Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net \ to 1 Illumination ‘11 Introduction. 12 Definitions, 13. Laws of illumination or luminance. 14. Polar curves. 15, Photometry—Photometer heads—Photocells—Distribution photometry—Meas- ‘uremant of M.S.C.P. by integrating sphere—Moasuremant of brightness or luminance—Meas- | ementofillumination, 16, Artificial sources of ight. 17. Incandescent lamps. 18. Aro ps. 1. i ‘Han. 1.11. Street lighting, 1.12. Factor lighting. 1.13. Flood lighting—Highlights—Objeo- tive Typo Questions—Theoretical Questions—Unsolved Examples. 11. INTRODUCTION © Light is a form of electromagnetic energy radiated from a body which is capable of being Berceived by the human eye. The sensation of light resulta from a flow of encrgy into the eye and the light will appear to vary if the rate ofthis flow of energy varies. Light radiations | form only a very small part of the complete range of electromagueticradiations. Light ean bo of different colours, which depend on the wavelength of the radiation causing it. Light can be described as a vibratory motion, which is transmitted in tho form of waves through space, Viaible ight trav- ay i elsin theform oftransverse waves “GL ONN* — “ee of electromagnotie oscillations. 2 a Peseta | xt 10" 5 Cosmio rays ‘waves is 3 x 108 m/s in free space. 3x10” 10? 4 yrays ‘The wavelength and fre are . 0 different for different waves. The © 9* 0 to 4 Xavs velocity with, which these waves 3x10 107 + Utvaviolet rays, travelisrolatedtothowavelangth = 4 10" uency, by the relation : v * —% 3x10" 10* + Inicarod rays (tisal) Complete range of waves along — 3 40/9 10° 4 snon-wave radio waves with their frequency and wavelength is A illustrated in Fig. 11. oe iu Hig. 1.2 shows the light emitted to- 3x 10° 10° +} Long-wave radio waves: gether with its colour for the wavelengths ‘ ‘ within the visible spectrum, See 7 Since the wavelengths of light are 310" 108 very short, smaller unit of length called Ang- strom Unit (AU) named after a Sweedish Fig. LL Spectrum of electromagnetic waves. scientist is used. Downloaded From : www.EasDownloaded From : wor: EanEngneing ne : ‘UTILISATION OF ELECTRICAL POWER ‘Wavelength (A) \Utravfolet frequency Hz 4000: Violet 75x 10" 1 =e = ae 6000: ‘Yellow 8.0% 10" 7000- Red 4x10" ~| Ti . Fig. 1.2, Wavelength.and colour of light. Angstrom Unié (A) = 10- m Another smaller untt is mécron (1 microm = 10-#m), Allist of colours with their wavelengths ia given below : Cotour Wavelengths Violet 41004, Blue 47004 Green ‘5500A ‘Yellow 58004 ‘Red e000 Orange 6100A © Allthe studies and research in lighting engiivering try to achieve a good lighting scheme to make the occupanta feel happy in Yhe case of interior design and factory lighting and * make the pedentariana and motorists and other road usete comfortable in the caso of highway lighting. The following are the essentials of any good lighting syste @ Adequate illumination of suitable colour on the working rurfaces, Gi) Good maintenance (Git) Avoidance of hard shadows (to) Avoldance of glare, © The aim of artificial lighting is to supplement the. daylight-or to replace it in modern offices, homes, industries, workplaces ete. Good t2tmtnation ensures increased produc- tion, effectivity of work and reduced accidents, 1.2, DEFINITIONS Solid angie ‘A plane angle is subtended at si point and is enclosed by two straight Iines lying in the same plane. [Fig. 1.3 (a)]. Its magnitude isgivenby, = SSS ‘Are Plana Ainge > ] 0= po ‘radians’ | ‘The largest angle subtended at a point Is 2x radians. a1 Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net ILLUMINATION ‘Arudion athe angle subanded yan are fa rla x Whose length equals the radius of the cirefo. pase (2 Solid angles theangle generated bythe surface 0 Arc "passing through the point in space and the periphery of the area (Fig. 1.3(b)]. It is denoted by «a, expressed in ‘steradians’ and ia given by the (0) Plane angio atl of he aren of the supe to the square of the distance: i . (®) Said ange Fig. 13. Plane angle and solid angle. Surface area of segment ABC = 2xrh £ Hare, ABD) = OB - OD =r-r.oe$ =r(1-cos) ° << is s Surface area ofsegment ABC »20(1~cue$) y : © Fig. 1.4. Relation between solid ay? lean and plane angles. i = Surface area Saletan gs «= Eat AZ Light. The radiant energy from a hot body which produces the visual sensation upon the 4 iohe Tt is denoted by the symbol{Q, expressed in lamea-boure (analogous to watt-hours) Luminous flux. The total quantity of light energy emitted per second from aluminous body is called luminous flux. Tt is represented by the measured in Jumens, The concept of luminous fhnr assists us to output and efficien: en Light source. : Jo 3. Luminous intenalty, Luminous intensity in a given direction is theluminous flux emitted the source per unit colid angle, sdectadiy tho ainda anual olan lumens/steradian or candela, where o in the solid angle). 7 4. Lumen. Itis the altoflunlagye fue and i dafued as theomauntof luminous fue given ‘out in a space represented by one unit s angle by a source having an intensity of one candle i tions. Copmot mata! Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering netif Downloaded From: www EaxyEnginetig et ones ecrRICAL-POWER ¥ - te, "| Lumens = Candle power (CP) x Solid angle (o) ‘Total lumens given out by source of one candela i 4n Iimens. if ‘tect ¢4. Candle power. It is dotined aa the nae ber eee eited by a source in a unit wold, angle in a given direction. Tis denoted by symbol CP. TES Ma given directio ie, op, = Lumens @ DB 76. Mumination, It is the luminous fluz received by a surface per unit area. It is denoted by fe = = tumensin? A ‘zmbol and is measured in Jumens per square metre or lux or'metre-candle (i eared In Jumens per square metre! or luz or' orlux, where A is the area of the surface). ices on which it falls, Thus illuminat al colour and it is this brightness and colour which the eye sees and interprets as something useful or Pleasant or otherwise, ° A. Brightness (or! Jominance). Bright 8 of a surface is defined as theluminous Intensity per unit projected area of the surface in the given ‘When a surface of area A has an effective luminoss intensity of I candelas in a direction @ to the normal (Fig. 1.5), then laminenes or bright- ness of that surface, = A = arg ere ec / sy + iN A “uniform diffuse source” is one in which th intensity per unit Projected area is the same from all directions of view. yk C4 Relation between I, Land NZ Consider’ a uniform diffuse spherical source with radius r metres and luminous intensity J candela. Then, bam Pins = and, Ea ign t geek ae 7 ‘76.Mean horizontal candle power (M.ELC-P). It is defined as themean all directions in the horizontal plane containing the source of light. = 72 Mean spherical candle power (M.S.CP).Itis defined as the mean of candle powers in alt directions and in allplanes from the eource of light. 70. Mean hemi-sphorieal candle rr. It is defined is the mean of all candle x allt difections abgue or Below the horizontal plane passing through the source of light . Reduction factor. Reduction factor of a source aflightis the ratio of ite mean spherical candle power to its mean horizontal candle potoer, Le., SCP NeerDownloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net i Hu Camp apices = durian fe ILLUMINATION A Ron Fp § SE Lamp efficiency. It ia defined asthe rato ofthe luminous fs othe power inpue, Tei expresenin mens pr ust . Specific consumption. It is dofined as the ratio of power input to the average candle > S(= fot power, Ie iz 8 oxprossod in watts per candle. Gnd \U. Spaco-hoight ratio. It is defined as tho ratio of horizontal distance between edjacent ade lampa.and height of their mountings. k 1. Utilisation factor (UF). The ratio of total lumens reaching the working plane to total lumens, out by the lamp is called utilisation factor (or co-efficient of utilisation), 16, Maintenance factor (MEF). It is the ratio of illumination under normal working condi- tions to the Wumination when the things are perfectly clean. 7 spreciation factor. This is morely tho reverse of the maintenance factor and is defined as thoratio of initial metre-candles tothe ultimate maintained metre-candles on the working plane. Tt value is more than unity, AB. Waste light factor. Whonever a surface is illuminated by a number of sources of light, there is always a certain cman Sf Saabs oT Ta poeecb at Searangng a lle of et outside St the edges of the surface. The effect is taken into accoupt by multiplying the theoretical value of lumens required by 1.2 for rectangular areas and 1.6 for irregular arcas and objects such as statues, monuments etc. 19. Absorption factor. In the where atmosphere is full of smoke fumes, such as in funarie, tres a poss lity of absorption of light. The ratio of total lumens available after absorp- ton to the | emitted by the source of light is called the absorption factor. Its values ‘aes ron uly orca atmos i 20. reg egctore. Theratioot lumens in the beam of « projector to the lumens given out by lamps is called the beam factor. This factor takes into account sorption of light by reflector and fFont glass ofthe projediaramp. Its value varies from 0.3 t0 06, AAA. Reflection factor. When a ray of light impinges ona surface it is reflected from the surface at an angle of incidence, as shown in Fig. 1.6. A certain portion of incident light is ab- sorbed by the surface, ‘The ratio ofreflected light ta the incident light is called the ‘reflection factor’. It is always less than unity. 22. Glare.(The opening of the pupil in the human eye is controlled by the iris. Ifa bright object comes into the view of the eye, large amount of light produces an intense image on theretina Fig 18 the iris automatically protects the eye by contracting the pupil, thus reducing the intensity of the image {When the eye is towards another object which is less bright as compared to the bright object already in the field of view, the iris will contract reducing the ainount of light received on the retina from every object in the field of view and making it difficult to ‘seo the object desired. At tho samo timo, the portion of the rotina which received image of the bright _ object remains fatigued. This “This phenomenon Is cal is called “Glare”, and is familiar in connection with motorcar bead lights. In other wards, “glare” may be defined as the brightness character as to cause annoyance, discomfort, interference with 13 fswso OF ILLUMINATION OR LUMINANCE ‘Tho illumination (Z) of a surface depends upon the following factors (The source is assumed tobe a point source or otherwise sufiiciently away from the surface to be regarded as such). Dee = Wwhod meri condelts ined ram candele ithin the field of vision of auch a “arise Type Tebat J ddumup seudsy Kivey pln ral Junama sven WOT CC Ye ee ee _Llariatin wrda vuemal wortty Ubriads Whin Hy bu pecpuably olan Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net: Downtonded From : www.FasyEngineering net oy pg cTRICAL POWER source. In othor words |. E is directly proportional to the luminous intensity (I) of the ce a/A. Inverse Square Law. The illumination ofa surface ia inversely Dro} of the distance of the surface from the source. [In other words, i y jarensA, andA,at Gistances r, and rz respectively from'the point source S of luminous intensity / and normal to the Fays as shown in Fig. 1.7. Let the solid ‘angle sub- tended be @. ‘Total luminous flux rediated F «Zolumens Mlumination of the murfhce of area A, to Io Bye Bo Sat" oe homens per unit area ‘Similarly, iNlumination on the surface ofaren Ay, Io Io TF . Bae Zo" aE" LF lumens por unit arse, As shown in Fig. 1.8, let F'be the flax inetdent on the surface of area A when in position 1. When this surface is : Summed back through an angle 8, then flux incident on {t iv ous @. Hence, illumination of the surface when in position Lis 2, = 2. Bot when in position 2, 2, = Fee Mig. 18 Lambert cosine law: A Combining all these factors together, we got ZZ | 2= 2292 | the unit is lumens per unit area, : eins penanitares, Hzample 1.1. 250 V lamp has a total flux of 1600 lumens and takes current of 0.4.4. Calculate : : @ Lumens per watt. Solution. Given: V= 250 volta; Fm 16 Mean spherical candle power of lamp, Gi) MS.C.P. per watt, 00 lumens; 70.4 F _ 1800 MSP. = = w1t94 1500 ttage of lamp in watts" 250x04 "15: (Ans)Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering net ILLUMINATION 7 - MS.C.P. oflamp 1194 MS.C.P. por watt = ———*- Ollamp | 1194s io4, (Ans.) te watt “Wattage oflamp ~ 250% 04 WKamplo 12. A 03 metre diameter diffusing sphere of opal glass having 15% absorption, encloses an incandescent lamp with a luminous flux of 4500 lumens. Calculate average luminance of Solution. Given: d= 0.3 m; Lamp =.4500 lumens Flux 1 emitted by the sphere, Faguery * (1 ~ 0,15) x 4500 = 3825 lumens ~ Surface area of the ephere 4? = dnx = 0.2827 m? + 3825 —— Jumensim?, 13580 Ans.) HK sKemgte 1.3. filament lamp of 560 W is suspended at a height of 4.5 metres above the working plane and gives uniform illumination over an area of 6 m diameter. Assuming an efficiency of the reflector as 70% and efficiency oflamp as 0.8 watt per candle power, determine the illumination on the working plane. : Solution. Wattage ofthe filamentlamp © =500W ‘Height of the lamp above the working plane = 4.5m Diameter of the uniformly illuminated area. = 6m Efficiency of reflector : = 70% Efficiency of lamp . = 0.8 W per candle power Illumination on the working plane: Candle power of the lamp = wescr. Luminous output of lamp 4x x 625 = 2500 lumens . Flux emitted by the reflector = Bfisiency of ellectar x Total laminous output ofthe lamp = 0.7 x 2500 % = 1750 x lumens ‘Area of working plane =f <@F= orm, * lumination on the working plano = “22 « 19444 Lumens/m?. (Ans) Areasso 14. Th cane paserof lamp a 120 plane sueces plas at a ditanceof25 metres from this lamp. Calculate the illumination on the surface when it (6) normal, (i) inlined to — 45°, and (iii) Parallel to rays, ~~ GP) _ 120 a ae (Ans) (i Bm SE cond = I cn 5" = 19.58 (Ans) Gi) B=0, sin of li to the surfaco, they cannotilluminateit. (Ans.) ‘ iple 1.5. Derive the relation to find the illumination at any point on the plane surface due to light source suspended at height h from the plane surfece. opis mated Downloaded From ; www.EasyEngineering.netDown! From: wv /Engineering.net loaded From , EasyEngineering. 8 UTILISATION OF ELECTRICAL Powe, fiton Refer to Fig, 1.9, Consider a point P on the plane SuriaceAB where illumination ‘due to light source ofcandle power CP. at a height h from the Surface AB is tobe determined. Let d be the distince between source S and point P. h Then, conn dor os Tluminntion at point P, by laws of illumination / = OP. -_ OP. 2 OP stp, ‘ ge OH Toe mon ae re mee B ‘snd illumination at any pointO, vertically below the source of light surtace CP, Fig. 19 = ittuminase - on inati int just Hence illumination at any point-on a lane is cos? O-timed'of illumination at @ poin: ‘ pertically below the light source, where Bie the angle Detosan tetera tothe surface at the point and rays of light. ean 18. A 500 W lamp having M.S.C:P. ef 800 is suspended 8 m above the working plane: : (© Mlumination directly below the lamp at the working plane. Ga Lamp. efficiency, (GO Mumination at a point 2.4m away on the horizontal plane from vertically below the lamp, Solution, Wattage of the lamp = 500 W MS.CP. of the lamp, I= 800 Hejght of the lamp, Lamp hegm 500 =70-1 lumenstwatt, (Ang) a ‘ + Cf Tumination ata point 24m away; — 24m—4 ‘Tlumination at a point 2.4m, ‘away on the hort, Fig. 1.10 from vertically below the lamp, “ental plane Fax Fr com? 6Downloaded From : www.EasyEngincering.net 3 Here, o= = 0.7808 omen aoe Ey 2 x (0.7808) = 42.3 lux. (Ans) ete. in eqn. (1), we get (coat 0, sin 0,+ cost O, sin @, + cost 8, sin 0, ee 20.93 4575 cost @, sin ®,— cas! 8, sin @, 4575, a . bk 9.15 mae — 9.15 moh — x k—8.15 mh — 9.15 m—a} b——8:15m—}__ ig-1.20 WhenA is mid-way batweenL, andl, @, =0, 0, =, and soon, when the tarms cancel cut in. pairs and the illumination is either a maximum or a minimum ; itis aminimum. When Pis directly under = 0, 0, =, 0, = 0, ete. which gives 0, tarm as zero and rest cancel out in pairs, the Hamindlit is ttariet onder f ‘The illumination under L, is found by patting x = 0 and constructing the following table : @ cos @ con 8 20 con 8g = 1 cos? Q = 1 Om tan BEE om a4se com @,= 04473 | costo, = 0.0895 y= tant JF = 15.96" 605 0, = 0.2428 6064 G5 = 0.0143 Gy tant IG whee con 0, = 0.1644 cos? 0, = 0.00844 ‘Tho maximum illumination, By, = 200. (1 + 2 x 0.0895 + 2 x 0.0143 +2 x 0.00444) = 11.63 lux, (Ans) Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.netfii Downloaded From : www. EasyEngineering.net | 's UTILISATION’ OP ELECTRICAL POWER | ‘The minimum illumination occurs at a mid-way between L, and L, and we get: H 0, = 0, = tant 1; 0, =0, = tan? 3; 0, = 0,= ten" Sete. ‘We construct the following table: c con 8 con 0, = tan? 1= 45° 08 0, = 0.7071 con? 0, = 0.3535 0, = tare! 3 = 71.56" 08 0, = 0.3163 cos? 0 = 0.08164 Og tan"? 5 = 78.69" con 8, = 0.1961 cos? 0g = 0.00754 ‘The minimum illumination, Ema ™ ra 12(0,595 +0,03164+0.00754)=7.51ux. (Ans.) ted by a lamp suspended Example 1.17.A small area of 5 metres in diameter is tobe illaminat a at a height of 4. m over the centre of the area. A lamp having an efficiency of 24 lumens per wert is fitted with a reflector which directs the light output only over the surface to be illuminated. If utiliza tion coefficient is 0.66 and illumination 800 lux, determine the wattage of the lamp. Solution. Area of the working plane, A= $ x5? = 19,63 m* Efficiency of tho lamp = 24 lumens/watt \ ‘Utilisation coefficient = 0.6 | Iamination on the working plane, E = 800 lux Luminous flux reaching the working plane, F=ExA = 800 x 19.63 = 15704 lumens Total luminous flux emitted by the lamp F 15704 ‘Uiilisntion cocficiont “06s” 24160 lumens =1007say 1000W. (Ans) Wattage of the lamp Examplo 1.18.A lamp of 200 candela is placed 1 m below a plane mirror which reflects 85: ‘pereent of light falling on it. The lamp is hung 5 m above ground. Find the illumination at a point on the ground 4 m away from the point vertically below the lamp. Solution. Fig. 1.21 shows the lamp and mirror arrange. 77 yt ment. ‘The lamp L produces an image L’ as far behind the mirror as itis in front, ‘Height of the image from the ground = 6+ 1= 7m T’acts ns the sceondary source of light and its candle power = 0.85 x 200 = 170 candela. Tlumination at point B (4m away from the point vertically below the lamp), = Illumination due to L + Ilumination due to L’ 200 170s ie, Eqn Gr cos Ot ope ese 3 200, (__5__| ,270/__7 OF (Jere OF free = (8 x 0.476) + (3.47 x 0.654) = 6.08 lux. (Ans)Downloaded From : www EasyEngineering.net ILLUMINATION 7 Example 1.19. light is placed 4.5 m above ground and its candle power is 200 cos @ in any downward direction making an angle 0 with the vertical. If A and B are two points on the ground, A being vertically under the light and the distance AB being 4.5 m, caleulate : @) The illumination of the ground at A and also at B. (ii) The total radiations sent down by the lamp. Solution. (i) The illumination of the ground at A and B: CP. along A%100x e080" 100s. Eqx 2 ageTiux (Ans) L — i oe CILLA bes Fig. 123 CP. alongLB =200xcos 45*= 141.4: aot 3 $5] -247lux. (Ans) 4.5? + 4.57 i) The total radiation sent down by the lamp: Consider an imaginary hemisphere of radius r metre whose contre lies on the given lamp Pig. 1.28). CP, along LB « 100 cos 0 a Bye Ot _, Ths are of tho lementary strip at an angular distance © fom the vertical and width of aie = (rin 6) xd = 2a in 0.9 Flux incident on the shaded area = POO G88 out nin d= 200% x 2 in O cos 0 10 = 200r in 2648 ‘Total flux over the hemisphere can be obtained by integrating the above expression between proper limits. z Total lux ~ [P"toorsin ao =zne| - £422 = 200k = 6288 lumens. (Ans) Example 1.20. A perfectly diffusing surface has a luminous intensity of 20 candelas at angle of60°ta the normal. Ifthe area ofthe surface ts 50 em, determine the bigtiness enc tal leg Downloaded From. ww Easy Engineering net| 18 Downloaded From : W¥W. EasyEnginesit60 9 ye qqi0N OFELECTRICAL POWER | Solution. Given : 1 = 20 candelas ; @ = 60°; A= <[ | 50 cm? = 60x 104 m? A Brightness or luminance, I 2 L=——— Teno ™ => ____ «8000 cd/m? 50x 10°* x cos 60° = nx 8000 = 25182,7 lumens’, (Ans) Total flux radiated = 25182:7 x 60 x 10 = 125.68 lumens. (ans) ' source of luminance, ‘Example 1.21. 4.2.5 om diameter die mitre fool lengthofthe reflector It ‘cm, diameter 40 cm and reflectance 0.8. (® Caleutate the axial intensity and beam-spread. ed reflect (i Show diagrammatically what will happen ifthe source were 0 a along the axis in either direction, ‘Solution. (i) Axtal intensity (1) and beam-epread (0) + ‘The axial or beam intensity I depends upon —luminance of the dise source ie, Lb ° aperture of the reflector ie, A — reflectivity of the reflector £¢., * T=pAL candela Now, L= 1200 ed/em? = 1.2 x 10" cd/m? Rak Aa Gd oF 2 (04% 0.1957 mt * 100.8 x 0.1257 x 12% 10" = 1.207 x 1% ed. (Ans) ' To a first approximation, the beam-spread for disc soures is determined by reflestor focal length and size of the dise source. If © inthe total beam-spresd when the source is afjthe focus of the reflector [Fig. 125(a)] then, On2tarYnf) 25 Here, ‘Radius r = “y= 1.25 em ; Focal length, f= 10 em Giver Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineeringDownloaded From : www.EasyEngincering net cht STRAT | gacedham + Tal Gi) The effect of axial movement of the source. The effact of axis is shown in Fig, 1.25 (b) and (¢). the source. The affect of axial mavement ofthe source ILLUMINATION cla atr 1 1.4. POLAR CURVES bbe represented by polar curves. ame _ ee =, y bee power is measured in a horizontal plane about Yertical axis and/a curve is plotied between the candle power and the angular positio horizontal polar curve? or diagram is obtainod. ; a — Ifthe candle power is measured at angular position in a vertical plano, a polar curv. in the vertical plane, called “vertical polar curve", is obtained. Fig. 1.26 shows typical polar curves for an ordinary lamp. 80" gg 180" 150° (ee “ 8 Le () For horizontal plane. (8) For vertical plane. Fig. 126, Polar curves. "the polar curves are used to determine the following : 4) The mean horizontal candle power (MLH.C.P,) and mean spherical candle power MS.CP). ‘4 The actual illumination of a surface by employing the candle power in that particular rection as read from the vertical polar curve in itlumination calculations. © The M.H.CP, of a lamp can be determined from the horizontal polar curve by taking the mean value of the candle power in a horizontal direction. Ie or de @™ In general, for two filaments of the same material working at the same temperature and efficiency, the relation at (i) becomes Me aay a Moreover, for two filaments working at the same temperature, the flux per unit area is the same. Denoting their lengths by , and , and their diameters d, and, respectively, we have Lumen output « 1d, « Iydy or, Ud, = lady = constant (1.5) Example 1.22.An incandescent lamp has a filament of 0.0045 cm diameter and 90cm length. Ibis required to construct another lamp of similar type to work at double the supply voltage and give half the candle power. Assuming that the new lamp operates at the same brilliancy, determine suit- able dimensions for its filament. ' (Utkal University) olution. Given : d, = 0.0045 em ; 1, = 90 em ; Vy = 2V, ; a a ; (where Z, and I, are the h Juminovs intensities of the two lamps), Dimensions of the filament of the second lamp ; dy Iy Since Held, amd Iyaledy tht 1 Bare ==] “ Bese e ot laae FhDownloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net ILLUMINATION 29 _ Assuming that the power intertakes of the two lamps are proportional to their outputs, we Ayn Viiy and Tyo Vy Nain J ‘s iA Qi! Now, nea and ea" =1134em. (Ans) he Ba pao and, . = 0.3968 x 0.0045 = 0.0017856 cm. (Ans.) Example 1.23.4 60 candle power, 250 V metal filament lamp has a measured candle power of 7L5 candle at 260 V and 50 candle at 240 V. Calculate: @ The constant forthe Lamp in the expression Cw aV® where Cw candle power and V = val age. Gi) The change of candle power per volt at250V. ~ ii) The percentage variation of candle power due to a voltage variation of 4 percent from the normal value. (AMLE) Solution. (i) The constant for the lamp: Cav : Given a 715 #0 x (280 ao 50 =a x (240 iy Dividing (i) by (i), we get aa) “50 "240, or, 143 = (1.083) or, In (1.48) = In (1.083) =, In (143) be aapany 745 ‘Substituting this value of d in @), we have TL5 = a x (280)5 ic o=9.7x 19% Hence, C=9.7%10(V)5 candela. (Ans) Gi) The change of candle power per volt at 250 V Now, C97 x 104 (Yyts copyrights! Downloaded From ; www.EasyEngineering netjineering.net » Downloaded From ro EE ATION OF ELECTRICAL POWER Differentiating tho above expression and putting V = 250 Vs we 6* i. dV (iid) The percentage variation of candle power + it. (Ans) 9.7 x 10719 x 4,5(250)° = 1.078 ‘candela per V When voltage increases by 4%, a = (1.045 1 G-& % age change in candle power = Be «100 , = (1,0448— 1) * 100 = 12.3% (Ans.) ‘When the voltage falls by 4%, ee (0.96)*5 v. Bagechange in candle power = [(0.96)"" Clear and inside-frosted gas-filled lamps jn lighting unit rand rosted gas: aI its. © Clear glass-filled lamps facilitate light control aro mecepenry for I Se yaa where asiraie distribution is required wich asin flood-ight for BUTE TED Cre and motorcar headlights. However they producehard skadows and Sf 1) « 100 = 16.78%. (Ans.) «Inside frosted gas iampe have luminous output neatly 2% ese thon clear glass lam of {he same rating, but they produce softer shadows and practically eliminate & oe oe filaments, Such lamps ave deel for use in industrial open fittings located in the line fight at low mounting heights and in diffase fittings of opal glass typein order to avoid the presence of filament striations on the surface of ginasware etc. Inside-silica coated lamp has high diffusion of light output, due to th e conting of silica on the inside of its bulb. Such lamps are Jess glaring. soften shadows'and’ minimize the brightness of reflections from shiny surfaces. Halogen lamp. As the life and efficiency ef an incandescent lamp falls off with use-partly due to slow evaporation of the filament and partly due to black deposit formed on the inside of the bulb, the addition of a small amount of halogen vapour to the filling gas restores part of the evapo- rated tungsten vapour back to the filament by means of a chemical reaction i.e., there is a sort of ‘regenerative cycle’. a Following are the advantages of halogen lamps : @ Long life-2000 hours. Gi High operating temperature with increased luminous efficiency varying from 22 to 33 Jamensfwatt. ii) No blackening of lamp, hence no depreciation of lumens output, © These lamps, being manufactured in sizes upto § KW, are guitable for outdoor illumina- ton of building, playing Sele, large gerdensfuntaine, ear parla ete 1.8, ARC LAMPS ‘These lamps are used in searchlights, projection lamps. as n lamps and other 9 In an are lamp electric current is made to flow through twro electrod other which are drawn apart. The result isan are being ei meee modes in cont is very efficient source of light. . maintains t ‘cial purpose lamps likeDownloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net ILLUMINATION - ‘The various forms of are lamps are : 1. Carbon are lamp 2, Flame are lamp 3. Magnetic are lamp. ® The carbon rods used with A.C. supply are of the same size as that used with D.C. supply. ‘The positive rod is of largor size than the negative rod. © The craters in the are at the positive and negative rods are of the same size (with A.C. supply) while with D.C. supply, the positive crater is bigger and gives 85 per cent light at ‘a temperature of 3500°C, while the negative crater is of smaller size. The efficiency of the lamp is9lumenshvatt. * © The positive electrode gots consumed earlier than the negative electrode, ifthe size of the ct eee ewes CL tive is i that ofthe negative. = Carbon electrodes © A resistance is used to stabilise the arc. Reece 2 © The voltage drop across the arcis about 60 V Fig. 17. Carbon are lamp. Fig. 1.37) and supply voltage is upto 100 V. Crater Ac 1.8. DISCHARGE LAMPS @ Inall discharge lamps, an electric current is passed through a gas or uapour which renders it luminous. In this process of producing light by gaseous conduction, the most commonly used elements are neon, mercury and sodium vapours. * © The colours (ie. wavelength) of light produced depends on the nature of gas or vapour. —Neon discharge fields orange-red light ; — Mereury-vapour light is always bluish ; — Sodium vapour light is arange-yellow. ; ‘Types of discharge lamps, Discharge lamps are of the following two types : ‘Type-1. Those lamps in which colour oflightis the same as produced by the discharge through the gas. or vapour. Example. Sodium vapour, mercury vapour and neon gas lamps. ‘Type-2. Those lamps which use the phenomenon of fluorescence ; these are known as fluores- cent lamps, In these lamps, the discharge through the vapour produces ultra-violet waves which Cause ficorescence in certain materials called as phosphor. Tho inside of the fluorescent lamp coated with a phosphor which abeorbs invisible ultra-violet rays and radiate visible rays. "Example. Fluorescent mercury-vapour tube. In general, the aes lamips fa ‘superior to metal filament lamps. However, they have the followingdemerits: “ — (@) High initial cost. Gi) Poor power factor. _ (ii) Starting, being somewhat difficult, requires startars/transformers in different cases. (iv) Time is needed to attain full brilliancy. . : (v) Since these lamps have negative resistance characteristic ballasts are necessary to stabi lisetheare. © .-— copy mata!a Downloaded From : www. EasyEnginesing OFELECTRICALPOWER supply frequency) (oi) The flicker (caused due put atten the SPENT to the fluctuation of Jight output 9° °° causes strobostopic effect. - (vii) They are suitable only for a particular position. 1.9.1, Sodium Vapour Lamp Construction and working of a sodium vapour Jamp are described ae Construction : Refer to Fig. 1.38. iy ‘This type of lamp Ie offow uminonty, so the length of this asp Saree Tn nde The Aength itis made th the form ofa U-tube, Two oxide-conted electrodes aFSS0R1°0 7 7 aay tobe contains a little sodium and neon gas. The U-tube is enclosed i doublewalted noe to deep the temperature within working range. nected to improve the power factor Fig. 1.38 shows the connection diagram. Capacitor 18 com! which will become low by using poor regulation transformer. Lamp tube fited with ‘neon gas sodium XS High leakage reactance enclosure: transformer ‘Fig. 1.38, Sodiem vapour lamp. Working: Before the lamp starts working, the sodium is in the form of a solid, deposited on the sides of the tube walls. In the beginning when the switch is on, it operates as a low pressure neon lamp with pink colour. The lamp gets warmed, sodium is vaporised and it radiates yellow light and then, after sometime, about 10-15 minutes, the lamp starts giving full light. st ligh In order to start the discharge lamp, a striking- voltage’ ‘0f880:V:is required for 40:;W lamp and 450 V for 100 W lamp. These voltages are obtained from a high reactance transformer or auto- ‘At no load the voltage is very high which falls down es the lamp starts giving light, since the regulation of transformer is poor. ” ee ‘The lamp fails to operate when'ti) the filament breaks or burns out, (ii) the eathode stops to emit electrons, (iii) the sodium particles may concentrate on one side of the tube, and (iv) the lamp is blackened owing to sodium vapour action on the glass, in which case the output will be reduced. © The efficiency of a sodium vapour lamp under practical conditions is about 40-50 lumens! watt, Such lamps are manufactured in 45, 60, 85 and 140 watts ratings. The average life is about 3000 hours and is not affected by voltage variations. At the end of this period the light output will be reduced by 15 percent due to aging. © This type of lamp is mainly used for highway and general i discrimination is not required. _ outdoor lighting where colour ‘This lamp should be hung vertical otherwise sodium will blacken the inside of the tube.Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineeringnet ILLUMINATION 33 1.9.2. High Pressure Mercury Vapour Lamp Fig. 1.39 shows a high pressure mereury vapour lamp. Construction : It consists of two bulbs-an arc-tube containing the electric discharge and outer bulb which protects the are-tube from changes in temperature, The inner tube or are-tube is made of quartz (or hard glass) and the outer bulb of hard glass. ‘The are-tube contains a small amount of mercury and argon gas. In addition to two main electrodes, an auxiliary starting electrode connected through a high resistance (about 60 ki) is also provided. The main electrodes consists of tungsten colls with eloctron-emitting coating or elements of thorium metal. Working : ‘When the supply is switched on, initial dischargo for the few seconds is established in the argon gas be- tween the auxiliary starting electrode and the neighbour- ‘Choke ing main electrode and then in argon between the two: main electrodes. The heat produced due to this discharge through the gas is sufficient to vaporise mercury. Conse- quently, pressure inside the arc-tube increases to about = audiary —} ‘electrode fone to two atmospheres and p.d. across the main elec- starting trodes grows from about 20 to 150 V, the oparation tak- slacirode ing about 5 to 7 minutes. During this time, discharge is established through the mercury vapours which emit greenish-blue light. Outor bulb ‘The choke is provided to limit the current to safe ‘Arctube value. This choke lowers the power factor, so a capacitor C is connected across the circuit to improve the power Main factor. ‘electrode ‘The efficiency ofthis type oflamp is 30-40 lumens/ watt, These lamps are manufactured in 250 W and 400 W ratings for use an 200-250 V A.C. supply mains. A ‘Theso lamps are used for general industrat light. "WE 130, gh presses oreury ing, railway yards, ports, work areas, shopping centres ete. where greenish-blne colour light is not objectionable. 193. Mercury lodide Lamps © ‘These lamps are similar in construction to high pressure mercury vapour lamps but in addition to mercury, a number of iodides aro addpd which fill the gaps in the light spec- trum, and thus, improve the colour charactaristic of light. A separate ignition device, in addition to the choke, is required for such a lamp. © Their efficiency is comparatively higher (75-90 lumens/watt) © Such lamps are suitable for application in the fields of lood-lighting, industrial lighting and public lighting. 194.Neon Lamp ‘Neon lamps belong to cold-athods category. Ths lores ae nthe frm own all andar cota on he nada our of light emitted is red. If the helium gas is used in place of neon, pinkish white light is obtained, Helium and noon through coloured glass tubing produce a varicty of effects. Cone mnt Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.netDownloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net 34 UTILISATION OFELECTRICAL Powe, Fig. 1.40 sh, i lamp. The transformer has a high leakage reactance which at lows a circuit for a neon lamp. factor improvement. High vol is used pal arc in the lamp. A capacitor is used for power fa tne) Transformer Capacitor: Neon lamp AC. ‘supply © These lamps are used 88 indicator lamps, night lamps for determination of polarity of D.C. mains and in larger: ‘sizes on neon tubes for the purpose of “advertising”. Neon tube: Theneon tube which is used in varying be bent into als g lengths upto about 8 meters, may into almost $a desired shape during manufacture, it using ee length of glass tubing containing two elec- trodes, normally cylindrical in shape, of iron, steel, or copper. 7 © The power factor of neon tubes is quite low and is improved by using capacitors. The capacitors can, however, be placed on the low voltage side of the transfermer 1.9.5. Fluorescent Tube damp) Fluorescent lighting has a great advantay light, The tubes can be obtained in a variety of lengths, with ilhuminatice the nature of light sources, the danger of glare is minimised. ‘The efficiency of fluorescent lamp is about 40 lumensfmatt abouit three times the efficiency of an equivalent tungsten filament lamp. Construction and working ofa fluorescent lamp (tube) are described below : Construction : Refer Fig. 1.41. © It is alow pressure mercury vapour lamp. Due to ‘Starter low pressure, the lamp is in the form of a long tube, coated inside with phosphor. ‘Long tube © The tube contains e small amount of mercury and a small quantity of argon gas at a pressure of 2.5 mm of mercury. Q ? @ At each end of the tube the electrodes are of spi- oo ral form made of tungsten and coated with an elec. Croke ‘Swftch tron emitting material. Fig. 141. Flocrescent tube (lamp).Downloaded From : www. EasyEngineeringnet ILLUMINATION 35 ° 4 choke is connected in series with the tube filament. It provides a voltage impulse for starting the lamp and acts as a ballast later on when the lamp is running, ° ‘The filament is connected to astarter switch which is small cathode glow lamp with bimetal strip at the electrodes. Parts of a fluorescent lamp are shown in Fig. 1.42. Fig. 142. Parts of a fluorescent lamp. © When the starter is cold, the electrodes are open. When supply is given, full voltage acts ‘on the starter. A glow discharge is set up in the starter which warms the electrodes and ‘causes the bimetal strip to bend and touch the electrodes. The circuit becomes a complete series. Current flows and causes emission of free electrons from filaments. At the same time voltage at the starter falls tozero and the bimetal strip cools down. The electrodes of the starter switch then open and interrupt the current in the circuit. Its effort is to induce high voltage surge of about 1000 volts in the choke. This voltage produces the flow of electrons between the lamp electrodes and the lamp lights up immediately, Then starting contacts, are left open. ‘© In order to improve the power factor, usually a condenser of 4 uF capacity is connected across the supply. Startless fluorescent lamp circuit : Fig. 1.43 shows a startles fluorescent lamp circuit which docs not require the use ofa starter switch and is commercially known as ‘instant star? or ‘quick-star’’.In this case, the narmal starter is replaced by a filament heating transformer whose secondaries SS heat up the lamp electrodes A and B to incandescence in a fraction of a second, This combination of preheating and application of full ‘supply voltage across lamp electrodes is eufficiant to start ionization in the neighbourhood of the clectrodes which further spreads to the whole tube, To ensure satisfactory starting an earthed strip Eis used. ‘This startless method claims the following advantages: 1. Almost instantancous starting, 2..No flickering and no false starts. 3. Lamp life is lengthened.- www EasyEnginecring. net UTILISATION OF ELECTRICAL POWER Downloaded From 36 A.B = Lamp electrodes P= Traneformer primary ‘88 = Transformer secondaries E= Earthed strip Cy C= Capactiors Fig. 143. Startless fluorescent lamp circuit. 4. Starting and operation can occur at low voltage of 160-180 V. 5. Lower maintenance cost (due to the elimination of any starter-switch). Stroboscopic effect of fluorescent lamps: ee rns “Stroboscopic (or flickering) effect” produced by fluorescent lamps is due to the periodic fluc- tuations in the light output of a lamp caused by the cyclic variations of the current on A.C. circuits. This phenomenon creates multiple-image appearance of moving objects and makes the movement eppear jerky. — This effect is more pronounced at lower frequencies. — The frequency of such flickers is twice the supply frequency. — This effect is reduced to some extent due to afterglow, as the fluorescent powder used in the tube is slightly phosphorescent. This effect is very troublesome in the following cases: (£)'When an operator has to move objects very quickly particularly those having polished finish. These objecta would appear to move with jerky motion which over a long period would produce visual fatigue ; (i) In the case of rotating machines whose frequency of rotation happens to be a multiple of flicker frequency, the machines eppear to decrease in speed of rotation or be statfonary. Sometimes machines may even seem to rotate in the opposite direction. The stroboscopic effect can be minimised as follows: L By using three lamps on the separate phases of a 3-phase supply. 2. By using a ‘twin lamp’ cireuit on a single-phase supply, one ofthe chokes having a capacitor in series with it and the amp. 3. By operating the lamp from a high frequency supply (obviously, stroboscopic effect. will entirely disappear on D.C. supply). Fluorescent lamp for D.C. supply t Fig.'1.44 shows the connections of a fluorescent tube with D.C. mains. For ‘making a fluores- cent tube to work on D.C. supply a resistance ts connected in addition to the usual choke,Dc. stroboscopic @ Low efficiency duc to fea, nereased coat ofthe ballast resistance and reversing sviten (28) Less life of the tube ( operation of fluarescent tube there is no Problem of power factor correction and effect. Its demerits are: Power loss in ballast sories-resistance, (about 80 percent'of that with A.C. operation), © Now-a-days with ‘D.C. supplies inverters ‘using solid state circuitry are used for use in buses, aircraft etc, Useful fluorescent lamp life: — The normal life of @ fluorescent lamp is'7500 hours. — The active ‘Hf may vary from 5000 to 10000 hours depending upan the oparating cand tions. is by 15-20 per cent after 4000 hours operation and itis, therefore, advisable to replace the fluorescent lamp after 4000-5000 hours burning on economical grounds, Performance curves: reduces causing Sputtering at the electrodes shortening their life), © The fluorescent lamps Give the best performance at 20-25"C temperature, It decreases rapidly when a lamp is operated at a lower temperature or is exposed to cold with drafts. For operation at high temperature, the fittings with provision for air circulation should be employed. Copyrighted mas Downloaded From : www.EasyEnvineerin.38 [OF ELECTRICAL POWER, Merits and demerits of fluorescent-lamps! Merits: (@ High luminous efficiency. Gi) Long life. Gi) Low running cost. () Low glare level. {p) Less heat output. Demerits : @ Stroboscopic effect. GH Small wattage requiring large number of fittings. Gi) Magnetic hum associated with choke causing disturbance. between Fluorescent tube and Filament taamp : Comparison ‘The comparison between fluorescent tube afd filament lamp is given below = B.No. | ‘Aspect Fluorescent tube [__ tneandescent lamp 1 | Luminous efficiency 40im/W 101mvW 2. | Cost Initial cost is more but more Initial cost is less. | economical. | 3. | Starting Starting troubles may bothere, | No starting trouble. | 4. | Heating effect No heat is evolved. * | tat of heat is evolved. | 5. | Life 10000 hoara 1000 heures 6. | Mlumination Diffosed light SicAvwathiainad, 1. | Variety colours Large variety of coloura obtained. | Can produce only a few colours. | 8 Brightness Less More 9. Btroboscople effect ‘Yes (objectionable) No 10, | Maintenance cost (overall) | Low maDownloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net ILLUMINATION 39 Comparison of difforent light sources: ‘The comparison of incandescent dium vapour lamps is given below : lamps, fluorescent lamps, mercury vapour lamps and so- S.No) Aspect Incandescent | Fluorescent | Mercury vapour | Sodium vapour lamps lamps lamps lamps 1. | Starting ‘They have instan-| They have a reno- | They take 5 to 6|Theyhaveastarting tion time of one seo- | minutos for start- | time of to 6 min- go off and restart | started after the | after thie recovery of | ‘when the supply is |recovery of the|the voltage till its restored. voltage till the|value falls to the pressure falls to | normal value. normal. 2 | Colour of light |Very near the - | Varles with the |They suffer from |Yellowish, colour natural. Phosphor cating. felour distortion. | dlatrtion is pro- 8. | Installation | Minimum ; maxi-| maximum ; mini-|High but lesser | Maximum, less than cost; running | mum. om. than that of fluo- | for filament lamps Ca reacent lamps ;|but more than for [Much Jess than in- | fluorescent lamps. candescent lamps but higher than : fluorescent tubes. : & = | Average life 1000 hours. | 4000 hours. 3000 hours. 3000 hours. — 5._| Efficiency 101m/W. 40 m/w. 60-70 mW. 6 | Stroboscopic | No. Yes ‘Yes effect 1. | Applications /e Semidirect light- | Suitable for|Very suitable for Ti oe ‘emergency lights, | ing, damestic, in- like | street lighting pur- : tic, in-| open space pu for railways; do mestic, industrial | flood lights ete. |* Their use is con- |» Suitable for ver- 1.10. LIGHTING SCHEMES 1.10.1. Diffusing and Reflecting Surfaces ‘When light falls on polished metallic surfaces or silvered surfaces, then most of itis reflected back according to the laws of reflection [Fig. 1.46 (a)] ie., the angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection. Only a small portion of the incident light is absorbed and there is always the image of the source. Such reflection is known as specular reflection.ing.net Downloaded From : www. EasyEngineetiné UTSATINOPELEETI 40 ray Kawa” |. Smooth eurface () Ditfase reflection (a) Specular reflectiot ‘Types of reflections. Pes fronted glass, painted ceiling et, rd ton cere ats Ihe pp ot ia formed. Such reflec Bnet csigs ne 1460) bene eter erm ory ina on mee Appears oqaly bight fo whatever cetion itis viewed. A white blotting = is the nearest approach toa ‘diffuser’, ; f sr tt te ig cn retin, rT re in aan a ss . Ferfect mirror surfaces and perfect diffusing murfaces are cals that domnotenistin nt. The ie from any surface is partly specular‘and partly diffuse, the proportion vary. almost free from mirror reflection is called a mat surfan. Requirements of Good Lighting Good lighting is one which Provides visual comfort, Visual comfort enh: a workman, Usually good Nehting is often confused with high illumination levels. The factots whichen considered are minimum Blare and brightness-contrast, © Light sources should be Properly ahielded by luminaries and mounted above the no: line of sight, Reflected glare is to be avoided, by mounting luminaries with respec: auipment, so thatthe reflected glansie, directed away beerver. i: absorbing fixers reduce glare, frame ae L103, 1.10.2, ances the efficiens; Tesults in an attractive and comman, it i ence of objects ees the architectural style Of the interior of a building. Due to thee eieans ‘Mine People would be in a position to do thelr work easily, accurate); ig schemes may be classified as fittows : lyand L Direct lighting . 2. Semi-direet lighting 3. Semi-indirect lighting 4. Indirect lighting 5. General diffusing lighting, Fig. 1.47 shows different types flighting ‘“Tangements,Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering net ILLUMINATION badd Caen, ee (d) Indirect lighting Oe eae aan Fig. 1.47. Different types of lighting arrangements. 1. Direct lighting. Refer to Fig. 1.47 (a). ‘© Tis most commonly used type of lighting scheme. ‘© In this system more than 90% of total light flux is made to fall directly on the working Plane with the help of deep reflectors. © Direct lighting, though most efficient, is liable to cause glare and hard shadows. © It is mainly used for industrial and general outdoor lighting. ‘2. Semi-direct lighting. Refer to Fig. 1.47 (b). @ In this system 60 to 90% of the total light flux is made to fall downwards directly with the belp of semicirect reflectors, remaining light isto bo ured to illuminate the ceiling and © Such a system is best suited to roams with high ceilings where a high level of uniformly- distributed illumination is desirable. © Glare in such units is avoided by using diffusing globes which not only improve the bright- ness towards the eye level but improve the efficiency of the system with reference to the working plane. 8. Semi-indirect lighting, Refer to Fig, 1.47 (c). @ In this system 60 to 90% of the total light flux is made to fall downwards directly with the help of semi-direct reflectors, © It is mainly used for indoor light decoration purposes. 4. Indirect lighting, Refar to Fig. 1.47 (d), @ In this system more than 90% of total light flux is thrown upwards to the ceiling for diffuse reflection by using inverted or bow! reflectors. In such a system the ceiling acts as the light source, and the glare is reduced to minimum. © This system provides a shadowless illumination which is very useful for drawing offices, composing rooms and in workshops especially where large machines and other obstruc- tions would cast troublesome shadows if direct lighting were used. 5. General diffusing lighting. Refer to Fig, 14.7 (e) © In this lighting system lamps made of diffusing glass are used which give nearly equal illumination in all directions. copyied maisloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net e Downloaded Fi ATION OFELECTRICAL POWER Liee Destn of Lighting Scheme The pe Characteristics ofa good lighting scheme : pig tehting Scheme should possess the following characteristics : ~ should provide, ‘adequate illumination. i possible. " BROW provide ight distborin ne the ‘vorking plane as uniform as 7 avoid glare and hard shadows aa far as possible. Provide light of suitable colour. cheme 1:10.4.2. Factors to be considered for designing the lighting schem sidered : hile designing the lighting scheme the following factors should be con ! 21. Intensity of illumination. 2 Selection of luminaires, S. Size of the room. 4 Mounting height and Spacing of fittings. 5. Conditions of use. a of s, different types een tensity of Mumination. The intensity of illumination required for Table 11 Talos TE The recommended levels ona eee of mina occupancies is shown in Table 1. Factories and Workshops i ae @ Rongh ‘work, eg. frame assembly of heavy machinery an Medion work, eg., machined parts, engine ‘assembly, vehicle body 200 assembly, GD Fine work, eg. radio and telephone equipment, type-writer and. office machinery assembly 700 Go) Loz Sine werk 4, assembly of very emall preciston mechanlams, 1800 2 | Power Houses @ Boiler house, turbine house, conveyor ‘house, switchgear and transformer chambers 100 G®) Control rooms 300 3. | Offices @) Reception 150 GD Conference room, general offices, typing rooms 300 |Gie) Drawing offices 400 4& | Schools and Colleges © Classrooms, lecture halls, workshope,Iirary reading table, leboratoriea 300 Gi Sewing rooms, drawing halls, art rooms 500 |Git) Common room, stairs 180 5. | Hospitals oo ) Weiting rooms, wards, camu : 150 () Dispensaries, laboratories, operation theatres (general) 300 (Git) Operation tablDownloaded From: www EasyLingineering net i G@) Reception, dining roams, bedroom (i) Accounts, writing desk, dressing table — soo 300 160 E i g 4 L i BEES 880 EEE 2. Selection of luminaires: A luminaire (light fitting) is the apparatus which distributes, filters or transforms the light given by a lamp or lamps. It includes all the items necessary for fixing and protecting these lamps ‘nd for connecting them to the supply circuit. ‘© The choice of lamps for different types of occupancies differ. — Tubular fluorescent lamps or tungsten filament lamps can be used when lighting is to be done in small premises. — In caso of large premises, the lighting can be carried out by using high intensity sources such as mercury oF sodium discharge lamps. © The linear output of the lamps can also be modified by using euitable reflectors and dif- fusers. Depending upon the type of illumination required (direct, indirect, diffusing etc.) the type of reflector is decided. 3. Size of the room : ‘The lumen output of the sources is not fully utilized at the work place. Part of itis lost in the fittings. Some part is directed to the walls and celling where part will bo absorbed and part re- flected. This is taken into account by a factor known as “utilisation factor* or “coefficient of utilisation”. Coefficient of utilization depends on the following factora : (@ Lumen output of the fitting, Gi) Size and shape of the room, (ii) Reflection factors of walls and eailing, Go) Height of the ceiling, (v) Arrangement of the fitting ete. conyites matat Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.netcasyEngincering 44 pmtonded Fram: wee EsyERENCTIEO oe cTRIENLFONER 42. Covfficiont of utilisation for diferent fittings is giver in Tables savings Table 1.2. Co-efficeint of utilization for differen’ Utilteation factor Lt! Type of tings ° : ith dark ‘Big rooms with Hight Smal room tn : cotoured walls and ‘cellingt wal 024 1. | Standard direct reflectors 064 as 2, | Fluorescent lamp fittings 0.64 ce 3. | Semi-direet fittings 058 a = Enclosed sphere or diffusing fittings 0.58 oe SL eres fee : 040 x ighting” implies that the 4.Mounting height and spacing of fittings. The term “general li itis ituminetion at working level should not ary eubotantally throughout the Tom, Therefore, itis apparent that the fitting for genoral lighting should beso placed that the lia each fitting overlaps and builds up thet ofits neighbours. Te distance of Tigh! sour eat should be equal fo one half the distance betveen tivo adjacent light sources. Also distance light fittings should not exceed 1.5 times the mounting height. ‘1 6, Conditions of use. Conditions of ue oflight iting vary wit diferent types of naialio- tions, Dost and dit of the surroundings may get deposited onthe light tings and hence deter rate the lamp effciony, I regular pevodie enning i adopted and asruming good atmospheric Contitiona the value of“matntenance factor” may be taken as 0.8. Butfor dusty and dirty otros phere, the factor may be as low as 0.4, Another term “depreciation factor” is ‘also used which is ‘the reciprocal-of maintenance factor (te, Depreciation factor = /Maintenance factor). 1.10.5, Method of Lighting Calculations Out of several methods employed for lighting calculations, some of them are : 1. Watt per square metre method. 2, Lumen or light flux method. 3. Point-to-point or Inverse-square Jaw method. 1. Watt per square method : © This method is very handy for rough calculation or checking. e It consists in making an allowance of watts per square metre of area to be illuminated according to the illumination desired on the assumption of an average figure of overall efficiency of the system. 2, Lamen or light flux method. This method fs applicable to those eases where the sources of light are such as to produce on approximate uniform illumination over the working plane or ‘where an average value is required. ‘otal lumens received on working plane ‘=No. of lamps x wattage ofeach lamp x efficiency of each lamp (in terms of lumens/watt) x coollicient of utilisation x maintenance factor. 2. Point-to-point or inverse-square law method : ‘© This method is applicable where the illumination at a point dut to one o dighe te required the candle power ofthe svarcerin.the particular direction ner cmate eration being known.