1 and M2 and normal incidence (θ=0), the path
difference is given as 2d = nλ.
If one mirror is moved by a distance Δd and N number of rings appear/disappear at the
center, then the path difference after moving the mirror is given as
2(d+ Δd) = (n+N)λ
Hence, λ = 2(Δd)/N
Experimental set up:
Set up with laser as source Set up with Na lamp as source
Fig. 5

Fig. 6: Schematics of Michelson Interferometer
Procedure:
(I) Observation of circular fringes using He-Ne laser as the light source
1. Set the Michelson Interferometer on the table with coarse adjustable knob pointing
towards you.
2. Set the lab jack in front of microscopic objective holder and set the height using lifting
knob.
3. Place the He-Ne Laser source on lab jack, pointing the source towards the centre of fixed
mirror.
4. Turn the laser on and adjust the laser beam height using lab jack lifting knob until the
beam is approximately parallel with the top of the interferometer and strikes the mirror at
the centre.
5. Set the viewing screen opposite of the adjustable mirror M2. Note that the viewing screen
should be placed at 1-2meter from the adjustable mirror to get better resolution.
6. To get circular fringes, M1 should be exactly perpendicular to M2. In this position,
Michelson interferometer is said to be in normal adjustment. The setting needs that the
plane of BS exactly bisects the angle (45°) between the two mirrors.
7. Using coarse adjustment knob makes the distance of M1 and M2 from BS nearly equal.
8. When laser beam will be passing through beam splitter (BS) at 45° and observed in the
direction M2, four spots of the He-Ne Laser beam are seen on the viewing screen; two of
which are faint and two are intense as shown in figure. The faint spots are due to reflection
from un-silvered surface of BS and then from M1 and M2 respectively. The intense spots

are due to reflection from silvered surface of BS and M1, M2. (Note: Two spots of He-Ne
laser beam also been seen on the viewing screen other than four spots, which are ignorable
because these two spots are formed by compensating plate).
9. The tilting screws at the back of M1 and M2 are adjusted to obtain only two images as
shown in fig. This happens only when the mirrors M1 and M2 are exactly perpendicular to
each other.
10. Now place the beam expander and adjust its height to get circular fringes. Make fine
adjustments of mirrors M1 and M2 using top tilting screws to observe clear fringes on the
viewing screen.
(II) Determination of wavelength of He-Ne laser light source
1. Obtain the circular fringes are obtained as already explained.
2. Move the mirror M2 using fine adjustment knob. The fringes appear or disappear in the
field of view. (Always move the knob in one direction for precise measurement.)
3. Note down the reading of coarse adjustment knob. Let it be ‘m’. Multiply this reading with
least count 0.01mm. Note the reading of fine adjustment knob. Let it be ‘n’. Multiply this
reading with least count 0.0001mm. Now add the above two readings of coarse and fine
adjustment knobs. Let it be d1.
5. Rotate the fine adjustment knob to count the number of fringes appearing or disappearing.
Let it be N.
6. Note the observations as already explained in step 3. Let it be d2.
7. Subtract d1 from d2 to get the value of‘d’ for ‘m’ fringes.
8. Use the formula to calculate the value of d.
(III) Observation of circular fringes using He-Ne laser as the light source
1. Perform steps 1-10 from procedure I.
2. Replace the laser with Na lamp and switch it on.
3. Put a ground glass screen in front of the lamp.
4. A fringe pattern should appear on the screen and only fine adjustments of the movable
mirror should be necessary. You can also view the pattern with naked eye or attaching a
telescope near coarse adjustment knob.
(IV) Determination of wavelength of Na lamp
Follow the same procedure as described in (II).

(V) Fringes of equal inclination
Fig. 7
1. Using He-Ne laser as light source reproduce circular fringes similar to Fig. 7(a).
Orientation of M1 and M2' is shown in the bottom panel corresponding to each set
of fringes in Fig.7 (a-e).
2. Adjust the coarse micrometer such that images (a) to (e) are viewed in succession.
3. Set the fine micrometer to the middle of the scale.
4. Readjust the coarse micrometer as close as possible to image Fig. 7(c).
5. Use the fine micrometer to produce fringes of equal inclination.
6. Take pictures of the fringes in a similar way shown in Fig. 7.
(VI) Fringes of equal thickness
Fig.7
1. Using He-Ne laser as light source turn the fine micrometer to move the movable mirror in
a direction such that only few interference circular fringes are visible.
2. Adjust the movable mirror a little such that M1 and M2' till you see curved fringes as
shown in Fig. 7(f). Orientation of M1 and M2' is shown in the bottom panel corresponding

to each set of fringes in Fig.7 (f-j).
3. Continue to turn the fine micrometer to make the curved fringes move toward their centre.
Some straight fringes can be observed (if done very carefully) in succession as shown in
Fig. 7 (h), when M1 and M2' will intersect each other.
4. Take pictures of the fringes in a similar way shown in Fig, 7 (f-j).
Observations: (For He-Ne laser/ Na lamp)
Initial position of gauge (݀ଵ ) = __________ mm
Sl. No.. N m n ݀ଶ Δd = (݀ଶି ݀ଵ)

(mm) (mm)
Graph:
Plot Δd vs. N and determine λ from slope.
Results and Discussions
λ = ........ nm
Sample results: λ for He-Ne laser =
λ for Na lamp = 579.9 nm
Literature values: λ for He-Ne laser = 632.8 nm
λ for Na lamp = 589.3 nm
Precautions:
1. When turning the fine adjustment knob to count fringes, always turn it one complete
revolution before you start counting. This will almost entirely eliminate errors due to
backlash in fine adjustment knob.
2. Always turn the fine adjustment knob in one direction either clockwise or anti-clockwise.
3. Direct eye exposure to laser should be avoided.
4. Observing laser interference fringes by reflecting mirror is prohibited.
5. Avoid touching any of the optics with bare hand.

ATOMIC PHYSICS
TOPICS
• Atomic spectra of gases,

• Energy states and spectra of molecules(rotational and
vibrational energy levels),
• X-ray: Types, Moseley law,
• Spontaneous and stimulated transitions,
• He-Ne and Ruby laser,
• Application of lasers
1
ATOMIC SPECTRA OF GASES
Emission spectra: All objects emit thermal radiation

characterized by a continuous distribution of wavelength
(continuous spectrum). Ex. Black body
sepectra
When a gas at low pressure is subjected to an electric

discharge it emits radiations of discrete wavelengths
(line spectrum). Ex. Hydrogen spectra.
No two elements have the same line spectrum. This

principle is used in identifying the element by analyzing
its line spectrum. H
Hg
2
Absorption spectra: An absorption spectrum is obtained

by passing white light from a continuous source
through a gas or a dilute solution of the element
being analyzed. The absorption spectrum consists of a
series of dark lines superimposed on the continuous
spectrum of the light source.
SOLAR SPECTRUM
FRAUNHOFER LINES
3
EARLY MODELS OF THE ATOM
• All atoms contains electrons.

But what kind? What
arrangement??
• British Physicist JJ Thomson in

1898
• Positive charged lumps of

matter with electrons
embedded in them.
• JJ played role in discovering

electrons
4
5
6
A Danish physicist named Neil Bohr in 1913 proposed the Bohr
Atomic Model for H2 atom - Nobel Prize in Physics in 1922
BOHR’S MODEL OF THE HYDROGEN ATOM
–e
Electric potential energy 2
me
of the H-atom is k ee 
U  F
v
r +e
ke= Coulomb constant r
The total energy me v 2 k e e2

E K U 
of the H-atom is 2 r
k e e2 me v 2
Newton’s 2ND law 2
F 
r r
Centrifugal force= me v 2 k e e2
coulomb force  K  
2 2r
11
The total energy of the H-atom is
9ao
k ee2 k ee2
 EK U 
2r r 4ao
2
–e
k ee ao
E   +e
2r
From Newton’s 2ND law equation 2 n 2 2
 k ee2
and orbit quantization equation v  2 2

mer mer
n2  2
rn  2 n = 1, 2, 3, . . .
mek e e
Thus the electron orbit radii are quantized rn= n2 ao
2

Bohr radius ao  2
 52.9 pm
mek e e
12
Energy quantization
Substitute rn= n2 ao in
the total energy equation
k ee2 k ee2  1 
En      2 
2r 2 ao  n 
13.606 eV
En   2
, n  1, 2, 3, . . .
n
E1= –13.606 eV E1
En   2
n 13
Ionization energy = minimum energy required to ionize

the atom in its ground state
= 13.6 eV for H-atom
From the equation Ei – E f = h f
Frequency of the photon emitted during transition of
the atom from state i to state f is
Ei  E f k ee  1
2
1 
f    2  2 
h 2 a oh  n f ni 
1 f k ee2  1 1 
Use c = f λ    2  2 
 c 2 aoh c  n f ni 
1  1 1  k e 2
 R H    R  e
  n2f ni2  H
2 a oh c
RH = 1.097 x 107 /m14
Extension of Bohr’s theory to other one-electron

atoms - Nuclear charge = + Z e
radius rn  n 2
 Z
ao
Energy k ee2  Z2 
En    2  n  1, 2, 3, . . .
2 ao  n 
Limitations of Bohr’s theory:
When spectroscopic techniques improved, it was found
that many of the lines in the H-spectrum were not
single lines but closely spaced groups of lines. The
lines appear split when the H-vapour was kept in
magnetic field.
15
The wavelengths of the other series lines in the

hydrogen spectrum are given by the equation
Lyman 1  1 
 R H 1  2 
Series   n  n = 2, 3, 4, . . .
Balmer
Series 1  1 1 
 RH  2  2 
  2 n 
Paschen
Series 1  1 1  n = 4, 5, 6, . . .
 RH  2  2 
  3 n 
Brackett
Series 1  1 1  n = 5, 6, 7, . . .
 RH  2  2 
  4 n 
16
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
=𝑹 −
𝝀 𝒏𝟏𝟐 𝒏𝟐𝟐
SJ-Problem-42.1 (a) What value of ni is associated
with the 94.96-nm spectral line in the Lyman series of
Hydrogen ? (b) Could this wavelength be associated
with the Paschen or Balmer series ?
18
THE X-RAY SPECTRUM OF ATOMS
• X-rays are high energy photos (0.01 to 10 nm)
• When fast moving e interact with an atom, x rays are produced,
which are emw which is,
– Unaffected by electric ang magnetic field
– Penetrate through opaque material
– Travel in a straight line.
• Faster the e, more penetrating is radiation
• More number of e, more intense will be the x rays.
X-ray Spectrum:-
• Continuous spectrum
(Bremsstrahlung S)
• Characteristics spectrum
x-ray spectrum - To examine the motions of
electrons that lie deep within multi-electron atoms.
• when the atoms are
bombarded with high
energy electrons. TARGET: MOLYBDENUM
• continuous spectrum and X-RAY TUBE VOLTAGE:
∆V = 35 kV
characteristic spectrum. λMIN = 35.5 pm
• Sharply defined cutoff
wavelength (λMIN) is a
prominent feature of the
continuous x-ray
spectrum.
High energy photons 22

Electron accelerated through a potential difference of
∆V (x-ray tube voltage) , hitting a target atom. The
electron’s initial kinetic energy is K = e ∆V. The electron
loses its kinetic energy by an amount ∆K = hf, which
appears in the form of x-ray photon energy
(Bremsstrahlung). Thus the emitted x-rays can have any
value for the wavelength above λMIN in the continuous
x-ray spectrum. Thus
hc
e V  hfMAX 
Duane –
MIN
hc
Hunt MIN 
formula e V
λMIN depends only on ∆V
23
The peaks in the x-ray spectrum have wavelengths
characteristic of the target element in the x-ray tube
and hence they form the characteristic x-ray
spectrum. When a high energy electron strikes a
target atom and knocks out one of its electrons from
the inner shells with energy Em (| Em | ≤ K, the vacancy
in the inner shell is filled up by an electron from the
outer shell (energy = En, n = integer).
The characteristic x-ray

photon emitted has the X-RAY ENERGY
energy: LEVEL DIAGRAM
FOR MOLYBDENUM
hc EK= 17.4 keV

hf   En  Em λK= 71 pm

24
X-RAYS AND THE NUMBERING OF THE ELEMENTS
Moseley’s observation on the characteristic K x-

rays shows a relation between the frequency (f)
of the K x-rays and the atomic number (Z) of
the target element in the x-ray tube:
f  C Z  1
MOSELEY PLOT OF THE K X-RAYS
C is a constant.
Based on this
observation, the elements
are arranged according to
their atomic numbers in
the periodic table
Bohr theory and the Moseley plot: Bohr’s formula

for the frequency of radiation corresponding to a
transition in a one-electron atom between any
two atomic levels differing in energy by ΔE is
E m Z 2e 4  1 1 
f   2 3 
  2 
h 8  oh  n f2
ni 
In a many-electron atom, for a K transition, the

effective nuclear charge felt by an L-electron can
be thought of as equal to +(Z–b)e instead of +Ze,
where b is the screening constant due to the
screening effect of the of the only K-electron.
Bohr theory and the Moseley plot:
 Frequency of the K x-ray is

m Z  b e 4  1 1 
2
f   2  2 
8 oh
2 3
 1 1 2 
 3 m e4  2
and f    Z  b 
2 3 
MOSELEY PLOT OF THE K
 32  oh 
X-RAYS
or f  C Z  1 since b  1
.
A K x-ray results due to the transition of the electron
from L-shell to K-shell. A K x-ray results due to the
transition of the electron from M-shell to K-shell.
When the vacancy arises in the L-shell, an L-series (L,
L, L) of x-rays results.
Q: Calculate the cutoff wavelength for the continuous

spectrum of x-rays emitted when 35-keV electrons fall
on a molybdenum target.
28
Q. Which element has a Kα x- ray line whose
wavelength is 0.18 nm? (R=1.097*10^7m-1)
MOLECULAR SPECTRA
Molecular spectra
The energy of an isolated molecule can be divided into four
categories:
(1) Electronic Energy- (Change in electronics configuration)
• interactions between the molecule’s electrons and nuclei
• Have highest energies of several eV.
• Transition spectra – visible or uv region
(2) Translational Energy-
• motion of molecule’s centre of mass
• Related to internal structure of molecules
(3) Rotational Energy-
• Rotation of the molecule about its centre of mass
• Energy levels separation – 10-3 eV
• Transition spectra - Microwave region (WL = 0.1mm-1cm)
(4) Vibrational energy-
• Vibration of the molecule’s constituent atoms
• Energy level separation – 0.1 eV –
• Transition spectra - infrared region (1µm to 0.1 mm)
E = EEL + ETRANS + EROT + EVIB
36
ENERGY STATES AND SPECTRA OF MOLECULES
Rotational motion of molecules: A diatomic
molecule (m1, m2 = masses of the atoms, r =
internuclear separation) aligned along an x-axis has
only two rotational degrees of freedom, corresponding
to rotations about the y- and z-axes.
ω = angular frequency of
rotation about y-axis or z-axis
EROT = rotational kinetic energy of the
molecule about that axis
EROT  12 I 2
Moment of inertia of  m1m2  2
I    r   r 2
the diatomic molecule
 m1  m2 
Reduced mass of the m1m2

diatomic molecule m1  m2
Magnitude of the classical angular momentum, L = I ω 38
Rotational motion of molecules:
Quantized angular momentum of the molecule
L J(J  1)  J = 0, 1, 2, . . . = rotational
quantum number
1
EROT  1
2
I 2
I 2
2I
EROT 
L 2

 J( J  1)  
2
2I 2I
2
EROT  J(J  1) J  0, 1, 2, . . .
2I
QUANTIZED ROTATIONAL ENERGIES OF A
DIATOMIC MOLECULE: E1=Ћ2/2I
39
Rotational motion of molecules:
Selection rule for rotational transitions: ∆J = ±1
Rotational transition photon energies:

2
EROT  E J  E J1  J(J  1)  (J  1)J
2I
2 h2
h fROT  EROT  J  2
J
I 4I
J = 1, 2, 3, . . .
h
f1  2 f2 = 2 f1 , f3 = 3 f1 , and so on
4I
These occur in the microwave region
QUANTIZED ROTATIONAL ENERGIES OF
A DIATOMIC MOLECULE: E1=Ћ2/2I
40
Q.
Vibrational motion of molecules: Plot of potential
Model of a diatomic energy function for
molecule as a simple a diatomic molecule
harmonic oscillator
ro = EQUILIBRIUM
SEPARATION
For values of r close to ro U varies as square of the

displacement from equilibrium, like that of a simple
harmonic oscillator.
1 k
f
2 
43
According to quantum mechanics the vibrational
motions are quantized. The allowed vibrational energies
of the quantum harmonic oscillator are
v EVIB
E VIB  v  12  h f v  0, 1, 2, . . .
5
11
2
hf
v = vibrational quantum number
f = frequency of the oscillator 4
9
2
hf
The lowest vibrational state has the
energy = (½) hf. Substitute f  1 k hf
3 7
2
2 
h k 2 5
hf
E VIB  v  2 
1
v  0, 1, 2, . . . EVIB ΔEVIB
2
2 
1 3
2
hf
Selection rule for the
allowed vibrational transitions: Δv = ±1 0 1
2
hf
44
Q.
LASER
LASER
Light Amplification by the Stimulated Emission of Radiation
Characteristics of laser light:

• Laser light is highly monochromatic.
• Laser light is highly coherent.
• Laser light is highly directional.
• Laser light can be sharply focused.
Interaction of radiation with matter
LASERS AND LASER LIGHT
Characteristics of laser light: Laser light is highly
monochromatic. Laser light is highly coherent. Laser
light is highly directional. Laser light can be sharply
focused.
Interaction of radiation with matter
Absorption: Absorption of a photon of frequency f
takes place when the energy difference E2 – E1 of the
allowed energy states of the atomic system equals the
energy hf of the photon. Then the photon disappears
and the atomic system moves to upper energy state
E2 (see figure).
50
Spontaneous Emission: The average life time of the
atomic system in the excited state is of the order of
10–8 s. After the life time of the atomic system in the
excited state, it comes back to the state of lower
energy on its own accord by emitting a photon of
energy hf = E2– E1 (see figure).
In an ordinary light source the radiation of light from
different atoms is not coherent. The radiations are
emitted in different directions in random manner. Such
type of emission of radiation is called spontaneous
emission.
51
Stimulated Emission: When a photon (stimulating
photon) of suitable frequency interacts with an excited
atomic system, it comes down to ground state before
its life time. Such an emission of radiation is called
stimulated emission. In stimulated emission, both the
stimulating photon and the stimulated photon are of
same frequency, same phase and are in same state of
polarization, they are emitted in the same direction.
In other words, these two photons are coherent. Thus
amplified radiation is got
by stimulated emission
(see figure).
52
Population inversion: Boltzmann statistics gives the
population of atoms in various energy states at
temperature T.
nE2   E2  E1 
 exp  
nE1   kT 
k = Boltzmann constant. n(E1) = density of atoms with
energy E1 , n(E2) = density of atoms with energy E2 .
n(E2) < n(E1) if E2 > E1 (Figure a). This is the
normal condition in which the population of the atoms in
upper energy state is less than that in lower energy state.
For the stimulated emission rate to exceed the absorption
rate it is necessary to have higher population of upper
energy state than that of lower energy state. This
condition is called population inversion [n(E2) > n(E1)]
(Figure b). This is a non equilibrium condition and is
facilitated by the presence of “metastable states”. 53
Metastable state Population Inversion
• Spontaneous transition is not

allowed n(E2) > n(E1)
• Life time is 10-3 sec
• Stimulated emission is allowed
Metastable state: A metastable state is an excited
energy state of an atomic system from which
spontaneous transitions to lower states is forbidden.
The average life time of the atomic system in the
metastable state is of the order of 10–3 s which is
much longer than that in an ordinary excited state.
Stimulated transitions from the metastable state are
allowed. An excited atomic system goes to metastable
state (usually a lower energy state) due to transfer of
its extra energy by collision with another atomic
system.
Thus it is possible to have “population inversion” of
atomic systems in a metastable state relative to a
lower energy state.
55
Principle of a Laser: The main parts of a laser are
lasing medium, resonant cavity and pumping system. In a
laser the medium chosen to amplify light is called
lasing medium (active medium). This medium has
atomic systems (active centers), with special system of
energy levels suitable for laser action (see figure).
This medium may be a gas, or a liquid, or a crystal
or a semiconductor. The atomic systems in this may
have energy levels including a ground state (E1), an
excited state (E3) and a metastable state (E2).
56
Three Level LASER system
Four Level LASER system
Atom are pumped from level 1 to Level 4 (excited state) from there they fast decay
to level 3 (metastable state) through a non-radiative transition, and population
inversion is achieved between levels 3 and 2.
Ruby Laser
In ruby laser the lasing medium is a ruby crystal rod.
Ruby is Al2O3 doped with Cr3+. Cr3+ ions are the active
centres.
Population
inversion
achieved using
Optical
Pumping
He-Ne Laser
• He:Ne ratio 10:1

• Electric discharge used for exciting the electrons
61

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INTERFERENCE

When identical waves from two sources overlap at a

The interference is constructive when the net intensity

Complete destructive interference of two waves occur when

INTERFERENCE PATTERN PRODUCED BY WATER

Maxima: where the shadows show the crests and valleys

A train of plane light waves is incident on two narrow parallel

 Consider two coherent sources S1 and

For maximum at point P

• For small value of , we can make

mth maximum is located at

Separation between adjacent maxima

• Double slit experiment was first

Monochromatic light illuminates two parallel slits a

A double-slit arrangement produces interference

Sketch the interference pattern expected from using two

This is possible only when the two sources are completely

Common sources of visible light emit light wave trains of

Two waves are said to

• same amplitude A WAVE TRAIN

• same phase or are of Laser light is highly coherent whereas

E1= E0 sin ωt & E2= E0 sin (ωt + ) respectively.

Phasor  Rotating vector.

E2 E0 Let two vectors be, E1= E0 sin ωt &

E0 E2= E0 sin (ωt + )

From phasor diagram,

 So intensity at an arbitrary point P on the screen due to

PHASE AND PATH DIFFERENCE

Phase difference Path difference

Path difference  corresponds

Find graphically the resultant E(t) of the following wave

Source A of long-range radio waves leads source B by 90

 A film of thickness of the order of a

 Thickness of the film is comparable

 Greater thickness spoils the coherence

The region ac looks bright or dark for an observer depending

Phase changes on reflection at a

• Refractive index n = c/v

• Optical path is the distance traveled by light in vacuum in

• If n is wavelength in the film of refractive index n and  is

Equations for Thin Film Interference:

In wedge – shaped thin film,

Then bands of maximum and

A soap film (n=1.33) in air is 320nm thick. If it is

Lenses are often coated with thin films of transparent

If the wavelength of the incident light is λ = 572 nm,

A broad source of light (wavelength = 680nm) illuminates

r R  1 using binomial expansion

In a Newton’s ring experiment, the radius of curvature R of

 Light from an extended monochromatic

 The incident beam is divided into reflected

 These two beams travel almost in

Yellow light (wavelength = 589nm) illuminates a Michelson

What is the necessary condition on the path length difference

Obtain an expression for the fringe-width in the case of

Explain the term coherence.

Obtain an expression for the intensity of light in double-slit

Explain the term reflection phase-shift.

Obtain the equations for thin-film interference.

Explain the interference-pattern in the case of wedge-shaped

Obtain an expression for the radius of mth order bright ring in

Explain Michelson’s interferometer. Explain how microscopic

COURSE NAME: ENGINEERING PHYSICS

The phenomenon of bending of light around the edges of