Lecture 06 Merged

Chapter 2
Approximate Methods of Analysis
Lecture 6
‘K’ Factors and Their
Applications
1
Review of Chapter 1
Introduction to a Electrical Distribution System
Lecture 1: Structure of distribution system, primary distribution system,
secondary distribution system, why distribution system analysis?, course
content
Lecture 2: Substation components, various substation layouts
Lecture 3: Components and configurations of Distribution Feeders
Lecture 4: Nature of loads, load curves, demand factor, load factor, diversity
factor, utilization factor
Lecture 5: Load allocation to distribution transformers and feeder sections
2
Approximate Methods of Analysis
Actual distribution system is
Lines: un-transposed (three-phase, two-phase, single-phase)
Loads: unbalanced (three-phase, two-phase, single-phase)
It need detailed or exact model of distribution system
However, many times, we need approximate

but quick answer.
In approximate methods, we assume
Lines: transposed
Loads: balanced
Thus, single phase equivalent can be used.
3
Voltage Drop
VS  = VL 0 + ( I  −  )( R + jX )
VS cos  + jVS sin  = VL 0 + ( I cos  − jI sin  )( R + jX )
VS cos  + jVS sin  = VL 0 + ( IR cos  + IX sin  ) + j ( IX cos  − IR sin  )
When δ is small VS cos   VS and VS sin   0
VS = VL + IR cos  + IX sin  VS − VL = IR cos  + IX sin  = Re( ZI )
4
Example-01
1 2 Z12 = 0.2841 + j 0.5682 
I12 = 43.00 − 25.84 A
V1 = VS = 24000 V
V2 = VL = 24000 − ( 0.2841 + j 0.5682 )( 43.00 − 25.84 )

= 2378.41 − 0.40
Exact Vdrop = 2400 − 2378.41 = 21.59 V
Approximate Vdrop = Re ( ZI ) = Re ( 0.2841 + j 0.5682 )( 43.00 − 25.84 ) = 21.65 V

21.59 − 21.65
Error = = −0.0028 OR − 0.28%
21.59
5
“K” Factors: The Kdrop Factor
The Kdrop factor is determined by computing the percent voltage drop down
a line that is one km long and serving a balanced three-phase load of 1 kVA.
Percent voltage drop

K drop =
kVA×km
If the unit of length of line is mile, then

K drop =
kVA×mile
6
“K” Factors: The Kdrop Factor
K drop =
kVA×km
GMD
Li = 2  10−7 ln
GMR
zi = ri + j Li
I=
1(kVA)
3 VLL (kV)
(
 − cos −1 pf ) K drop = % Vdrop =
Re ( ZI )
100
Vbase
7
Example-02
Line impedance per km Z = 0.19 + j 0.32 Ω/km
Load power factor of 0.9 lagging and a nominal voltage of 11 kV (line-to-
line) or 6.35 kV (Line-to-Neutral).
The current taken by 1 kVA at 0.9 lagging power factor
I=
S (kVA)
3 VLL (kV)
( )
 − cos −1 pf =
1
3 11
( )
 − cos −1 0.9 = 0.0525 − 25.84
The voltage drop Vdrop = Re ( ZI ) = Re ( 0.19 + j 0.32 )( 0.0525 − 25.84 ) = 0.0161 V
0.0161
Thus, K drop = 100 = 0.000254 % drop/kVA-km
6350
8
Example-03
Let the Kdrop factor is 0.000254 %drop/kVA-km.
For example, assume a load of 7500 kVA is to be served at a point 2.4 kms
from the substation.
Vdrop = K drop ×kVA×km = 0.000254  7500  2.4 = 4.6%
Suppose now that the utility has a maximum allowable voltage drop of
3.0%. How much load can be served 2.4 kms from the substation?
Vdrop 3.0
kVA load = = = 4921.26 kVA
K drop ×km 0.000254×2.4
9
Example-04
K drop = 0.0002014 %drop/kVA-km
Segment kVA Length km %Drop

N0 to N1 300 + 750 + 500 = 1550 2.4 0.75
N1 to N2 750 + 500 = 1250 1.2 0.30
N2 to N3 500 0.8 0.08
Total Drop from N0 to N3 = 0.75 + 0.3 + 0.08 = 1.13 %
10
The Krise Factor
cap
Capacitor
Bank
Vrise = Re( ZI cap ) = X I cap
The Krise factor is defined
Percent voltage rise Percent voltage rise

K rise = or K rise =
kVAr×km kVAr×mile
11
Example-05
Line impedance per km Z = 0.19 + j0.32 Ω/km
The nominal voltage of 11 kV (line-to-line) or 6.35 kV (Line-to-Neutral).
The current taken by 1 kVAr
Q(kVAr) 1
I cap = 90 = 90 = 0.0525 90
3 VL (kV) 3 11.0
The voltage rise Vrise = X I cap = 0.0168
Thus, 0.0168
K rise =  100 = 0.000265% rise/kVA-km
6350
12
Example-06
In Example-03, the percent voltage drop in for 7500 kVA for 2.4 km was
computed to be 4.6%.
To limit the total voltage drop to 3%, the required voltage rise due to a
shunt capacitor bank is
Vrise = 4.6 − 3.0 = 1.6 %
The required rating of the shunt capacitor is

Percent voltage rise
K rise =
kVAr×km
Percent voltage rise 1.6
or kVAr = = = 2516 kVAr
K rise ×km 0.000265  2.4
13
Summary of the Lecture
Approximate methods of Analysis of Distribution System
Assumptions: Balanced 3-phase, transposed
K-FACTORS
K drop =
▪ The Kdrop Factor kVA×km
Percent voltage rise
▪ The Krise Factor K rise =
kVAr×km
Applications of K-factors
14
Lecture 7
Analysis of Uniformly
Distributed Loads
1
Review of the Last Lecture
Approximate methods of Analysis of Distribution System
Assumptions: Balanced 3-phase, transposed
K-FACTORS
▪ The Kdrop Factor
▪ The Krise Factor
Applications of K-factors
2
Uniformly Distributed Load
To simplify the computation,

many times the loads are
assumed to be distributed
uniformly over a feeder.
It is an ideal case.
Examples: The load connected
to every pole like street lights,
houses in colony, etc.
3
Uniformly Distributed Load
IT
IT
di =
n
l = length of the feeder
z = r + jx = impedance of the feeder in  /km
dx = length of each line section
di = load current at each node
n = number of nodes and number of line sections
IT = total current entering into the feeder
4
Voltage Drop in Uniformly Distributed Load
IT
IT
di =
n
Section Impedance Current Voltage drop
0 to 1 z dx n di V01 = Re ( z dx  n di )
1 to 2 z dx (n-1) di V12 = Re ( z dx  ( n − 1) di )
2 to 3 z dx (n-2) di V23 = Re ( z dx  ( n − 2 ) di )
n-1 to n z dx (n-(n-1)) di = di V( n −1) n = Re ( z dx  di )
5
IT
IT di =
n
Vdrop = V01 + V12 + V23 + V34 + + V( n −1) n

= Re ( z dx  di ( n + (n − 1) + (n − 2) + (n − 3) + + 1 ))
  n ( n + 1)   dx =
l
= Re  z dx  di   
 n
  2 
I
 l IT  n ( n + 1)   di = T
= Re  z   
 n n  n
  2 
6
l
dx =
IT n
I
di = T
n
  ( n + 1)  
Vdrop = Re  Z  IT   

  2 n 
1  1
= Re  Z  IT 1 +  
2  n 
In the limiting case, where n goes infinity (i.e. large number of sections)
1 
Vdrop = Re  Z  IT 
2 
7
1   I 
Vdrop = Re  Z  IT  = Re  Z  T 
2   2 
R 3 2
Ploss = 3 IT2 = IT R
2 2
2
I  3
Ploss = 3  T  R = IT2 R
 2 4
8
Power Loss in Uniformly Distributed Load
IT
IT
di =
n
Section Resistance Current Power Loss
0 to 1 r dx n di (
PL01 = 3  r dx  n 2 di 2 )
1 to 2 r dx (n-1) di (
PL12 = 3  r dx  ( n − 1) di 2
2
)
= 3  ( r dx  ( n − 2 ) di )
2
2 to 3 r dx (n-2) di PL23 2
n-1 to n r dx (n-(n-1)) di = di (
PLn −1 n = 3  r dx  di 2 )
9
l
dx =
IT n
I
di = T
n
Ploss = PL01 + PL12 + PL23 + + PLn −1 n
( (
= 3 r dx  di 2  n 2 + ( n − 1) + ( n − 2 ) +
2 2
+ 12 ))
  n ( n + 1)( 2n + 1)    l  I  2  n ( n + 1)( 2n + 1)  
= 3  r dx  di 2    = 3  r     
T
  
  6    n  n   6  
 
  ( n + 1)( 2n + 1)    2  2n + 3n + 1 
2

= 3  R  IT  
2
  = 3  R  IT    
 2

2

  6 n    6 n 
10
l
dx =
IT n
I
di = T
n
 2  2n + 3n + 1 
2
  2 1 1 1  
Ploss = 3  R  IT     = 3  R  IT   + + 2 
 3 2n 6n  
2
  6 n   
In the limiting case, where n goes infinity (i.e. large number of sections)
1 
Ploss = 3  R  IT2 
3 
11
IT    
2

1 2 I
Ploss = 3  R  IT  = 3  R   T
 
  
  3 
3
12
Exact Lumped Load Model
1 
Vdrop = Re ( k Z  IT + (1 − k ) Z  cIT ) also Vdrop = Re  Z  IT 
2 
1
Therefore Z  IT = k Z  IT + (1 − k ) Z  cIT
2
0.5 − c
0.5 = k + c − ck = c + (1 − c)k k=
(1 − c)
13
Lumped Load Model
1 
(
Ploss = 3 k R  IT2 + ( k − 1) R  c 2 IT2 ) also Ploss = 3  R  IT2 
3 
1 
Therefore
3 
(
3  R  IT2  = 3 k R  IT2 + (1 − k ) R  c 2 IT2)
1
3
( )
= k + (1 − k ) c 2 = 1 − c 2 k + c 2
14
Exact Lumped Load Model
0.5 − c
k=
(1 − c)
and 1
3
( )
= 1 − c2 k + c2
0.5 − c
1
3
(
= 1 − c2 )
(1 − c)
+ c 2 = (1 + c)(0.5 − c) + c 2
1 1
Therefore c = and k=
3 4
15
• Uniformly distributed load
• Voltage drop
• Power loss
• Exact Lumped model
16
Lecture 8
Lumping Loads in Geometric
Configurations: Rectangular
1
• Uniformly distributed load
• Voltage drop Vdrop = Re  Z  IT  = Re  Z 

1 IT 

2   2 
1    I 2 
• Power loss Ploss = 3  R  IT2  = 3  R   T  
3    3 
 
• Exact Lumped model
2
Lumping Loads in Geometric Configurations
3
• Lumping the loads with feeders supplying various areas (geometric
configurations): Rectangles, triangles, etc.
• Approximate calculations of voltage drop and total power losses by
assuming constant load density.
• The approximate calculations of the maximum load at a given
voltage level and conductor size.
• Approximate locations capacitor or DG and their sizes
4
kVA
D = load density in
km 2
z = line impedance in Ω/km
5
Rectangular Area Configuration
dx
kVA
D = load density in
km 2
PF = average power factor
l = length of the area
w = width of the area
kVLL = nominal line-to-line voltage in kV
IT
di = A/km 2
wl
6
Rectangular Area Configuration
IT
di = A/km 2
wl
IT =
S (kVA)
3 VLL (kV)
(
 − cos −1 PF )
D l  w
=
3 VLL
(
 − cos −1 PF )
The current at any distance x from the node n

I  x
i = IT − ( w  x)  di = IT − ( w  x )  T = IT 1 − 
wl  l
7
The Rectangle : Voltage Drop
The voltage drop in the incremental
segment is
dV = Re ( zdx  i )
  x 
= Re  zdx  IT  1 − 
  l 
The total voltage drop down the primary main feeder is

l l   x   l  x 
Vdrop = 0 dV = 0  z dx  IT
Re 

1 −
l


= Re  z  IT

0  l  
1 −  dx
  x 2   
l
  l2   1  1 
= Re  z  IT    x −   = Re  z  IT   l −   = Re  z  IT  l  = Re  Z  I T 
  2l  0     2l    2  2 
  
8
The Rectangle: Voltage Drop
1 
2 
9
The Rectangle: Power Loss
IT
di = A/km 2
wl
 x
i = IT 1 − 
 l
Power loss in the incremental length is
2 x x2 
2
 x
dp = 3  r dx  i = 3  r dx IT 1 −  = 3  r dx I T 1 − 2 + 2 
2 2
 l  l l 
10
 x x2 
dp = 3  r dx IT 1 − 2 + 2 
2
 l l 
Total three-phase power loss down the primary main is

l  l x x2    x 2
x 3

l

=  dp = 3  r IT  1 − 2 + 2  dx = 3  r  IT  x − 2 + 2 
2 2
Ploss
0 0
 l l   2l 3l  0 
 
2 l l 1 2 
= 3  r  IT  l − l +  = 3  r  IT = 3   R  IT 
2
 3 3 3 
11
1 2 
Ploss = 3   R  IT 
3 
12
Example
• l= 3.05 km
• w=1.83 km.
• A = l × w = 5.58 km2.
• D = 965.55 kVA/km2, pf 0.9 lag.
• Total kVA = D × A = 5387.8 kVA
• z = 0.19 + j 0.32 Ω/km
• Allowed voltage drop is ±3%.
• The choices of nominal voltages are 4.16 kV and 11 kV
13
Solution
The total impedance (Z) =z  l = (0.19 + j 0.32)  3.05 = 0.58 + j 0.98
For a nominal voltage of 4.16 kV, the total current is,
kVA 5387.8
IT = =  − cos −1 0.9 = 747.7 − 25.84 A
( 3  kVLL ) 3  4.16
1 
The total voltage drop = Vdrop = Re   Z  IT  = 354.86 V
2 
Vdrop 354.86
The percentage voltage drop = %Vdrop = 100 = 100 = 14.78 %
VLN 4160 / 3
14
Solution
For a nominal voltage of 11 kV,
kVA 5387.8
IT = =  − cos −1 0.9 = 282.78 − 25.84 A
( 3  kVLL ) 3 11.0
The total voltage drop down the primary main is

1 
Vdrop = Re   Z  IT  = 134.20 V
2 
The percentage voltage drop is
Vdrop 134.20
Vdrop % = 100 = 100=2.11 %
VLN 11000 / 3
15
Summary
• Lumping Loads in Geometric Configurations
– Rectangular
1 
2 
1 2
Ploss = 3   R  IT 
3 
– Application
16
Lecture 9
Lumping Loads in Geometric
Configurations: Triangular
1
– Rectangular
1 
2 
1 2 
Ploss = 3   R  IT 
3 
– Application
2
The Triangle: Voltage Drop
kVA
D = load density in
km 2
3
The total current entering the area:
S kVA
IT =  − cos −1 ( PF ) A
3  kVLL
D  Area
=  − cos −1 ( PF ) A
3  kVLL
IT IT 2  IT
di = = = A/km 2
Area 1  l  w l  w
2
4
The current entering the line segment
i = IT − A1  di
where A1 = area of triangle up to the

incremental line segment.
2  IT 1 1 w
di = A/km 2 A1 = w1 x =  x    x
lw 2 2 l 
Also,
x w1 xw
=  w1 =
l w l
5
i = IT − A1  di
1 w   2  IT 
= IT −    x 2    
2 l   lw 
 x2 
= IT  1 − 2 
 l 
IT IT 2  IT
di = = = A/km 2
Area 1  l  w l  w Therefore,
2
1 w   x2 
and A1 =  x    x dv = Re  zdx  i  = Re  z dx  IT 1 − 2  
2 l    l 
6
  x2 
dv = Re  z dx  IT 1 − 2  
  l 
The total voltage drop from node n to node m is

l l
  x2   l
 x2  
Vdrop =  dv =  Re  z dx  IT 1 − 2   = Re  z  IT   1 − 2   dx 
0 0   l   0
l  
  x3
l
   l3  2 
= Re  z  IT  x − 2   = Re  z  IT l − 2   = Re  Z  I T 
  3l    3l  3 
  0 
7
2 
Vdrop = Re   ZT  IT 
3 
8
The Triangle: Power Loss
 x2 
i = IT 1 − 2 
 l 
Power loss in area dx

dp = 3 ( rdx | i |2 )
 2 2
 x2 x4  
2  x  2 
Substituting dp = 3  r dx  | IT | 1 − 2   = 3  r | IT | 1 − 2  2 + 4  dx 
  l     l l  

9
 2  x2 x4  
dp = 3  r | IT | 1 − 2  2 + 4  dx 
  l l  
The total three-phase power loss from node n to node m becomes

l l
 2  x2 x4  
l
 x2 x4 
Ploss =  dp =  3  r | IT | 1 − 2  2 + 4  dx  = 3  r | IT |  1 − 2  2 + 4   dx
2
0 0   l l   0
l l 
  x 3
x 5

l
 2 2 l  8 
= 3r IT   x − 2 2 + 4   = 3r IT  l − l +  = 3  R | IT |2 
2
 3l 5l  0   3 5  15 
 
10
 8 
Ploss = 3  R | IT |2 
 15 
11
Example
• l = 4.5 km
• w = 1.8 km
• A = 1/2 × l × w = area=4.14 km2
• D = 1351.8 kVA/km2, pf 0.9 lag.
• Total kVA = D × A = 5596.45 kVA
• Kdrop = 0.0002191 % drop/kVA-km,
• Krise = 0.0002504 % rise/kvar-km
• Nominal voltage = 11 kV
• Find the location of 1800 kVAr capacitor bank to keep the voltage drop
within ±3% at the end.
12
Solution
The total load of the triangular area is
kVA = 5596.45 − 25.84 kVA
Using the K drop factor and lumping the total load

2 
Vdrop = K drop  kVA    dist 
3 
2 
= 0.0002191 5596.45    4.6 
3 
= 3.76 %
13
Solution
The required voltage rise due to the capacitor is
Vrise = Vdrop − 3.0 = 3.76 − 3.0 = 0.76
The distance from node n is determined by:

Vrise
dist =
K rise = 0.0002504 % rise/kvar-km K rise  kvar
0.76
=
Vrise Vrise 0.0002504 1800
K rise =  dist =
dist  kvar K rise  kvar = 1.69 km
14
Summary
– Triangular
2 
Vdrop = Re  ZT IT 
3 
 8 
Ploss = 3  R | IT |2 
 15 
– Application
15
Chapter 3
Modelling of Distribution System Components
Lecture 10
Impedance of Distribution Lines
and Feeders - Part I
1
Review of the Chapter 2
• K-FACTORS: Kdrop and Krise
• Uniformly distributed load:
– Voltage drop
– Power loss
– Exact lumped load model
• Lumping Loads in Geometric
Configurations
– Rectangular
– Triangular
2
Types of Conductor
• Copper
• Aluminum: Cheaper, lighter, but less conductive and less tensile strength
than copper
– ACSR (Aluminum Conductor Steel Reinforced)
– AAC (All Aluminum Conductor)
– AAAC (All Aluminum Alloy Conductor)
– ACAR (Aluminum Conductor Alloy Reinforced)
ACSR Conductor
• Internal steel strands increase the

tensile strength
• Outer aluminum strands carry the
current
• Stranded conductor with twisted wires
for strength and flexibility of
mechanical handling
Resistance
The DC resistance of conductor at specified temperature is:
T l
R= 
A
ρT is the resistivity of the conductor at temperature T
l is the length of the conductor in m
A is the cross-sectional area of conductor in m2
Rt 2 (1  0 + T2 )
=
Rt1 (1  0 + T1 )
Resistance of the Stranded Conductor
a l  a (1.05  103 )
a l a
R= = = = 1337 Ω/km
A ns As   d s2  ns d s2
ns 
 

 4 
Conductor Data Sheet
Source: http://www.stabiloy.com/NR/rdonlyres/5FFCCF8A-8706-4FE5-9C9D- 7
CFD2DEEAEDB2/0/SEC4_Overhead_Conductors.pdf
Transposed Three-Phase Lines
GMD Deq
Li = 2  10−7 ln or Li = 2  10−7 ln H m
GMR GMR
GMD or Deq = 3 Dab Dbc Dca
• Line impedance for in Ω/km for 50 Hz

zi = ri + j Li
GMD
= ri + j 2 50  2  10−7 ln 1000  km
GMR
GMD
= ri + j 0.0628 ln  km
GMR
Transposed Three-Phase Lines
GMD Deq
Li = 2 10−7 ln or Li = 2 10−7 ln H m
GMR GMR
GMD or Deq = 3 Dab Dbc Dca
• Line impedance for in Ω/mile for 60 Hz

zi = ri + j Li
GMD
= ri + j 2 60  2 10−7 ln 1609.34  mile
GMR
GMD
= ri + j 0.1213 ln  mile
GMR
Un-Transposed Distribution Lines
1
ii = 2 10−7 ln I i Wb
GMRi
ii 1
Lii = = 2  10−7 ln H m
Ii GMRi
zii = ri + j Lii
1
= ri + j 2 50  2  10−7 ln  1000  km
GMRi
1
= ri + j 0.0628ln  km
GMRi
Un-Transposed Distribution Lines
1
ij = 2  10−7 ln I j Wb
Dij
ij 1
Lij = = 2  10 −7 ln H m
Ij Dij
zij = j Lij
1
= j 2 50  2  10 −7 ln  1000  km
Dij
1
= j 0.0628 ln  km
Dij
Impedance of Distribution Line
– Transposed line
GMD
zi = ri + j  2  10−7 ln  m
GMR
GMD
= ri + j 0.0628 ln  km
GMR
– Un-transposed line
1
zii = ri + j 0.0628 ln  km
GMRi  Z aa Z ab Z ac 
 Z bc 
1 Z abc  =  Z ba Z bb
zij = j 0.0628 ln  km
Dij  Z ca Z cb Z cc 
Zero-sequence current paths
Source: T. A. Short, Electric Power Distribution Handbook, CRC Press, Boca Raton,
2003. 13
Un-Transposed and Unbalanced System
Vig = zii I i + zij I j + zid I d − zdd I d − zid I i − z jd I j

= zii I i + zij I j + zid ( − I i − I j ) − zdd ( − I i − I j ) − zid I i − z jd I j
= ( zii − zid + zdd − zid ) I i + ( zij − zid + zdd − z jd ) I j = zîi I i + zîj I j
Source: W. H. Kresting, Distribution System Modeling and Analysis, CRC
Press, New York, 2002.
Un-transposed and Unbalanced System
Vig = zîi .I i + zîj .I j
zîi = zii + zdd − zdi − zid zîj = zij + zdd − zdj − zid
= ri + jxii + rd + jxdd − j ( xid + xdi ) = jxij + rd + jxdd − j ( xdj + xid )

zîi = zii + zdd − zdi − zid
= ri + jxii + rd + jxdd − j ( xid + xdi )
 1 1 1 1 
= ri + rd + j  2  10−7  ln + ln − ln − ln 
 GMRi GMRd Did Ddi 
 1 D .D 
= ri + rd + j  2  10−7  ln + ln id di 
 GMRi GMRd 
zîj = zij + zdd − zdj − zid
= jxij + rd + jxdd − j ( xdj + xid )
 1 1 1 1 
= rd + j  2  10  ln
−7
+ ln − ln − ln 
 Dij GMRd Ddj Did 

 1 Ddj .Did 
= rd + j  2  10 −7
 ln + ln 
 Dij GMRd 
Earth Layers of Sub-conductors
The Summary of The Lecture
Chapter 3: Modelling of Distribution System Components
Series impedance of distribution lines and feeders

Resistance of the distribution line conductors
Inductance transposed distribution lines
Inductance and impedance of un-transposed line
Impedance of distribution line with earth return
19
Lecture 11
Series Impedance of Distribution
Lines and Feeders - Part II
1
 1 D .D 
zîi = ri + rd + j  2  10−7  ln + ln id di   / m
 GMRi GMRd 
 1 Ddj .Did 
zîj = rd + j  2  10  ln
−7
+ ln   / m
 Dij GMRd
 
Earth Layers of Sub-conductors
Carson’s Equations
Since a distribution feeder is inherently unbalanced.
The earth is a conductor of enormous dimension and non-uniform conductivity.
Thus earth current distribution is not uniform.
To calculate the impedance of conductor with earth return, it is necessary to
know the distribution of current returning in the earth.
Many engineers attacked this problem using different methods and
assumptions.
In 1926, Carson developed a technique to get the self and mutual impedances
for an arbitrary number of overhead conductors.
Carson assumed that the earth is an infinite, uniform solid with a flat uniform
upper surface and a constant resistivity.
Carson’s Equations
p
De = 2160 ft
f
p
= 0.305  2160 meter
f
Equivalent Depth of Earth

Return (De)
Modified Carson’s Equations
 1 D .D 
zîi = ri + rd + j  2 10−7  ln + ln id di   / m
 GMRi GMRd 
 1 Ddj .Did 
zîj = rd + j  2 10  ln −7
+ ln   / m
 Dij GMRd
 
 1 
ˆzii = ri + 9.86  10−7 f + j  2  10−7  ln + ln De  Ω m De = 2160
p
ft
 GMRi  f
−7 −7
 1  = 0.305  2160
p
zîj = 9.86  10 f + j  2  10  ln + ln De  Ω m meter
 Dij  f
 
Modified Carson’s Equations (50 Hz and km)
 1  Conductor
zîi = ri + 9.86  10−7 f + j  2  10−7  ln + ln De  Ω m
 GMRi  distances in meter
  1 
=  ri + 9.86  10−7  50 + j 2  50  2  10−7  ln + ln De   1000 Ω km
  Soil P
  GMRi 
Damp earth 100
 1 
= ri + 0.0493 + j 0.0628  ln + 6.843  Ω km Dry earth 1000
 GMRi 
Sea water 1
 1 
zîj = 9.86  10−7 f + j  2  10−7  ln + ln De  Ω m
 Dij  De = 2160
p
  ft
f
 1 
= 0.0493 + j 0.0628  ln + 6.843  Ω km p
 Dij  = 0.305  2160 meter
  f
Modified Carson’s Equations (60 Hz and mile)
Conductor
 1 
zîi = ri + 9.86  10−7 f + j  2  10−7  ln + ln De  Ω m distances in ft
 GMRi 
  1  De = 2160
p
=  ri + 9.86  10−7  60 + j 2 60  2  10 −7  ln + ln De   1609.34 Ω mile ft
  f
  GMRi 
 1 
= ri + 0.0953 + j 0.12134  ln + 7.93402  Ω mile
 GMRi  Soil P
−7 −7
 1  Damp earth 100
zîj = 9.86  10 f + j  2  10  ln + ln De  Ω m
 Dij  Dry earth 1000
 
Sea water 1
 1 
= 0.0953 + j 0.12134  ln + 7.93402  Ω mile
 Dij 
 
Summary Impedances of Distribution Line
• Impedance at 50 Hz per km
GMD
– Transposed line zi = ri + j 0.0628 ln Ω km
GMR
– Self and mutual impedances of un-transposed line without ground return
1
zii = ri + j 0.0628 ln Ω km
GMRi
1
zij = j 0.0628ln Ω km
Dij
– Self and mutual impedances of un-transposed line with ground return
 1 
zîi = ri + 0.0493 + j 0.0628  ln + 6.843  Ω km
 GMRi 
 1 
zîj = 0.0493 + j 0.0628  ln + 6.843  Ω km
 Dij 
 
Primitive Impedance Matrix
 1 
zîi = ri + 0.0493 + j 0.0628  ln + 6.843  Ω km
 GMRi 
 1 
ˆzij = 0.0493 + j 0.0628  ln + 6.843  Ω km
 Dij 
 
 zâa zâb zâc zân 

 zˆ zˆbn 
  zîj   zîn  
zˆ pri =  ba
zˆbb zˆbc
  
 zˆca

zˆcb zˆcc zˆcn 

  zˆnj 
   zˆnn 
 zˆna zˆnb zˆnc zˆnn 
10
Primitive Impedance Matrix
 zâa zâb zâc | zâl zâm zân 

 zˆ zˆbb zˆbc | zˆbl zˆbm zˆbn 
 ba
 zˆca zˆcb zˆcc zˆcl zˆcm zˆcn 

|
   zîj 
   zîn  
 zˆ pri  =  − − −− −− −− −− −− − −  ˆ
z  =  
 pri  
 zˆla zˆlb zˆlc | zˆll zˆlm zˆl n 
ˆ 
  znj   zˆnn 
 
 zˆma zˆmb zˆmc | zˆml zˆmm zˆmn 
 zˆ zˆnb zˆnc zˆnl zˆnm zˆnn 
 na |
Kron Reduction
Vag  V 'ag   zâa zâb zâc zân   I a 

     zˆ
 bg   bg 
V V '
 ba zˆbb zˆbc zˆbn   I b  Vabc  V 'abc    zîj   zîn    I abc 
V  = V '  +  zˆca zˆcb zˆcc zˆcn   I c  V  = V '  +   
 cg   cg      ng   ng    zˆnj   zˆnn   I n 
Vng  V 'ng   zˆna zˆnb zˆnc zˆnn   I n 
   
12
Kron Reduction
Vabc  V 'abc    zîj   zîn    I abc 
V  = V '  +   
 ng   ng    zˆnj   zˆnn   I n 
Two separate equations
Vabc  = V 'abc  +  zîj   I abc  +  zîn   I n  and Vng  = V 'ng  +  zˆnj   I abc  +  zˆnn   I n 
Neutral and ground wires are grounded at several locations.

0 = 0 +  zˆnj   I abc  +  zˆnn   I n   I n  = −  zˆnn   zˆnj   I abc 
−1

Vabc  = V 'abc  +  zîj   I abc  −  zîn   zˆnn −1  zˆnj   I abc 

(
= V 'abc  +  zîj  −  zîn   zˆnn   znj 
−1
)  I abc   zabc  =  zîj  −  zîn   zˆnn −1  zˆnj 
= V 'abc  +  zabc  I abc 
13
Kron Reduction
zbc
Vag  V 'ag   zâa zâb zâc zân   I a  Vag  V 'ag   zaa zab zac   I a 
        
 bg   bg 
V V '  zˆ
 ba zˆbb zˆbc zˆbn   I b  V
   = V '  +  zba zbb zbc   I b 
V  = V '  +
bg bg
 zˆca zˆcb zˆcc zˆcn   I c  Vcg  V 'cg   zca zcb zcc   I c 
 cg   cg        
   
  zîj   zîn  
    zabc  =  zîj  −  zîn  zˆnn 
−1
 zˆnj 
  zˆnj 
   zˆnn 
Impedance of Distribution Line
 1 
zîi = ri + 0.0493 + j 0.0628  ln + 6.843  Ω km
 GMRi 
 1 
ˆzij = 0.0493 + j 0.0628  ln + 6.843  Ω km
 Dij 
 

 zˆ zˆbb zˆbc zˆbn 
zˆ pri =  ba
 zˆca zˆcb zˆcc zˆcn 
 
 Z aa Z ab Z ac 
 Z bc 
Z abc  =  Z ba
 zabc  =  zîj  −  zîn   zˆnn 
−1 Z bb
 zˆnj 
 Z ca Z cb Z cc 
Example
Determine the phase impedance matrix. The
phase conductors are 336,400 26/7 ACSR, and
the neutral conductor is 4/0 6/1 ACSR.
Dab = 0.76 m, Dbc = 1.37 m, Dca = 2.13 m

Dan = 1.72 m, Dbn = 1.30 m, Dcn = 1.52 m
Conductor Types Diameter GMR Resistance Capacity

(cm) (m) (Ω/km) (Amp)
336,400 26/7 ACSR 1.83134 0.0074 0.1901 530
4/0 6/1 ACSR 1.43 0.0025 0.3679 340
16
Solutions
Conductor Types GMR Resistance
(m) (Ω/km)
336,400 26/7 ACSR 0.0074 0.1901
4/0 6/1 ACSR 0.0025 0.3679
 1 
Z aa = ri + 0.0493 + j 0.0628  ln + 6.843   /km
 GMRa 
 1 
=0.1901+0.0493+j 0.0628  ln + 6.843   /km
 0.0074 
=0.2394+j 0.7378  /km
17
Solutions
Conductor Types GMR Resistance
(m) (Ω/km)
336,400 26/7 ACSR 0.0074 0.1901
4/0 6/1 ACSR 0.0025 0.3679
 1 
Z ab = 0.0493 + j 0.0628  ln + 6.843   /km
 Dab 
 1 
=0.0493+j 0.0628  ln + 6.843   /km
 0.762 
=0.0493+j 0.4467  /km
18
Solution
 1 
zîi = ri + 0.0493 + j 0.0628  ln + 6.843  Ω km
 GMRi 
 1 
ˆzij = 0.0493 + j 0.0628  ln + 6.843  Ω km
 Dij 
 
• Primitive Impedance Matrix

 0.2394+j 0.7378 0.0493+j 0.4467 0.0493+j 0.3819 0.0493+j 0.3953
0.0493+j 0.4467 0.2394+j 0.7378 0.0493+j 0.4097 0.0493+j 0.4129 
 zˆ pri  =   /km
 0.0493+j 0.3819 0.0493+j 0.4097 0.2394+j 0.7378 0.0493+j 0.4031
 
 0.0493+j 0.3953 0.0493+j 0.4129 0.0493+j 0.4031 0.4172+j 0.8060 
Solution
 0.2394+j 0.7378 0.0493+j 0.4467 0.0493+j 0.3819 0.0493+j 0.3953
0.0493+j 0.4467 0.2394+j 0.7378 0.0493+j 0.4097 0.0493+j 0.4129 
 zˆ pri  =   /km
 0.0493+j 0.3819 0.0493+j 0.4097 0.2394+j 0.7378 0.0493+j 0.4031
 
 0.0493+j 0.3953 0.0493+j 0.4129 0.0493+j 0.4031 0.4172+j 0.8060 
 0.2394+j 0.7378 0.0493+j 0.4467 0.0493+j 0.3819 

 zîj  = 0.0493+j 0.4467 0.2394+j 0.7378 0.0493+j 0.4097 
 
 0.0493+j 0.3819 0.0493+j 0.4097 0.2394+j 0.7378 
0.0493 + j 0.3953 
 zin  = 0.0493 + j 0.4129
0.0493 + j 0.4031 
 znn  = 0.4172+j 0.8060
 znj  =  0.0493 + j 0.3953 0.0493 + j 0.4129 0.0493 + j 0.4031
Solution
 0.2394+j 0.7378 0.0493+j 0.4467 0.0493+j 0.3819 
 zîj  = 0.0493+j 0.4467 0.2394+j 0.7378 0.0493+j 0.4097 
 
 0.0493+j 0.3819 0.0493+j 0.4097 0.2394+j 0.7378
0.0493 + j 0.3953 
 zin  = 0.0493 + j 0.4129
0.0493 + j 0.4031 
 znn  = 0.4172+j 0.8060
 znj  =  0.0493 + j 0.3953 0.0493 + j 0.4129 0.0493 + j 0.4031
 zabc  =  zij  −  zin    znn 

−1
  znj 
0.2792 + j 0.5675 0.0918 + j 0.2691 0.0902 + j 0.2085 
=  0.0918 + j 0.2691 0.2847 + j 0.5527 0.0930 + j 0.2289   /km
0.0902 + j 0.2085 0.0930 + j 0.2289 0.2816 + j 0.5611
The Summary of The Lecture
Series impedance of distribution lines and feeders

Impedance of distribution line with earth return
Kron Reduction
Example of calculations of impedance of distribution lines and feeders
22
Lecture 12
Models of Distribution Lines
and Cables
1
• Impedance at 50 Hz per km GMD
– Transposed line zi = ri + j 0.0628 ln Ω km
GMR
– Self and mutual of Un-transposed without ground return
1
zîi = ri + j 0.0628 ln Ω km
GMRi
1
zîj = j 0.0628ln Ω km
Dij
– Self and mutual impedances with ground return
 1 
zîi = ri + 0.0493 + j 0.0628  ln + 6.843  Ω km
 GMRi 
 1 
zîj = 0.0493 + j 0.0628  ln + 6.843  Ω km
 Dij 
 
 1 
zîi = ri + 0.0493 + j 0.0628  ln + 6.843  Ω km
 GMRi 
 1 
ˆzij = 0.0493 + j 0.0628  ln + 6.843  Ω km
 Dij 
 

 zˆ zˆbn 
  zîj   zîn  
zˆ pri =  ba
zˆbb zˆbc
  
 zˆca

zˆcb zˆcc zˆcn 

  zˆnj 
   zˆnn 
3
zbc
Vag  V 'ag   zâa zâb zâc zân   I a  Vag  V 'ag   zaa zab zac   I a 
        
 bg   bg 
V V '  zˆ
 ba zˆbb zˆbc zˆbn   I b  V
   = V '  +  zba zbb zbc   I b 
V  = V '  +
bg bg
 zˆca zˆcb zˆcc zˆcn   I c  Vcg  V 'cg   zca zcb zcc   I c 
 cg   cg        
   
  zîj   zîn  
    zabc  =  zîj  −  zîn . zˆnn 
−1
.  zˆnj 
  zˆnj 
   zˆnn 
Shunt Admittance of Overhead Line
Qi Vi =
Qi
ln
1
+
( −Qi ) ln 1 + Q j ln 1 + ( −Q j ) ln 1
Qj 2 0 GMRi 2 0 Sii 2 0 Dij 2 0 Sij
Dij
Qi S Qj Sij
Vi = ln ii + ln
Sij 2 0 GMRi 2 0 Dij
Sii
Vj =
Qi
ln
1
+
( −Qi ) ln 1 + Q j ln 1 + ( −Q j ) ln 1
2 0 Dij 2 0 Sij 2 0 GMR j 2 0 S jj
Qi Sij Qj S jj
Vj = ln + ln
2 0 Dij 2 0 GMR j
-Qj
-Qi  1 S 1 Sij 
 ln ii ln 
Vi   2 0 GMRi 2 0 Dij   Qi  =  Pii Pij   Qi 
V  =   Q j   Pij Pjj  Q j 
 j  1
ln
Sij 1
ln
S jj
  
 2 0 Dij 2 0 GMR j 
Qi Qj Vi   Pii Pij   Qi 
Dij V  =  P Pjj  Q j 
 j   ij
Sij Therefore
Sii −1
 Qi   Pii Pij  Vi 
Q  =  P Pjj  V j 
 j   ij
−1
Cii Cij  Vi   Pii Pij  Vi 
C =
-Qj  ij Cij  V j   Pij Pjj  V j 
−1
-Qi Cii Cij   Pii Pij 
C =
 ij Cij   Pij Pjj 
C  =  P 
−1
Q1 Qn
Qi Qj ˆ ˆ ˆ ˆ  Q
Dij V1   Paa P P .. P  
V   P  1
ab ac an
ˆ ˆ ˆ ˆ  Q
Sij
Q2  2   ba Pbb Pbc .. P bn  2
Sii V3  =  Pˆ ˆ ˆ ˆ   Q3 
   ca Pcb Pcc .. P cn 
 
 :   : : : .. :  : 
   
 n 
V ˆ ˆ ˆ ˆ
Pnn   Qn 

 Pna Pnb Pnc .. 
-Q2
-Qj
-Qi -Qn 1 Sii 1 Sij
-Q1 Pii = ln m/F Pij = ln F/m
2 0 GMRi 2 0 Dij
Sii Sij
=17.98 ln km /  F = 17.98 ln km /  F
GMRi Dij
ˆ ˆ ˆ ˆ  Q
V1   Paa P P .. P  
V   P  1
ab ac an
ˆ ˆ ˆ ˆ  Q  ˆ   Pîn   Q
 2   ba Pbb P bc .. P bn  2 Vabc    Pij      abc 
V3  =  Pˆ ˆ ˆ ˆ   Q3  V =  
   ca Pcb Pcc .. P cn 
   n   Pˆ   Pˆnn    Qn 
  nj   
 :   : : : .. :  : 
  
Vn 
  ˆ
 Pna
ˆ
Pnb
ˆ
P nc .. ˆ
Pnn  Q 
 n
−1
Therefore  Pabc  =  Pîj  −  Pîn  .  Pˆnn  .  Pˆnj 
Cabc  =  Pabc 
−1
And  F/km
Neglecting the shunt conductance, the phase shunt admittance
matrix is given by  y  = 0 + j C   S km
abc abc
Admittance of Distribution Line
1 Sii 1 Sij
Pii = ln m/F Pij = ln F/m
2 0 GMRi 2 0 Dij
Sii Sij
=17.98 ln km /  F = 17.98 ln km /  F
GMRi Dij
Pˆ Pab Pac Pan 

 
aa
P Pbb Pbc Pbn 

Ppri =  ba 
 Pca Pcb Pcc Pcn 
P Pnn 
 na Pnb Pnc 
 Paa Pab Pac 
 Pbc 
−1   =  Pba
 Pabc  Pbb
 Pabc  =  Pîj  −  Pîn  .  Pˆnn  .  Pˆnj  

Pcc 
 Pca Pcb 
Sii Sij
Pii =17.98 ln km /  F Pij = 17.98 ln km /  F
GMRi Dij
136.12 56.64 38.13 40.55

56.64 136.12 46.02 45.70 km /  F
38.13 46.02 136.12 42.80
40.55 45.70 42.80 137.89
−1
 Pabc  =  Pîj  −  Pîn  .  Pˆnn  .  Pˆnj 
Conductor Types GMR(m)
124.20 43.20 25.55
Phase 0.0074
43.20 120.98 31.83 km /  F
Neutral 0.0025 25.55 31.83 122.84
Caa Cab Cac 
−1  Cbb Cbc   F/km
Cabc  = Pabc  = Cba
 Cca Ccb Ccc 
0.0093 -0.0030 -0.0012

Cabc  = -0.0030 0.0099 -0.0019  F/km
-0.0012 -0.0019 0.0089
Caa Cab Cac  3.52 -1.14 -0.44

 Cbb Cbc  = j
Yabc  = j  Cba -1.14 3.72 -0.73 μS/km
 Cca Ccb Ccc  -0.44 -0.73 3.35
Impedance and Admittance of
Underground Cables
Underground Cable
dc= diameter of phase conductor

ds= outside diameter of the tape shield
dod =outside diameter over jacket
T= thickness of copper tap shield
Cable Layouts
RC and GMRC
DS
GMRS =
2
• The Carson’s equations can be applied to underground cables in much

the same manner as for overhead lines.
• The circuit will result in a 6 by 6 primitive impedance matrix.
• For underground circuits those have the additional neutral conductor,
the primitive impedance matrix will be 7 by 7.
Impedance of Tape-Shielded Cables
 zâa zâb zâc | zâl zâm zân 
 zˆ ˆ ˆ zˆbl zˆbm zˆbn 
 ba zbb zbc |
 zˆca zˆcb zˆcc | zˆcl zˆcm zˆcn 
 
 zˆ pri  =  − − − − − − − − − − −− − −
 zˆla zˆlb zˆlc | zˆll zˆlm zˆl n 
 
 zˆma zˆmb zˆmc | zˆml zˆmm zˆmn 
 zˆ zˆnn 
 na zˆnb zˆnc | zˆnl zˆnm
 
 Z abc  =  zîj  −  zîn  zˆnn 
1 −1
zîi = ri + 0.0493 + j 0.0628  ln + 6.843  Ω km  zˆnj 
 GMRi 
 1   Z aa Z ab Z ac 
zîj = 0.0493 + j 0.0628  ln + 6.843  Ω km 
 Dij  Z abc  =  Z ba Z bb Z bc 
 
 Z ca Z cb Z cc 
Capacitance of Tape-Shielded Cables
2 0 r
Cag =
R
ln s
Rc
Can 0 0 
 0  F/m
Cabc  =  0 Cbn
 0 0 Ccn 
Can 0 0 
 0  μS/km
Yabc  = j  1000  106   0 Cbn
 0 0 Ccn 
PI model of Distribution Lines or Cables
VLGabc n   a  b  . VLGabc m 

 =   
  I abc n   c      abc m 
d I
1
a = d = 1+ ZY
2
b=Z
 1 
c = Y  1 + YZ 
 4 
1
 a  =  d  = u  +  Z abc Yabc 
VLGabc n   a  b  . VLGabc m  2
 =    b  =  Z abc 
  abc n 
 I   c      abc m 
d I
 c  = Yabc  u  + Yabc  Z abc 
1
 4 
1
 a  =  d  = u  +  Z abc Yabc 
2
b =  Z abc 
c  = Yabc  u  + Yabc  Z abc 
1
 4 
VLGabc n =  a VLGabc m + b  I abc m

  a VLGabc m = VLGabc n − b  I abc m
VLGabc m =  a  VLGabc n −  a  b  I abc m
−1 −1
[ A] =  a 
−1
Therefore VLGabc m =  A .VLGabc n −  B  . I abc m  B  =  a  b 

−1
The Short Line Model of Distribution Lines or Cables
a = d =1
b=Z
c=0
1
 a  =  d  = u  +  Z abc Yabc   a  =  d  = u 
2
b =  Z abc  Ignoring shunt b =  Z abc 
c  = Yabc  1 + Yabc  Z abc 
1 susceptance
 4   c  =  0
Summary of The Lecture
Shunt admittance of overhead distribution lines
Impedance and Admittance of Underground Cables
Distribution system line models
PI Model
Short-line model
21
Lecture 13
Modeling of Single-Phase and
Three-Phase Transformers
1
Review of The Last Lecture: PI Model
1
 a  =  d  = u  +  Z abc Yabc 
VLGabc n   a  b   . VLGabc m  2
 =    b  =  Z abc 
  abc n 
 I   c      abc m 
d I
 c  = Yabc  1 + Yabc  Z abc 
1
 4 
Review of The Last Lecture: Short Line Model
1
 a  =  d  = u  +  Z abc Yabc   a  =  d  = u 
2
b =  Z abc  Ignoring shunt b =  Z abc 
c  = Yabc  1 + Yabc  Z abc 
1 susceptance
 4   c  =  0
Single-Phase Two-Winding Transformer
E1 N
nt = = 1
E2 N2
Vs   a b  VL 
I  =   
 s  c d   I 2 
VL = AVs − BI 2
VS = nt (VL + Z t I 2 ) = ntVL + nt Z t I 2
I2  1
I S = YmVS + I1 = ntYmVL + ntYm Z t I 2 + = ntYmVL +  ntYm Z t +  I 2
nt  nt 
VS = ntVL + nt Z t I 2
 1
I S = ntYmVL +  ntYm Z t +  I 2
 nt 
1
at = nt bt = nt Z t VL = VS − Z t I 2
nt
 1
ct = ntYm d t =  ntYm Z t +  1
 nt  At = Bt = Z t
nt
The Two-Winding Autotransformer
N1
nt = N1
N2 N1 N2 n
nt _ new = = = t
N 2 + N1 1 + N1
1 + nt
N 2
at = nt bt = nt Z t at _ new = nt _ new bt _ new = nt _ new Z t

 1 1
ct = ntYm dt =  ntYm Z t +  ct _ new = nt _ newYm dt _ new =nt _ new Ym  Z t +
 nt  nt _ new
Representation of Voltages and Currents
Gr. Wye-Gr. Wye
T VLN ABC  VLN abc 

VAN VBN VCN IA IB I C  =   Van Vbn Vcn Ia Ib I c  T =  
 I ABC   I abc 
Delta-Delta
VLLABC  VLLabc 
VAB VBC VCA IA IB I C  T =   Vab Vbc Vca Ia Ib
T
I c  =  
 I ABC   I abc 
T
Winding Currents = IDAB IDBC IDCA  = [ IDABC ] Winding Currents = IDab IDbc
T
IDca  = [ IDabc ]
The Delta–Grounded Wye Connection
VAN VBN VCN IA IB I C  T Van Vbn Vcn Ia Ib I c  T
VLN ABC   at  bt   VLN abc 

= c
 I
 ABC   t   dt   I abc 
We would like to
derive VLN abc  =  At   VLN ABC  −  Bt    I abc 
Common Variable and Matrices
• Transformer turns ratio VLLRated HV
Delta-Star nt =
VHV VLN Rated LV
nt =
VLV VLN Rated HV
Star-Star nt =
VLN Rated LV
 Zta 0 0 
 Ztabc  = 0 Ztb 0 

 0 0 Ztc 

VAG   nt 0 0  Vta 
V  =  0 n 0   Vt 
 BG   t   b
VCG   0 0 nt  Vtc 
VLGABC  =  AV Vtabc 
 I A  1 nt 0 0   I a   Ia 
 I  =  0 1 n 0   I  = AI  I 
 B  t   b    b 
 I C   0 0 1 nt   I c   I c 
 I ABC  =  AI  I abc 
Voltage Conversion: Line to Neutral -> Line to Line
VAB = VAN − VBN VAB   1 −1 0  VAN 
V  =  0 1 −1 V 
VBC = VBN − VCN  BC     BN 
VCA = VCN − VAN VCA   −1 0 1  VCN 
VLLABC  =  D   VLN ABC 

1 -1 0 
Where  D  = 
 0 1 -1


 -1 0 1

Voltage Conversion: Line to Line -> Line to Neutral
VAN  VAB 
V  = W V 
 BN     BC 
VLN ABC  = W VLLABC 
VCN  VCA 
−1
VLL _ 0  1 1 1 VAB 
VLL012  =  AS  VLLABC 
−1
  
 LL _1  = 1 as
V 2
as  V 
 BC 
VLL _ 2  1 as as2  VCA  Where as = 11200 and as2 = 12400
 
−1
VLN _ 0  1 1 1 VAN 
  
 VLN _1 =
  1 a 2
s as  V 
 BN  VLN 012  = [ AS ]−1 VLN ABC  VLN ABC  = [ AS ]VLN 012 
VLN _ 2  1 as as2  VCN 
 
12
Also
VLN _ 0  1 0 0  VLL _ 0  1 1
    V  Where ts = 300 and ts* =  − 300
V
 LN _1  = 0 t *
s 0   LL _1  3 3
VLN _ 2  0 0 ts  VLL _ 2 
   
VLN 012  = [T ]VLL012 
Positive Sequence Negative Sequence
13
VLL012  =  AS  VLLABC 
−1
VLN ABC  = [ AS ]VLN 012 

VLN ABC  =  AS [T ]VLL012 
VLN 012  = [T ]VLL012  VLN ABC  =  AS [T ][ AS ]−1 VLLABC 
VLN ABC  = W VLLABC 
−1
1 1 1  1 0 0  1 1 1 2 1 0 
W  = 1 as2 a  0 ts* 0  1 as2 a  = 0 2 1 
1
3 
1 a as2  0 0 ts  1 a as 
2
1 0 2 
1 1
Where as = 11200 , as2 = 12400 , ts = 300 and ts* =  − 300
3 3
14
Modeling of single-phase distribution transformer
Representation of voltages and currents in three-phase
distribution transformers
Voltage Conversion
1 -1 0 
Line to Neutral -> Line to Line [VLLABC ] = [ D ][VLN ABC ] where  D  = 0 1 -1
 -1 0 1
2 1 0
where W  = 0 2 1 
1
Line to Line -> Line to Neutral [VLN ABC ] = [W ][VLLABC ]
3
1 0 2 
15
Lecture 14
Modeling of Three-Phase
Transformers-Part I
1
VS = ntVL + nt Z t I 2
 1
I S = ntYmVL +  ntYm Z t +  I 2
 nt 
1
at = nt bt = nt Z t VL = VS − Z t I 2
nt
 1
ct = ntYm d t =  ntYm Z t +  1
 nt  A= B = Zt
nt
Gr. Wye-Gr. Wye
VAN VBN VCN IA IB I C  Van Vbn Vcn Ia Ib I c 
Delta-Delta
VAB VBC VCA I A I B I C 

Vab Vbc Vca I a I b I c 
IDABC  = I AB I BC I CA 
IDabc  = I ab I bc I ca 
Delta-Star nt =
VHV VLN Rated LV
nt =
VLV VLN Rated HV
Star-Star nt =
VLN Rated LV
 Zta 0 0 
 Ztabc  = 0 Ztb 0 

 0 0 Ztc 

 I ABC  =  AI  I abc 
Voltage Conversion
Line to Neutral -> Line to Line
1 -1 0 
VLLABC  =  D VLN ABC  Where  D  = 0 1 -1
 -1 0 1
Line to Line -> Line to Neutral

2 1 0
W  = 0 2 1 
1
VLN ABC  = W VLLABC  Where
3
1 0 2 
Current Conversion: Delta Phase Currents -> Line Currents
 I A  1 0 -1  I AB 
 I  =  -1 1 0   I 
 B    BC 
 I C   0 -1 1  I CA 
 I ABC  =  K  IDABC 
1 0 -1
where  K  = -1 1 0 
0 -1 1 
Current Conversion: Line Currents -> Delta Phase Currents
−1
• Case-1  I a   1 0 −1  I ba   I ba   1 0 −1  I a 
 I  =  −1 1 0   I    I cb  =  −1 1 0   I b 
 b    cb 
0   1 1 1   I ac   I ac   1 1 1   0 
Therefore
 I ba  1 -1 1   Ia 
I  =  1 1
2 1    I b 
 cb  3 
 I ac   -2 -1 1   0 
It can also be written as

 I ba  1 -1 0   Ia 
I  = 1  1 2 0   I b 
 cb  3 
 I ac   −2 -1 0   I c   IDabc  =  L   I abc 
• Case-2
I a = I ba − I ac
• Case-2 I b = I cb − I ba
Applying KVL to secondary side delta
Vtab − Ztab  I ba + Vtbc − Ztbc  I cb + Vtca − Ztca  I ac = 0
Vtab + Vtbc + Vtca = Ztab  I ba + Ztbc  I cb + Ztca  I ac
VAB VBC VCA

+ + = Ztab  I ba + Ztbc  I cb + Ztca  I ac
nt nt nt
0 = Ztab  I ba + Ztbc  I cb + Ztca  I ac

I a = I ba − I ac
• Case-2
I b = I cb − I ba
0 = Ztab  Iba + Ztbc  I cb + Ztca  I ac
In matrix form
 I a  1 0 -1   I ba 
 I  =  -1 1 0   I cb 
 b 
 0   Ztab Ztbc Ztca   I ac 
Therefore
−1
 I ba  1 0 -1   Ia 
 I  = -1 1 0  I 
 cb    b
 I ac   Ztab Ztbc Ztca   0 
−1
• Case-2  I ba  1 0 -1   I a 
 I  = -1 1 0   I 
  cb   b
 I ac   Ztab Ztbc Ztca   0 
Therefore
 I ba   Ztca -Ztbc 1  I a 
I  = 1  Zt Ztab + Ztca 1  I b 
  Zt + Zt + Zt
cb  ca
 I ac  ab bc ca
 − Ztab − Ztbc -Ztbc 1  0 
Setting the last column of the matrix to zeros

 I ba   Ztca -Ztbc 0  Ia 
I  = 1  Zt Ztab + Ztca 0   I b 
  Zt + Zt + Zt
cb  ca
 − Ztab − Ztbc -Ztbc 0   I c 
• Case-2  I ba   Ztca -Ztbc 0   Ia 
I  = 1  Zt Ztab + Ztca 0   I b 
  Zt + Zt + Zt
cb  ca
 − Ztab − Ztbc -Ztbc 0   I c 
In matrix form
 IDabc  =  M  I abc 
Where
 Ztca -Ztbc 0
1  Zt 0 
M  = Ztab + Ztca
Ztab + Ztbc + Ztca 
ca
 − Ztab − Ztbc -Ztbc 0 

• Case-2  IDabc  =  M  I abc 
 Ztca -Ztbc 0
1  Zt 0 
M  = Ztab + Ztca
ca
If the three transformers have equal impedances
 I ba  1 -1 0  I a 
 I  = 1 1 2 0   I b 
 cb  3 
 I ac   -2 -1 0   I c 
 IDabc  =  L    I abc 
Summary: Voltage Conversion
1 -1 0 
VLLABC  =  DVLN ABC  Where  D  = 0 1 -1
-1 0 1

2 1 0
W  = 0 2 1 
1
3
1 0 2 
Summary: Current Conversion
Delta Phase Currents -> Line Currents 1 0 -1
 I abc  =  K  IDabc  Where  K  = -1 1 0 
 0 -1 1 
Line Currents -> Delta Phase Currents
• Path for zero sequence is not available in transformer
1 -1 0
1
 IDabc  =  L  I abc  Where  L =  1 2 0 
3
 −2 -1 0 
• Path for zero sequence current is available in transformer
 Ztca -Ztbc 0
 IDabc  =  M  I abc  1  Zt 0 
Where M  = Ztab + Ztca
ca

Lecture 15
Transformers – Part II
1
Gr. Wye-Gr. Wye
VAN VBN VCN IA IB I C  Van Vbn Vcn Ia Ib I c 
Delta-Delta
VAB VBC VCA I A I B I C 

Vab Vbc Vca I a I b I c 
IDABC  = I AB I BC I CA 
IDabc  = I ab I bc I ca 
VAN VBN VCN IA IB I C  T Van Vbn Vcn Ia Ib I c  T
VLN ABC   at  bt   VLN abc 

= c
 I
 ABC   t   dt   I abc 
We would like to
derive VLN abc  =  At   VLN ABC  −  Bt    I abc 
Delta-Star nt =
VHV VLN Rated LV
nt =
VLV VLN Rated HV
Star-Star nt =
VLN Rated LV
 Zta 0 0 
 Ztabc  = 0 Ztb 0 

 0 0 Ztc 

 I ABC  =  AI  I abc 
Summary: Voltage Conversion
1 -1 0 
VLLABC  =  D VLN ABC  Where  D  = 0 1 -1
 -1 0 1

2 1 0
W  = 0 2 1 
1
3
1 0 2 
Summary: Current Conversion
Delta Phase Currents -> Line Currents 1 0 -1
 I abc  =  K  IDabc  Where  K  = -1 1 0 
 0 -1 1 
Line Currents -> Delta Phase Currents
• Path for zero sequence is not available in transformer
1 -1 0
1
 IDabc  =  L   I abc  Where  L =  1 2 0 
3
 −2 -1 0 
• Path for zero sequence current is available in transformer
 Ztca -Ztbc 0
 IDabc  =  M  I abc  1  Zt 0 
Where M  = Ztab + Ztca
ca

The Grounded Wye–Grounded Wye Connection
Vtabc  = VLGabc  +  Ztabc    I abc 
Also,
VAG   nt 0 0  Vta 
V  =  0 n 0   Vt 
 BG   t   b
VCG   0 0 nt  Vtc 
VLGABC  =  AV   Vtabc 
Thus,
VLGABC  =  AV   VLGabc  +  Ztabc    I abc 
VLGABC  =  AV   VLGabc  +  AV    Ztabc    I abc 

Where
 nt 0 0
 at  =  AV  = 0 nt 0 
0 0 nt 
 nt  Zt a 0 0 
 nt  Zt b 0 
bt  =  AV    Ztabc  = 0
0 0 nt  Ztc 
 I ABC  =  AI  I abc 
Comparing with
 I ABC  = Ct   VLGabc  +  dt    I abc 
0 0 0
 ct  = 0 0 0
 and

0 0 0

1 
 0 0 
 nt 
 1 
 dt  = [ AI ] = 0 0 
 nt 
 1
0 0 
 nt 

Can be written as
VLGabc  =  AV   VLGABC  −  Ztabc    I abc 
−1
1 
 0 0
 nt   Zta 0 0
   0 
1
 At  =  AV   Bt  = 0 Ztb
−1
= 0 0 
 nt   0 0 Ztc 
 1
0 0 
 nt 
Vtabc  = VLGabc  +  Ztabc    I abc 
VLLABC  =  AV   Vtabc 
W   VLLABC  = W  AV   VLGabc  +  Ztabc    I abc 

VLN ABC  = W  AV VLGabc  + W  AV  Ztabc    I abc 
Comparing with
VLN ABC  =  at VLGabc  + bt    I abc 
VLLRated High Side
nt =
VLN Rated Low Side
2 1 0   nt 0 0 2 1 0
1   0 0  = t  0
1
1 
n
at  = W  AV  =  0 2 nt 2
3 3
 1 0 2   0 0 nt   1 0 2 
and
 2 1 0   Zta 0 0   2 Zta Ztb 0 

0 2 1   0 0  = t  0 Ztc 
nt  n
bt  = W  AV  Ztabc  =  Ztb 2 Ztb
3 3
 1 0 2   0 0 Ztc   Zta 0 2 Ztc 
 IDABC  =  AI  I abc 
and I ABC = [ K ][ IDABC ]

I ABC = [ K ][ AI ][ I abc ]
Comparing with
 I ABC  =  ct VLN abc  +  dt  I abc 
0 0 0  1 0 −1 1 nt 0 0  1 0 −1
ct  = 0 0 0   d t  = [ K ][ AI ] =  −1 1 0   0 0  =  −1 1 0
1
1 nt
nt  
0 0 0   0 −1 1   0 0 1 nt   0 −1 1 
1 
 nt 0 0
VLN ABC  = W  AV VLN abc  + W  AV  Ztabc    I abc    1 -1 0 
0 1 -1
 At  =  AV   D  =  0 0
−1 1
nt   
   -1 0 1
Therefore 0 1
0
W  AV VLN abc  = VLN ABC  − W  AV  Ztabc    I abc   nt 
1 -1 0 
VLN abc  =  AV  W  VLN ABC  −  Ztabc    I abc 
−1 −1
=  0 1 -1
1 
nt
VLN abc  =  AV   D VLN ABC  −  Ztabc    I abc 
−1  -1 0 1
Comparing with  Zta 0 0

 0 
VLN abc  =  At VLN ABC  −  Bt    I abc   Bt  = 0 Ztb
 0 0 Ztc 
• Three-phase transformer models

• Transformation Matrices
• Grounded Wye/Grounded Wye
• Delta /Grounded Wye
Lecture 16
Transformers – Part III
1
Review of the Transformer Modeling
1 -1 0 
[VLLABC ] = [ D ][VLN ABC ] where  D  = 0 1 -1
 -1 0 1
2 1 0
1
[VLN ABC ] = [W ][VLLABC ] where W  = 0 2 1 
3
1 0 2 
1 0 -1
[ I ABC ] = [ K ][ IDABC ] where  K  = -1 1 0 
 0 -1 1 
[ IDABC ] = [ L][ I ABC ]

Or [ IDABC ] = [ M ][ I ABC ]
1 -1 0  Ztca -Ztbc 0
1
 L =  1 0  and  M  =  Zt 0 
Where 1
2
 Ztab + Ztca
Ztab + Ztbc + Ztca
ca
3
 −2 -1 0   − Ztab − Ztbc -Ztbc 0 
2
Summary of the Last Lecture
VLN ABC  =  at VLN abc  + bt  I abc 
 I ABC  = ct VLN abc  +  dt  I abc 
• Grounded Wye/Grounded Wye (Yg yg0)
VLGABC  =  AV VLGabc  +  AV  Ztabc  I abc  VLGABC  = nt u VLGabc  + nt Zt u  I abc 
 I ABC  =  AI  I abc  1
 I ABC  = u  I abc 
nt
Summary of the Last Lecture
• Three-phase transformer models 2 1 0 1 0 -1
VLN ABC  =  at VLN abc  + bt  I abc  1
W  = 0 2 1  and  K  = -1 1 0 
3
 I ABC  = ct VLN abc  +  dt  I abc  1 0 2   0 -1 1 
• Delta /Grounded Wye (D yg11)

VLN ABC  = W  AV VLGabc  + W  AV  Ztabc    I abc  VLN ABC  = nt W VLGabc  + nt Zt W  I abc 
 I ABC  = [ K ][ AI ][ I abc ] 1
 I ABC  = [ K ][ I abc ]
nt
The Ungrounded Wye–Delta Connection (Yd1)
Vtabc  = VLLabc  +  Ztabc  IDabc  1
VLN ABC  =  AV Vtabc  2

VLN ABC  =  AV  VLLabc  + Ztabc  IDabc 
=  AV  VLLabc  +  AV  Ztabc  IDabc 
VLN ABC  =  AV  D  VLN abc  +  AV  Ztabc   L  I abc 
VLN ABC  =  at VLN abc  + bt  I abc 

VLN ABC  =  AV  D VLN abc  +  AV Ztabc   L I abc 
 nt 0 0   1 −1 0   1 −1 0 
   
0   0 1 −1 = nt  0 1 −1
at  =  AV  D  =  0 nt
 0 0 nt   −1 0 1   −1 0 1 
 nt 0 0   Ztab 0 0   1 −1 0 
 0   0 0    1 2 0 
1
bt  =  AV Ztabc  L  =  0 nt Ztbc
3
 0 0 nt   0 0 Ztca   −2 −1 0 
 I ABC  =  AI   IDabc 
=  AI [ L]I abc 
0 0 0 
 ct  = 0 0 0  and
 0 0 0 
1 nt 0 0  1 −1 0
 0    1
1
0 
dt  =  0 1 nt 2
3
 0 0 1 nt   −2 −1 0 
 I ABC  =  ct VLN abc  +  dt  I abc 

VLN abc  =  At 
VLN ABC  −  Bt 
 I abc 
−1
 2 1 0   nt 0 0
=  0 2 1   0 0 
1
 At  = W  AV 
−1
nt 
3
 1 0 2   0 0 nt 
 2 1 0   Ztab 0 0  1 −1 0 
1  0    1
1
2 0 
 Bt  = W  Ztabc  L  =  0 2 1   0 Ztbc
3 3
 1 0 2   0 0 Ztca   −2 −1 0 
The Delta-Delta Connection (Dd0)
VLLABC  =  AV   Vtabc  1
Vtabc  = VLLabc  +  Ztabc    IDabc  2

VLLABC  =  AV  VLLabc  + Ztabc   IDabc  
VLLABC  =  AV  VLLabc  +  AV  Ztabc  IDabc 
W VLLABC  = W  AV VLLabc  + W  AV Ztabc  IDabc 
VLN ABC  = W  AV  VLLabc  + W  AV  Ztabc   IDabc 

VLLRated High Side
nt = VLN ABC  = W  AV  D  VLN abc  + W  AV Ztabc  M I abc 
VLLRated Low Side
 2 1 0   nt 0 0  1 -1 0 
at = W  AV  D  = 0 2 1   0 0  0 1 -1
1
nt
3
1 0 2   0 0 nt  -1 0 1
 2 1 0   nt 0 0   Ztab 0 0   Ztca -Ztbc 0

 
bt = W  AV   Ztabc   M  = 0 2 1   0 0   0 0  
1 1
nt Ztab  Ztca Ztab + Ztca 0
3 Ztab + Ztbc + Ztca
1 0 2   0 0 nt   0 0 Ztab   − Ztab − Ztbc -Ztbc 0 
If Ztab = Ztbc = Ztca = Zt

  2 1 0    1 -1 0 
1   1  
bt = W  AV   Ztabc   M  = nt Zt  0 2 1    -1 2 0  
 3 1 0 2    3  −2 − 1 0  
     
14
15
 IDABC  =  AI  IDabc 
 K  IDABC  =  AI  K  IDabc 
 I ABC  =  AI  I abc 
0 0 0  1/ nt 0 0 
ct = 0 0 0  and  dt  =  0 1/ nt 0 
0 0 0   0 0 1/ nt 
 I ABC  = ct   VLN abc  +  dt    I abc 
VLN ABC  = W  AV  D  VLN abc  + W  AV Ztabc  M I abc 
W  AV  D VLN abc  = VLN ABC  − W  AV Ztabc  M I abc 

VLN abc  =  D   AV  W  VLN ABC  −  D  Ztabc  M  I abc 
−1 −1 −1 −1
VLN abc  = W   AV   D  VLN ABC  − W  Ztabc   M  I abc 

−1
At Bt
VLN abc  = W   AV   D  VLN ABC  − W  Ztabc   M  I abc 
−1
At Bt
 2 -1 -1 Bt = Zt W  L 
1  
At = -1 2 -1
3nt  
-1 -1 2 
1 -1 0  2 1 0 1 -1 0  Ztca -Ztbc 0
 Zt 0 
W  = 0 2 1 
1 1
0 
1
 D  = 0 1 -1  L =  1 2 M  = Ztab + Ztca
ca
3 3  − Ztab − Ztbc
 -1 0 1 1 0 2   −2 -1 0  -Ztbc 0 

• Un-Grounded Wye-Delta (Yd1)
• Delta-Delta (Dd0)
Lecture 17
Transformers – Part IV
1
• Three-phase transformer models 2 1 0 1 0 -1
VLN ABC  =  at VLN abc  + bt  I abc  1
W  = 0 2 1  and  K  = -1 1 0 
3
 I ABC  = ct VLN abc  +  dt  I abc  1 0 2   0 -1 1 
• Grounded Wye/Grounded Wye (Yg yg0)

VLGABC  =  AV VLGabc  +  AV  Ztabc  I abc  VLGABC  = nt u VLGabc  + nt Zt u  I abc 
 I ABC  =  AI  I abc  1
 I ABC  = u  I abc 
nt
• Delta /Grounded Wye (D yg11)

VLN ABC  = W  AV VLGabc  + W  AV  Ztabc    I abc  VLN ABC  = nt W VLGabc  + nt Zt W  I abc 
1
 I ABC  = [ K ][ AI ][ I abc ]  I ABC  = [ K ][ I abc ]
nt
• Un-Grounded Wye/Delta (Y d1)
VLN ABC  = nt  D VLN abc  + nt Z t  L I abc 
1
 I ABC  =  AI [ L] I abc   I ABC  = [ L] I abc 
nt
• Delta /Delta (Dd0)
VLN ABC  = W  AV  D  VLN abc  VLN ABC  = nt W  D  VLN abc 
+ W  AV  Ztabc  M  I abc  + nt Z t W  L  I abc 
 I ABC  =  AI  I abc 
1
 I ABC  = u  I abc 
nt
1 -1 0  2 1 0 1 -1 0  Ztca -Ztbc 0
1  Zt 0 
W  = 0 2 1  0 
1 1
 D  = 0 1 -1  L =  1 2 M  = Ztab + Ztca
ca
3 3  − Ztab − Ztbc
 -1 0 1 1 0 2   −2 -1 0  -Ztbc 0 
at bt ct dt
nt u   0 1
Yg yg0 nt Zt u  u 
nt
1
D yg11 nt W  nt Zt W   0 nt
[K ]
1
Y d1 nt  D  nt Z t  L   0 nt
[ L]
1
Dd0 nt W  D  + nt Z t W  L   0 u 
nt
4
Example
3-phase, 200kVA, 11 kV / 433 V, 50 Hz kVLLHV = 11 kV
Connection HV->Delta kVLN LV = 0.433 3 kV
Connection LV-> Star (Neutral brought out) kVA = 200 kVA
Vector group-> Dyn-11
kVLLHV
The percentage impedance 4 87 0 % (at 750 C) nt = = 44.0
kVLN LV
Z PU = 0.0021 + 0.0399i
kVLL2
Z base = = 0.9374
MVA
Z t = Z PU  Z base
= 0.0020 + 0.0374i
5
Example
0.0020 + 0.0374i 0 0
2 1 0
W  = 0 2 1 
Ztabc = 0 0.0020 + 0.0374i 0 1
0 0 0.0020 + 0.0374i 3
1 0 2 
29.3342 14.6671 0
at = nt W  = 0 29.3342 14.6671
1 0 -1
14.6671 0 29.3342
 K  = -1 1 0 
0.0576 + 1.0985i 0.0288 + 0.5492i 0 0 -1 1 
bt = nt Zt W  = 0 0.0576 + 1.0985i 0.0288 + 0.5492i
0.0288 + 0.5492i 0 0.0576 + 1.0985i
0.0227 0 -0.0227
0 0 0 1
ct = dt = [ K ] = -0.0227 0.0227 0
0 0 0 nt 0 -0.0227 0.0227
0 0 0
Open Wye–Open Delta Connection
Vtab = Vab + Ztab I a
Vtbc = Vbc − Ztbc I c
Also
VAG   nt 0 0  Vtab 
V  =  0 nt 0  Vtbc 
 BG  
VCG   0 0 0  Vtca 
VAG = nt Vtab = nt Vab + nt Ztab I a

VBG = nt Vtbc = nt Vbc − nt Ztbc I c
VAG = nt Vab + nt Ztab I a
VBG = nt Vbc − nt Ztbc I c
Writing them in matrix form
VAG   nt 0 0  Vab   nt Ztab 0 0  Ia 
V  =  0 nt 0  Vbc  +  0 0 -nt Ztbc   I b 
 BG  
VCG   0 0 0  Vca   0 0 0   I c 
VLGABC  =  AV   VLLabc  + bt    I abc 

VLGABC  =  AV    D   VLN abc  + bt    I abc 
at bt
1 
n 0 0
I A   t  Ia 
 I  = 0 0
1  
-   Ib 
 B  nt
 I C     Ic 
 
0 0 0
 
 
 I ABC  =  dt    I abc 
 I ABC  =  ct   VLN abc  +  dt    I abc 

1
Vab =  VAG − Ztab  I a
VAG = nt Vab + nt Ztab I a nt
VBG = nt Vbc − nt Ztbc I c Vbc =
1
 VBG + Ztbc  I c
nt
1 
 0 0
Vab   nt  VAG   Ztab 0 0  Ia 
V   
0   VBG  −  0 -Ztab    I b 
1
 bc  = 0 0
 nt  V   − Zt 0
Vca  Ztab   I c 
 1 1   CG   ab
- - 0
 nt nt 
VLLabc  =  BV   VLGABC  −  Ztabc    I abc 

VLLabc  =  BV   VLGABC  −  Ztabc    I abc 
W VLLabc  = W  BV   VLGABC  − W    Ztabc    I abc 
VLN abc  =  At   VLGABC  −  Bt    I abc 

The Thevenin’s Equivalent Circuit
VLN ABC  =  ELN ABC  −  Zsys ABC  I ABC 
Where  I ABC  =  dt  I abc 
VLN ABC  =  ELN ABC  −  Zsys ABC  dt  I abc 

Also VLN abc  =  At VLN ABC  −  Bt  I abc 
VLN abc  =  At  ELN ABC  −  Zsys ABC  dt  I abc  −  Bt  I abc 
VLN abc  =  At  ELN ABC  −  Zsys ABC  dt  I abc  −  Bt  I abc 

VLN abc  =  At   ELN ABC  −  At  Zsys ABC  d t   I abc  −  Bt   I abc 
   
VLN abc  =  At   ELN ABC  −  At  Zsys ABC  d t  +  Bt   I abc 
 =
VLN abc  − 
 Ethabc  Zthabc 
 I abc 

• Summary of three-phase transformer model
• Example of 11 / 0.433 kV
• Open Wye/Open Delta
• The Thevenin’s equivalent circuit
15
Lecture 18
Modeling of Step Voltage
Regulators - Part I
1
Review of the Transformer Modeling
Modeling of Transformers
• Single-phase transformer models
• Transformation Matrices
• Grounded Wye/Grounded Wye
• Delta /Grounded Wye
• Un-Grounded Wye/Delta
• Delta/Delta
• Open Wye/Open Delta
2
Voltage Regulation
3
Causes of under-voltage and over-voltage
Improper or less-efficient equipment operation
Tripping of sensitive loads
Equipment damage or failure
High no-load losses in transformer
Overheating or burning of induction motor
4
Voltage Regulation Techniques
On-Load Tap Changing (OLTC) Transformer

Bus Step-voltage Regulator
Voltage Booster
Feeder Voltage Regulators (Induction Regulator)
Fixed and Switched Capacitor
5
Step-Voltage Regulator
• Voltage level: The desired voltage to be maintained at the load center.
• Bandwidth: The allowed variance of voltage at load center from set
voltage level.
• Time delay: Time between tap change operation ‘called for’ and actual
execution of command.
6
Types of Step-voltage Regulator
A step-voltage regulator consists of an auto-transformer and a load tap-changing
mechanism.
A-Type Regulator
7
B-Type Regulator
8
B-Type Regulator
9
Summary of The Lecture
Voltage regulation
Effects of under and over-voltage in distribution system
Various techniques of the voltage control
Single phase regulators
Type-A
Type-B
10
Lecture 19
Regulators – Part II
1
Review of The Last Lecture
Voltage regulation
Effects of under and over-voltage in distribution system
Various techniques of the voltage control
Single phase regulators
Type-A
Type-B
2
Step-voltage Regulator
Type –A Type – B
3
B-Type Regulator (Raise)

4
B-Type Regulator (Lower)

5
Transformation of Current and Voltages
6
The Line Drop Compensator
7
The Line Drop Compensator
8
Three-Phase Regulator: Wye Connected
9
• Line drop compensator
• Modeling of three-phase voltage regulators
– Wye connected
– Closed delta connected
10
Lecture 20
Regulators – Part III
1
• Line drop compensator
– Wye connected
2
Three-Phase Regulator: Closed Delta Connected
3
4
5
6
Open Delta Connected Regulator
7
8
9
10
– Closed Delta Connected
– Open delta connected
11
Lecture 21
Regulators – Part IV
1
– Closed Delta connected
– Open delta connected
2
Example-01
6300
N PT = = 52.5
120
CTP = 200 A
CTS = 5 A
I = 150 − 25 A
120 − 115.37
VLC = VL − Z I T ap = = 6.17  Tap = 6
0.75
= 6057.2 -20 V aR = 1 − 0.00625  6
= 0.9625
6057.2  − 2
VLC _120V = = 115.37 − 20 VS
52.5 VL _ new = = 6545.5 V
ar
3
Example-01
6300
N PT = = 52.5
120
CTP = 200 A
CTS = 5 A
I = 150 − 25 A
VLC _ new = VL _ new − Z I CTP 200

Rc + jX c = Z  = ( 0.867 + j1.98 ) 
= 6302.5 -1.910 V N PT CTS 52.5  5
= 0.6606 + 1.5086i
4
Example-02
Ia = 308.200  - 58.00
Ib = 264.200  -176.10
Ic = 297.000  70.30
VS ab = 11000  0.00 N PT = 11000/120 = 91.67

VSbc = 11000  -120.00 CTP = 500
VSca = 11000  120.00 CTS = 5
VLCab = 10506.693  -1.40 VLCab _120 = 114.621  -1.40

VLCbc = 10688.406  -122.30 VLCbc _120 = 116.603  -122.30
VLCca = 10460.824  117.30 VLCca _120 = 114.120  117.30
5
Example-02
Ia = 308.200  - 58.00
Ib = 264.200  -176.10
Ic = 297.000  70.30
VS ab = 11000  0.00
VSbc = 11000  -120.00
VSca = 11000  120.00 Zeqab = 0.1469 + j1.8068
Zeqcb = 1.3183 + j1.2283
VLCab = 10506.693  -1.40
VLCbc = 10688.406  -122.30 ZCab = 0.1602 + j1.9711
VLCca = 10460.824  117.30 ZCcb = 1.4382 + j1.3400
6
Example-02
N PT = 11000/120 = 91.67
CTP = 500
CTS = 5
ZCab = 0.1602 + j1.9711
ZCcb = 1.4382 + j1.3400
VS ab = 11000.000  0.00
VSbc = 11000.000  -120.00
VSca = 11000.000  120.00
VLCab = 10506.693  -1.40
VLCbc = 10688.406  -122.30 Vrelay ab = 114.621  -1.40
VLCca = 10460.824  117.30 Vrelay cb = 116.603  57.70
Ia = 308.200  - 58.00
Tap_ab =7.1724  Tap_ab = 7
Ib = 264.200  -176.10
Ic = 297.000  70.30 Tap_cb =4.5293  Tap_cb = 5
7
• Example
– Single-phase regulator modeling
– Three-phase regulator modeling (Open Delta)
8
Lecture 22
Load Models in Distribution
System - Part I
1
Summary of the Step Voltage Regulator Modeling
Voltage regulation and effects of under- and over-voltage on distribution
system components
Various techniques of the voltage control in distribution system
Single phase regulators: Type-A and Type-B
Line drop compensator
Three-phase regulator: Wye connected, closed-delta connected, open-delta
connected
Few examples
2
Load Models
Constant real and reactive power (constant PQ)
Induction motors, air conditioners, etc.
Constant Impedance (Z)
Incandescent lighting, resistive water heating, cooking
loads (stove and oven with resistive heating coils) , etc.
Constant current (I)
Welding, smelting, electroplating operation, etc.
Combination or mix type
Polynomial (ZIP)
Exponential (EXP)
3
Constant Real and Reactive (PQ) Loads
4
Constant Real and Reactive (PQ) Loads
5
Constant Impedance (Z) Loads
6
Constant Current (I) Loads
7
Polynomial Load (ZIP) Models
8
Exponential Load (EXP) Models
9
Effect of Load Models
Source: J.C. Das, Power System Analysis: Short-Circuit, Load Flow and Harmonics, 10
Second Edition, CRC Press, Boca Raton, 2012
Incandescent lighting, resistive water heating, cooking loads (stove and oven
with resistive heating coils) , etc.
Polynomial (ZIP)
Exponential (EXP)
11
Lecture 23
Load Models in Distribution
System - Part-II
1
Incandescent lighting, resistive water heating, cooking loads (stove and
oven with resistive heating coils) , etc.
Polynomial (ZIP)
Exponential (EXP)
2
Three-Phase Induction Motor Model
3
4
5
Example: Constant Power
Nominal Voltages
Van 0 = 6350.85  0.00
Vbn 0 = 6350.85  -120.00
Vcn 0 = 6350.85  120.00
Load =1MW with 0.9 pf lagging
Voltage Set:01
Van = 6350.85  0.00 ILa = 157.46  - 25.84
Vbn = 6350.85  -120.00 ILb = 157.46  -145.84
Vcn = 6350.85  120.00 ILc = 157.46  94.16
6
Example: Constant Power
Nominal Voltages
Van 0 = 6350.85  0.00
Vbn 0 = 6350.85  -120.00
Vcn 0 = 6350.85  120.00
Load =1 MW with 0.9 pf lagging
Van = 6350.85  0.00 ILa = 157.46  - 25.84

Vbn = 6639.53  -120.00 ILb = 150.61  -145.84
Vcn = 6062.18  120.00 ILc = 164.96  94.16
7
Example: Constant Impedance
Nominal Voltages Actual Voltage
Van 0 = 6350.85  0.00 Van = 6350.85  0.00
Vbn 0 = 6350.85  -120.00 Vbn = 6639.53  -120.00
Vcn 0 = 6350.85  120.00 Vcn = 6062.18  120.00
2
Van 0 Van
Za = *
= 36.30 + j17.58 ILa = = 157.46  - 25.84
S a Za
2
Vbn 0 Vbn
Zb = = 36.30 + j17.58 ILb = = 164.62  -145.84
Sb* Zb
2
Vcn 0 Vcn
Zc = *
= 36.30 + j17.58 ILc = = 150.30  94.16
S c Zc
8
Example: Constant Current
Actual Voltage
Nominal Voltages
Van = 6350.85  0.00
Van 0 = 6350.85  0.00
Vbn = 6639.53  -130.00
Vbn 0 = 6350.85  -120.00
Vcn = 6062.18  110.00
Vcn 0 = 6350.85  120.00
Sa
ILa = = 157.46 ILa = 157.46  - 25.84
Van 0
Sb
ILb = = 157.46 ILb = 157.46  -155.84
Vbn 0
Sc
ILc = = 157.46 ILc = 157.46  84.21
Vcn 0
9
Example: Mix Load
Nominal Voltages
Actual Voltage
Van 0 = 6350.85  0.00
Van = 6350.85  0.00
Vbn 0 = 6350.85  -120.00
Vbn = 6639.53  -120.00
Vcn 0 = 6350.85  120.00
Vcn = 6062.18  120.00
60% constant Power, %25 Constant Current and
15% constant impedance
S a = 1.0  25.84 MW ILa = 157.46  - 25.84

Sb = 1.025  25.84 MW ILb = 154.43  -145.84
Sc = 0.97  25.84 MW ILc = 160.88  94.16
10
• Three-phase induction motor model
• Example: Load modeling
11
Lecture 24
Modeling of Distributed
Generation
1
Review of the Load Modeling
Polynomial (ZIP)
Exponential (EXP)
Induction Motor Model
Examples of various load models and effect of voltage variation on load
currents
2
Distributed Generation
• Small-scale generation connected to the distribution grid is commonly referred as
Distributed Generation (DG).
• It is also referred as ‘Embedded Generation’ or ‘Dispersed Generation’.
• DG units are based on conventional as well as renewable energy resources.
• Technologies such as IC engines, reciprocating engines, gas turbines, micro-
turbines, etc. are associated with conventional energy sources.
• Renewable energy technologies are solar PV, wind, fuel-cell, small hydro, biomass,
solar-thermal, and geothermal systems, etc.
3
Benefits of DG Integration
• Reduced line losses,
• Improved voltage profile and improved power quality
• Enhanced system efficiency, reliability and security,
• Transmission and distribution capacity release and reduced T&D congestion,
• Deferred investments for up-gradation of facilities
• Reduced harmful emissions and greenhouse gas (GHG), thereby earning carbon
credits,
• Reduced operational costs of some DG technologies, e.g. solar and wind,
• Reduced reserve requirements,
• Lower operating costs due to peak shaving,
4
Type of Generators used
Internal
Wind Micro- Combustion
Fuel Cell Solar PV
Turbine turbine Engine
Static Power Synchronous Induction

Converter Generator Generator
Power System Interface
Ref: J. H. Teng, “Modelling distributed generations in threephase distribution load flow,”IET Gener. Transm. Distrib., vol. 2, no. 3, pp. 330– 340, 2008
Ref: ‘Engineering guide for integration of distributed generation and storage into power
5
distribution systems’, EPRI Technical Report TR-100419 Report, December 2000
PQ node and PV node
PQ Node (Constant Power Factor Model)
Small DGs (Induction or Synchronous) approximately modeled as PQ node.
Contant Power Load Negative Constant Power Load
* *
 P + jQLi   P + jQGi 
I Li =  Li  I Gi =  Gi 
 Vi   Vi 
PV Node (Constant Terminal Voltage Model)

Large DGs with AVR are modeled as PV nodes
6
Synchronous Generator Model
Power Factor control mode (PQ Node)

Power factor can be controlled by controlling the excitation
*
QGi = PGi tan ( cos −1

( pfGi ) )  P + jQGi 
I Gi =  Gi 
 Vi 
7
2. Voltage Control Mode (PV Node)
Reactive power is controlled to control the voltage at
bus i
Vi = Vspec − Vi
If not within the limit
 E −V 
QGi = Vi  Gi i 
 Xi 
Xi is the sensitivity reactance.
If the calculated reactive power violates the upper or lower limits, the DG
switch from PV to PQ mode and the reactive power is kept at its limits.
8
3. Constant Excitation Mode (PQ Node)
Excitation is constant
EGi Vi
PGi = sin( −  ) (1)
Xi
EGi Vi Vi 2
QGi = cos( −  ) − (2)
Xi Xi
From (1) and (2)

*
E V 
2
V 2  P + jQGi 
QGi =  Gi i  − PGi2 − i I Gi =  Gi 
 Xi  Xi  Vi 
9
Induction Generator Model
• Based on ratings and generator parameters (PQ node)
Xc Xm
X S = ( X1 + X 2 ) and XP =
Xc − Xm
Therefore
− PGi ( s 2 X S2 + R22 )
Vi = (1)
R2 s
 Vi 2 PGi X S 
QGi = −  + s (2)
 P
X R2 
From (1) and (2) *
 P + jQGi 
Vi 2 −Vi + Vi − 4 P X I Gi =  Gi
2 4 2 2
QGi = − + Gi S 
XP 2XS  Vi 
10
Induction Generator Model
• Based on experimental data (PQ node)
QGi = −Q0 − Q1 PGi − Q2 PGi2
Where Q0 , Q1 , and Q2 are experimentally obtained.
 P + j (QGi + QCi ) 
*
I Gi =  Gi 
 Vi 
11
Power Electronic Converter Interface
Active and reactive power can

be controlled by regulating ψ
and m respectively
• Voltage control with limited reactive power (PQ or PV node)

P
Smax = Gi QGi _ max = Smax
2
− PGi2
pf min
If the calculated reactive power violates the upper limits, the DG switch from PV to
PQ mode and the reactive power is kept at its limits.
12
Power Electronic Converter Interface
• Current control mode:

In current control mode where active power output and injection
current are specified.
Smax = Vi I Spec
QGi = Smax
2
− PGi2
13
• DG Definition
• Benefits of DG integration
• Various DG technologies
• PQ and PV nodes
• Models of various generators
– Synchronous generator
– Induction generator
– DG with power electronic convertor interface
14
Lecture 25
Applications and Modeling of
Capacitor Banks
1
• DG Definition
• Benefits of DG integration
• Various DG technologies
• PQ and PV nodes
• Models of various generators
– Synchronous generator
– Induction generator
– DG with power electronic convertor interface
2
Applications of Capacitors in Distribution System
Capacitors provide many benefits to distribution system performance.
Capacitors decrease the line current
Reduce losses in distribution system
Free up system capacity
Reduce voltage drop
Improves power factor
Switched capacitors can regulate voltage on a circuit
Capacitors can be placed at consumer ends, on feeder, and at substation.
3
Capacity Release
4
Ref: T. A. Short, Electric Power Distribution Handbook, CRC Press, Boca Raton, 2003.
Voltage Support: Loaded
5
Voltage Support: No Load
6
Capacitor Local Controls
• Time clock
• Temperature
• Voltage
• Current
• Vars
• Power factor
7
Modeling of Capacitor
8
Wye Connected Capacitor Bank
9
Delta Connected Capacitor Bank
10
Shunt Line Elements of Distribution Line
11

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Chapter 2

Approximate Methods of Analysis

However, many times, we need approximate

When δ is small VS cos   VS and VS sin   0

VS = VL + IR cos  + IX sin  VS − VL = IR cos  + IX sin  = Re( ZI )

V2 = VL = 24000 − ( 0.2841 + j 0.5682 )( 43.00 − 25.84 )

Exact Vdrop = 2400 − 2378.41 = 21.59 V

Approximate Vdrop = Re ( ZI ) = Re ( 0.2841 + j 0.5682 )( 43.00 − 25.84 ) = 21.65 V

Percent voltage drop

If the unit of length of line is mile, then

Percent voltage drop

The voltage drop Vdrop = Re ( ZI ) = Re ( 0.19 + j 0.32 )( 0.0525 − 25.84 ) = 0.0161 V

Vdrop = K drop ×kVA×km = 0.000254  7500  2.4 = 4.6%

K drop = 0.0002014 %drop/kVA-km

Segment kVA Length km %Drop

Vrise = Re( ZI cap ) = X I cap

The Krise factor is defined

Percent voltage rise Percent voltage rise

The voltage rise Vrise = X I cap = 0.0168

The required rating of the shunt capacitor is

Assumptions: Balanced 3-phase, transposed

To simplify the computation,

n-1 to n z dx (n-(n-1)) di = di V( n −1) n = Re ( z dx  di )

Vdrop = V01 + V12 + V23 + V34 + + V( n −1) n

• Voltage drop Vdrop = Re  Z  IT  = Re  Z 

• Exact Lumped model

The current at any distance x from the node n

The total voltage drop down the primary main feeder is

Power loss in the incremental length is

Total three-phase power loss down the primary main is

The total voltage drop down the primary main is

where A1 = area of triangle up to the

The total voltage drop from node n to node m is

Power loss in area dx

The total three-phase power loss from node n to node m becomes

Using the K drop factor and lumping the total load

The distance from node n is determined by:

• Internal steel strands increase the

GMD or Deq = 3 Dab Dbc Dca

• Line impedance for in Ω/km for 50 Hz

GMD or Deq = 3 Dab Dbc Dca

• Line impedance for in Ω/mile for 60 Hz

Vig = zii I i + zij I j + zid I d − zdd I d − zid I i − z jd I j

Vig = zˆii .I i + zˆij .I j

= ri + jxii + rd + jxdd − j ( xid + xdi ) = jxij + rd + jxdd − j ( xdj + xid )

zˆii = zii + zdd − zdi − zid

= ri + jxii + rd + jxdd − j ( xid + xdi )

zˆij = zij + zdd − zdj − zid

= jxij + rd + jxdd − j ( xdj + xid )

Series impedance of distribution lines and feeders

Equivalent Depth of Earth

 zâa zâb zâc zân 

 zâa zâb zâc | zâl zâm zân 

Vag  V 'ag   zâa zâb zâc zân   I a 

Neutral and ground wires are grounded at several locations.

Vabc  = V 'abc  +  zˆij   I abc  −  zˆin   zˆnn −1  zˆnj   I abc 

 zâa zâb zâc zân 

Dab = 0.76 m, Dbc = 1.37 m, Dca = 2.13 m

Conductor Types Diameter GMR Resistance Capacity

• Primitive Impedance Matrix

 0.2394+j 0.7378 0.0493+j 0.4467 0.0493+j 0.3819 

 zabc  =  zij  −  zin    znn 

Series impedance of distribution lines and feeders

 zâa zâb zâc zân 