PHYSICAL LAWS:

1) MATTER
A) MATERIAL SUBSTANCE THAT OCCUPIES SPACES AND HAS WEIGHT.
B) IT CANNOT BE CREATED OR DESTROYED
C) CAN BE CHANGED FROM ONE FORM TO ANOTHER BY CHEMICAL OR PHYSICAL MEANS.
D) EXAMPLE: CHANGES IN WATER FROM ICE TO WATER TO STEAM.
2) THREE FORMS OF MATTER: SOLIDS, LIQUIDS AND GAS
A) SOLIDS - HAVE 3 DIMENSIONS (LENGTH, WIDTH AND DEPTH) THAT CAN BE MEASURED
B) LIQUID CHARACTERISTICS:
1) HAS NO DEFINITE SHAPE
2) CONFORMS TO THE SHAPE OF CONTAINER
3) CAN TRANSMIT PRESSURE
4) WILL NOT EXPAND TO FILL A CONTAINER
5) HEAVY, FOR AN EQUAL VOLUME OF GAS
6) NON-COMPRESSIBLE
OTHER TERMS FOR LIQUIDS:
7) ATOMIZED LIQUID
a) LIQUID DROPS SUSPENDED IN AIR
b) WILL NOT BURN - STILL CONSIDERED A LIQUID AND MUST BE VAPORIZED TO BURN.
8) VAPORIZED LIQUID
a) LIQUID CONVERTED TO A GASEOUS STATE
b) REQUIRES HEAT ENERGY TO VAPORIZE
9) LIQUID FLOW RATE:
a) HOW FAST A LIQUID FLOWS: AFFECTED BY
1) PATH OF FLOW - THE STEEPER UPHILL, THE SLOWER IT WILL BE (IF AT ALL)
2) PRESSURE PUSHING FLOW
3) TEMPERATURE OF FLUID
4) VISCOSITY
10) VISCOSITY - THE MEASURE OF A FLUIDS RESISTANCE TO FLOW.
11) VISCOSITY INDEX:
a) NUMBER THAT INDICATES THE VISCOSITY CONSTANCY OF THE FLUID AT A
CONTROLLED TEMPERATURE THRU A CONTROLLED ORIFICE UNDER A CONTROLLED
PRESSURE.
b) FOR MOTORCYCLE SERVICE, THE VISCOSITY IS MOSTLY USED IN RELATIONS TO OIL.
c) THE HIGHER THE NUMBER, THE MORE RESISTANCE TO FLOW AND USUALLY THE
THICKER THE LIQUID.
C) GAS
1) NO DEFINITE SHAPE
2) CONFORMS TO SHAPE OF CONTAINER.
3) CAN TRANSMIT PRESSURE.
4) WILL EXPAND TO FILL ITS CONTAINER.
5) LIGHTER, FOR EQUAL VOLUME OF LIQUID.
6) HIGHLY COMPRESSIBLE.
3) AIR (A GAS)
A) AIR PRESSURE
1) AT SEA LEVEL IS 14.7 PSI
2) DECREASE AS ALTITUDE INCREASES.
B) MAKE-UP OF AIR IS:
1) 78% NITROGEN
2) 21% OXYGEN
3) 1% INERT (INACTIVE) GASES.
C) AIR DENSITY: AMOUNT OF OXYGEN MOLECULES PER GIVEN VOLUME OF SPACE (THICKNESS OF
AIR)*
1) AIR DENSITY DECREASE:
a) OCCURS WHEN ALTITUDE INCREASES
b) OCCURS WHEN TEMPERATURE RISE
c) MEANS FEWER OXYGEN MOLECULES
d) RESULTS IN RICH CARBURATION
2) AIR DENSITY INCREASES:

1
 a) MEANS MORE OXYGEN MOLECULES
b) RESULTS IN LEAN CARBURATION
c) AIR DENSITY INCREASES IN DIRECT PROPORTION TO THE PRESSURE EXERTED ON
IT.
d) OCCURS WHEN:
1) ALTITUDE DECREASE
2) AMBIENT AIR (SURROUNDING AIR) TEMP. DROPS
4) AIR COMPRESSION:
A) AIR CAN BE COMPRESSED
B) LAWS BASED ON BOYLES LAW PREDICT THE BEHAVIOR OF COMPRESSED GAS.
1) IF A GAS (OR AIR) IS COMPRESSED ITS TEMP. - PRESSURE INCREASES
2) THE MORE AIR IS COMPRESSED THE GREATER ITS TEMP. AND PRESSURE
3) IF A TRAPPED GASSES VOLUME IS HALVED, ITS PRESSURE DOUBLES,IF ITS VOLUME IS
DOUBLED ITS PRESSURE HALVES THE RESULT IS A NON-LINEAR CHANGEIN PRESSURE
5) PRESSURE DIFFERENCES:
A) RESULT IN MOVEMENT OF A GAS FROM THE HIGHER PRESSURE AREA TO THE LOWER PRESSURE
AREA (ANY MATTER IN THE WAY MAY BE REMOVED ALONG WITH IT)
B) EXAMPLES:
1) WEATHER
2) CARBURATION
3) INDUCTION PHASE
6) LAWS AND TERMS OF MOTION:
A) VELOCITY - SPEED OF AN OBJECT
B) MASS - WEIGHT OF MATTER
C) MOMENTUM - THE DRIVING FORCE THAT IS THE RESULT OF MOTION OR MOVEMENT. THE FORCE
OF A MOVING OBJECT.
MOMENTUM = WEIGHT (MASS) X VELOCITY
D) LAW OF INERTIA: OPPOSITION MATTER HAS TO ANY CHANGE IN MOTION. ANYTHING AT REST, OR
IN MOTION, WILL REMAIN AT REST OR IN MOTION, UNTIL ACTED ON BY AN OUTSIDE FORCE.
E) ACTION - REACTION: FOR EVERY ACTION THERE IS AN EQUAL AND OPPOSITE REACTION.
7) ENERGY - THE ABILITY TO DO WORK.
A) THERMODYNAMICS LAWS - PREDICTS EFFECTS OF HEAT AND THE TRANSFER OF ENERGY.
1) ENERGY CANNOT BE CREATED OR DESTROYED.
2) IT EXISTS, WE DO NOT SEE IT, WE ONLY REALIZE IS RESULTS.
3) ENERGY CAN BE CHANGED FROM ONE FORM TO ANOTHER.
4) ENERGY CAN ALSO CHANGE MATTER.
5) ENERGY IS RELEASED WHEN MATTER OR ENERGY IS CHANGED.
6) NO CONVERSION OF ENERGY OR MATTER IS 100% EFFICIENT.
B) ACTIVE ENERGY - COMMON OCCURRING FORMS OF ENERGY, SUCH AS:
1) LIGHT CONVERTED TO COLOR
2) POTENTIAL ENERGY CONVERTED TO MOTION.
3) ELECTRICAL - CONVERTED TO HEAT, MAGNETISM, RADIO AND TV SIGNALS.
4) CHEMICAL CONVERTED TO RE-ACTIVE SUBSTANCES.
C) POTENTIAL ENERGY: STORED ENERGY: STORED ENERGY THAT CAN BE RELEASED SLOWLY, OR
ALL AT ONCE.
1) CRUDE OIL DERIVATIVES.
2) FULLY CHARGED BATTERY.
8) WORK - THE USEFUL MOVEMENT OF AN OBJECT.
A) FORMULA: FORCE x DISTANCE OF MOVEMENT = WORK
(WORK = FORCE X DISTANCE)
B) WORK MAY BE EXPRESSED AS ANY FORCE UNIT X ANY DISTANCE UNIT.
C) FORCE UNIT EXAMPLES:
POUNDS (LB.)
KILOGRAMS (KG)
D) DISTANCE UNIT EXAMPLES:
INCH (IN.) (“)
FOOT (FT) („)
METER (M)
1) EXAMPLE #1: FORCE OF 25 POUNDS MOVES THRU A DISTANCE OF 25 FEET WORK DONE IS

2
 625 FT - LBS.
(25 LBS. X 25 FT. = 625 FT-LBS.)
2) EXAMPLE #2: IF A 5 LB WEIGHT IS LIFTED OFF THE GROUND 1 FT, THE WORK DONE ON THE
WEIGHT IS 5 FT - LBS.
(1 FT X 5 LBS. = 5 FT-LBS.)
9) POWER - RATE AT WHICH WORK IS DONE
A) FORMULA - WORK DIVIDED BY TIME INTERVAL DURING WHICH WORK IS DONE.
B) A HIGH POWERED MACHINE DOES A LARGE AMOUNT OR WORK IS A SHORT TIME.
10) TORQUE - A TWISTING OR ROTATIONAL FORCE.
A) FORMULA - FORCE X DISTANCE FROM THE PIVOT POINT
(USUALLY MEASURED IN FT/LBS. OR IN/LBS.)
B) MAY OR MAY NOT RESULT IN MOTION
C) EXAMPLES:
1) FORCE APPLIED TO A TORQUE WRENCH.
2) ENGINES DEVELOP OR PRODUCE TORQUE TO TURN THE REAR WHEEL THE WHEEL MAY
NOT MOVE, BUT THE FORCE IS THERE.
D) TORQUE MAKES WORK + WORK MAKES POWER.
11) HORSEPOWER (H/P) MEASUREMENT OF A FORCE MOVING AN OBJECT, A CERTAIN DISTANCE AND IN A
CERTAIN TIME.
A) FORMULA - FORCE X DISTANCE MOVED PER TIME UNITS = HORSEPOWER (IN LBS.LBS. PER TIME
UNIT) COMPARED TO THE AMOUNT OF POWER A SPECIFIC HORSE HAS.
B) HORSEPOWER IS RATED IN WORK - TIME UNITS - SUCH AS LBS.LBS. PER SECOND OR LBS.LBS. PER
MINUTE.
C) FOR M/C‟S, HORSEPOWER IS A DIRECT RESULT OF TORQUE + RPM
D) EXAMPLE: ONE HORSE POWER PER MINUTE = 30,000 LBS. MOVED ONE FOOT IN ONE MINUTE.
E) AN ENGINES HORSEPOWER RATING INDICATES HOW MUCH WORK CAN BE DONE BY AN ENGINE
OVER A PERIOD OF TIME.

INTERNAL COMBUSTION
1) COMBUSTION - THE RAPID COMBINING OF OXYGEN WITH OTHER ELEMENTS RAPID OXIDATION IS
BURNING)
A) RUST IS AN EXAMPLE OF SLOW OXIDATION
B) CHEMICAL CHANGE CAN RESULT IN THE RELEASE OF HEAT AND LIGHT WHEN COMBINED WITH
OXYGEN.
C) HEAT WILL GENERALLY HASTEN CHEMICAL CHANGES. IT ACTS AS A “CATALYST”
1) A CATALYST SPEEDS UP REACTION WITHOUT UNDERGOING ANY CHANGE ITSELF.
D) COLD WILL USUALLY SLOW DOWN (RETARD) CHEMICAL CHANGES
2) TYPES OF ENGINES:
A) EXTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES
1) BURNS FUEL OUTSIDE THE ENGINE TO HEAT ANOTHER SUBSTANCE THAT PROVIDES THE
MECHANICAL ENERGY.
2) EXAMPLE: STEAM ENGINE
B) INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES
1) BURNS FUEL INSIDE THE ENGINE. THE FUEL PROVIDES THE MECHANICAL ENERGY TO RUN
THE ENGINE.
2) EXAMPLE: M/C ENGINE
3) INTERNAL COMBUSTION METHODS:
A) METHODS OF INITIATING COMBUSTION:
1) IGNITION - CONTACT OF FUEL WITH AN ALREADY BURNING SUBSTANCE.
2) COMPRESSION - REDUCING THE SPACE CONFINING OXYGEN AND COMBUSTIBLE MATERIAL
WILL (EVENTUALLY) PRODUCE ENOUGH HEAT TO START COMBUSTION
3) SPONTANEOUSLY - SLOW OXIDATION CREATES SOME HEAT THAT SPEEDS THE CHEMICAL
REACTION. IN TIME, ENOUGH HEAT IS PRODUCED TO START THE COMBUSTION PROCESS.
EXAMPLE: TIGHTLY PACKED, OILY RAGS
B) M/C ENGINES USE A COMBINATION OF:
1) COMPRESSION TO PRE-HEAT THE AIR/FUEL MIXTURE.
2) TIMED IGNITION TO CONTROL WHEN COMBUSTION WILL OCCUR.
4) INTERNAL COMBUSTION PROCESS:

3
A) NORMAL COMBUSTION - THE PROCESS OF COMBUSTION IS DIVIDED INTO THREE SEPARATE
PHASES.
1) COMBUSTION LAG - SHORT PERIOD OF BURNING THAT BEGINS AFTER TIMED IGNITION.
a) STARTS WITH TIMED IGNITION BTDC
b) SPARK PLUG DOES NOT CREATE AN IMMEDIATE EXPLOSION.
c) SPARK PLUG IGNITES A SMALL PORTION OF MIXTURE AT ITS TIP AND BURNING
STARTS TO SPREAD.*
2) ACTIVE COMBUSTION - CHAIN REACTION BURNING TAKES PLACE AT GREAT SPEED AFTER
INITIAL “LAG” HAS BEEN OVERCOME
a) ALLOWS THE FLAME TO PROPAGATE (SPREAD OUT) TO ALL AREAS OF THE
COMBUSTION CHAMBER.
b) USUALLY OCCURS FROM A FEW DEGREES BTDC AND TO A FEW DEGREES ATDC.
c) PEAK PRESSURES SHOULD OCCUR ATDC BY A FEW DEGREES
d) CAUSES A RAPID BUILDING UP OF:
1) TEMP‟S AS HIGH AS 4,000 DEGREES F.
2) PRESSURES AS HIGH AS 800 TO 1,000 P.S.I.
e) HOT EXPANDING NITROGEN GASSES CAUSE A RAPID PRESSURE RISE THAT DRIVES
THE PISTON DOWN.
f) DETONATION MAY OCCUR DURING THIS PHASE.
3) POST COMBUSTION ACTIVITY: STARTS WHEN PRESSURE PEAK‟S AND THE CHARGE HAS
BEEN CONSUMED.
a) THE PISTON IS DESCENDING TOWARD BDC
1) ABOVE THE PISTON
A) PRESSURE IS DECREASING
B) TEMP‟S ARE DECREASING
b) USABLE H/P IS NO LONGER BEING MADE.
c) EXHAUST EVENTS STARTS DURING THIS ACTIVITY BEFORE BDC
1) RID‟S THE CYLINDER OF SPENT EXHAUST GASSES AND PRESSURE.
2) PREPARES FOR THE NEXT EVENT (INTAKE)
4) ALL ENGINES BEGIN TO RELEASE EXHAUST WELL BEFORE THE ENGINE REACHES BDC.
B) ABNORMAL COMBUSTION - TWO TYPES -
1) PRE-IGNITION - COMBUSTION PROCESS IS INITIATED BEFORE TIMED IGNITION.
a) CAN BE CAUSED BY HOT-SPOTS INSIDE THE COMBUSTION CHAMBER.
b) EXAMPLES: GLOWING SPARK PLUG, CARBON, GASKET MATERIAL
c) SYMPTOMS OF PRE-IGNITION AFTER IT HAS OCCURRED OVER A LONG PERIOD OF
TIME:
1) COMMON - PISTON DAMAGE, USUALLY ON THE CROWN (TOP) A MOLTEN
APPEARANCE.
2) SEVERE CASE - A HOLE IN THE TOP OF THE PISTON.
2) DETONATION - SPONTANEOUS COMBUSTION ( A VIOLENT EXPLOSION) THAT OCCURS
AFTER TIMED IGNITION.
a) EXPLODES THE END GASSES (LAST PART OF THE AIR/FUEL MIXTURE IN THE
COMBUSTION PROCESS)
b) USUALLY CAUSED BY EXTREME TEMP‟S - UN-SUITABLE FUEL FOR THE
COMPRESSION RATIO USED.
c) MOST COMMON SYMPTOMS: DAMAGE TO PISTON (USUALLY IN THE RING LAND AREA
OF THE CROWN) OF A JAGGED, CRUSHED APPEARANCE.
d) CAUSES HI-FREQUENCY OSCILLATIONS INSIDE THE CYLINDER THAT PRODUCE THE
SHARP METALLIC NOISE CALLED “KNOCK”.
3) PRE-IGNITION AND DETONATION RESULT IN INCREASED COMBUSTION CHAMBER TEMP‟S.
4) ENGINE DESIGN FEATURES THAT DETERMINE WHETHER NORMAL OR AB-NORMAL
COMBUSTION OCCURS:
a) COMPRESSION RATIO
b) ENGINE LOAD
c) FUEL QUALITY, TURBULENCE
d) STATE OF TUNE
C) RESULTS OF COMBUSTION:
1) HEAT AND POWER PRODUCE WORK
a) CYL. HEAD TEMP‟S OF APPROXIMATE 300 DEGREES TO 375 DEGREES FARENHEIGHT.

4
 1) MOST ENGINES WILL RUN AT LOWER TEMPS
b) COMBUSTION GAS TEMP‟S AS HIGH AS 4000 DEGREES F IN THE COMBUSTION
CHAMBER
c) CYLINDER PRESSURES REACH 800 TO 1000 P.S.I.
d) THIS HEAT EXPANDS THE NITROGEN GAS IN THE COMBUSTION CHAMBER AND
PUSHES THE PISTON TOWARDS B.D.C.
2) CHEMICAL CHANGES RESULTING IN:
 a) CARBON MONOXIDE (CO) PARTIALLY BURNED FUEL (FUEL NOT COMPLETELY BURNED)
DURING COMBUSTION.
 (CAUTION: CARBON MONOXIDE IS COLORLESS, ODORLESS, POISONOUS AND DEADLY!!!)
b) HYDROCARBONS (HC) UNBURNED (RAW) FUEL
c) CARBON DIOXIDE (CO2) RESULTS FROM COMPLETE COMBUSTION.
d) OXIDES OF NITROGEN (NOx) OXIDIZED NITROGEN RESULTING FROM EXTREMELY HIGH
COMBUSTION CHAMBER TEMPS.
e) WATER (H20) RESULTS FROM COMPLETE COMBUSTION. FOR EVERY GALLON OF FUEL
BURNED 1 GALLON OF WATER IS PRODUCED IN A VAPORIZED FORM.
f) HEAT - RESULTING FROM THE CHEMICAL CHANGES. EXCESSIVE HEAT NEEDS TO BE
REMOVED. (THERMAL LIMITS OF THE ENGINE)
g) KINETIC ENERGY RESULTING FROM THE COMBUSTION PROCESS, AND USED TO PROPEL
THE M/C.
5) EPA EMISSION STANDARDS:
A) SINCE JANUARY 1978, M/C‟S MUST COMPLY WITH EPA EMISSIONS STANDARDS.
B) NOx, HC, AND CO ARE ALL MONITORED BY THE E.P.A.
C) NOISE EMISSIONS AND SERVICE PROCEDURES (CARB ADJUSTMENTS AND TUNE-UPS) ARE ALSO
MONITORED BY THE E.P.A.
6) EFFICIENCY FACTORS
A) VOLUMETRIC EFFICIENCY
1) PERCENTAGE RATIO COMPARING HOW MUCH AIR/FUEL MIXTURE ENTERS THE ENGINE TO
HOW MUCH THE ENGINE WOULD HOLD, IF IT WERE 100% FULL.
2) AFFECTED BY INTAKE TIMING, INTAKE PORT DESIGN AND CARBURATION
3) EXAMPLES:
a) MOST STOCK ENGINES OPERATE AT 80 TO 90% EFFICIENT
b) GOOD TUNING MAY PRODUCE 95 TO 99% EFFICIENT
c) TURBO/SUPERCHARGING CAN YIELD 140 TO 160% EFFICIENT.
B) THERMAL EFFICIENCY (THERMAL EFFICIENT)
1) PERCENTAGE RATIO COMPARING - HOW MUCH HEAT THE ENGINE PRODUCES, TO HOW
MUCH IS USED TO PRODUCE POWER.
2) DISTRIBUTION OF HEAT
a) APPROXIMATE 35% USED TO PRODUCE POWER
b) APPROXIMATE 35% LEAVES WITH EXHAUST GASSES
c) APPROXIMATE 30% REMOVED THRU THE COOLING SYSTEM
C) COMBUSTION EFFICIENCY
1) PERCENTAGE RATIO COMPARING HOW MUCH OF THE ENGINE‟S ORIGINAL AIR/FUEL
MIXTURE HAS COMPLETED THE ENTIRE COMBUSTION PROCESS.
2) AFFECTED BY VOLUMETRIC EFFICIENCY, COMPRESSION, FUEL QUALITY, COMBUSTION
CHAMBER DESIGN, IGNITION TIMING.
D) STROKE EFFICIENCY
1) PERCENTAGE RATIO COMPARING HOW FAR THE PISTON TRAVELS UNDER USEFUL
PRESSURE TO THE TOTAL DISTANCE IT TRAVELS.
2) AFFECTED BY ENGINE R.P.M., STROKE LENGTH, EXHAUST VALVE TIMING.
E) MECHANICAL EFFICIENCY
1) PERCENTAGE RATIO COMPARING HOW MUCH POWER IS PRODUCED TO HOW MUCH IS
LOST.
2) AFFECTED BY LOSSES DUE TO WEIGHT AND FRICTION

4 STROKE OPERATION
1) BASIC TERMINOLOGY
A) STROKE - THE DISTANCE A PISTON TRAVELS FROM TBC (TOP DEAD CENTER) TO BDC (BOTTOM

5
 DEAD CENTER).
B) TDC - PISTON FARTHEST AWAY FROM CRANK
C) BDC - PISTON CLOSEST TO CRANK
D) A = AFTER I.E. ATDC (AFTER TOP DEAD CENTER)
E) B = BEFORE I.E. BTDC (BEFORE TOP DEAD CENTER)
2) FIVE EVENTS OF A FOUR STROKE ENGINE:
A) COMPLETION OF ALL 5 EVENTS IN A FOUR STROKE ENGINE CYLINDER REQUIRES:
1) FOUR STROKE OF THE PISTON
a) INTAKE
b) COMPRESSION
c) POWER
d) EXHAUST
2) ONE REVOLUTION OF THE CAMSHAFT
(CAMSHAFT TURNS AT ½ CRANKSHAFT SPEED)
3) TWO REVOLUTIONS OF THE CRANKSHAFT (720 DEGREES OF ROTATION)
B) THE FIVE EVENTS IN ORDER ARE:
1) INTAKE EVENT
a) INTAKE VALVE USUALLY BEGINS TO OPEN BTDC (DURING EXHAUST EVENT, AT END
OF EXHAUST STROKE).
b) PISTON PASSES TDC AND TRAVEL TOWARD BDC
c) EXHAUST EVENT END WHEN EXHAUST VALVE CLOSES ATDC (DURING THE INTAKE
STROKE)
d) VOLUME IN CYLINDER IS INCREASING, PRESSURE AND TEMP‟S ARE DECREASING.
e) FRESH CHARGE IS PUSHED INTO THE CYLINDER.
f) ENDS WHEN THE INTAKE VALVE CLOSES ABDC AT BEGINNING OF COMPRESSION
STROKE
2) COMPRESSION EVENT
a) BEGINS WHEN INTAKE VALVE CLOSES ABDC (DURING THE COMPRESSION STROKE)
b) PISTON IS TRAVELING FROM BDC UPWARDS TOWARD TDC
c) CYL. VOLUME IS DECREASING, TEMP‟S AND PRESSURES ARE INCREASING.
d) THE FRESH CHARGE IS COMPRESSED AND PRE-HEATED
3) TIMED IGNITION EVENT
a) USUALLY BEGINS BEFORE TDC
b) ALLOWS FOR COMBUSTION LAG.
c) ALLOW TIME FOR THE PISTON TO REACH SLIGHTLY ATDC AT POINT OF PEAK
PRESSURE AND TEMP‟S
d) MOST ENGINES INCREASE THE TIMED IGNITION POINT AS ENGINE R.P.M. INCREASES.
1) AIR/FUEL MIXTURE BURNS AT APPROX. THE SAME SPEED
2) ENGINE SPEED INCREASES, THE 5 EVENTS OCCUR FASTER AND THERE IS
LESS TIME FOR THE AIR FUEL MIXTURE TO BURN
3) THE TIMED IGNITION POINT IS ADVANCED ELECTRONICALLY OR
MECHANICALLY.
a) ADVANCING THE TIMING - MAKING THE TIMED IGNITION OCCUR
BEFORE (EARLIER THAN) SOME GIVEN POINT, WHICH IS USUALLY
THE MANUFACTURE‟S SPECIFIED TIMING AT IDLE.
b) RETARDING THE TIMING - MAKING THE TIMED IGNITION OCCUR AFTER
(LATER THAN) SOME GIVEN POINT WHICH IS USUALLY
MANUFACTURE‟S SPECIFIED TIMING AT IDLE
4) POWER EVENT
a) BEGINS AFTER IGNITION WHEN EXPANDING NITROGEN GASSES FORCE THE
PISTON TOWARDS BDC
b) PISTON IS ONLY UNDER USABLE PRESSURE FOR ABOUT ½ TO OF THE STROKE OF
THE PISTON
c) EXHAUST VALVE TIMING, R.P.M., AND STROKE LENGTH DETERMINE THIS.
d) LINEAR MOTION OF THE PISTON BEING PUSHED DOWN, PRODUCES ROTARY MOTION
OF THE CRANKSHAFT
5) EXHAUST EVENT:
a) EXHAUST VALVE OPENS BBDC DURING THE POWER STROKE, ALLOWING THE SPENT
CHARGE TO ESCAPE DUE TO PRESSURE DIFFERENCES.

6
 b) PISTON PASSES BDC AND TRAVELS TOWARD TDC
c) CYL. VOLUME IS DECREASING, REMOVING RESIDUAL EXHAUST GASSES OUT OF THE
CYL.
d) INTAKE VALVE OPEN BTDC, ALLOWING THE FRESH CHARGE TO ENTER THE CYL.
THIS ALSO AIDS IN SCAVENGING RESIDUAL EXHAUST GASSES AND IN COOLING THE
COMBUSTION CHAMBER.
e) SCAVENGING - IS THE REMOVING OF EXHAUST GASSES FROM THE CYL.
f) EXHAUST VALVE CLOSES ATDC - (DURING THE INTAKE STROKE)
3) OVERVIEW OF VALVE TIMING:
NOTE: THE CAMSHAFT MUST BE CORRECTLY TIMED TO THE CRANKSHAFT TO PREVENT INTAKE AND
EXHAUST VALVE FROM CONTACTING THE PISTON
A) INTAKE VALVE:
1) OPENS BTDC (DURING EXHAUST EVENT - AT END OF EXHAUST STROKE)
2) CLOSES ABDC (DURING COMPRESSION EVENT - AT BEGINNING OF COMPRESSION STROKE)
B) EXHAUST VALVE
1) OPENS BBDC (DURING TIMED IGNITION POWER EVENT - AT THE END OF THE POWER
STROKE.)
2) CLOSES ATDC (DURING INTAKE EVENT - AT BEGINNING OF INTAKE STROKE)
C) VALVE OVERLAP
1) POINT AT WHICH THE INTAKE AND EXHAUST VALVES ARE OPEN AT THE SAME TIME,
EXHAUST VALVE IS CLOSING - INTAKE VALVE IS JUST BEGINNING TO OPEN.
2) VALVE OVER-LAP OCCURS AT THE END OF THE EXHAUST STROKE BEGINNING OF THE
INTAKE STROKE.
3) PURPOSES:
a) HELPS SCAVENGE RESIDUAL EXHAUST GASSES.
b) HELPS COOL THE COMBUSTION CHAMBER
c) NOT ALL ENGINES HAVE VALVE OVERLAP
(EXAMPLE: HONDA GL1500)
4) ADVANTAGES:
a) BETTER VOLUMETRIC EFFICIENCY AT HIGH R.P.M., RESULTING IN A H/P INCREASE AT
HIGHER R.P.M.‟s
b) HELPS COOL THE COMBUSTION CHAMBER
5) DIS-ADVANTAGES:
a) LOSS OF TORQUE - H/P IN MID-RANGE AND LOW R.P.M.‟s.
b) HIGHER HYDRO CARBON EMISSIONS.
c) LOWER FUEL MILEAGE.

4 STROKE ENGINE-CYLINDER HEADS AND VALVES

1) CYLINDER HEADS
A) CONSTRUCTED OF ALUMINUM OR CAST IRON
1) CAST IRON
a) ADVANTAGES
1) DISSIPATES HEAT WELL
2) EASY TO CAST IN MOLD
b) DISADVANTAGES TO HEAVY
2) ALUMINUM ALLOY
a) ADVANTAGES
1) LIGHTER IN WEIGHT
DISSIPATES HEAT 2 TO 2 ½ TIMES FASTER THAN CAST IRON
b) DISADVANTAGES : DOES NOT WEAR WELL, NEED SPECIAL VALVE SEATS / GUIDES
B) SQUISH (QUENCH) AREA
1) AREA ON CYL. HEAD THAT FORCES THE AIR/FUEL MIXTURE INTO A TIGHT POCKET UNDER
THE SPARK PLUG
2) PURPOSE: INCREASES COMBUSTION EFFICIENCY
C) MULTI-VALVE CYL. HEADS: INTAKE AREA IS USUALLY LARGER THAN EXHAUST VALVE AREA FOR
INCREASED VOLUMETRIC EFFICIENCY
1) FOR SPECIFIC HEAD DESIGNS USE THE FOLLOWING GENERAL DESIGN RULES:
* 2 VALVE HEADS- INTAKE VALVE > EXHAUST VALVE DIA.
* 3 VALVE HEADS- INTAKE VALVE (2ea) < EXHAUST VALE DIA.

7
 * 4 VALVE HEADS- INTAKE VALVE (2ea) > EXHAUST VALVE (2ea) DIA.
* 5 VALVE HEADS- INTAKE VALVE (3ea) < EXHAUST VALVE (2ea) DIA.
D) CYLINDER HEAD FUNCTIONS
1) AIDS IN HEAT TRANSFER
a) FINNED FOR AIR COOLING
b) MAY HAVE PASSAGE WAYS (WATER JACKETS) FOR LIQUID COOLING
c) PROVIDES PLACEMENT OF VALVES, SPARK PLUGS, CAMS, VALVE OPENERS &
CLOSERS
d) CREATES A “SQUISH AREA”
2) POPPET VALVE
A) TULIP SHAPED VALVE (MUSHROOM SHAPED)
B) OPENS AND CLOSES EVERY OTHER CRANKSHAFT REVOLUTION
( EXAMPLE: 83 TIMES PER. SEC. AT 10,000 RPM
C) FUNCTIONS
*1) VALVE OPENING / CLOSING CONTROLS FLOW OF GASSES
*2) FORMS A SEAL IN THE COMBUSTION CHAMBER (APPROX. 800 TO 1000 PSI)
*3) TRANSFERS HEAT ( UP TO 2,500 DEGREES F)
D) MATERIAL THAT VALVES ARE MADE OF:
1) CARBON STEEL
2) STAINLESS STEEL
3) TITANIUM
E) VALVE PARTS
1) TIP:
a) AREA THAT RIDES AGAINST THE VALVE OPENING DEVICE
b) MOST ARE STELLITE PLATED FOR WEAR
c) CHECK TIP FOR CUPPING AND WEAR
d) STELLITE COATING - VERY HARD METAL ALLOY APPLIED TO MOST VALVE FACES AND
TIPS
1) PROLONGS LIFE OF THE VALVE
2) REPLACES THE LEAD COATING FROM GASOLINE
2) KEEPER GROVE
a) GROOVE WHERE KEEPERS LOCK THE VALVE AND SPRING RETAINER IN PLACE
b) PROBABLY ONE OF THE MOST OVERLOOKED WEAR AREAS
3) STEM
a) THRUST SURFACE FOR THE VALVE GUIDE
b) MAJOR WEAR AREA
c) IF THE STEM IS WORN, EXCESSIVE AMOUNT OF OIL WILL PASS BETWEEN THE STEM
AND GUIDE, AND INTO THE COMBUSTION CHAMBER
4) NECK
a) AREA THAT SLOPES THE VALVE HEAD
b) ON TWO PIECE VALVES, THIS IS THE AREA WHERE THEY ARE JOINED
c) USUALLY CONTOURED FOR GOOD FLOW
5) FACE
a) AREA THAT MATES WITH VALVE SEAT
b) SEALS AND AIDS IN HEAT TRANSFER
c) 45 DEGREE ANGLE ( ON MOST )
d) OFTEN STELLITE COATED
e) WEAR AREA
6) MARGIN
a) SUPPORTS THE FACE
b) SHIELDS THE FACE FROM HIGH COMBUSTION TEMPS.
7) HEAD
a) AIDS IN FORMING THE COMBUSTION CHAMBER
b) ON TWO PIECE VALVES, THE HEAD IS MADE OF A DIFFERENT MATERIAL THAN THE
STEM, BECAUSE IT MUST TOLERATE MORE STRESS AND HEAT
8) WEAR AREA OF THE VALVE
a) TIP
b) FACE
c) STEM

8
 d) KEEPER GROOVE
3) VALVE STEM SEALS
A) SEALS ARE INSTALLED ON VALVE GUIDES
B) CAN BE EITHER NEOPRENE OR TEFLON TYPE
C) FUNCTION: PREVENT EXCESSIVE OIL FROM ENTERING BETWEEN THE VALVE GUIDE AND STEM

D) NEGATIVE PRESSURE IN THE EXHAUST SYSTEM AND INTAKE TRACT WILL DRAW OIL AND CAUSE
EXCESSIVE SMOKING
4) VALVE GUIDES
A) INSTALLED IN THE HEAD
B) PROVIDES THE BUSHING SURFACE FOR THE VALVE STEM
C) IS USUALLY MADE OF CAST IRON OR BRONZE ALLOYS
5) CYLINDER HEAD VALVE SEATS
A) STATIONARY IN THE CYL. HEAD
B) THE SEALING SURFACE FOR THE VALVE FACE
C) AREA OF WEAR
D) HAS A 45 DEGREE TO 46 DEGREE ANGLE
E) .8 TO 1.5mm ( O.032" TO 0,060" ) WIDTH
F) MADE FROM HIGH ALLOY STEEL ( USUALLY 2% TO 5% NICKEL, 17% TO 20% CHROMIUM ) FOR
HARDNESS AND STRENGTH
G) NORMALLY HAS 3 ANGLE CUT INTO THE SEAT FOR BETTER FLOW AND TO CENTER THE SEAT ON
THE FACE

VALVE CLOSING / OPENING DEVICES:

1) DEFINITIONS:
A) ACTIVE COIL
1)COILS THAT CAN MOVE ( WORK )
2) THE MORE ACTIVE THE COILS, THE SOFTER THE SPRING
B) COIL BIND: A SPRING THAT IS FULLY COMPRESSED
( NO DISTANCE BETWEEN THE ACTIVE COILS )
C) SPRING FREE LENGTH: TOTAL LENGTH OF SPRING AT REST
D) INSTALLED HEIGHT: LENGTH OF SPRING WHEN INSTALLED IN COMPONENT
E) SPRING PRE-LOAD: AMOUNT OF SPRING PRESSURE EXERTED ON A COMPONENT AFTER IT IS
COMPRESSED TO ITS INSTALLED HEIGHT
F) SPRING FATIGUE: A SPRING THAT IS WORN-OUT. A FATIGUED SPRING WILL NOT HAVE PROPER
FREE LENGTH
G) VALVE FLOAT: THE POINT AT WHICH THE VALVE DOES NOT STAY IN CONTACT WITH THE VALVE
TRAIN
1) USUALLY CAUSED BY:
a) WEAK VALVE SPRINGS
b) EXCESSIVE ENGINE RPM
c) INCORRECT VALVE SPRINGS
d) INCORRECT INSTALLED HEIGHT
H) SPRING HARMONICS: EXCESSIVE VALVE MOVEMENT SPEED CREATES VIBRATION THAT MATCH
SPRING VIBRATION
1) CAUSES THE SPRING TO STOP MOVING
2) USUALLY CAUSED BY ENGINE OVER-REVVING ( HI- RPM )
2) COIL SPRINGS
A) ROUND OR FLAT WIRE WOUND IN A COIL
B) STORES KINETIC ENERGY
C) SPRING RATE:
1) IS THE AMOUNT OF FORCE REQUIRED TO COMPRESS A SPRING A GIVEN DISTANCE
2) SPRING RATE IS USUALLY EXPRESSED IN POUNDS PER. INCH ( LB/IN )
3) EXAMPLES: SPRING RATE = 100 LB/IN, MEANS IT TAKES 100 Lbs. OF FORCE TO COMPRESS
THE SPRING 1 INCH
4) LOWER SPRING RATE- REDUCES OPENING AND CLOSING WEAR OF COMPONENTS
5) HIGHER SPRING RATE- ENSURES VALVE CLOSING
6) FACTORS AFFECTING SPRING RATE:
a) MATERIAL USED TO MAKE THE SPRING

9
 b) WIRE DIA..
1) THICKNESS OF THE WIRE-THE LARGER THE DIA., THE HIGHER THE RATE
c) MEAN DIA..
1) CENTERLINE DIA. OF SPRING
2) INCREASE THE MEAN DIA., LOWERS THE SPRING RATE

d) NUMBER OF ACTIVE COILS - THE HIGHER THE NUMBERS OF ACTIVE COILS, THE
LOWER THE SPRING RATE
D) TYPES OF SPRINGS USED FOR VALVE OPERATION
1) STRAIGHT WOUND SPRING
a) HAS ONE SPRING RATE- HAS EQUAL DISTANCE BETWEEN ITS ACTIVE COILS
b) AMOUNT OF FORCE TO COMPRESS IT IS PROPORTIONAL TO THE DISTANCE IT IS
COMPRESSED
2) MULTI-RATE WOUND SPRINGS
a) HAS TWO OR MORE SPRING RATES
b) FORCE REQUIRED TO COMPRESS IT IS NOT PROPORTIONAL
c) DURING BEGINNING OF COMPRESSION THE SPRING IS SOFT
d) TOWARD THE END OF COMPRESSION THE SPRING IS VERY STIFF
3) PROGRESSIVE WOUND VALVE SPRINGS
(NOT COMMON IN STOCK M/C)
a) SPRING RATES CHANGE PROGRESSIVELY
b) HAS UNEQUAL DISTANCE BETWEEN ITS ACTIVE COILS
c) MORE EXPENSIVE TO MANUFACTURE THAN MULTI-RATE
3) VALVE CLOSING DEVICES
A) DEVICE THAT IS USED TO CLOSE THE VALVE
B) TWO BASIC TYPES
1) COIL SPRINGS ( MOST COMMON )
a) TWO SPRINGS (INNER & OUTER) PER VALVE (MOST COMMON DESIGN)
b) CONSIDERED TO BE PARALLEL
c) THIS REDUCES THE CHANCE OF VALVE FLOAT, THE HARMONICS OF ONE SPRING
CANCELS THE HARMONICS OF THE OTHER
d) TOTAL SPRING RATE= INNER SPRING RATE + OUTER SPRING RATE
2) DESMODROMIC
a) MECHANICALLY CLOSES THE VALVES
b) POSITIVE CLOSING, NO CHANCE OF VALVE FLOAT
c) USES A FORKED ROCKER ARM AND A CAM LOBE TO CLOSE THE VALVE
4) VALVE OPENING DEVICES (ALSO CALLED CAM FOLLOWERS )
A) DEVICE THAT CONTACTS THE VALVE TIP AND IS USED TO TRANSFER THE POWER FLOW FROM THE
CAMSHAFT.
B) TYPES:
1) ROCKER ARM:
a) IT IS A LEVER THAT CAN:
1) GAIN MECHANICAL ADVANTAGE
2) CHANGE DIRECTION OF FORCE
3) OPEN MORE THAN ONE VALVE
b) ROCKER ARM DESIGNS
1) CAM CONTACT UNDER ROCKER ARM - CHANGE IN DIRECTION OF APPLIED
FORCE.
2) CAM CONTACT OVER ROCKER ARM - NO CHANGE IN DIRECTION OF APPLIED
FORCE.
3) PUSH ROD ACTIVATED
c) ROCKER ARM RATIO
1) LEVERAGE THE ROCKER ARM PROVIDES FOR LIFTING THE VALVES
2) INDICATES HOW MUCH THE VALVE IS LIFTED OFF ITS SEAT.COMPARED TO
CAM LIFT
3) COMPUTING VALVE LIFT: MULTIPLY RATIO NUMBER X CAM LIFT A) EXAMPLE:
H-D IRON XL WITH ROCKER ARM RATIO - 1.42:1 AND CAM LIFT IS 0.375"
B) COMPUTE VALVE LIFT: 1.42 X 0.375 = 0.5325
4) COMPUTING ROCKER ARM RATIO:

10
 A) DIVIDE VALVE LIFT BY CAM LIFT. H-D IRON XL WITH VALVE LIFT 0.5325
AND CAM LIFT IS 0.375"
B) ROCKER ARM RATIO IS 0.5325 ~ 0.375 = 1.42
d) DIS-ADVANTAGES OF ROCKER ARM:
1) CREATES SIDE LOAD ON STEMS AND VALVES
2) SIDE LOAD CAUSES EXCESSIVE WEAR IN THOSE AREAS.
2) SHIM - BUCKETS
a) THE BUCKET IS LOCATED ABOVE THE VALVE, IN A POCKET IN THE CYLINDER HEAD
b) SHIM LOCATION - CAN BE ON TOP OR UNDERNEATH THE BUCKET
c) CHANGING SHIM SIZE ADJUSTS VALVE CLEARANCE
d) ADVANTAGE: DOES NOT CREATE VALVE LOAD
5) VALVE CLEARANCE (LASH) ADJUSTERS
A) PURPOSE OF CLEARANCE IS TO ALLOW FOR:
1) HEAT EXPANSION
2) OIL CLEARANCE
3) PROPER SEALING/TIMING OF VALVES
4) TO LITTLE CLEARANCE WILL CAUSE
a) THE VALVE NOT TO SEAL (SEAT) PROPERLY
b) INSUFFICIENT HEAT TRANSFER WHEN ENGINE IS AT OPERATING TEMPS.
5) TO MUCH CLEARANCE WILL CAUSE:
a) EXCESSIVE WEAR
b) EXCESSIVE NOISE
c) REDUCES VOLUMETRIC EFFICIENCY
6) VALVE CLEARANCE CHECKING AND ADJUSTING - MUST BE DONE WITH THE ENGINE AT
AMBIENT (ROOM) TEMP.
7) TYPES:
a) SCREW AND LOCKNUT
1) SCREW CAN BE TURNED IN OR OUT TO CHANGE CLEARANCE
2) A LOCKNUT IS USED TO HOLD THE SCREW IN PLACE
3) THREE COMMON LOCATIONS:
a) ROCKER ARM
b) PUSH ROD
c) LIFTER
b) SHIM AND BUCKET
1) USED AS A VALVE OPENING DEVICE AND AN ADJUSTMENT DEVICE
2) CLEARANCE IS CHANGED BY CHANGING SHIMS.
3) SHIMS COME IN VARIOUS SIZES - USUALLY IN INCREMENTS OF 0.05 MM
(APPROX. 002")
4) THREE TYPES:
a) SHIM OVER BUCKET - LOW RPM USAGE
b) SHIM UNDER BUCKET - HIGH RPM USAGE (MUST REMOVE CAM TO
REPLACE THE SHIM)
c) BUCKET - HIGH RPM USAGE (MUST REMOVE CAM TO CHANGE)
c) HYDRAULICS
1) AUTOMATICALLY ADJUSTS FOR PROPER CLEARANCES
2) USE ENGINE OIL PRESSURE TO MAINTAIN ZERO LASH AT ALL ENGINE TEMPS
3) DISADVANTAGE - RARE BUT THEY CAN COLLAPSE IF AIR OR DIRT ENTERS
THE OILING SYSTEM (OIL CONTAMINATION)
4) TYPES ARE:
a) HYDRAULIC LIFTERS - (H-D)
b) HYDRAULIC ADJUSTERS (SUZUKI - HONDA)
d) SHIM:
1) USED WITH ROCKER ARMS
2) SHIM SITS IN A POCKET ON TOP OF THE VALVE STEM, OR ON THE STEM
3) SOME KAWASAKI‟S AND DUCATI‟S USE THIS STYLE
e) ECCENTRIC
1) USED WITH ROCKER ARMS
2) ROCKER SHAFT IS GROUND OFF CENTER (ELLIPTICAL CAM GROUND)
3) ADJUSTMENT: ROTATE PIVOT SHAFT SO THE CLEARANCE BETWEEN THE

11
 VALVE TIP AND ROCKER ARE CHANGES.
4) PIVOT SHAFT IS HELD IN PLACE BY A LOCKNUT.
6) CAMSHAFTS
A) PURPOSES OF THE CAMSHAFT:
1) CHANGE ROTARY MOTION TO RECIPROCATING MOTION.
2) MECHANICAL TIMER FOR THE VALVES THAT CONTROL:
a) WHEN IT OPENS
b) HOW FAST IT OPENS
c) HOW FAR IT OPENS (POSSIBLY ALONG WITH ROCKER ARM RATIO)
d) HOW LONG TO STAY OPEN
e) WHEN TO CLOSE
f) HOW FAST TO CLOSE
g) HOW LONG TO STAY CLOSED
B) VALVE LIFT: DEFINED AS THE DISTANCE THE VALVE MOVES OFF ITS SEAT, MEASURED IN INCH‟S
OR MILLIMETERS.
C) VALVE DURATION: DEFINED AS THE TIME, IN CRANKSHAFT DEGREES, THE VALVE IS OFF THE SEAT.
D) PARTS OF THE CAM:
1) BASE CIRCLE:
a) PART OF THE CAM WITH CONSTANT RADIUS FROM THE CENTERLINE OF THE
JOURNALS TO THE HEEL, FORMS THE BASE OF THE CAM.
b) CAM DURATION IS THE TIME THE VALVE IS OPEN
c) DISTANCE FROM THE TOP OF THE BASE CIRCLE TO THE NOSE HELPS DETERMINE
MAXIMUM VALVE LIFT.
d) SHIM + BUCKET TYPES - CAM LIFT = VALVE LIFT
e) ROCKER ARM TYPES - CAMLIFT x ROCKER ARM RATIO = VALVE LIFT
2) HEEL
a) AREA OF THE CAM THAT ALLOWS THE VALVE TO CLOSE
b) ALLOW TIME FOR THE VALVE TO DISSIPATE HEAT, AND THE VALVE TRAIN TO
RECOVER.
3) CLEARANCE RAMPS: ACTS SIMILAR TO A SHOCK ABSORBER, THEY GENTLY OPEN AND
CLOSE THE VALVE
4) FLANKS:
a) AREA OF THE CAM THAT DETERMINES ACCELERATION OF VALVE OPENING AND
CLOSING.
b) OPENING FLANK CAN HAVE A DIFFERENT PROFILE THAN THE CLOSING FLANK
5) NOSE: AREA OF THE CAM THAT DETERMINES DURATION OF MAXIMUM VALVE LIFT
a) DETERMINES VALVE LIFT - THE DISTANCE THE POPPET VALVE IS MOVED OFF IT‟S
SEAT, MEASURED IN INCHES OR MILLIMETERS
E) CAM MANUFACTURING METHODS:
1) CAST
a) MOLTEN METAL IS POURED INTO A CASTING, THEN MACHINED TO ITS FINAL SHAPE
b) CHEAPEST METHOD OF PRODUCTION
c) VERY GOOD WEAR FACTOR AND OIL RETENTION
d) DISADVANTAGE: THEY ARE VERY BRITTLE
2) BILLET
a) MACHINED FROM A SOLID PIECE OF ROUND STOCK
b) MORE EXPENSIVE TO MANUFACTURE BECAUSE OF MACHINING TIME
c) MUCH STRONGER THAN CAST
d) OIL RETENTION IS NOT AS GOOD AS CAST
F) CAM SHAFT DRIVES:
1) TYPES
a) CHAIN:
1) SINGLE ROLLER
2) DUPLEX ROLLER
a) CONSISTING OF PLATES, PINS, BUSHINGS AND ROLLERS
3) HY-VO:
a) CONSISTS OF PINS AND PLATES
b) VERY STRONG, BUT USES MORE H/P TO DRIVE IT
c) NORMALLY OPERATES IN AN OIL BATH

12
 b) GEAR
1) MOST MANUFACTURERS USE SPUR GEARS
2) SOMETIME BEVEL GEARS ARE USED
3) OPERATES IN AN OIL BATH
c) GILMER BELT
1) USES A TOOTHED BELT
2) USES PULLEYS WITH TEETH
3) VERY QUIET
4) NO LUBRICATION
5) ALIGNMENT AND TENSION ARE VERY IMPORTANT
G) CHAIN/BELT TENSIONER
1) PURPOSE: KEEP PROPER TENSION ON THE CHAIN/BELT
2) TYPES:
a) MANUAL: MUST MANUALLY ADJUST THE TENSION BY FEEL. A LOCKNUT HOLDS IT IN
PLACE
b) SEMI-AUTOMATIC: LOOSEN LOCKNUT, SPRING TENSION TIGHTENS UP THE
TENTIONER, THEN TIGHTEN LOCKNUT
c) FULLY AUTOMATIC: TENSION AUTOMATICALLY ADJUSTS AS ENGINE IS RUNNING
H) TYPES OF VALVE TRAINS
1) PUSH ROD AND ROCKER ARM
2) SINGLE OVERHEAD CAM WITH ROCKER ARMS
3) DUAL OVERHEAD CAMS WITH ROCKER ARMS
4) DUAL OVERHEAD CAMS WITH SHIM AND BUCKETS

4 STROKE ENGINE COMPONENTS

1) CYLINDERS
A) PURPOSES
1) GUIDE PISTON TRAVEL
2) THRUST SURFACE FOR THE PISTON SKIRT
3) AIDS IN HEAT TRANSFER
B) AIR OR LIQUID COOLED
C) TYPES
1) CAST IRON
a) ADVANTAGES
1) ALL ONE PIECE
2) CHEAP TO MFR
3) BOREABLE
b) DISADVANTAGES
1) TOO HEAVY
2) POOR HEAT TRANSFER WHEN COMPARED TO ALUM.
2) ALUM. W/ CAST IRON OR STEEL SLEEVE
a) ADVANTAGES
1) LIGHTER IN WEIGHT THAN CAST IRON
2) BETTER HEAT TRANSFER THAN CAST IRON
3) BOREABLE
b) CAN BE REPLACEABLE OR NON-REPLACEABLE SLEEVES
c) DIS-ADVANTAGES
1) HEAVIER THAN PLATED ALUM. CYLS
2) POORER HEAT TRANSFER, COMPARED TO PLATED ALUM. CLYS
3) PLATED ALUM. CYLS ( NIKASIL OR COMPOSITE CYLS )
a) ADVANTAGES
1) BEST HEAT TRANSFER
2) LIGHTER IN WEIGHT
3) LONGEST LASTING ( WHEN PROPERLY MAINTAINED )
b) DIS-ADVANTAGES
1) MOST EXPENSIVE TO MFR.
2) NON-BOREABLE ( REPLACE IF DAMAGED )
D) CROSS HATCH
1) MINUTE SCRATCHES PURPOSELY INSTALLED INTO THE CYL..WALLS

13
 2) CREATED BY A PROCESS KNOWN AS HONING
3) PURPOSES
a) HELP SEAT (SEAL) THE PISTON RINGS
b) RETAIN OIL ON CYL. WALLS
4) CROSS HATCH ANGLE SHOULD BE 45 TO 60 DEGREES
E) CYL. WEAR
1) CYL MUST BE ROUND AND TRUE, THEY CANNOT HAVE ANY TAPER OR OUT-OF-ROUND
( REFER TO MSSM )
2) MEASURE CYL. AT A MINIMUM OF SIX PLACES TO CHECK CYL. TAPER AND OUT OF ROUND
a) “X” AXIS = WRIST PIN AXIS TOP
b) “Y” AXIS = PISTON THRUST AXIS MIDDLEBOTTOM
2) PISTONS
A) PURPOSES
1) TRANSFER POWER TO CON ROD
2) AID IN SEALING THE COMB. CHAMBER
3) THRUST AND SEALING SURFACE FOR THE PISTON RINGS
B) MFRG DESIGN
1) DIRECTIONAL (REFER TO MSSM)
2) TAPERED
3) TOP (CROWN) HAS A SMALLER DIA. THAN BOTTOM (SKIRT)
a) ALLOWS FOR DIFFERENCE IN HEAT EXPANSION OF CROWN AND SKIRT
4) WHEN COLD THE CROWN IS SMALLER IN DIA., WHEN PISTON REACHES NORMAL
OPERATING TEMP., CROWN WILL EXPAND MORE DO TO AMOUNT OF HEAT AND MASS THAN
THE SKIRT
5) CAM GROUND
a) PISTON IS GROUND TO AN OVAL SHAPE W/ THE SMALLER DIA. ON THE WRISTPIN
AXIS
b) ALLOWS FOR WRISTPIN BOSS EXPANSION DUE TO HIGHER AMOUNT OF MASS IN
THIS AREA
c) WHEN PISTON REACHES NORMAL OPERATING TEMP., PISTON WILL BECOME ROUND
C) COMMON MFRG. METHODS (2)
1) CAST (MOST COMMON)
2) FORGED
a) AN ALUM. ALLOY INGOT IS FORCED INTO A DIE UNDER EXTREME PRESSURE
b) CREATES A MORE DENSE AND STRONG PISTON
c) MAY REQUIRE MORE CLEARANCE, DUE TO EXPANSION RATE (REFER TO MFRS
SPECS)
D) PISTON AREAS
1) CROWN
a) TOP OF THE PISTON, FORM THE FLOOR FOR THE COMB. CHAMBER
b) HOTTEST PART OF THE PISTON, DUE TO COMB. CHAMBER TEMPS.
c) CROWN AREA WILL EXPAND MORE THAN THE REST OF THE PISTON, DUE TO THE
AMOUNT OF HEAT AND MASS IN THIS AREA
d) REQUIRES MORE PISTON TO CYL. WALL CLEARANCE TO ALLOW FOR EXPANSION
e) MAY HAVE FLYCUTS FOR VALVE RELIEFS
f) PISTON MAY HAVE A POSITIVE, FLAT, OR NEGATIVE DOME
2) RING GROOVES
a) PURPOSE - ALLOW FOR RING INSTALLATION
b) BOTTOM RING GROOVE HAS SMALL HOLES OR SLOTS TO ALLOW FOR OIL RETURN
1)THAT HELPS REMOVE OIL FROM THE CYL. WALLS
2)THAT HELPS LUBE THE WRISTPIN
3) RING LANDS
a) UPPER AND LOWER SEALING AND SUPPORT SURFACES FOR THE PISTON RINGS
4) SKIRT
a) LOAD BEARING SURFACE FOR THE PISTON
b) CONTACTS THE CYL. WALLS PRIMARY WIPING SURFACE FOR THE CYL. WALLS
c) LARGEST DIA. OF THE PISTON IS USUALLY AT OR NEAR THE BOTTOM OF THE SKIRT
90 DEGREES FROM THE WRISTPIN
d) PISTON IS USUALLY MEASURED AT THIS POINT

14
 5) WRISTPIN BOSS
a) THICK AREA OF THE SKIRT
b) CONNECTS THE PISTON TO THE WRISTPIN
c) EXPANDS A GREAT DEAL, DUE TO MASS
d) WRISTPIN BOSS OFF-SET
1) USUALLY OFF-SET FROM THE PISTON CENTERLINE
2) CREATES A MAJOR AND A MINOR THRUST SURFACE
3) HELPS REDUCE PISTON SLAP

3) PISTON RINGS
A) PURPOSES
1) TRANSFERS HEAT FROM THE PISTON TO THE CYL. WALLS
2) SEAL COMB. CHAMBER
3) PREVENTS EXCESSIVE OIL CONSUMPTION
B) TYPES
1) COMPRESSION RINGS
a) CLOSEST TO THE PISTON CROWN
b) SEALS MOST OF THE COMB. GASSES
c) USUALLY MADE OF CAST IRON OR STEEL
d) SOMETIMES THEY ARE CHROMED, TEFLON, OR MOLY COATED
2) SCRAPER RING
a) MIDDLE RING
b) AIDS IN SEALING COMB. CHAMBER
c) AIDS IN SCRAPING EXCESS OIL OFF THE CYL. WALLS
d) USUALLY MADE OF CAST IRON
3) OIL CONTROL RING
a) CLOSEST TO THE PISTON SKIRT
b) REMOVES MOST OF THE OIL ON THE CYL. WALLS LEFT BEHIND BY THE PISTON SKIRT
c) STYLES
1)ONE PIECE
(A) USUALLY MADE OF IRON, VERY THICK AND HEAVY, VERY BRITTLE
(B) DOESN‟T CONFORM WELL TO OUT-OF-ROUND CYL
2) MULTI-PIECE
(A) USES A WAFER SHAPED EXPANDER AND TWO THIN FLEXIBLE RAILS
(B) DOES CONFORM WELL TO OUT-OF-ROUND CYL.
C) PISTON RING END GAP
1) PURPOSES
a) ALLOWS FOR HEAT EXPANSION
b) ALLOWS FOR PROPER COMPRESSION AND OIL CONTROL
c) ALLOWS FOR RING INSTALLATION
2) END GAP
a) TO LITTLE RING END GAP CAN RESULT IN RING SEIZURE AND BREAKAGE
b) TO MUCH RING END GAP CAN RESULT IN LOSS OF COMPRESSION, AND EXCESSIVE
BLOW-BY, CAN ALSO RESULT IN HIGH OIL CONSUMPTION AND EXCESSIVE SMOKING
c) PISTON RING END GAP IS MEASURED BY USING A FEELER GAUGE AND FITTING THE
RING SQUARELY IN THE CYL.
D) RING INSTALLATION
1) INSTALL W/ ANY MARKING FACING TOWARD THE PISTON CROWN
2) STAGGER RING END GAPS APPROX. 120 DEGREES APART FROM EACH OTHER TO PREVENT
BLOW-BY ON INITIAL ENG. START UP AFTER ASSEMBLY
4) WRISTPINS
A) PURPOSE- CONNECT THE PISTON TO THE CON ROD
B) USUALLY MADE OF HARDENED TOOL STEEL
C) USUALLY HELD IN PLACE W/ RETAINERS ( SOME ARE PRESS FITTED )
5) WRIST PIN RETAINERS
A) PURPOSE- PREVENT WRIST PIN FROM CONTACTING THE CYL. WALL
B) TYPES
1) ROUND WIRE CLIP
2) FLAT WIRE CLIP

15
 3) SPIRAL LOCK
4) BUTTONS
C) NEVER RE-USE WRISTPIN RETAINERS ( EXCEPT BUTTONS ) REPLACE WITH NEW ONES
D) ALWAYS INSTALL CLIP W/ END GAP INLINE W/ THE CON ROD AND OPENING AWAY FROM THE
NOTCH IN PISTON WRISTPIN BOSS
6) CONNECTING RODS
A) DEF= LEVER THAT TRANSFER POWER FROM THE PISTON TO THE CRANK
B) USUALLY MADE OF FORGED STEEL OR ALUM. “I”-BEAM CONSTRUCTION
C) TYPES
1) ONE PIECE
a) STRONGEST IN DESIGN
b) USES A ROLLER BEARING AT THE BIG END
c) MUST BE USED WITH A MULTI- PIECE CRANK
d) USUALLY HAS HOLES OR SLOTS FOR OILING ON THE SMALL END
2) MULTI-PIECE
a) WEAKER IN DESIGN
b) COMPONENTS
1) CON ROD
2) CON ROD CAP
3) CON ROD BOLTS
4) SOMETIMES CON ROD NUTS
c) USES A PLAIN BEARING AT THE BIG END
d) AT THE BIG END BEARING, IT NORMALLY REQUIRES HIGH PRESSURE AND VOLUME
OF OIL FOR LUBRICATION
e) USUALLY USED W/ ONE-PIECE CRANK
7) CRANKSHAFTS
A) PURPOSE- CHANGE RECIPROCATING MOTION TO ROTARY MOTION
B) JOURNAL- BEARING SUPPORT AREA OF A SHAFT
C) CRANKSHAFT COMPONENTS
1) MAIN JOURNAL
a) SUPPORTS THE CRANK MASS, CENTER OF ROTATING AXIS
2) CON ROD JOURNAL(S)
a) SUPPORTS THE CON ROD(S) OFFSET TO THE MAIN JOURNAL AXIS
D) CRANK THROW
1) DEF- DISTANCE FROM THE CENTERLINE OF THE MAIN JOURNAL TO THE CENTERLINE OF
THE CON ROD JOURNAL
2) CALCULATION FORMULAS
a) CRANK THROW TIMES 2 = PISTON STROKE
b) PISTON STROKE DIVIDED BY 2 = CRANK THROW
E) COUNTER WEIGHTS
1) PURPOSES
a) ADDS MOMENTUM TO THE CRANK
b) USED TO COUNTER BALANCE THE RECIPROCATING MASS
2) SOME ENGINES USE REMOTE COUNTER WEIGHTS
a) ON A SEPARATE SHAFT
b) CHAIN OR GEAR DRIVEN
c) SHAFTS MUST BE TIMED PROPERLY W/ THE CRANK
F) TYPES OF CRANKSHAFTS
1) ONE PIECE
a) CAST OR FORGED AS ONE PIECE
b) STRONGEST IN DESIGN
c) MUST BE USE W/ A MULTI-PIECE CON ROD
d) MUST BE CROSSED DRILLED FOR OIL DELIVERY TO THE CON ROD JOURNAL(S)
e) MUST USE PLAIN BEARINGS AT THE MAIN AND CON ROD JOURNALS
f) MUST USE HIGH VOLUME AND PRESSURE OF OIL TO THE BEARINGS
g) NOT REBUILDABLE (USUALLY)
2) MULTI-PIECE
a) HALVES ARE CAST OF FORGED
b) CON ROD JOURNAL IS EITHER PRESS-FIT OR BOLTED TO HALVES

16
 c) MOST ARE REBUILDABLE ( DEPENDING ON PARTS AVAILABILITY)
d) MOST USE ONE PIECE CON ROD
e) MOST USE ROLLER BEARINGS ON THE CON ROD JOURNAL
f) MOST USE BALL BEARINGS ON THE MAIN JOURNALS
g) ALL MUST BE TRUED AFTER RE-ASSEMBLY
G) MULTI-CYL. CRANKS ( USE DIFFERENT OFF-SET POSITIONS FOR EACH CYL.,DEPENDING ON
DESIGN)
1) 360 DEGREE DESIGN
a) BOTH PISTONS MOVE TOGETHER
b) REQUIRES MORE COUNTER WEIGHTING
c) VIBRATES AT HIGH RPM
2) 180 DEGREE DESIGN
a) PISTON MOVE IN OPPOSITE DIRECTION
b) REQUIRES LESS COUNTER WEIGHTING
c) LESS VIBRATION ( VIBES ) AT HIGHER RPM
d) IF USED ON AN INLINE 4 CYL. ENG. A PAIR OF 180 DEGREE CRANKS ARE USED
3) 120 DEGREE DESIGN
a) PISTON MOVEMENT IS 120 DEGREES APART
b) USED ON 3 AND 6 CYL. ENGINES
c) 6 CLY. ENGINES USE A PAIR OF 120 DEGREE CRANKS
8) CRANKCASES
A) PURPOSE- CONTAINS
1) CRANKSHAFT
2) SOMETIMES
a) OIL PUMP b)PRIMARY SHAFT
c) PRIMARY DRIVE d) MAIN SHAFT
e) COUNTER SHAFT f) TRANSMISSION ( TRANS ) SHAFT
g) CAMSHAFT ( CAM ) h)BALANCER SHAFT
B) 4 STROKE CRANKCASES MUST BE VENTED TO THE ATMOSPHERE, TODAY THE EPA REQUIRES
CRANKCASE TO RECIRCULATE BACK THROUGH THE COMBUSTION CHAMBER
C) CRANKCASE TYPES
1) ONE PIECE- CASE IS ALL ONE PIECE
a) USES AN ACCESS COVER TO REMOVE COMPONENTS
2) VERTICAL SPLIT- CASES SEPARATE VERTICALLY
a) REQUIRES TOP END COMPONENTS TO BE REMOVED ( CYL. & HEADS ) IN ORDER TO
SEPARATE CASES
3) HORIZONTAL SPLIT- CASES SEPARATE HORIZONTALLY
a) LOWER ENGINE CASE CAN USUALLY BE REMOVED W/O DISTURBING TOP END
COMPONENTS (REFER TO MSSM)

CALCULATOR
1) ROUNDING OF FINAL ANSWERS
A) WHEN COMPUTING A FORMULA INVOLVING MULTIPLE COMPUTATIONS, ROUND OFF FINAL ANSWER
ONLY
B) METHOD OF ROUND OFF TO THOUSANDTHS
1) IF THE TEN THOUSANDTHS COLUMN IS 5 OR MORE, ADD ONE TO THE THOUSANDTHS
COLUMN ON.
2) IF THE TEN THOUSANDTHS COLUMN IS LESS THAN 5 DROP ALL DIGITS FROM THE TEN
THOUSANDTHS COLUMN ON.
C) METHOD TO ROUND OFF TO THE TENTH’S(COMPRESSION RATIO‟S)
1) IF THE HUNDREDTHS COLUMN IS 5 OR MORE, ADD ONE TO THE TENTH‟S COLUMN AND
DROP ALL DIGITS FROM THE HUNDREDTHS COLUMN ON.
2) IF THE HUNDREDTHS COLUMN IS LESS THAN 5, DROP ALL DIGITS FROM THE HUNDREDTHS
COLUMN ON.
D) MMI WANTS ALL FINAL ANSWERS ROUNDED OFF TO THE THOUSANDTH‟S (0.000), EXCEPT FOR
COMPRESSION RATIO‟S THEY WILL BE ROUNDED TO THE TENTH‟S (0.0)
E) THE REASON FOR ROUNDING TO THE THOUSANDTHS IS TO SHOW THE DEGREE OF ACCURACY WE
ARE MEASURING IN.

17
METRIC SYSTEM
1) A SYSTEM BASED ON TENTH’S
2) USES PREFIXES TO INDICATE THE VALUE OF EACH UNIT OF MEASURE.
3) PREFIXES ARE:
KILO HELTO DECA METER DECI CENTI MILLI

(K) (H) (DA) LITER (D) (C) (M)

1000 100 10 GRAM 0.1 0.01 0.001

4) COMMONLY USED UNITS OF MEASURE
A) METER - UNIT OF MEASURE FOR DISTANCE AND LENGTH
B) LITER - UNIT OF MEASURE OF VOLUME
C) GRAM - UNIT OF MEASURE FOR WEIGHT
D) KILOGRAM/CENTIMETER² - UNIT OF MEASURE FOR PRESSURE (SQUARED)
E) KILOGRAM/METER - UNIT OF MEASURE FOR TORQUE
5) TO CONVERT WITHIN THE METRIC SYSTEM, x OR ¸ INCREMENTS OF TEN.
6) CONVERTING INCHES TO MILLIMETERS
A) 1 INCH = 25.4 MM
B) METHOD: MULTIPLY INCHES x 25.4 = MM
7) CONVERTING INCHES TO CENTIMETERS
A) 1 INCH = 2.54 CM
B) METHOD: MULTIPLY INCHES x 2.54 = CM
8) CONVERTING MILLIMETERS TO INCHES
A) 1 MM = 0.03937 INCHES
B) METHOD: MULTIPLY MM X 0.03937 = INCHES
9) CONVERTING CM TO INCHES
A) 1 CM = 0.3937 CM
B) METHOD: MULTIPLY CM X 0.3937 = INCHES
10) CONVERTING/KILOGRAMS - CENTIMETERS² TO PSI
A) 1 KG/CM² = 14.224 PSI
B) METHOD: MULTIPLY KG/CM² x 14.224 = PSI
11) CONVERTING KILOGRAM/METER TO FOOT POUNDS
A) 1 KILOGRAM/METER=7.233 FT/LBS
B) METHOD: MULTIPLY KILOGRAM/METERS x 7.233 = FT/LBS

ENGINE MATH
1) CYL. VOLUME (CV) (THE VOLUME OF ONE CYL.)
A) FORMULA FOR CV: BORE x BORE x STROKE x 0.7854
B) METRIC EXAMPLES:
1) METRIC UNIT FOR MEASURING VOLUME IN CUBIC CENTIMETERS (CM³)
2) BORE AND STROKE MUST BE CONVERTED TO CM (10 MM = 1.0 CM)
3) EXAMPLE:
a) BORE - 89 MM = 8.9 CM
b) STROKE - 91 MM = 9.1 CM
c) CV = 8.9 x 8.9 x 9.1 x 0.7845 = 566.125 CC
C) ENGLISH (STANDARD) EXAMPLE:
1) BORE = 3.504"
2) STROKE = 3.583"
3) CV = 3.504 x 3.504 x 3.583" x 0.7854 = 34.551 CI
2) ENGINE DISPLACEMENT (ED) (THE VOLUME OF ALL CYL.)
A) FORMULA FOR ED:
BORE x BORE x STROKE x 0.7854 x (# OF CYL.‟S) = ENGINE DISPLACEMENT OR BORE² x STROKE
x 0.7854 x (# OF CYL‟S) = ENGINE DISPLACEMENT
B) METRIC EXAMPLE:
C) UNIT FOR MEASURING IS CUBIC CENTIMETERS (CM³)
D) BORE x STROKE MUST BE CONVERTED TO CM (10 MM 1 CM)
E) METRIC EXAMPLE:
1) BORE - 89 MM = 8.9 CM

18
 2) STROKE - 91 MM = 9.1 CM
3) CYL = 2 (TWIN)
4) ED = 8.9² x 9.1 x 0.7854 X 2 = 1132.250 CC
F) ENGLISH (STANDARD) EXAMPLE:
1) BORE = 3.504'
2) STROKE = 3.583"
3) CYL = 2
4) ED = 3.504² x 3.583 x 0.7854 X 2 = 69.103 CI

3) COMPRESSION RATIO (CR)

A) NUMERICAL RATIO OF VOLUME OF PISTON ABOVE THE PISTON AT BDC, COMPARED TO THE
VOLUME ABOVE THE PISTON AT TDC

B) SERVICE MANUALS, GENERALLY EXPRESS COMPRESSION RATIO‟S (FIRST NUMBER ROUNDED TO

TENTH‟S): EXAMPLE: (8.5:1)
C) COMPRESSION RATION‟S GENERALLY RANGE FROM 6:1 TO 12:1
D) FORMULA FOR CR: (CV + CCV)~CCV = CR
1) CV IS CYL. VOLUME
(SWEPT VOLUME, THE VOLUME PASSED BY PISTON MOVEMENT FROM TDC TO BDC)
2) CCV (IS COMBUSTION CHAMBER VOLUME (VOLUME ABOVE THE PISTON AT TDC)
3) METRIC EXAMPLE:
a) CV = 275.440 CC
b) CCV = 34.4 CC
c) CR = (275.440 + 34.4)~34.4 = 9.0:1
4) STANDARD (ENGLISH) EXAMPLE:
a) CV = 34.551 CI
b) CCV = 3967 CI
c) CR = (34.551 + 3.967)~3.967 = 9.7:1

2 STROKE ENGINE
THEORY OR OPERATION
1) A 2 STROKE ENGINE HAS 3 MAJOR MOVING PARTS
A) PISTON ASSEMBLY
B) CONNECTING ROD
C) CRANKSHAFT
2) BASIC TERMINOLOGY
A) PORT: HOLE IN THE CYL. USED TO CONTROL AIR/FUEL/OIL FLOW (NO POPPET VALVE USED)
B) PRIMARY AREA: VOLUME BELOW THE PISTON CROWN INCLUDING THE CRANKCASE VOLUME
C) SECONDARY AREA: VOLUME ABOVE THE PISTON CROWN INCLUDING THE COMB.CHAMBER
3) THERE ARE 3 PORTS - THEIR DESIGN AND PURPOSE ARE:
A) INTAKE PORT:
1) PURPOSE: CONTROLS THE FLOW OF FRESH CHARGE INTO THE PRIMARY CRANKCASE)
AREA
2) LOCATION:
a) ON PISTON PORT/CYL. REED ENGINES:
1) LOWEST PART ON THE CYL. WALL
b) PISTON PORT - OPENING/CLOSING IS CONTROLLED BY THE POSITION OF THE
PISTON SKIRT
c) CYL. REED - OPENING/CLOSING IS CONTROLLED BY THE INDUCTION SYSTEMS.
d) ROTARY VALVE/CRANKCASE REED:
1) LOCATED IN CRANKCASE
2) OPENING/CLOSING CONTROLLED BY INDUCTION SYSTEMS
B) TRANSFER PORT:
1) PURPOSE: CONTROLS THE TRANSFER OF FRESH CHARGE FROM THE PRIMARY AREA TO
THE SECONDARY AREA
2) LOCATION: MIDDLE PART OF THE CYL.
3) OPENING/CLOSING IS CONTROLLED BY THE POSITION OF THE PISTON CROWN
C) EXHAUST PORT:

19
 1) PURPOSE: CONTROLS THE FLOW OF SPENT CHARGE INTO THE EXHAUST SYSTEM
2) LOCATION: THE HIGHEST PART OF THE CYL.
3) OPENING/CLOSING IS CONTROLLED BY THE POSITION OF THE PISTON CROWN
4) THE SIX EVENTS OF A 2 STROKE ENGINE
A) TO COMPLETE ALL SIX EVENTS IS TAKES:
1) TWO (2) STROKE OF THE PISTON
2) ONE (1) REVOLUTION OF THE CRANKSHAFT
B) THE 6 EVENTS ARE:
1) INTAKE EVENT (INTO PRIMARY AREA)
a) STARTS WITH PISTON MOVING TOWARD TDC
b) PRIMARY AREA IS INCREASING, PRESSURES ARE DECREASING.
c) BECAUSE OF PRESSURE DIFFERENCES, A FRESH AIR/FUEL/OIL MIXTURE IS PUSHED
INTO THE PRIMARY AREA.
2) COMPRESSION EVENT: (SECONDARY COMPRESSION)

a) THE VOLUME ABOVE THE PISTON IS COMPRESSED BY THE PISTONS MOVEMENT

TOWARD TDC
3) TIMED IGNITION OCCURS:
a) OCCURS JUST BTDC TO ALLOW FOR COMB. LAG.
4) POWER EVENT:
a) STARTS ATDC WHEN THE COMB. FORCES THE PISTON DOWN, AND END WHEN THE
EXHAUST PORT OPENS.
b) HOT EXPANDING NITROGEN GASSES FORCES THE PISTON DOWNWARDS
5) EXHAUST EVENT:
a) STARTS WHEN PISTON CROWN OPENS THE EXHAUST PORT WHILE MOVING
DOWNWARD TO BDC
b) PRESSURE ON TOP OF PISTON IS NO LONGER USEFUL TO MAKE POWER.
c) BECAUSE OF PRESSURE DIFFERENCES, THE SPENT CHARGE IS PUSHED INTO THE
EXHAUST SYSTEM BECAUSE OF:
1) LOW PRESSURE IN EXHAUST SYSTEM.
2) HIGHER PRESSURE IN SECONDARY SYSTEM.
6) TRANSFER EVENT:
a) PISTON STARTS BBDC AND IS TRAVELING TOWARD BDC
b) PRIMARY AREA IS DECREASING, PRESSURES ARE INCREASING (PRIMARY
COMPRESSION)
c) SECONDARY AREA IS INCREASING, PRESSURES ARE DECREASING
d) BECAUSE OF PRESSURE DIFFERENCES BETWEEN THE PRIMARY AND SECONDARY
AREAS, THE FRESH CHARGE (AIR/FUEL/OIL) IS PUSHED THRU THE TRANSFER PORTS
AND INTO THE SECONDARY AREA
e) TRANSFER BEGINS DURING THE EXHAUST EVENT, THIS HELPS SCAVENGE RESIDUAL
EXHAUST GASSES.
f) THE TRANSFER EVENT HAS THE SHORTEST PORT DURATION TIME.
5) SCAVENGING (SIMILAR TO FOUR STROKE VALVE OVERLAP)
A) OCCURS WHEN THE EXHAUST AND TRANSFER PORTS ARE OPEN AT THE SAME TIME.
B) PURPOSE:
1) HELP SCAVENGE RESIDUAL EXHAUST GASSES
2) HELP COOL THE SECONDARY AREA
C) METHODS:
1) CROSS - SCAVENGING
a) USED PRIMARILY IN MARINE ENGINES
b) TRANSFER PORT IS DIRECTLY ACROSS FROM EXHAUST PORT
c) A LARGE DEFLECTOR IS CAST ONTO THE CROWN OF THE PISTON
d) THE DEFLECTOR DIRECT AIRFLOW UP AND AWAY FROM THE EXHAUST PORT
2) LOOP SCAVENGING:
a) THE TRANSFER PORTS ARE LOCATED 90° FROM THE EXHAUST PORTS
b) TRANSFER PORTS ARE ANGLED AWAY FROM THE EXHAUST PORT
c) THE ANGLE OF THE TRANSFER PORTS DIRECTS THE CHARGE UP AND AWAY FROM
THE EXHAUST PORT
d) THE FRESH CHARGE LOOPS AROUND INSIDE THE SECONDARY AREA, THIS HELPS

20
 SCAVENGE RESIDUAL EXHAUST GASSES WITH A MINIMUM OF INTAKE CHARGE
LOSS.
6) TWO - STROKE EXPANSION CHAMBERS (EXHAUST SYSTEMS)
A) TUNED CHAMBER THAT OPERATES OFF OF SONIC (SOUND) WAVES CREATED BY THE ENGINE
B) AIDS IN:
1) SCAVENGING RESIDUAL EXHAUST GASSES
2) THE TRANSFER EVENT
3) REDUCING CHARGE LOSS
4) ADJUSTING THE POWER - BAND CHARACTERISTICS OF THE ENGINE
7) OVER - VIEW OF PORT TIMING
A) INTAKE PORTS (ON PISTON PORT ENGINES ONLY)
1) USUALLY OPENS BTDC
2) USUALLY CLOSES ATDC
B) EXHAUST PORT
1) USUALLY OPENS BBDC
2) USUALLY CLOSES ABDC
C) TRANSFER PORT (HAS SHORTEST PORT DURATION TIME)
1) OPENS BBDC (AFTER EXHAUST PORT OPENS)
2) CLOSES ABDC (BEFORE EXHAUST PORT CLOSES)
D) SYMMETRICAL PORT TIMING:
1) THE PORT WILL OPEN AND CLOSE ON EQUAL SIDE OF DEAD CENTER
2) EXAMPLE - INTAKE PORT OPENS 51° BTDC, CLOSES 51° ATDC
E) ASYMMETRICAL PORT TIMING:
1) PORT OPENS AND CLOSES ON UN-EQUAL SIDE OF DEAD CENTER
2) EXAMPLE: INTAKE PORTS OPENS AT 72° BTDC, CLOSES AT 32° ATDC.
8) 2-STROKE INDUCTION SYSTEMS:
A) METHODS OF HOW AIR/FUEL/OIL ENTERS THE PRIMARY AREA
1) PISTON PORT
a) OLDEST AND SIMPLEST DESIGN
b) INTAKE PORTS IS LOCATED IN THE CYL.(THE LOWEST PORT)
c) OPENING AND CLOSING IS CONTROLLED BY THE PISTON SKIRT
d) HAS VERY LITTLE RESTRICTION TO AIRFLOW
e) HAS THE NARROWEST POWERBAND OF ALL 2-STROKE ENGINES
f) ENGINE CAN BE TUNED TO A HI-RPM OR A LO-RPM, BUT NOT BOTH
g) IF THE ENGINE IS TUNED TO A HI-RPM, AND OPERATED AT A LO-RPM, “SPIT-BACK”
THRU THE CARB WILL OCCUR
2) CYLINDER REED VALVE
a) INTAKE PORT IS LOCATED ON THE CYL., THE SAME AS PISTON PORTED
b) AIR FLOW THRU THE PORT IS CONTROLLED BY PRESSURE DIFFERENCES AND A
REED VALVE. (ONE WAY VALVE)
c) PORT NEVER CLOSES - THE PORT DURATION IS 360°
d) PURPOSE: TO BROADEN THE ENG‟S POWER BAND.
1) ALLOWS THE ENGINE TO BE TUNED TO A HI-RPM
2) PREVENTS “SPIT-BACK” THRU THE CARB AT LO-RPM
e) REED VALVES CAN BE MADE OF:
1) STAINLESS STEEL
2) FIBER RESINS
3) CARBON FIBER
f) PISTON SKIRTS, IN CYL REED VALVE ENG‟S WILL BE CUT AWAY OR HAVE WINDOW IN
IT ON THE PISTON SKIRT.
g) SOME REED VALVE ENG’S ALSO WILL HAVE:
1) BOOST PORTS
A) A DIRECT PASSAGE WAY FOR THE FRESH CHARGE TO FLOW FROM
THE INTAKE MANIFOLD TO THE SECONDARY AREA
B) PURPOSE: INCREASE THE DENSITY OF THE FRESH CHARGE IN THE
SECONDARY AREA.
2) BOOST BOTTLE
A) SMALL CHAMBER, ATTACHED BY A HOSE TO THE INTAKE MANIFOLD,
AFTER THE CARB.

21
 B) PURPOSE: INCREASE THE DENSITY OF THE FRESH CHARGE
C) USED MOSTLY IN SMALL DISPLACEMENT ENG‟S
3) AUXILIARY PORT:
A) DIRECT PASSAGEWAY FOR FRESH CHARGE TO FLOW FROM THE
INTAKE MANIFOLD TO THE PRIMARY AREA.
B) PURPOSE: INCREASE DENSITY OF THE FRESH CHARGE IN THE
PRIMARY AREA.
3) ROTARY VALVE ENGINES
a) INLET PORT LOCATED ON THE CRANKCASE
b) OPENING AND CLOSING CONTROLLED BY A ROTARY DISK.
c) ROTARY DISK IS ATTACHED TO AND ROTATE WITH THE CRANK
d) M/C ROTARY VALVE ENG’S ARE NORMALLY WIDER BECAUSE:
1) EACH CYL. WILL HAVE ITS OWN CARB. ATTACHED TO THE SIDE OF THE
CRANKCASE
2) EACH CYL. WILL HAVE ITS OWN ROTARY DISK
e) WATER CRAFTS USE ONE ROTARY VALVE FOR 2 CYL‟S DUE TO MANIFOLD DESIGN.
THIS ALLOW THEM TO USE 1 OR 2 CARBS.
f) ENG. WILL USUALLY HAVE A WIDER POWER BAND BECAUSE:
1) _ MORE TRANSFER PORT AREA
2) SHORT AND MORE DIRECT PATH INTO THE PRIMARY AREA
g) DIS ADVANTAGES: EXTENSIVE MACHINING REQUIRED DURING MANUFACTURE.
4) CRANKCASE REED
a) INTAKE PORT IS LOCATED ON THE CRANKCASE
b) AIR FLOW THRU THE PORT IS CONTROLLED BY PRESSURE DIFFERENCES AND A
REED VALVE
c) INTAKE PORT NEVER CLOSES PORT DURATION IS 360°
5) PISTON PORT/CASE REED:
a) COMBINATION OF BOTH TYPES
b) PISTON PORT CONTROLLED INTAKE AT LO-RPM‟S
c) CRANKCASE REED CONTROLLED INTAKE AT HI-RPM‟S
d) USED PRIMARILY BY SUZUKI
9) ADVANTAGES/DIS-ADVANTAGES OF 2 STROKE VS. 4 STROKE ENGINES
A) ADVANTAGES
1) BETTER MECHANICAL EFFICIENCY
2) WEIGHS LESS
3) LOWER CENTER OF GRAVITY
4) 2 STROKE ENG‟S NORMALLY PRODUCE MORE H.P. THAN SAME SIZE 4 STROKE
5) POWER STROKE EVERY REVOLUTION OF CRANK
MANY OPERATE AT ANY POSITION (DEPENDING ON CARB)
B) DIS-ADVANTAGES
1) HIGH HC EMISSIONS
2) POOR FUEL ECONOMY
3) EXCESSIVE AND HIGHER FREQUENCY VIBRATIONS
4) ENG. OPERATES AT HIGHER TEMP‟S
5) EXCESSIVE NOISE (PITCH HIGHER)
6) MORE PRONE TO ENG. SEIZURE, DUE TO LESS COOL DOWN TIME BETWEEN POWER
EVENTS
7) NARROWER POWER BAND
8) LESS RELIABLE AND REQUIRES MORE SERVICE

2 STROKE ENGINE PARTS

1) CYL. HEAD
A) PURPOSES:
1) SEALS THE COMBUSTION CHAMBER
2) LOCATE THE SPARK PLUG
(USUALLY IN THE CENTER OF THE COMB. CHAMBER)
3) AIDS IN HEAT TRANSFER
4) PROVIDE THE SHAPE OF THE COMB. CHAMBER
5) PROVIDES THE “SQUISH” BAND

22
 B) SQUISH BAND
1) PURPOSE: CONCENTRATE THE FRESH CHARGE INTO A TIGHT POCKET UNDER THE SPARK
PLUG.
2) SERVE TWO PURPOSES:
a) REDUCES END GASSES - HELPS DECREASE DETONATION
b) CREATES A TURBULENCE - HELPS COOL THE SECONDARY AREA
2) CYLINDERS:
A) PURPOSES:
1) GUIDE PISTON TRAVEL
2) A SEALING SURFACES FOR THE PISTON RINGS
3) LOCATE THE EXHAUST AND TRANSFER PORTS AND SOMETIMES THE INTAKE PORT
4) TRANSFERS HEAT AWAY FROM THE PISTON

B) TYPES:
1) CAST IRON - BOREABLE
2) ALUM. WITH CAST IRON OR STEEL SLEEVES
3) PLATED ALUM. CYL. NOT BOREABLE, AND DO NOT RELIEVE THE PORTS
4) THEY CAN EITHER BE CHROME OR ELECTRO PLATED
C) CYL. SHOULD BE TRUE, WITH NO TAPER AND OUT-OF-ROUND
D) TWO STROKE CYL. WILL WEAR IN THE CENTER, BECAUSE OF THE PORTS (LESS SURFACE AREA)
E) MEASURING CYL. FOR PISTON TO CYL. CLEARANCE: MEASURE IN SIX PLACES AS BEST AS
POSSIBLE.
F) BRIDGED PORTS
1) USED ON VERY WIDE PORTS
a) TO PREVENT RING “SNAG”
b) AFTER BORING THE CYL., THE EXHAUST PORT BRIDGE MUST BE RELIEVED
2) UPPER AND LOWER AREA OF ALL PORTS MUST BE CHAMFERED TO HELP PUSH THE PISTON
RING BACK IN IT‟S GROOVE
3) PISTONS
A) PURPOSES:
1) TRANSFERS POWER TO THE CON ROD
2) AIDS IN SEALING THE SECONDARY AREA
3) THRUST/SEALING SURFACE FOR THE PISTON RINGS
4) CONTROL THE OPENING/CLOSING OF THE EXHAUST AND TRANSFER AND SOMETIMES THE
INTAKE PORTS.
B) MFR’G METHODS
1) CAST
2) FORDED
C) DIFFERENCES OF 2 - STROKE PISTONS:
1) RINGS ARE PINNED IN PLACE TO PREVENT THEM FROM ROTATING, WHICH WOULD CAUSE
RING “SNAG”
2) HAVE NO OIL RETURN HOLES
3) CYL. REED VALVE PISTON HAVE CUT-AWAYS OR WINDOWS ON THE INTAKE SKIRT
4) HAVE 1 TO 3 RINGS-ALL ARE COMPRESSION RINGS
5) SOME WILL HAVE 2-3 SMALL HOLE ON THE EXHAUST SIDE SKIRT TO HELP LUBE THE
EXHAUST PORT BRIDGE
D) 2 - STROKE PISTONS ARE TAPER AND CAM GROUND, JUST LIKE 4 STROKE PISTONS
4) PISTON RINGS
A) PURPOSES:
1) SEAL THE PRIMARY/SECONDARY AREAS
2) TRANSFER HEAT FROM THE PISTON TO THE CYL.
B) TYPES:
1) STANDARD:
a) RECTANGULAR IN SHAPE
b) CHEAPER TO MANUFACTURE
c) MOST COMMON
2) KEYSTONE:
a) WEDGE SHAPED
b) SEALS BETTER THAN STANDARD

23
 c) MORE EXPENSIVE TO MFR.
d) MUST FIT INTO A WEDGE SHAPED GROOVE
3) DYKES:
a) “L” SHAPED
b) USED ONLY AS A TOP RING
c) BEST SEALING AND HEAT TRANSFER
d) MOST EXPENSIVE TO MFR.
5) CONNECTING RODS
A) PURPOSES: A “LEVER” THAT TRANSFERS POWER FROM THE PISTON TO THE CRANKSHAFT
B) MOST 2 - STROKE ENG’S WILL USE A ONE PIECE CON ROD WITH:
1) ROLLER BEARINGS ON THE BIG END
2) NEEDLE BEARINGS ON THE SMALL END
C) 2 - STROKE CON RODS WILL HAVE SLOTS OR HOLES AT BOTH ENDS TO ALLOW FOR
LUBRICATION.

6) CRANKSHAFTS
A) PURPOSES: CHANGE RECIPROCATING MOTION TO ROTARY MOTION
B) MOST 2 - STROKE ENG‟S USE A MULTI-PIECE CRANK
C) MOST 2 - STROKE ENG‟S WILL USE BALL BEARINGS ON THEIR MAIN JOURNALS
D) MULTI-CYL CRANKSHAFTS:
1) ON MULTI-CYL ENG‟S, EACH CYL. MUST HAVE ITS OWN PRIMARY AREA SEALED FROM EACH
OTHER
2) TO DO THIS A LABYRINTH SEAL IS USED
a) AN ALL METAL SEAL
b) STATIONARY - DOES NOT TOUCH THE JOURNAL
c) HAS A VERY CLOSE CLEARANCE TO THE MAIN JOURNAL, USUALLY APPROX. 0.001"
d) MAIN BEARINGS SUPPORT THE JOURNAL TO KEEP IT FROM TOUCHING THE
LABYRINTH SEAL.
7) CRANKCASES:
A) CONTAINS:
1) CRANKSHAFT - PRIMARY DRIVE
2) SOMETIMES THE FOLLOWING: OIL PUMP, PRIMARY SHAFT, MAIN SHAFT,AND COUNTER
SHAFT
B) TYPES: CAN BE VERTICALLY OR HORIZONTALLY SPLIT
C) 2 - STROKE CRANKCASES MUST BE SEALED FROM ATMOSPHERE AND THE TRANSMISSION AREA
1) GASKET OR SEALANT MAY BE USED SEAL THE CRANKCASES / TRANSMISSION AREA.
2) SEALS ARE USED TO SEAL THE ENDS OF THE CRANKSHAFT
a) PRIMARY DRIVE SEAL (WET SIDE)
1) LOCATED ON THE CLUTCH SIDE OF THE ENG, BY THE MAIN BEARING
2) SYMPTOMS IF THIS SEAL LEAKS:
A) ENGINE WILL SMOKE EXCESSIVELY
B) ENGINE WILL HAVE POOR LOW END PERFORMANCE
C) AND WILL QUITE POSSIBLY FOUL THE SPARK PLUG
b) TIMING SIDE SEAL (DRY SIDE)
1) LOCATED ON THE ELEC. SIDE OF THE CRANK BY THE MAIN BEARING.
2) SYMPTOMS IF THIS SEAL LEAKS:
A) THE ENG. WILL RUN LEAN
B) ENG. WILL OVERHEAT, COULD LEAD TO PISTON SEIZURE
C) WET ON THE TIMING SIDE - POSSIBLE WET POINTS OR IGNITION
COMPONENTS
3) 2 - STROKE PRESSURE/LEAK DOWN TESTING
USING A 2 - STROKE LEAK DOWN/VACUUM TESTER
a) METHOD:
1) PLACE PISTON AT BDC
2) ENG. IS SEALED - PRESSURIZED TO 6-9 P.S.I.
3) MAX. LEAKAGE - 1 P.S.I. PER MINUTE
4) IF ENG. SHOWS NO LEAKAGE, THEN A VACUUM TEST SHOULD BE DONE
5) VACUUM IS PLACED ON THE ENG. OF 9 HG (INCHES OF MERCURY)
6) MAX LEAKAGE - 1 HG PER MINUTE

24
 b) AREAS OF POSSIBLE LEAKAGE ARE:
1) EXHAUST SEAL (TEST EQUIP.)
2) INTAKE MANIFOLD GASKET
3) CYL. HEAD GASKET
4) CYL. BASE GASKET
5) TIMING SIDE SEAL (DRYSIDE)
6) PRIMARY SIDE SEAL (WETSIDE)
7) CENTER CRANKCASE GASKET
8) TEST EQUIPMENT
8) 2 - STROKE ENGINE LUBRICATION
A) 2 - STROKE ENG‟S USE A TOTAL LOSS LUBRICATION SYSTEM
B) OIL IS NOT RE-CIRCULATED THRU THE ENG.
C) IT IS BURNT DURING COMBUSTION, AND EXITS THRU THE EXHAUST SYSTEM.
D) TWO METHODS:
1) PRE-MIX
a) SIMPLEST IN DESIGN, OIL IS MIXED WITH FUEL AT A CERTAIN RATIO IN THE FUEL
TANK
b) EXAMPLE: 20:1 - INDICATES THAT THERE ARE 20 PARTS (BY VOLUME) OF FUEL TO 1
PART OF OIL
c) FORMULA TO CALL QUANTITY OF OIL NEED (IN OUNCES) IS:
1) 128~RATIO x NO OF GALLONS = OUNCES
2) EXAMPLE: 32:1 RATIO - 5 GALLONS FUEL
128~32 x 5 = 20 OUNCES
d) ANY CHANGE IN PRE-MIX RATIO WILL AFFECT THE AIR/FUEL MIXTURE RATIO
1) DECREASE IN PRE-MIX RATIO WILL RESULT IN A LEAN AIR/FUEL MIXTURE
RATIO
2) EXAMPLE: 32:1 ® 20:1 WILL CAUSE LEAN AIR FUEL MIXTURE RATIO
3) AN INCREASE IN PRE-MIX RATIO WILL RESULT IN A RICH AIR/FUEL MIXTURE
RATIO
4) EXAMPLE: 32:1 ® 50:1 WILL RESULT IN A RICH AIR/FUEL MIXTURE RATIO
2) OIL INJECTION:
a) OIL IS STORED IN A REMOTE TANK
b) ENGINE DRIVEN PUMP INJECTS PROPER AMOUNT OF OIL INTO THE INTAKE
MANIFOLD AND SOMETIMES THE MAIN BEARINGS
c) PUMP OUT PUT IS CONTROLLED BY R.P.M. AND THROTTLE POSITION
d) THIS IS THE BEST SYSTEM FOR EVERY-DAY STREET USE.
9) MOST COMMON CAUSES OF 2 - STROKE ENGINE SEIZURES:
A) LEAN AIR/FUEL MIXTURE RATIO‟S CAUSES EXCESSIVE HEAT
B) LACK OF, OR TO MUCH LUBRICATION
C) EXCESSIVE ENG. LOADS - CAUSES OVERHEATING
D) IMPROPER CLEARANCES - DOES NOT ALLOW FOR HEAT EXPANSION
E) IMPROPER TIMING - CAUSE EXCESSIVE HEAT
F) IMPROPER TIGHTENING PROCEDURES - CAUSES BINDING ON MOVING PARTS -CAUSES EXCESSIVE
HEAT
G) COLD SEIZURE - DUE TO IMPROPER WARM-UP

GEARS IDENTIFICATIONS AND RATIOS

1) GEARS - ROTATING LEVERS
A) LARGER THE GEAR RADIUS (DISTANCE FROM CENTER) THE GREATER THE LEVERAGE
B) THE FORCE BEHIND A MOVING GEAR IS TORQUE (FORCE x THE DISTANCE FROM THE PIVOT POINT)
C) SPEED IS MEASURED IN R.P.M.
D) CONTINUOUS FORCE - ONE TOOTH OF THE DRIVE GEAR IS ALWAYS PUSHING ON THE TOOTH OF
THE DRIVEN GEAR
2) PURPOSE OF GEARS
A) TRANSMIT POWER
B) CHANGE DIRECTION OF ROTATION
C) INCREASE TORQUE, WHICH RESULTS IN A DECREASE IN R.P.M. (LIKE TRANSMISSIONS LOWER
GEAR)
D) INCREASE R.P.M., WHICH RESULTS IN A DECREASE IN TORQUE (LIKE TRANSMISSIONS HIGH GEAR)

25
 E) TIMING - EXAMPLE: A GEAR DRIVEN CAMSHAFT
3) TYPES OF GEARS:
A) SPUR GEARS
1) HAS STRAIGHT CUT TEETH
2) MOST COMMON GEAR
3) NOISY
4) IN-EXPENSIVE TO MFR.
5) ENTIRE TOOTH MESHES AT ONCE
6) DOES NOT CREATE SIDE LOAD
B) OFF-SET SPUR GEAR
1) TWO SPUR GEARS - SIDE BY SIDE
2) TEETH ARE OFFSET BY ½ TOOTH
3) PURPOSE - TO REDUCE GEAR BACKLASH (PLAY BETWEEN THE TEETH OF TWO MESHED
GEARS)
C) HELICAL GEAR
1) HAS ANGLE CUT TEETH
2) ENTIRE TOOTH DOES NOT CONTACT AT ONCE
3) QUIETER THAN SPUR GEARS
4) CREATES THRUST (SIDE) LOADS
D) INTERNAL GEAR
1) VERY STRONG AND COMPACT
2) GIVER A VERY HIGH REDUCTION RATIO
3) MOST COMMON USE - STARTER MOTOR AND SHIFT LINKAGES
E) WORM GEAR
1) GIVE A HIGH REDUCTION RATIO
2) USED WITH A SPUR GEAR
3) WILL NORMALLY BE THE DRIVE GEAR
4) MOST COMMON USE - SPEEDOMETER AND TACH DRIVES
F) IDLER GEAR
1) USED TO CORRECT THE DIRECTION OF ROTATION
2) WILL NOT CHANGE THE GEAR RATIO
3) CAN HAVE ANY TOOTH CONFIGURATION
G) BEVEL GEAR
1) USED TO TRANSMIT POWER AT 90° ANGLES
2) CAN BE EITHER OF TWO TYPES
a) SPUR BEVEL (STRAIGHT - CUT TEETH)
b) SPIRAL BEVEL (CURVED TEETH, HAS GREATER ENGAGEMENT)
3) MOST COMMON DESIGN FOR PINION (DRIVE) GEAR ON FINAL SHAFT DRIVE SYSTEMS
H) RING GEAR
1) METAL WHEEL GEAR WITH TEETH AROUND ITS OUTER EDGE
2) MOST COMMON DESIGN FOR FINAL DRIVEN GEAR IN SHAFT DRIVE SYSTEMS
3) IS USED WITH A DRIVE PINION GEAR
I) SECTOR GEAR
1) A PIE - SHAPED SEGMENT OF A SPUR OR HELICAL GEAR
2) USED IN KICK STARTER SYSTEMS AND ALSO SHIFT LINKAGES
4) GEAR RATIOS:
A) NUMERICAL COMPARISON OF NUMBER OF REVOLUTIONS OF DRIVE GEAR TO ONE REVOLUTION OF
THE DRIVEN GEAR
B) EXAMPLE - 3:1 RATIO MEANS THAT AS THE DRIVE GEAR MAKES 3 REV. THE DRIVEN GEAR WILL
MAKE 1 REV.
C) SERVICE MANUAL GENERALLY EXPRESS GEAR RATIO‟S WITH THE (FIRST # ROUNDED TO THE
THOUSANDTH‟S) EXAMPLE - 3.000:1, 0.698:1, 1.230:1
D) BASIC GEAR RATIO FORMULA:
*# OF TEETH ON THE DRIVEN GEAR ¸ # OF TEETH ON THE DRIVE GEAR*
E) EXAMPLE - DRIVEN GEAR = 50 TEETH
DRIVEN GEAR = 25 TEETH
50 ¸ 25 = 2, GEAR RATIO = 2.000:1
F) THREE CATEGORIES OF GEAR RATIOS:
1) UNDER DRIVE: NUMERICAL GEAR RATIO OF GREATER THAN 1.000:1

26
 a) EXAMPLE = 1.300:1, 3.00:1
b) DRIVE GEAR IS SMALLER THAN DRIVEN GEAR
c) UNDER DRIVE WILL INCREASE TORQUE BUT DECREASE R.P.M.
2) DIRECT DRIVE: NUMERICAL GEAR RATIO OF 1.000:1
a) DRIVE GEAR IS THE SAME AS DRIVEN GEAR
b) DIRECT DRIVE WILL NOT CHANGE TORQUE OR R.P.M.
3) OVERDRIVE: NUMERICAL GEAR RATIO OF LESS THAN 1.000:1
a) EXAMPLE = 0.900:1, 0.600:1
b) DRIVE GEAR IS LARGER THAN DRIVEN GEAR
c) OVERDRIVE WILL INCREASE R.P.M. BUT DECREASE TORQUE
5) DRIVE RATIO’S USED ON M/C’S
A) PRIMARY DRIVES
1) THE GEAR REDUCTION SYSTEM FROM THE CRANK TO THE CLUTCH OUTER BASKET
2) CRANK IS THE DRIVE
3) CLUTCH OUTER BASKET IS THE DRIVEN
4) GEAR RATIO - CRANK = 24 TEETH (DRIVE, CLUTCH OUTER BASKET 68 TEETH (DRIVEN)) 68~
24 = 2.833:1
5) FORMULA: # OF TEETH ON THE CLUTCH OUTER BASKET ¸ # OF TEETH ON CRANKSHAFT
B) TRANSMISSION
1) TRANSMIT POWER FROM THE CLUTCH TO THE FINAL DRIVE (USUALLY)
a) MAIN SHAFT IS USUALLY THE DRIVE GEAR
b) COUNTER SHAFT IS USUALLY THE DRIVEN GEAR
2) FORMULA TO CALCULATE GEAR RATIO (IN MOST CASES)
a) # OF TEETH ON THE COUNTER SHAFT ¸ # OF TEETH ON THE MAIN SHAFT
b) EXAMPLE - MAIN SHAFT GEAR = 16 TEETH, COUNTER SHAFT GEAR = 44 TEETH 44~16
= 2.750:1
3) TRANSMISSION GEAR RATIO CAN BE CALCULATED IN ANY GEAR
C) FINAL DRIVE:
1) PURPOSE: TRANSMIT POWER FROM THE TRANNY TO THE REAR WHEEL
a) TYRANNY OUTPUT IS THE DRIVE
b) REAR WHEEL SPROCKET IS THE DRIVEN
2) FORMULA FOR FINAL RATIO
a) CHAIN DRIVE
1) # OF TEETH ON REAR WHEEL SPROCKET ¸ # OF TEETH ON TRANNY
SPROCKET
2) EXAMPLE: TRANNY SPROCKET = 13 TEETH, REAR WHEEL SPROCKET = 40
TEETH 40~13 = 3.077:1
b) SHAFT DRIVE
1) # OF TEETH ON THE RING GEAR ¸ # OF TEETH ON THE PINION GEAR
2) EXAMPLE: PINION GEAR = 13 TEETH, RING GEAR = 52 TEETH
52~13 = 4.000:1
D) OVERALL GEAR RATIO
1) NUMERICAL GEAR RATIO FROM THE CRANKSHAFT TO THE REAR WHEEL
2) USUALLY CALCULATED WITH THE TRANNY IN HIGH GEAR, BUT CAN BE CALCULATED IN ANY
GEAR
3) FORMULA TO CALCULATE OVERALL GEAR RATIO
a) UNROUNDED PRIMARY RATIO x UNROUNDED TRANNY RATIO x UNROUND FINAL
DRIVE RATIO = OVERALL GEAR RATIO
b) EXAMPLE: PRIMARY RATIO = 2.8333333:1
TRANS RATIO = 2.75:1
FINAL DRIVE RATIO = 3.0769231:1
OVERALL RATIO = 23.974:1

PRIMARY DRIVES
1) PRIMARY DRIVE - A GEAR REDUCTION SYSTEM THAT TRANSFERS POWER FROM THE CRANK TO THE
CLUTCH OUTER BASKET
2) METHODS OF TRANSFERRING POWER
A) GEAR DRIVEN PRIMARY DRIVES
1) TYPES OF GEARS USED:

27
 a) SPUR
b) OFF-SET SPUR
c) HELICAL
2) USES 2 GEARS THAT TURN IN OPPOSITE DIRECTIONS.
3) CLUTCH USUALLY TURNS IN AN OPPOSITE DIRECTION FROM THE ENGINE
4) MUST BE LUBRICATED IN AN OIL BATH
B) BELT DRIVEN PRIMARY DRIVES
1) USES A GILMER TYPE BELT - A TOOTHED BELT AND A PAIR OF TOOTHED PULLEYS
2) BOTH PULLEYS TURN THE SAME DIRECTION
3) OPERATES QUIETLY
4) MUST BE LUBRICATED IN AN OIL BATH
C) CHAIN DRIVEN PRIMARY DRIVES
1) USES A CHAIN AND TWO SPROCKETS
2) BOTH SPROCKETS TURN IN THE SAME DIRECTION
3) TYPES OF CHAINS USED:
a) SINGLE ROLLER
b) DUPLEX ROLLER
c) TRIPLEX ROLLER
d) HY-VA
3) IN SOME CASES, A PRIMARY SHAFT IS USED IN THE PRIMARY DRIVE
A) THE CRANKSHAFT DRIVES THE PRIMARY SHAFT
B) THE PRIMARY SHAFT DRIVES THE CLUTCH
C) PURPOSES:
1) CHANGE DIRECTION OF ROTATION
2) OPERATE A CHARGING SYSTEM
3) ASSIST AN ELECTRICAL STARTER
4) ASSIST THE IGNITION SYSTEM
5) TO PROVIDE A SHOCK HUB (DAMPER) FOR THE DRIVE TRAIN

CLUTCHES
1) PURPOSE:
A) ENGAGE AND INTERRUPT THE POWER FLOW FROM THE ENG. TO THE TRANNY.
B) PERMIT GRADUAL ENGAGEMENT
2) TYPES:
A) MANUAL CLUTCHES
1) CLUTCH THAT THE RIDER CONTROLS THE ENGAGEMENT/DIS-ENGAGEMENT OF THE POWER
FLOW
2) THEY CAN BE WET OR DRY
a) WET CLUTCHES
1) OPERATES IN AN OIL BATH
2) ENGINE OIL IS USED TO CARRY HEAT AWAY FROM THE CLUTCH
3) USUALLY HAS SMOOTHER ENGAGEMENT THAN A DRY CLUTCH
4) WET CLUTCHES USUALLY USE A CORK, NEOPRENE, PAPER, OR KEVLAR
FRICTION MATERIAL
b) DRY CLUTCHES:
1) OPERATES DRY
2) USES AIRFLOW TO COOL THE CLUTCH
3) HAS A MORE POSITIVE ENGAGEMENT THAN A WET CLUTCH
4) DRY CLUTCH‟S USUALLY USE AN ORGANIC (TRADE SECRET) OR KEVLAR
FRICTION MATERIAL
3) TWO STYLES (WET OR DRY)
a) SINGLE PLATE (NORMALLY FOUND ON DRY)
1) MAJOR COMPONENTS
A) ONE FRICTION PLAT
B) DIAPHRAGM SPRING
C) INNER PRESSURE PLATE
D) OUTER PRESSURE RING
2) AUTOMOTIVE STYLE
3) USED MOSTLY AS A DRIVE CLUTCH

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 b) MULTI-PLATE
1) MAJOR COMPONENTS
A) OUTER CLUTCH BASKET
B) DISC. STACK - MADE UP OF ALTERNATION FRICTION/METAL PLATES
C) INNER CLUTCH HUB
D) PRESSURE PLATE
2) CAN BE MADE SMALLER IN DIAMETER
3) CAN BE WET OR DRY
4) PARTS OF A MULTI-PLATE CLUTCH
a) OUTER BASKET
1) PART OF THE PRIMARY DRIVE
2) DRIVEN BY THE CRANKSHAFT OR PRIMARY SHAFT
3) FREE - WHEELS ON THE TRANSMISSION MAIN SHAFT*
4) ROTATE ANYTIME THE ENGINE IS RUNNING
5) MOST USE SHOCK HUBS:
A) ABSORBS AN EXCESS FLOW OF POWER
B) CAN BE SPRING OR RUBBER DAMPERS
b) DRIVE PLATES:
1) CONNECTED TO AND DRIVEN BY THE OUTER BASKET
2) HAS TABS ON ITS OUTER EDGE
3) THE TABS FIT INTO THE BASKET FINGERS
4) ALSO ROTATES ANYTIME THE OUTER BASKET IS ROTATING
5) CAN BE A FRICTION OR METAL PLATE
c) DRIVEN PLATES:
1) CONNECTED TO AND DRIVES THE INNER HUB
2) HAS TABS ON ITS INNER EDGE
3) DRIVEN BY THE DRIVE PLATES
4) ANYTIME THE DRIVEN PLATES ARE ROTATING, THE INNER HUB IS ROTATING
5) CAN BE FRICTION OR METAL PLATES
d) INNER HUB
1) DRIVEN BY THE DRIVEN PLATES
2) SPLINED TO THE TRANSMISSION MAIN SHAFT
3) ANYTIME THE INNER HUB IS ROTATING, THE TRANSMISSION MAIN SHAFT IS
ROTATING
4) MOST INNER HUBS SUPPLY THE MOUNTS FOR THE CLUTCH SPRINGS
5) PRESSURE PLATE
a) WHEN THE CLUTCH IS ENGAGED THE CLUTCH SPRING(S) AND PRESSURE PLATE
PRESS THE DRIVE/DRIVEN PLATES TOGETHER.
b) WHEN THE DRIVE/DRIVEN PLATES ARE PRESSED TOGETHER, THE PLATES FORM 1
UNIT, AND ALLOW POWER TO FLOW THRU THEM
c) THE PRESSURE PLATE FITS OVER THE INNER HUB
d) WHEN THE CLUTCH IS DIS-ENGAGED, THE CLUTCH RELEASE MECHANISM FORCES
THE PRESSURE PLATE AWAY FROM THE INNER HUB, THIS SEPERATES THE DRIVE
AND DRIVEN PLATES.
e) CLUTCH SPRINGS:
A) APPLIES SPRING TENSION TO THE PRESSURE PLATE
B) THREE TYPES:
1) COIL SPRING (MOST COMMON) FOR SPRING FREE LENGTH SEE MSSM
2) DIAPHRAGM SPRING: LOOKS LIKE A LARGE CONVEX WASHER APPLIES
PRESSURE 360_
3) TENSION SPRINGS: MADE FROM COILED WIRE WITH HOOKS ON ONE
OR BOTH ENDS, THEY ARE STRETCHED NOT COMPRESSED
6) POWER FLOW WITH THE CLUTCH ENGAGED
(CLUTCH LEVER RELEASE)
A) ENGINE DRIVES THE OUTER BASKET
B) OUTER BASKET TURNS THE DRIVE PLATES
C) DRIVE PLATES TURN THE DRIVEN PLATES
D) DRIVEN PLATES TURN THE INNER HUB
E) INNER HUB TURNS THE TRANSMISSION MAIN SHAFT

29
 7) POWERFLOW WITH THE CLUTCH DIS-ENGAGED
(CLUTCH LEVER PULLED IN TO L.H. H/BAR)
A) ENGINE DRIVES THE OUTER BASKET
B) OUTER BASKET TURNS THE DRIVE PLATES
C) POWER FLOW STOPS AT THE DRIVE PLATES
D) OUTER CLUTCH BASKET AND DRIVE PLATES FREE - WHEEL ON THE TRANSMISSION
MAIN SHAFT
8) COMMON PROBLEMS
A) CLUTCH SLIPPAGE: DOE‟S NOT TRANSFER 100% OF THE ENGINE POWER CAUSED
BY:
1) IMPROPER ADJUSTMENTS (TO LITTLE CLUTCH LEVER FREE PLAY)
2) WEAK CLUTCH SPRINGS
3) WORN DRIVE/DRIVEN PLATES
4) IMPROPER CLUTCH ASSEMBLY
5) OIL CONTAMINATION - DRY CLUTCHES
B) CLUTCH DRAG: CLUTCH WILL NOT FULL DIS-ENGAGE CAUSED BY:
1) WARPED METAL PLATES
2) WORN OUTER BASKET
3) WORN INNER HUB
4) IMPROPER ADJUSTMENTS OF CLUTCH RELEASE MECHANISM
5) WORN CLUTCH RELEASE MECHANISM
9) CLUTCH RELEASE MECHANISMS
A) PURPOSE: TO ENGAGE/DIS-ENGAGE THE POWER FLOW FROM THE ENGINE TO THE
TRANSMISSION
1) WHEN THE CLUTCH IS DIS-ENGAGED, THE CLUTCH RELEASE MECHANISM
PUSHES THE PRESSURE PLATE, SEPARATING THE DRIVE/DRIVEN PLATES
2) CLUTCH MUST ALSO BE ABLE TO BE ENGAGED GRADUALLY
B) TWO TYPES: INNER AND OUTER PRESSURE PLATE
C) THROW-OUT BEARINGS ARE USED TO REDUCE FRICTION BETWEEN THE PUSH-ROD
AND PRESSURE PLATE
D) TYPES:
1) ROCKER ARM
2) BALL AND RAMP
3) RACK AND PINION
4) LEVER
5) CAM
6) SCREW
7) HYDRAULIC
B) CENTRIFUGAL CLUTCHES
1) HAS NO CLUTCH LEVER
2) CLUTCH ENGAGEMENT IS DEPENDENT ON ENGINE R.P.M.
3) USES WEIGHTS, SPRINGS AND CENTRIFUGAL FORCE
4) WHEN ENGINE R.P.M. IS HIGH ENOUGH:
a) CENTRIFUGAL FORCE FORCES THE WEIGHTS OUTWARD
b) FRICTION MATERIAL CONTACTS THE INSIDE OF THE DRUM TO ENGAGE
5) SOME UNITS USE A MANUAL, MULTI-PLATE CLUTCH ALONG WITH A CENTRIFUGAL CLUTCH
6) MANUAL TYPE CLUTCH HAS ITS CLUTCH RELEASE LINKAGE ATTACHED TO THE GEAR SHIFT
LINKAGE
7) WHEN THE RIDER SHIFTS GEARS, THE LINKAGE DIS-ENGAGES THE MANUAL CLUTCH
ALLOWING THE TRANNY TO SHIFT GEARS
C) VARIABLE RATIO CLUTCHES
1) SERVES AS A CLUTCH AND A TRANSMISSION
2) CONSISTS OF A V-BELT, PRIMARY SHEAVE (PULLEY) AND A SECONDARY SHEAVE (PULLEY)
3) PRIMARY/SECONDARY SHEAVES CONTAIN A FIXED HALF, WEIGHTS, SPRINGS, AND A CAM
SLIDING SHEAVE HALF
4) AT REST/IDLESPEEDS THE V-BELT IS LOCATED:
a) AT THE CENTER OF THE PRIMARY SHEAVE
b) AT THE OUTER PERIMETER OF THE SECONDARY SHEAVE
5) AS THE ENGINES R.P.M. INCREASE, THE SHEAVE WEIGHTS ARE THROW OUTWARD BY

30
 CENTRIFUGAL FORCE THIS CAUSES:
a) SECONDARY SLIDING SHEAVE TO MOVE OUTWARD
b) PRIMARY SLIDING SHEAVE TO MOVE INWARD
c) THE V-BELT IS FORCED TOWARD THE OTER PERIMETER OF THE PRIMARY SHEAVE
AND THE INNER DIAMETER OF THE SECONDARY SHEAVE
D) SPRAG CLUTCHES
1) A CLUTCH THAT ENGAGES IN ONE DIRECTION ONLY
2) FOUND IN ELECTRICAL START SYSTEMS AND PRIMARY DRIVES
a) ELECTRIC STARTS SYSTEMS:
1) USED TO PREVENT DAMAGE TO THE STARTER MOTOR
2) STARTER DRIVE DIS-ENGAGES FROM THE ENGINE WHEN THE DRIVEN
PORTION OF THE SPRAG CLUTCH EXCEEDS THE STARTER SPEED
b) PRIMARY DRIVE:
1) FOUND IN MULTI-PLATE WET CLUTCHES ON SOME LARGE DISPLACEMENT
M/C‟S
2) ALLOWS PART OF THE CLUTCH TO SLIP ON RAPID DOWNSHIFTS FROM HI-
R.P.M.
3) PREVENTS LOSS OF REAR WHEEL TRACTION DURING ENGINE
COMPRESSION BREAKING

3) SOME M/C‟S AND ATV‟S THAT ARE EQUIPPED WITH CENTRIFUGAL CLUTCHES, USE A SPRAG
CLUTCH TO:
a) PROVIDE SOME ENGINE BRAKING WHEN THE CENTRIFUGAL CLUTCH IS DIS-
ENGAGED, HELPS RIDER MAINTAIN BETTER CONTROL OF VEHICLE
E) TORQUE CONVERTER CLUTCH: USES ENGINE OIL AND PRESSURE FOR CLUTCH AND
TRANSMISSION ENGAGEMENT

TRANSMISSIONS
1) PURPOSE:
A) CHANGE THE SPEED OF THE M/C
B) KEEP THE ENG. WITHIN ITS USABLE POWER BAND
2) TRANSMISSION DESIGN:
A) CONSTANT MESH TRANS, TEETH OF ALL GEARS MESS WITH THEIR MATE ON THE OPPOSING SHAFT
AT ALL TIMES
B) THE HOUSING IS VENTED TO THE ATMOSPHERE
C) IS SEALED AROUND IT SHAFTS
D) MUST BE LUBRICATED
3) GEAR DESIGNS:
A) SPUR (MOST COMMON)
B) HELICAL (NEXT MOST COMMON)
C) BEVELED (SPUR OR HELICAL)
4) THREE GEAR - TO - SHAFT DESIGNS:
A) FIXED GEARS:
1) GEAR THAT CANNOT MOVE ON ITS SHAFT
2) ROTATE AT SHAFT SPEED
3) IS FIXED ONE OF THREE WAYS:
a) MACHINED TO THE SHAFT
b) SPLINED TO THE SHAFT
c) PRESSED ON THE SHAFT
B) FREE - WHEELING GEARS
1) GEAR THAT FREE - WHEELS ON THE SHAFT
2) HELD IN PLACE BY CIRCLIPS, USUALLY
3) DOES NOT HAVE TO ROTATE AT SHAFT SPEED
4) FREE - WHEELING GEARS WILL HAVE “DOGS” OR “SLOTS” ON ITS SIDE
C) SLIDER GEARS
1) GEAR THAT CAN SLIDE ACROSS THE AXIS OF ITS SHAFT
2) MOST ARE SPLINED TO THE SHAFT, AND ROTATE AT THE SPEED OF THE SHAFT
3) SLIDER GEARS MOVE ACROSS THE AXIS BY USE OF A SHIFT FORK
4) PURPOSE OF SLIDER GEAR: TO ENGAGE AND LOCK THE FREE WHEELING GEARS TO THEIR

31
 SHAFT
5) SLIDER GEARS HAVE PROTRUSIONS ON THEIR SIDES KNOWN AS “DOGS”
6) SLIDER GEARS ENGAGE FREE - WHEELING GEARS BY USE OF DOG TO DOG, OR DOG TO
SLOT ENGAGEMENT
7) FOR A CONSTANT MESH TRANS. TO OPERATE PROPERLY, A FREE - WHEELING GEAR HAS
TO BE OPPOSED TO A FIXED OR SLIDER GEAR
5) TRANSMISSION TYPES
A) INDIRECT DRIVE TRANS.
1) POWER ENTERS ON ONE SHAFT, AND LEAVE ON ANOTHER SHAFT ON A DIFFERENT AXIS
2) USES AT LEAST 2 SHAFTS:
a) MAIN SHAFT
1) SPLINED TO THE CLUTCH INNER HUB
2) POWER FLOW ENTERS ON THE MAIN SHAFT USUALLY
b) COUNTER SHAFT
1) ROTATES OPPOSITE OF THE MAIN SHAFT
2) POWER FLOW GENERALLY EXITS ON THE COUNTER SHAFT
3) GENERAL RULES OF INDIRECT DRIVE TRANS:
a) ALL GEARS ON THE MAIN SHAFT ARE DRIVE GEARS
b) ALL GEARS ON THE COUNTER SHAFT ARE DRIVEN GEARS
c) THE SMALLEST GEAR ON THE MAIN SHAFT:
1) IS PART OF FIRST GEAR
2) A FIXED GEAR, MACHINED TO THE SHAFT
d) LARGEST GEAR ON THE MAIN SHAFT IS PART OF TOP GEAR
e) LARGEST GEAR ON THE COUNTER SHAFT IS PART OF FIRST GEAR
f) SMALLEST GEAR ON THE COUNTER SHAFT IS PART OF TOP GEAR
B) DIRECT DRIVE TRANSMISSION
1) POWER FLOW ENTERS ON ONE SHAFT AND LEAVES ON ANOTHER SHAFT ON THE SAME
AXIS
2) USES A MAIN GEAR DRIVE (TOP GEAR) THAT FREE WHEELS ON THE MAIN SHAFT
3) TOP GEAR IS ALWAYS A 1:1 RATIO
4) DIRECT DRIVE TRANSMISSIONS ARE MORE EFFICIENT IN TOP GEAR ONLY
5) EXAMPLE: 4 AND 5 SPEED 4-D TRANS (BIG TWIN)
a) MAIN GEAR IS ATTACHED TO THE DRIVE SPROCKET
b) MAIN GEAR AND DRIVE SPROCKET FREE - WHEEL ON THE MAIN SHAFT
c) POWER FLOW:
1) POWER FLOW ENTERS THE MAIN SHAFT
2) TRANSFERS TO THE COUNTER SHAFT
3) THE EXITS THE MAIN DRIVE GEAR
6) PARTS OF TRANSMISSION
A) SHIFT LINKAGES
1) HAND OR FOOT OPERATED LINKAGES THAT MOVE THE SHIFT MECHANISM
2) TYPES OF DESIGNS ARE:
a) CLAW OR PAWL
b) FLOATING PLATE
c) RATCHET
B) SHIFT MECHANISM
1) THE PURPOSE IS TO MOVE THE SHIFT FORK
2) TYPES OF DESIGNS ARE:
a) SHIFT DRUM
1) A ROUND DRUM WITH SQUARE SIDED GROOVES THAT GUIDE THE SHIFT
FORK
2) MOST COMMON
b) CAM PLATE - A FLAT PLATE WITH SQUARE SIDED GROOVES THAT GUIDES THE SHIFT
FORK
C) SHIFT FORKS
1) THE PURPOSE IS TO MOVE THE SLIDER GEAR
2) SHIFT FORKS ARE MADE OF:
a) BRONZE ALLOY
b) STEEL

32
 3) SHIFT FORKS NORMALLY COATED WITH A HARD SURFACE (I.E. FLASHED CHROMED)
4) SHIFT FORK CAN BE DAMAGED BY:
a) BENT
b) BURNT
c) BROKEN
5) IMPORTANT: ALWAYS REPLACE A DAMAGED SHIFT FORK
D) SHIFT DETENTS
1) PURPOSES ARE TO:
a) HELP LOCATE NEXT GEAR
b) HELPS KEEP TRANS IN GEAR BY PREVENTING SHIFT MECHANISM FROM ROTATING
ACCIDENTLY
2) TYPE OF DESIGNS ARE:
a) ARM AND ROLLER
b) SPRING AND BALL
c) SPRING AND PLUNGER
7) SHIFTING SEQUENCE
A) FOOT MOVES THE SHIFT LINKAGE
B) SHIFT LINKAGE MOVES THE SHIFT MECHANISM
C) SHIFT MECHANISM MOVE THE SHIFT FORK
D) SHIFT FORK MOVE THE SLIDER GEAR
8) DUAL RANGE TRANSMISSIONS:
(SUB - TRANSMISSIONS)
A) AN AUXILIARY TRANSMISSION PLACED INTO THE POWER FLOW BETWEEN THE
TRANSMISSION AND THE FINAL DRIVE
B) NORMALLY A 2-SPEED, HI AND LO GEAR
C) NORMALLY USES A MANUAL SHIFT GEAR BOX
D) USUALLY CONSISTS OF:
1) INPUT SHAFT
2) OUTPUT SHAFT
3) FOUR GEARS
4) SHIFT FORK
5) SHIFT DETENT
6) SHIFT MECHANISM
7) SHIFT LINKAGE
8) OPTIONAL A DAMPENING DEVICE
E) ON SMALL TRAIL M/C‟S, THIS TRANSMISSION PROVIDES 2 RATIOS FOR ON AND OFF ROAD USE
F) ON LARGER, HEAVIER, TOURING M/C‟S THIS TRANSMISSION PROVIDES QUICK ACCELERATION IN
STOP-AND-GO TRAFFIC, PLUS A HIGH RANGE FOR OPEN ROAD RIDING AND GOOD FUEL ECONOMY

FINAL DRIVES
1) FINAL DRIVES:
A) GEAR REDUCTION SYSTEM THAT TRANSMIT POWER FLOW FROM THE TRANS TO THE REAR WHEEL
B) TYPES:
1) CHAIN DRIVE (MOST COMMON)
a) USES A SINGLE ROLLER CHAIN
b) MANY CURRENT M/C‟S USE AN “O” RING CHAIN, TAKE CARE NOT TO DAMAGE “O”
RINGS
c) OFFERS A WIDE RANGE OF GEAR RATIOS: CHANGE SPROCKETS
d) MAINTENANCE REQUIREMENTS:
1) CLEAN AND LUBE PERIODICALLY
2) PROPER SPROCKET ADJUSTMENT
3) PROPER CHAIN TENSION (SEE MSSM)
4) PERIODICALLY CHECK THE MASTER LINK (IF APPLICABLE)
2) BELT DRIVES
a) USES A GILMER BELT AND A PAIR OF TOOTHED PULLEYS
b) OFFERS A LIMITED RANGE OF RATIO CHANGES BECAUSE OF BELT AND PULLEYS
c) MAINTENANCE REQUIREMENTS:
1) BELT MUST BE KEPT CLEAN AND DRY
2) PROPER PULLEY ALIGNMENT

33
 3) PROPER BELT TENSION (SEE MSSM)
3) SHAFT DRIVEN
a) PARTS:
1) BEVEL GEARSET IN THE TRANS OR AN OUTPUT FLANGE
2) SHOCK HUB
3) DRIVE SHAFT
4) SLIP JOINT (SPINE AND SOCKET)
5) U-JOINTS
6) RING AND PINION SET IN THE FINAL DRIVE HOUSING
b) LEAST EFFICIENT OF ALL DRIVES
c) MAINTENANCE REQUIREMENTS
1) CHANGE GEAR OIL IN FINAL DRIVE HOUSING AND SOMETIMES THE SHAFT
DRIVE HOUSING (PER MSSM)
2) CLEAN/LUBE/ THE DRIVE SPINE ON THE REAR WHEEL/DRIVE HOUSING
3) CHECK CONDITION OF THE U-JOINTS
4) MOST USE HYPOID GEAR OIL IN THE FINAL DRIVE HOUSING

4 STROKE ENGINE - OILS AND LUBRICATION SYSTEMS

1) PURPOSES OF OILS:
A) CLEAN - SUSPEND CONTAMINANTS
B) COOL - TRANSFER HEAT
C) SEALS - FORMS A SEAL BETWEEN CLEARANCES
D) LUBRICANT - REDUCE FRICTION
2) ORIGINS OF OIL (BASE STOCK)
A) MINERAL BASE:
1) A PRODUCT OF CRUDE OIL
2) PERFORM POORLY W/O ADDITIVES, A FEW OF THE ADDITIVES ARE:
a) SULPHUR AND PHOSPHORUS: USED TO IMPROVE OILS EXTREME PRESSURE
PROPERTIES
b) ZINC: USED TO INCREASE SHEAR STRENGTH
c) VISCOSITY IMPROVER
d) ANTI-FOAMING AGENTS
e) DETERGENTS, DISPERSANTS
3) BASE OIL DOES NOT BREAK DOWN, THE ADDITIVES DO:
a) MOST ADDITIVES START TO BREAK DOWN QUICKLY AT TEMP‟S OF 275° F
B) SYNTHETIC OILS:
1) MADE BY RE-COMBINING THE MOLECULAR STRUCTURE OF VARIOUS HYDROGEN AND
CARBON BASE PRODUCTS
2) ADVANTAGES:
a) BETTER LUBRICANT
b) LESS EVAPORATIVE
c) CAN HANDLE HIGHER TEMPS
d) LESS VISCOSITY CHANGES W/VARYING TEMPS
e) NOT AFFECTED BY FUEL CONTAMINATION
3) DIS-ADVANTAGES:
a) CANNOT BE USED IN NEW ENG‟S OR ENG‟S WITH EXCESSIVE CLEARANCE
b) CAN SEEP AT GASKETS
c) MAY NOT BE COMPATIBLE WITH MINERAL BASED OILS
C) ANIMAL BASED OILS:
1) FISH/WHALE OILS
2) GOOD ANTI-FOAMING LUBRICANT
3) USED MOSTLY AS A HYD. OIL IN A SUSPENSION SYSTEM
4) NOT VERY LONG LASTING, ROT W/ AGE
D) VEGETABLE BASED OILS:
1) CASTOR BEAN OIL
2) AN EXCELLENT LUBRICANT, USED A LOT IN 2-STROKE ENG PRE-MIX
3) DIS-ADVANTAGES:
a) SEPARATES FROM ENG
b) SHORT SELF LIFE WHEN EXPOSED TO OXYGEN

34
 c) WILL NOT STORE IN PRE-MIX FORM
3) OIL CLASSIFICATIONS
A) TWO MAIN AGENCIES THAT CLASSIFY OILS ARE:
SAE - SOCIETY OF AUTOMOTIVE ENGINEERS
API - AMERICAN PETROLEUM INSTITUTE
B) SAE RATE THE VISCOSITY OF OILS AS FOLLOWS:
1) SUMMER OIL:
a) FLOW RATING OF OIL IS TESTED AT A VERY HIGH TEMP (GENERALLY 210° F OR
MORE)
b) EXAMPLE: 20, 30, AND 40 WEIGHT OILS
2) WINTER OILS:
a) FLOW ABILITY OF THE OIL IS TESTED AT A VERY LOW TEMP (GENERALLY 0° F OR
LESS)
b) EXAMPLE: 10w, 15w, 20w AND 30w WEIGHT OILS
3) MULTI-GRADE OILS:
a) FLOW RATING OF OIL IS TESTED AT HI AND LO TEMPS
b) EXAMPLE: 10w40 INDICATES THAT THE OIL HAS THE FLOW CHARACTERISTICS OF A
10 WEIGHT AT 0° F AND A 40 WEIGHT AT 210° F.
C) API RATES THE SERVICE DUTIES OF OIL AS FOLLOWS:
1) “S” INDICATES A SPARK ENG. AND “C” INDICATES A COMPRESSION ENG. (DIESEL)
2) SA-MILD CONDITIONS - NO ADDITIVES - BASE OIL ONLY
3) SB-MEDIUM CONDITIONS - HAS ANTI FOAMING AGENTS/DETERGENTS
4) SC-MEETS 1964 THRU 1967 MFR‟S REQUIREMENTS
5) SD-MEETS 1968 THRU 1971 MFR‟S REQUIREMENTS
6) SE-MEETS 1972 THRU 1979 MFR‟S REQUIREMENTS
7) SF-MEETS 1980 THRU 1989 MFR‟S REQUIREMENTS
8) SG-MEETS 1990 THRU 1993 MFR‟S REQUIREMENTS
9) SH-MEETS 1994 THRU PRESENT MFR‟S REQUIREMENTS
4) LUBRICATING SYSTEMS FOR 4-STROKE ENG’S
A) TYPES OF STORAGE SYSTEMS:
1) WET SUMP:
a) OIL IS STORED IN THE CRANKCASE
b) A PUMP IS USED TO FORCE OIL FLOW THRU THE ENG
c) OIL IS GRAVITY FED BACK TO THE SUMP
2) DRY SUMPS
a) OIL IS STORED IN A REMOTE TANK
b) IT USES TWO PUMPS:
1) FEED PUMPS
A) USED TO CIRCULATE FROM TANK THRU THE ENG
B) MUST HAVE A CHECK VALVE TO KEEP THE SUMP FROM FILLING UP W/
OIL BY GRAVITY (WET SUMPING)
2) SCAVENGING PUMP (RETURN PUMP)
A) USED TO PUMP OIL FROM THE ENG SUMP BACK TO THE TANK
B) USUALLY HAS TWICE THE FLOW CAPACITY OF THE FEED PUMP
B) PARTS OF THE LUBRICATING SYSTEM:
1) OIL PUMP:
a) PURPOSE: TO PRESSURIZE THE OIL AND CIRCULATE IT TO THE REQUIRED PARTS OF
THE ENG
b) 3 COMMON TYPES:
1) ROTOR (TROCHOIDAL) STAR-SHAPED OUTER ROTOR W/ A 4-LOBED INNER
ROTOR (USUALLY), IT OPERATES W/:
A) AN INNER ROTOR IN ECCENTRIC W/ THE OUTER ROTOR
B) INNER ROTOR ROTATES WITHIN THE OUTER ROTOR
2) GEAR: USES 2 SPUR GEARS MESHED TOGETHER
3) PLUNGER: USES A RECIPROCATING PISTONS IN A CYLINDER
A) UP-STROKE DRAWS OIL INTO THE CYL
B) DOWN-STROKE PRESSURIZES THE OIL
C) USES CHECK VALVES TO INSURE PROPER DIRECTION OF FLOW

35
 C) OIL PRESSURE RELIEF VALVE:
1) USUALLY LOCATED NEAR THE OIL PUMP
2) PURPOSE: BLEED OF EXCESSIVE OIL PRESSURES
3) BLEEDS OF THE EXCESSIVE OIL BACK INTO THE CRANKCASE
4) USUALLY ACTUATED DURING COLD STARTS OR EXCESSIVE ENG R.P.M.
D) OIL BY-PASS VALVE
1) USUALLY LOCATED IN OR NEAR THE FILTER
2) IF THE FILTER CLOGS, THE BY PASS VALVE WILL OPEN ALLOWING OIL TO BY-PASS THE
FILTER
E) OIL FILTERS: (4 TYPES)
1) PAPER: USES TREATED, PLEATED PAPER, CAN BE A SPIN ON OR A CARTRIDGE TYPE
2) FIBER: TRAPS CONTAMINANT THRU OUT THE FILTER, NOT JUST ON THE SURFACE AREA
3) SCREEN/WIRE MESH: A SCREEN OR WIRE MESH TRAPS LARGE PARTICLES
4) CENTRIFUGAL: ENG OIL IS SPUN AT CRANKSHAFT SPEED, DIRTY OIL IS HEAVIER - IS
TRAPPED WITHIN A SPINNING CANISTER
5) OTHER TYPES OF LUBRICANTS
A) GREASE
1) GENERALLY - A LUBRICANT SUSPENDED IN A GEL
2) PURPOSE: LUBRICATE AN AREA WHERE OIL CANNOT BE CONTAINED
3) EXAMPLES: WHITE LITHIUM, MINERAL OIL BASED, MOLLY LUBE
4) USED IN AREA SUCH AS: WHEEL BEARINGS, STEERING HEAD BEARINGS, SWING ARM
BEARINGS
B) DRY LUBRICANTS
1) PURPOSE: LUBRICATE W/O ATTRACTING CONTAMINANTS
2) LUBRICANT THAT USES A SOLVENT AS A CARRIER
3) WHEN APPLIED THE SOLVENT VAPORIZES, LEAVING THE LUBRICANT

COOLING SYSTEMS
1) PURPOSES:
A) RID THE ENG. OF UNWANTED HEAT
B) ALLOW THE ENG. TO OPERATE AT A PRE-DETERMINED TEMP
2) THREE TYPES OF COOLING SYSTEMS:
A) INTERNAL OIL COOLING
1) ALL M/C‟S HAVE INTERNAL OIL COOLING
2) COMPONENT/SYSTEMS OF OIL COOLING
a) OIL
b) OIL COOLERS (SOME M/C‟S)
c) OIL PUMPS
d) OIL FILTERS
e) OIL PASSAGE/LINES
f) SOMETIMES OIL PRESSURE/LEVEL GAUGES
B) AIR COOLED
1) CYL. HEAD AND CYL. USE FINS TO DISSIPATE HEAT TO THE SURROUNDING AIR
2) TWO METHODS:
a) OPEN DRAFT; (FREE AIR) MOVEMENT OF THE M/C FORCES AIR OVER THE FINS
b) FORCED DRAFT: ENG. DRIVE FAN DRAWS AIR THRU DUCT WORK CALLED SHROUDS,
SHROUDS SURROUND CYL. AND CYL. HEAD
C) LIQUID (COOLANT) COOLED:
1) OPERATION:
a) COOLANT IS PUMPED THRU WATER JACKETS IN THE CYL. HEAD AND CYL.
b) HEATED COOLANT THEN FLOW THRU A RADIATOR, AND DISSIPATE THE HEAT TO
THE SURROUNDING AIR
2) COOLING SYSTEM CAN BE PRESSURE TESTED FOR LEAKS USING A COOLING SYSTEM
PRESSURE CHECKER TO BE SURE THE SYSTEM HOLD ITS SPECIFIED PRESSURE FOR A
SPECIFIED TIME
a) SEE MSSM FOR SPECS
b) IF SYSTEM FAILS THE TEST
1) CHECK HOSE/PIPE CONNECTIONS

36
 2) CHECK WATER PUMP INSTALLATION AND SEALS
3) COMPONENTS:
a) PUMP
1) ENGINE DRIVEN PUMP USED TO CIRCULATE COOLANT
2) DRAWS COOLANT THRU WATER PUMP INLET AND DISCHARGES IT INTO THE
ENG. WATER JACKETS
3) FEED COOLANT UNIFORMLY TO CYL. AND CYL. HEAD WATER JACKETS
4) BASIC PARTS:
A) SHAFT
B) IMPELLER
C) BEARING/S
D) MECHANICAL SEAL
E) OIL SEAL
F) HOUSINGS
G) DRAIN HOLE
5) IF COOLANT LEAKS OUT THE DRAIN (INSPECTION) HOLE, THENTHE
MECHANICAL SEAL IS LEAKING
6) IF ENG. OIL IS LEAKING OUT THE DRAIN HOLE, THEN ENG. OIL SEAL IS
LEAKING
7) WATER PUMPS MAY OR MAY-NOT BE REBUILDABLE
b) RADIATOR:
1) HEAT EXCHANGER
2) USUALLY NOT A DEALER REPAIR ITEM (LOTS ARE MADE OF ALUMINUM)
c) THERMOSTAT
1) TEMPERATURE SENSITIVE FLOW VALVE
2) PURPOSE:
A) ALLOW FOR QUICKER ENG. WARM UP TIME
B) ALLOW ENG. TO OPERATE AT A PRE-DETERMINED TEMP
3) WHEN ENG. IS FIRST STARTED THE THERMOSTAT IS CLOSED ALLOWS
COOLANT TO FLOW THRU ENG. ONLY
4) WHEN ENG. REACHES OPERATING TEMP. THE THERMOSTAT OPENS ALLOWS
COOLANT TO FLOW THRU THE RADIATOR
d) RADIATOR CAP:
1) PURPOSES:
A) SEALS THE COOLING SYSTEM
B) DETERMINE COOLING SYSTEM OPERATING PRESSURE
C) RAISES THE BOILING POINT BY 3° F FOR EACH 1 P.S.I.
2) CAP CAN BE TESTED FOR SPECIFIED PRESSURE FOR A REQUIRED TIME:
A) SEE MSSM FOR SPECS
B) IF CAP FAILS TEST REPLACE IT
3) MOST M/C CAPS OPERATE IN THE RANGE OF 12-14 P.S.I.
e) COOLANT
1) USUALLY A MIXTURE OF DISTILLED WATER AND ANTI-FREEZE AT A 50/50 MIX
RATIO
2) USE COOLANTS RECOMMENDED BY THE MFR
3) NEVER USE 100% ANTI-FREEZE, IT IS VERY POOR COOLANT WHEN USED
ALONE
4) ANTI-FREEZE
A) LOWERS THE FREEZING POINT OF WATER TO LESS THAN -30° F
(WATER IS 32°F)
B) RAISE THE BOILING POINT OF WATER TO MORE THAN 225° F (WATER
IS 212° F)
C) CONTAINS LUBRICANTS, ANTI-FOAMING AGENTS, AND CORROSION
INHIBITORS
f) DISTILLED WATER:
1) BETTER THAN DRINKING WATER - IT DOES NOT CONTAIN MINERAL DEPOSITS
WHICH COULD CAUSE CORROSION
2) HAS BETTER HEAT TRANSFER PROPERTIES THAN ANTI-FREEZE
g) RADIATOR FAN:

37
 1) USUALLY AN ELEC. FAN, CONTROLLED BE TEMP SENSOR
2) ONLY OPERATES WHEN ENG. REACHES A PRE-DETERMINED TEMP
3) PURPOSE: DRAIN FRESH AIR THRU THE RADIATOR
4) FAN MAY OR MAY NOT BE WIRED THRU THE IGNITION (MAIN) SWITCH

FRICTION REDUCING DEVICES:

1) PURPOSES:
A) REDUCE FRICTION
B) TAKE UP SHAFT END-PLAY
C) PROPER SPACING
D) SUPPORT AXIAL (THRUST) AND RADIAL LOADS:
2) DEFINITIONS:
A) AXIAL (THRUST) LOADS: SIDE TO SIDE LOADS (TRIES TO MOVE THE SHAFT END-TO-END)
B) RADIAL LOAD: ROTATING LOAD (TRIES TO TWIST THE SHAFT)
C) JOURNAL: AREA OF THE SHAFT THAT TURNS ON AND IS SUPPORTED BY A BEARING OR BUSHING
3) TYPES:
A) BALL BEARINGS:
1) A GOOD ALL - PURPOSE BEARING
2) CAN HANDLE AXIAL AND RADIAL LOADS
3) REQUIRES VERY LITTLE LUBRICATION, IF OVER LUBED THE SPHERICAL BALLS WILL
HYDROPLANE
4) PARTS:
a) SPHERICAL BALLS
b) INNER RACE - NORMALLY A PRESS FIT ON ITS SHAFT
c) OUTER RACE - USUALLY PRESSED OR PINNED IN PLACE
d) CAGE - (SOMETIMES)
1) PREVENT THE BALLS FROM TOUCHING EACH OTHER
2) CAN BE OPERATED AT HIGHER R.P.M. THAN UN-CAGED
5) UNCAGED BALL BEARINGS CAN HANDLE HIGHER LOADS BECAUSE THEY HAVE MORE
SURFACE AREA
B) ROLLER BEARINGS:
1) SIMILAR TO BALL BEARING EXCEPT IT USES CYLINDRICAL SHAPED ROLLERS INSTEAD OF
SPHERICAL BALLS
2) LUBE REQUIREMENTS - SAME AS BALL BEARINGS
3) MAIN ADVANTAGE - HAS MORE SURFACE CONTACT AREA THAN BALL BEARINGS AND CAN
THEREFORE HANDLE HIGHER RADIAL LOADS
4) CAN NOT HANDLE AXIAL LOADS
C) NEEDLE BEARINGS:
1) SIMILAR TO ROLLER BEARINGS, EXCEPT THE NEEDLE HAS A HIGHER ASPECT RATIO
(LENGTH VS. DIA) THAN A ROLLER BEARING
2) LUBE REQUIREMENTS - SAME AS ROLLER BEARINGS
3) MAIN ADVANTAGE - CAN SUPPORT VERY HIGH RADIAL LOADS
4) CAN NOT:
a) SUPPORT AXIAL LOADS
b) HANDLE HIGH R.P.M.
D) TAPERED ROLLER BEARINGS:
1) SIMILAR TO ROLLER BEARINGS, EXCEPT THE INNER/OUTER RACES ARE TAPERED AT AN
ANGLE
2) TAPERED ROLLER BEARINGS ARE NORMALLY USED IN PAIRS WITH OPPOSING ANGLES
3) LUBE REQUIREMENTS - SAME AS BALL BEARINGS
4) MAIN ADVANTAGE: TAPERED ROLLER BEARINGS CAN HANDLE RADIAL LOADS, AND CAN
HANDLE AXIAL LOADS IN ONE DIRECTION ONLY
E) PRECISION INSERT BEARINGS: (PLAIN BEARINGS)
1) HAS HARD STEEL SHELL WITH VERY SOFT (BABBIT MATERIAL) INNER LINER
2) BABBIT INNER LINER: MIXTURE OF VARIOUS METALS SUCH AS TIN ALLOYS, LEAD, SILVER,
ANTIMONY, AND COPPER
3) HAS “IMBEDABILITY”: ABILITY TO EMBED, SMALL AMOUNTS OF FOREIGN MATERIAL
4) HAS “CONFORMABILITY” ABILITY TO CONFORM TO VARIATIONS IN SHAFT

38
 ALIGNMENT/JOURNAL SHAPE
5) PURPOSE: PROLONG THE LIFE OF THE SHAFT JOURNAL
6) NORMALLY A 2-PIECE BEARING, MATCHED IN ½ SHELLS
7) COMES IN VARIOUS THICKNESS TO ALLOW FOR MFR TOLERANCES
8) LUBE REQUIREMENTS:
a) CONSTANT FILM OF OIL FLOWING BETWEEN THE JOURNAL AND BEARING, SO THERE
IS NO METAL-TO-METAL CONTACT
b) HIGH OIL PRESSURE
9) RECEIVES MOST OF ITS WEAR DURING COLD STARTS, BEFORE OIL FLOW IS SUFFICIENT TO
PROTECT THE BEARING
10) MAJOR ADVANTAGES: CAN TAKE HIGH RADIAL LOADS DUE TO THE AMOUNT OF SURFACE
AREA OF LIQUID (CANNOT COMPRESS LIQUID)
F) THRUST BEARING:
1) LOOKS LIKE A FLAT WASHER WITH CYLINDRICAL ROLLER OR SPHERICAL BALLS ATTACHED
TO IT
2) PURPOSES:
a) SUPPORT AXIAL LOADS
b) REDUCES SHAFT END-PLAY
3) MAIN ADVANTAGE: CAN PERFORM BOTH PURPOSES
G) THRUST WASHERS (SHIMS)
1) MACHINED SURFACE FLAT WASHER
2) USUALLY MADE OF HARDENED STEEL, OR STEEL WITH A SOFT COATING
3) PURPOSES:
a) SUPPORT AXIAL LOADS
b) REDUCE SHAFT END-PLAY
c) PROPER SPACING (ESPECIALLY FOR GEARS)

H) BUSHINGS
1) CYLINDRICAL LINING MADE OF SOFT ALLOYS SUCH AS BRONZE, ALUMINUM, BREASS,
PLASTICS, ETC.
2) MOST ARE PRESS FIT IN PLACE AND ARE REPLACABLE
3) PURPOSE: SUPPORT RADIAL AND SOMETIMES AXIAL LOADS
4) MAIN ADVANTAGE: HIGH LOAD ABILITY DUE TO LARGE AMOUNT OF SURFACE AREA

FUELS
1) PURPOSE OF FUELS:
A) GIVE SATISFACTORY ENG. PERFORMANCE OVER A WIDE RANGE OF CIRCUMSTANCES
2) OCTANE RATING:
A) THE MEASUREMENT OF THE FUEL‟S RESISTANCE TO DETONATION
1) KNOWN ALSO AS “KNOCK” RATING
2) THE HIGHER THE OCTANE RATING, THE HIGHER THE FUELS RESISTANCE TO DETONATION
3) THERE IS NO ADVANTAGE IN USING GAS OF HIGHER RATING THAN THE ENGINE NEEDS TO
OPERATE DETONATION FREE
B) FACTORS THAT CAN INFLUENCE THE OCTANE RATING NEEDS OF AN ENG:
1) AIR TEMP - HIGHER TEMPS ENCOURAGES DETONATION
2) ALTITUDE - HIGHER ALTITUDE DISCOURAGES DETONATION
3) HUMIDITY - LOWER HUMIDITY ENCOURAGES DETONATION
4) IGNITION TIMING - MORE ADVANCED IGNITION TIMING ENCOURAGES DETONATION
5) CARB JETTING - LEANER AIR/FUEL MIXTURE ENCOURAGES DETONATION
6) RIDING METHOD - HEAVIER LOADS ENCOURAGE DETONATION.
7) ENG. COMPRESSION RATIO - HIGHER COMP. RATIO ENCOURAGES DETONATION
3) TYPES OF FUELS: MADE UP OF HYDROGEN AND CARBON ATOMS KNOWN AS “HYDROCARBONS”
A) GASOLINE:
1) LEADED GASOLINE
a) PROHIBITED BY THE GOVERNMENT (EPA) IN MOST STATES TO REDUCE POLLUTION
b) USES TETRAETHYL AS AN ADDITIVE TO:
1) INCREASE THE OCTANE RATING

39
 2) LUBE AND ACT AS A CUSHION FOR THE VALVE FACE/SEAT AREAS.
3) USE IN QUANTITIES OF LESS THAN 1/10 OF A GRAM PER GALLON OF
GASOLINE
2) UNLEADED GASOLINE:
a) HAS NO LEAD ADDITIVES
b) USES ISO-OCTANE AND HEPTANE TO IMPROVE QUALITY
1) ISO-OCTANE - A HYDROCARBON DERIVATIVE
A) HAS AN OCTANE RATING OF 100
(INCREASE THE FUELS OCTANE RATING)
B) DETERMINES THE COMPRESSIBILITY OF GASOLINE
2) HEPTANE - A HYDRO CARBON DERIVATIVE
A) HAS A OCTANE RATING OF ZERO
B) DETERMINE THE BURNABILITY OF GASOLINE
3) OXYGENATED FUELS:
a) FUELS THAT CONTAIN MORE OXY. MOLECULES THAN REGULAR OR UNLEADED GAS
b) PURPOSE: DECREASE CARBON MONOXIDE EMISSIONS BY APPROX. 15%
c) ADDITIVES USED TO RAISE OXYGEN CONTENT:
1) ETHANOL:
A) PRODUCED BY FERMENTATION
B) NOT RECOMMENDED BY ANY MFR IN QUANTITIES ABOVE 10%
2) METHANOL:
A) PRODUCED BY DISTILLING
B) NOT RECOMMENDED BY ANY MFR IN QUANTITIES ABOVE 15%
d) TYPES OF OXYGENATED FUELS:
1) GASOHOL:
A) GASOLINE BLEND W/ SMALL QUANTITIES OF ALCOHOL
B) GENERALLY USED SEASONALLY, MANDATED PRIMARILY OCT. THRU
FEB IN AREAS W/HIGH Co READINGS
C) DIS-ADVANTAGES:
1) ITS HYGROSCOPIC (ABSORBS WATER)
2) CAN HARM RUBBER, CORK AND PLASTIC FUEL SYSTEM PARTS
3) CAN CAUSE LEAN AIR/FUEL MIXTURES
D) ADVANTAGES:
1) RAISE THE GASOLINES OCTANE RATING
2) BURN CLEANER
3) GOOD DE-ICER
2) RE-FORMULATED GASOLINE (RFG)
A) SUPPOSED TO BE BETTER FOR THE ENVIRONMENT THAN ALCOHOL
B) REQUIRED YEAR ROUND BY FEDERAL LAW IN SOME AREAS SINCE
1995
C) SHORT STORAGE LIFE AS COMPARED TO UNLEADED GAS OF THE
PAST
D) TOO NEW TO VERIFY PRO‟S AND CON‟S
1) POSSIBLE DIS-ADVANTAGES: MAY LEAN OUT AIR/FUEL RATIO‟S
AND MAY HARM RUBBER PARTS IN OLDER FUEL SYSTEMS
2) POSSIBLE ADVANTAGES: MAY HAVE SUPERIOR LUBRICITY
THAN CONVENTIONAL GAS
B) ALCOHOL AS A FUEL:
1) NOT RECOMMENDED BY ANY MFR
2) DOE‟S NOT PRODUCE AS MUCH HEAT ENERGY, SO APPROX. TWICE AS MUCH IS
NEEDED TO MAKE POWER
3) ALCOHOL IS SLOWER BURNING, WHICH CAUSES A LONGER IGNITION LAG TIME.
4) CAN CAUSE AN INCREASE IN H/P OF APPROX. 15-20%
5) TO REALIZE A H/P INCREASE, THE FOLLOWING MUST BE DONE:
a) ADVANCE IGN. TIMING
b) INCREASE COMPRESSION RATIO
c) INCREASE CARB. JET SIZE APPROX 2.18 TIMES
6) DIS-ADVANTAGE:
a) HARMFUL TO THE HUMAN BODY

40
 b) HARMFUL TO ENG. COMPONENTS
c) IT‟S HYGROSCOPIC
d) HARMFUL TO CORK, RUBBER, AND PLASTIC COMPONENTS

AIR/FUEL MIXTURE REQUIREMENTS

1) AIR/FUEL MIXTURE RATIO:
A) RATIO INDICATING BY WEIGHT THE PARTS OF AIR COMPARED TO 1 PART OF FUEL
B) EXAMPLE: 15:1 AIR/FUEL MIXTURE RATIO MEAN 15 PARTS OF AIR TO 1 PART FUEL BY WEIGHT
C) GENERAL GUIDE LINES:
1) THEORETICAL PERFECT COMBUSTION OCCURS IN 14.7:1 RATIO (STOICHIOMETRIC RATIO)
2) LEAN AIR/FUEL MIXTURES OCCUR AT RATIOS ABOVE 14.7:1 (16:1, 17:1, 18:1)
3) RICH AIR/FUEL MIXTURES OCCUR AT RATIO‟S BELOW 14.7:1 (13:1, 12:1, 11:1)
2) RIDING CONDITIONS:
A) COLD START:
1) REQUIRES A VERY RICH MIXTURE OF 10:1 OR LESS
2) COLD ENG TEMPS, CAUSE POOR FUEL VAPORIZATION (NO HEAT)
B) IDLE:
1) REQUIRES A RICH MIXTURE OF APPROX 10:1
2) LOW INTAKE SPEED CAUSE POOR VAPORIZATION OF THE FUEL (VERY LITTLE TURBULENCE)
C) MID-RANGE:
1) UTILIZES A LEAN AIR/FUEL MIXTURE RATIO OF APPROX 16:1 - 18:1
2) PRODUCES BEST CONDITIONS FOR GOOD FUEL ECONOMY AND LOW EXHAUST EMISSIONS
D) POWER:
1) REQUIRES A RICH MIXTURE OF APPROX 12:1 - 13:1
2) ALLOWS THE ENG TO DEVELOP GOOD H/P, AND OPERATE AT LOWER TEMPS
E) SUMMARY:
1) IDEAL FUEL/AIR MIXTURE REQUIREMENTS CHANGE TO MEET DIFFERENT OPERATING
CONDITIONS
2) THE JOB OF CHANGING RATIOS IS HANDLED BY THE CARB OR FUEL INJECTION

AIR DENSITY
1) AIR DENSITY:
A) THE AMOUNT OF OXYGEN MOLECULES PER GIVEN VOLUME OF SPACE
2) EFFECTS OF CHANGES:

AIR DENSITY AVAILABLE OXYGEN AIR/FUEL MIXTURE RATIO

INCREASES INCREASES LEANER

DECREASES DECREASES RICHER

3) FACTORS AFFECTING AIR DENSITY:

A) HUMIDITY: HIGHER HUMIDITY RESULTS IN A LOWER AIR DENSITY
B) TEMPS: HIGHER TEMP‟S WILL DECREASE AIR DENSITY
C) ALTITUDE: INCREASE IN ALTITUDE RESULTS IN DECREASE IN AIR DENSITY
4) POSSIBLE RESULT/CORRECTION FOR AIR DENSITY CHANGES:

AIR DENSITY CARB. JETTING SUGGESTED SERVICE

INCREASE BECOMES LEAN CHANGE JETS-LARGER

DECREASE BECOMES RICH CHANGE JETS-SMALLER

5) MOST CARB‟S CAN TOLERATE A BROAD RANGE OF AIR DENSITIES, AND RE-JETTING IS NOT USUALLY
REQUIRED ON STREET M/C‟S FOR NORMAL RIDING.

41
AIR/FUEL DELIVERY SYSTEMS AND RELATED COMPONENTS
1) PURPOSE:
A) BEFORE CARB COMPONENTS: STORE AND DELIVER PROPER AMOUNTS OF AIR AND FUEL TO THE
CARB OR FUEL INJECTION
B) AFTER CARB COMPONENTS: DELIVER AIR/FUEL MIXTURE TO THE ENG.
2) FUEL TANK
A) FUEL TANK
1) STORES FUEL
2) VENTED TO ATMOSPHERE: SOME STATES (EXAMPLE: CALIFORNIA) REQUIRE FUEL TANKS
TO BE VENTED INTO CHARCOAL CANISTERS
3) USUALLY RUBBER MOUNTED
4) MUST BE CLEAN AND FREE OF RUST
5) MAY HAVE FLOAT ARM/FLOAT TO OPERATE FUEL GAUGE
B) FUEL VALVES (PETCOCKS)
1) ON/OFF VALVE FOR FUEL DELIVERY FROM TANK TO CARB
2) LOCATED ON THE TANK, CARB, OR ANYWHERE IN BETWEEN
3) FOUR COMMON TYPES:
a) MANUAL - LEVER HAS 3 POSITIONS - ON, RES, OFF
b) VACUUM - LEVER HAS 3 POSITIONS - ON, RES, PRI (PRIME)
1) FUEL FLOW
A) ON AND RES POSITION: FLOW ONLY WHEN ENGINE VACUUM IS
PRESENT AT THE FUEL VALVE
B) PRI: FUEL FLOWS AT ALL TIMES
C) NORMALLY HAS 2 HOSES: ONE FOR FUEL DELIVERY, AND ONE FOR
ENG. VACUUM
c) ELECTRIC: FUEL IS ACTIVATED WHEN THE IGNITION SWITCH IS TURNED “ON”
d) VACUUM W/ELECTRIC ASSIST:
1) FUEL VALVE IS NORMALLY ACTUATED BY ENG. VACUUM
2) WHEN FUEL LEVEL GETS LOW, IT IS ELECTRONICALLY SWITCHED TO
RESERVE
C) FUEL LINES
1) USUALLY NEOPRENE - CANNOT BE ADVERSELY AFFECTED BY FUEL

2) ROUTING:
a) ROUTE LINES AWAY FROM HOT ENG. PARTS AND CARB LINKAGE
b) ROUTE LINES W/NO KINKS
D) FUEL PUMPS:
1) PURPOSE: DELIVER FUEL FROM THE TANK TO THE CARB OR FUEL INJECTION
2) TWO COMMON APPLICATIONS:
a) FUEL TANK IS LOWER THAN CARB
b) FUEL INJECTION SYSTEMS
3) SUPPLIES FUEL UNDER PRESSURE (SEE MSSM)
4) THREE TYPES:
a) MECHANICAL: USES A CAM, LEVER, DIAPHRAGM, AND TWO CHECK VALVES
b) VACUUM: DIAPHRAGM MOVEMENT IS CONTROLLED BY PRESSURE DIFFERENCES OF
ENG. VACUUM AND ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE
c) ELECTRIC: ELEC. MOTOR OR ELEC. SOLENOID (RELAY) DRIVES THE PUMP
E) VENT HOSES OF TANK AND CARB/S:
1) IF TANK/CARB IS NOT VENTED, FUEL MAY NOT FLOW CORRECTLY
2) SERVICE: CHECK TO BE SURE VENTS ARE NOT PLUGGED, KINKED, OR ROUTED
INCORRECTLY
F) FUEL FILTERS:
1) PURPOSE: REMOVE CONTAMINANTS FROM FUEL
2) COMMON LOCATIONS:
a) ON TOP OF THE PETCOCK, IN THE FUEL TANK
b) IN THE FUEL VALVE
c) IN-LINE WITH THE FUEL HOSE
d) ON TOP OF THE NEEDLE SEAT IN THE CARB

42
 G) AIR FILTER AND HOUSING:
1) PURPOSE: FILTER THE INCOMING AIR
2) TYPES OF FILTERS:
a) PAPER:
1) USES TREATED, PLEATED PAPER
2) MUST BE KEPT DRY AND FREE OF OIL
3) WHEN DIRTY REPLACE, DO NOT CLEAN
b) FOAM:
1) FOAM IS USED TO TRAP OIL THAT TRAPS DIRT
2) WHEN DIRTY, CLEAN IN WARM SOAPY WATER AND DRY
3) OIL W/AIR FILTER OIL MADE FOR FOAM
c) GAUZE:
1) SURGICAL GAUZE IS USED TO TRAP OIL WHICH TRAPS DIRT
2) WHEN DIRTY, CLEAN W/WARM SOAPY WATER AND DRY
3) OIL W/AIR FILTER OIL MADE FOR GAUZE
d) DO NOT SUBSTITUTE ONE FILTER FOR A FILTER OF A DIFFERENT CONSTRUCTION,
THIS CAN CREATE A RICH OR LEAN CONDITION.
H) INTAKE MANIFOLD:
1) PURPOSES:
a) DELIVER AIR/FUEL MIXTURE TO THE ENGINE
b) SECURE THE CARB TO THE ENG
c) MAKE UP THE TUNED INTAKE LENGTH
2) TYPES OF CARB MOUNTS ARE:
a) SPIGOT
1) CARB BODY FITS INSIDE THE RUBBER INTAKE MANIFOLD
2) CLAMP HOLDS IT IN PLACE
b) FLANGE MOUNT:
1) CARB BODY HAS MOUNTING POINTS CAST ONTO IT
2) MOUNTING POINTS BOLT TO INTAKE MANIFOLD
c) CLAMP-ON
1) CARB BODY HAS A CLAMP CAST ONTO IT
2) CARB BODY FITS OVER THE INTAKE MANIFOLD

CARBURETOR BASICS
1) ROLE OF CARB OPERATION:
A) DELIVER THE PROPER RATIO OF AIR/FUEL MIXTURE TO THE ENG. IN ATOMIZED FORM
B) PROVIDE A MEANS OF VARYING R.P.M.
2) PRINCIPLES INVOLVED IN CARB. OPERATION:
A) ATOMIZATION: LIQUID DROPS SUSPENDED IN AIR
B) VENTURI EFFECT
3) CARB FUEL DELIVERY CIRCUITS:
A) BASIC SYSTEM FOUND ON MOST M/C‟S
B) AUXILIARY - ADDITIONAL SYSTEMS FOUND ON SOME M/C‟S
4) BASIC CIRCUITS:
A) FLOAT BOWL CIRCUIT
B) IDLE CIRCUIT (SLOW SPEED CIRCUIT OR PILOT CIRCUIT)
C) MID RANGE CIRCUIT (INTERMEDIATE CIRCUIT)
D) MAIN JET CIRCUIT (HIGH SPEED CIRCUIT)
E) COLD STARTING SYSTEMS
5) CIRCUIT OPERATION RANGES (SEE MSSM)
A) MOST MRF‟S SPECIFY THROTTLE POSITION, EXAMPLE - IDLE CIRCUIT = 0 TO 1/4 THROTTLE
B) SOME MFR‟S SPECIFY ENG R.P.M., EXAMPLE - IDLE CIRCUIT 0 TO 1000 R.P.M.
C) THEORY CLINICS USES THROTTLE POSITION FOR ITS LESSON PLANS
6) AUXILIARY CIRCUITS:
A) ACCELERATOR PUMP
B) AIR CUT-OFF VALVE
C) POWER JET

43
VENTURI EFFECT AND DESIGN
1) VENTURI EFFECT (BASED ON BERNOULLI’S LAW)
A) LAW THAT RELATE AIR VELOCITY TO AIR PRESSURE
B) IN A TUBE, AIR VELOCITY IS INVERSELY PROPORTIONAL TO PRESSURE
C) APPLICATION: AS AIR VELOCITY INCREASES THE RELATIVE PRESSURE INSIDE THE TUBE WILL
DECREASE
D) RELATIVE PRESSURE - THE FORCE PUSHING ON AN OBJECT
2) VENTURI - CONSTRICTION WITH IN A TUBE
A) LOCATION: INSIDE THE THROAT OF THE CARB
B) PURPOSES:
1) INCREASE AIR VELOCITY
2) DECREASE PRESSURE IN CARB THROAT
3) ALLOWS ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURES TO PUSH FUEL FROM THE FLOAT BOWL INTO THE
CARB THROAT
3) EFFECTS OF VENTURI SIZE:
A) CARBS ARE SIZED BY SIZE OF VENTURI
1) LARGER THAN STOCK VENTURI:
a) ALLOWS FOR BETTER PERFORMANCE AT HI-R.P.M. RANGE
b) SACRIFICE MID RANGE AND LO-END TORQUE
2) SMALLER THAN STOCK VENTURI:
a) ALLOWS BETTER THROTTLE RESPONSE AT LO-R.P.M. AND MID-RANGE
b) SACRIFICE PEAK H/P
4) CARB VENTURI DESIGNS:
A) VARIABLE VENTURI CARBS:
1) VENTURI SIZE VARIES BY CHANGING POSITION OF THE SLIDE
2) CONSTANT VELOCITY (CONSTANT VACUUM, ALTITUDE COMPENSATING)
3) MECHANICAL SLIDE (THROTTLE CONTROL)
B) FIXED VENTURI CARBS:
1) VENTURI SIZE IS CONSTANT (NO SLIDE)

FLOAT BOWL CIRCUIT

1) PURPOSE:
A) MAINTAIN A CONSTANT VOLUME OF FUEL IN THE FLOAT BOWL AT ALL ENG R.P.M.‟S

2) PARTS OF A FLOAT BOWL CIRCUIT:

A) FLOAT BOWL:
1) LOCATED ATTACHED TO THE CARB BODY BY SCREWS OR A WIRE SPRING CLIP
a) CONCENTRIC - DIRECTLY UNDER THE VENTURI (MOST COMMON)
b) ECCENTRIC - ON THE SIDE OF THE VENTURI
c) REMOTE - NOT LOCATED ON THE CARB, CONNECTED BY PIPES/HOSES
2).USUALLY MADE OF ALUM

3) MOST USE AN OVERFLOW TUBE, THIS PREVENTS THE FUEL FROM FLOODING THE ENG. IF
THE FLOAT VALVE STICKS OPEN
4) SOME HAVE DRAIN SCREWS
5) MUST BE VENTED TO ATMOSPHERE
B) FLOAT:
1) FLOATS ON TOP OF THE FUEL
2) CONNECTS TO THE FUEL VALVE (NEEDLE AND SEAT)
3) FUEL FLOW UNTIL THE FLOAT PUSHES THE FLOAT NEEDLE SHUT, STOPPING FUEL FLOW TO
THE CARB
4) CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS:
a) HOLLOW BRASS
b) HOLLOW PLASTIC
c) SOLID PLASTIC
d) FOAM
e) CORK

44
 5) TYPES OF FLOATS:
a) SINGLE - SINGLE FLOAT MOUNTED ON A PIVOT ARM
b) TWIN FLOATS - TWO FLOATS MOUNTED ON A COMMON PIVOT ARM
c) INDEPENDENT - FLOATS RIDE ON INDEPENDENT PINS, BUT SHAPE A COMMON PIVOT
ARM
C) FLOAT VALVE ASSY (NEEDLE AND SEAT)
1) PARTS:
a) FLOAT NEEDLE SEAT:
1) NORMALLY MADE OF BRASS
2) USUALLY NUMBERED, INDICATING FLOW RATE
3) CAN BE EITHER SCREW IN, PRESS IN, OR CAST INTO THE CARB BODY
b) FLOAT NEEDLE:
1) HAS A TAPERED TIP THAT MATES TO THE FLOAT NEEDLE SEAT
2) TIP MAY BE MADE OF ALUM, CHROME, OR VITON
3) NORMALLY HAS A SPRING - LOADED PIN ON ITS END THAT CONTACTS THE
FLOAT “TANG”
4) THE SPRING ACTS SIMILAR TO A SHOCK ABSORBER
5) MOST MFR‟S RECOMMEND REPLACING THE FLOAT NEEDLE AND FLOAT
NEEDLE SEAT AS A SET
3) VOLUME OF THE FUEL IN THE FLOAT BOWL AFFECTS ALL CARB. CIRCUITS:
A) FUEL LEVEL: LEVEL OF FUEL IN THE FLOAT BOWL COMPARED TO A REFERENCE MARK (SEE MSSM)
1) CAN BE DONE ON THE M/C W/OUT REMOVING THE CARB/S
a) HI-FUEL LEVEL RESULTS IN A RICH MIXTURE
b) LO-FUEL LEVEL RESULTS IN A LEAN MIXTURE
B) FLOAT HEIGHT: DISTANCE FROM CARB BODY TO FLOAT W/FLOAT NEEDLE CLOSED (SEE MSSM)
1) MEASURED W/ THE CARB OFF THE M/C AND CARB LAID ON ITS SIDE
a) HI-FLOAT HEIGHT ® LEAN MIXTURE
b) LO-FLOAT HEIGHT ® RICH MIXTURE
4) ADJUST FUEL VOLUME IN FLOAT BOWL:
A) MOST MFR‟S PROVIDE FUEL LEVEL OR FLOAT HEIGHT SPECS
B) MOST FLOATS HAVE A “TANG” THAT CAN BE BENT TO ADJUST FLOAT HEIGHT
C) THE FLOAT CONTROLS AT WHAT POINT THE FLOAT NEEDLE WILL CLOSE
D) ON SOME E.P.A. CARBS THE FLOAT “TANG” IS NON-ADJUSTABLE
5) DIAPHRAGM TYPE CARBS - A VARIATION TO THE FLOAT BOWL
A) USES A VACUUM TYPE PUMP INSTEAD OF A FLOAT BOWL
B) MAIN ADVANTAGE - CAN OPERATE AT ANY ANGLE
C) NORMALLY USES 3 HOSE:
1) ONE FOR FUEL DELIVERY FROM THE FUEL TANK
2) ONE TO RETURN UNUSED FUEL TO THE FUEL TANK
3) ONE FOR VACUUM HOSE FROM THE INTAKE MANIFOLD TO FUEL PUMP ON THE CARB.

MECHANICAL SLIDE CARBS

1) CIRCUITS:
A) IDLE CIRCUIT (SLOW SPEED OR PILOT CIRCUIT)
•MAIN CHARACTERISTICS:
•MAIN EFFECT TO FUEL FLOW IS FROM IDLE TO ABOUT 1/4 THROTTLE
•FLOWS FUEL 100% OF THE TIME (OVERLAPS ALL OTHER CIRCUITS)
•HAS SMALLEST FUEL JETS AND THEREFORE IS USUALLY THE FIRST CIRCUIT TO PLUG
DUE TO CONTAMINATION
1) IDLE BLEED AIR PASSAGE:
a) LOCATED BY THE MOUTH (INTAKE SIDE OF THE CARB)
b) PURPOSE: AID IN ATOMIZATION BY MIXING AIR WITH FUEL
c) SOME AIR BLEED PASSAGES MAY USE A REMOVABLE AIR JET
2) MIXTURE SCREWS:
a) M/C‟S HAVE AN AIR MIXTURE SCREW OR A FUEL MIXTURE SCREW, BUT USUALLY
NOT BOTH
b) MOST CURRENT M/C‟S HAVE FACTORY INSTALLED ANTI TAMPER PLUG INSTALLED
OVER THE MIXTURE SCREWS TO PREVENT UNTRAINED PEOPLE FROM CHANGING

45
 THE SETTING
c) ADJUSTMENTS ARE DONE FROM AN INITIAL SETTING WHEN THE ENG. IS AT NORMAL
OPERATING TEMP.
1) AIR MIXTURE SCREW - USUAL STARTING POINT IS 1 ½ TURNS OUT (SEE
MSSM)
2) FUEL MIXTURE SCREW - SEE MSSM - HAS A VERY POINTED END AND IS EASY
TO DAMAGE IF SEATED TO HARD.
d) DIFFERENCES:
AIR MIXTURE SCREW FUEL MIXTURE SCREW

LOCATION: AIR FILTER, HOUSING SIDE OF CARB LOCATION: ENG. SIDE OF CARB

VARIES FLOW RATE OF AIR BLEED PASSAGE VARIES FLOW RATE OF IDLE OUTLET PORT

TO ENRICHEN MIXTURE TURN CLOCKWISE - IN TO ENRICHEN MIXTURE TURN COUNTER

CLOCKWISE - OUT

TO LEAN MIXTURE TURN COUNTER CLOCKWISE - TO LEAN MIXTURE TURN CLOCKWISE - IN

OUT

3) IDLE FUEL JET

a) METERS THE AMOUNT OF FUEL FLOW THRU THE IDLE CIRCUIT
b) USUALLY MADE OF BRASS - CAN BE SCREW - IN OR PRESS - IN
c) JET NUMBER:
1) LARGER NO. ® LARGER JET
2) INDICATES FLOW RATING OR DIA. OF ORIFICE
4) IDLE OUTLET PORT:
a) ONLY PORT THAT FLOWS FUEL AT IDLE
b) FUEL FLOWS 100% OF THE TIME (OVERLAPS ALL CIRCUITS)
c) LOCATED ON THE ENG. SIDE OF THE SLIDE
5) BY-PASS PORTS: (TRANSFER PORTS)
a) PURPOSE: AIDS IN A SMOOTH TRANSITION BY ALLOWING A LITTLE MORE FUEL FLOW
JUST OFF IDLE
b) LOCATED UNDER THE SLIDE
6) SLIDE (CONTROLS THE SIZE OF THE VENTURI)
a) CONTROLLED BY THE RIDER USING THE THROTTLE (TWIST - GRIP)

b) SHAPES:
1) ROUND
2) FLAT
3) RADIAL FLAT (½ ROUND - ½ FLAT)
c) SLIDE CUT - AWAY: (FOUND ON MOST MECH. SLIDES)
1) LARGER CUTAWAY - LEANER THE AIR/FUEL MIXTURE FROM 1/8 TO 1/4
THROTTLE
2) PURPOSE: AID IN TRANSITION FROM IDLE CIRCUIT TO THE MID RANGE
CIRCUIT
3) THE CUT AWAY FACES THE AIR FILTER (INLET) SIDE OF THE VENTURI
4) EXAMPLE:
A) MIKUNI SLIDES RANGE FROM 1 TO 3.5 IN 0.5 INCREMENTS
B) 1 IS RICHEST, 3.5 IS LEANEST
B) MID RANGE CIRCUIT:
1) OPERATION: 1/4 TO 3/4 THROTTLE
2) MID RANGE PARTS:
a) JET NEEDLE:
1) LONG TAPERED NEEDLE THAT MOVES WITH THE SLIDE
2) TAPER VARIES THE AMOUNT OF FUEL FLOW THRU THE NEEDLE JET
3) AT 1/4 THROTTLE THERE IS MORE RESTRICTION THAN AT 3/4 THROTTLE

46
 4) IT IS ATTACHED TO THE BOTTOM OF THE SLIDE, AND POSITIONED INSIDE THE
NEEDLE JET
5) NON-EPA CARBS WILL HAVE FIVE (5) STATIC CLIP HEIGHT PSITIONS
6) #1 (TOP GROVE) IS THE LEANEST
7) #5 (BOTTOM GROOVE) IS THE RICHEST
b) NEEDLE JET:
1) STATIONARY IN THE CARB BODY
2) NUMBER FOR ITS FLOW RATE
3) LARGER # ® RICHER THRU THE ENTIRE RANGE
4) LOCATED IN SERIES WITH THE MAIN JET
5) CONTAINS THE AIR BLEED TUBE FOR MID-RANGE AND MAIN JET CIRCUITS
6) THREE TYPES OF NEEDLE JETS:
A) BLEED
1) IDENTIFIED BY SEVERAL AIR BLEED HOLES
2) SITS FLUSH WITH THE VENTURI FLOOR
3) ALLOW FOR GOOD FUEL ATOMIZATION
B) PRIMARY
1) HAS A HOOD THAT PROTRUDES INTO THE THROAT OF THE
CARB
2) HOOD ACTS AS AN AIR FOIL, IT INCREASES THE NEGATIVE
PRESSURES ABOVE IT.
3) THIS TYPE HAS THE BEST THROTTLE RESPONSE.
4) HAS ONLY ONE (1) AIR BLEED HOLE
5) USED MOSTLY ON 2-STROKE ENG.
C) PRIMARY BLEED
1) COMBINATION OF BOTH TYPES
2) HOODED, ALSO HAS SEVERAL AIR BLEED HOLES
3) GIVE BOTH GOOD ATOMIZATION AND THROTTLE RESPONSE
4) CAN HAVE EITHER AN AIR BLEED PASSAGE OR AN AIR BLEED
JET
5) PURPOSE: TO AID IN FUEL ATOMIZATION
6) USED FOR BOTH MID-RANGE AND MAIN JET CIRCUIT
C) MAIN JET CIRCUIT:
1) RANGE: 3/4 TO FULL THROTTLE
2) MAIN FUEL JET:
a) LOCATED: IN SERIES WITH JET NEEDLE AND NEEDLE JET
b) AFTER 3/4 THROTTLE THE MAIN JET IS UN-RESTRICTED
3) CAN HAVE AN AIR BLEED PASSAGE OR AN AIR BLEED JET

CONSTANT VELOCITY CARBS: (VACUUM CARBS)

1) USED ON MOST STREET M/C’S MANUFACTURED TODAY
A) CARB DELIVERS ONLY THE AIR/FUEL THAT THE ENG. CAN USE, SO ACCELERATION IS VERY
SMOOTH
B) COMPENSATES FOR CHANGES IN MIXTURE THAT ARE CAUSED BY CHANGES IN ALTITUDE
2) SLIDE OPERATION:
A) TWO TYPES:
1) RUBBER DIAPHRAGM
2) METAL PISTON
B) SLIDE MOVES DUE TO PRESSURE DIFFERENCE
1) VENTURI PRESSURE - PRESSURE ABOVE THE PISTON DUE TO A CONNECTING VACUUM
PORT IN THE BOTTOM OF THE SLIDE
2) ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE - PRESSURE PUSHING SLIDE UP DUE TO A PASSAGE IN THE
CARB
3) WHEN VENTURI PRESSURE IS LESS THAN ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE, THE SLIDE MOVES UP
C) MOST C.V. CARBS HAVE NO CUT-AWAYS
D) C.V. SLIDES NEVER COMPLETELY CLOSE THE VENTURI (MINIMUM OPEN - 1/4 OPEN)
E) THROTTLE VALVE CONTROLS AIR FLOW UP TO 1/4 THROTTLE
3) CIRCUITS:

47
 A) IDLE CIRCUIT:
1) SAME AS 2-JET MECHANICAL SLIDE CARB EXCEPT:
a) USUALLY USES A FUEL MIXTURE SCREW ONLY
b) IDLE OUTLET PORT IS LOCATED ON ENG. SIDE OF THE THROTTLE PLATE
c) MAY HAVE 1 TO 4 BY-PASS (TRANSFER) PORTS
d) BY PASS PORTS ARE LOCATED ON THE AIR FILTER SIDE OF THE THROTTLE PLATE
B) MID-RANGE CIRCUIT:
1) SAME AS 2-JET MECH. SLIDE CARB
C) MAIN JET CIRCUIT:
1) SAME AS 2-JET MECH. SLIDE CARB, EXCEPT THE MAIN AIR BLEED PASSAGE/JET CAN BE IN
THE ATMOSPHERIC CHAMBER, (IDLE AIR BLEED PASSAGE CAN BE IN THERE ALSO)

FIXED VENTURI CARBS

1) KEY FEATURES:
A) VENTURI IS FIXED, HAS NO SLIDE TO CHANGE VENTURI SIZE DURING OPERATION
B) THE THROTTLE PLATE CONTROLS THE AMOUNT OF AIR ENTERING THE ENGINE
1) RIDER CONTROLLED
2) IT IS LOCATED ON THE ENG. SIDE OF THE VENTURI
C) MOST HAVE ACCELERATOR PUMPS TO HELP AID IN TRANSITIONS
2) CIRCUITS
A) IDLE CIRCUIT - (SLOW SPEED, PILOT, OR IDLE AND TRANSFER)
1) MAIN EFFECT - IDLE TO 1/4 THROTTLE
2) PARTS:
a) IDLE FUEL JET - METERS FUEL FLOW TO THIS CIRCUIT (MAY BE METERED THRU THE
MAIN JET FIRST)
b) IDLE AIR BLEED
1) SOME AIR BLEED PASSAGES MAY USE A REMOVABLE JET
2) AIDS IN FUEL ATOMIZATION
c) MIXTURE SCREWS - AIR OR FUEL (USUALLY FUEL)
d) IDLE OUTLET PORT
1) IS THE ONLY PORT THAT FLOWS FUEL WHEN THE THROTTLE VALVE IS
CLOSED
2) LOCATED ON THE ENG. SIDE OF THE THROTTLE PLATE
e) BY-PASS PORTS (TRANSFER PORTS)
1) AIDS IN SMOOTH TRANSITION BY ALLOWING A LITTLE MORE FUEL FLOW
FROM JUST OFF IDLE.
2) LOCATED ON AIR FILTER SIDE OF THROTTLE PLATE
f) OTHER PARTS SOMETIMES USED TO ADD IN TRANSITION BETWEEN CIRCUITS -
PARTICULARLY IDLE AND MID-RANGE CIRCUITS:
1) ACCELERATOR PUMP
2) MID-RANGE PORTS

B) MID-RANGE CIRCUIT (INTERMEDIATE CIRCUIT)

1) OPERATION - 1/4 TO 3/4 THROTTLE
2) PARTS:
a) STILL CONTINUES TO USE THE IDLE CIRCUIT
b) SOME MAY HAVE AN AIR BLEED PASSAGE WITH A MID RANGE AIR PORT OR JET
c) MID-RANGE FUEL JET:
1) A BRASS INSERT OR A PRECISELY DRILLED HOLE IN THE CARB BODY
2) USED TO METER FUEL DURING THE MID-RANGE OPERATION
d) MID-RANGE OUTLET PORT: ALLOW FUEL TO FLOW WHEN UNCOVERED BY THE
THROTTLE PLATE AT APPROX. 1/4 THROTTLE
C) MAIN JET CIRCUIT: (HIGH SPEED CIRCUIT)
1) IF CARB HAS A MID RANGE CIRCUIT - 3/4 TO FULL THROTTLE
2) IF CARB DOES NOT HAVE A MID RANGE CIRCUIT - 1/4 TO FULL THROTTLE
3) PARTS:
a) MAIN AIR PORT OR JET - ALLOWS FLOW OF AIR TO MAIN BLEED TUBE
b) MAIN FUEL JET

48
 c) MAIN AIR BLEED TUBE OR EMULSION TUBE:
1) LOCATED IN SERIES BETWEEN MAIN FUEL JET AND MAIN OUTLET NOZZLE
2) AID IN ATOMIZATION BY MIXING AIR WITH FUEL
d) MAIN OUTLET (DISCHARGE) NOZZLE: LOCATED IN THE CENTER OF THE VENTURI

COLD START SYSTEMS AND AUXILIARY CIRCUITS:

1) COLD STARTING SYSTEMS
A) PURPOSE: PROVIDE EXCESSIVELY OVER-RICH MIXTURE OF LESS THAN 10:1 FOR COLD STARTING.
B) REASON: FUEL DOES NOT VAPORIZE EASILY IN COLD TEMPS.
2) TYPES OF COLD-STARTING SYSTEMS:
A) CHOKE:
1) PLATE THAT IS LOCATED ON THE AIR FILTER SIDE OF THE VENTURI
2) WHEN ON (CLOSED), THE PLATE RESTRICTS AIR FLOW, ENRICHENING THE AIR/FUEL
MIXTURE
3) WHEN STARTING THE ENGINE, THIS SYSTEM WORKS BEST WITH THE THROTTLE PARTIALLY
OPEN.
B) ENRICHENER:
1) PARALLEL WITH ALL OTHER CIRCUITS
2) WHEN ON, PASSAGE WAYS ARE OPEN, ALLOWING EXTRA FUEL AND AIR TO FLOW THRU
THE CIRCUIT
3) PARTS OF THE CIRCUIT:
a) ENRICHENER FUEL JET - NORMALLY LOCATED IN THE FLOAT BOWL
b) ENRICHENER AIR BLEED JET - LOCATED ON THE ATMOSPHERIC SIDE OF THE CARB
c) SIPHON TUBE - LOCATED IN THE FLOAT BOWL
d) STARTER PLUNGER VALVE - ON AND OFF VALVE
e) ENRICHENER OUTLET PORT:
1) LOCATED:
A) ON MECH. SLIDE CARBS - ON THE ENG SIDE OF THE SIDE
B) ON CV/FIXED CARBS - ON ENG SIDE OF THROTTLE PLATE
4) WHEN STARTING THE ENG, THIS SYSTEM WORKS BEST WITH CLOSED THROTTLE
C) TICKLER
1) A SPRING LOADED ROD THAT HOLDS THE FLOAT DOWN/FLOAT VALVE OPEN, WHEN IT IS
DEPRESSED
2) NOT EPA APPROVED, USED MOSTLY ON OLDER CARBS
3) AUXILIARY CIRCUITS:
A) USED TO COMPENSATE FOR A LEAN CONDITION
B) ONE OR MORE MAY BE FOUND ON ANY TYPE OF CARB
C) TYPES OF AUXILIARY CIRCUITS:
1) ACCELERATOR PUMP:
a) PURPOSE - PREVENT A LEAN CONDITION DURING RAPID THROTTLE OPENING
b) PARTS:
1) PUMP - ACTUATED BY THROTTLE LINKAGE OR SLIDE, HAS INLET AND
OUTLET CHECK VALVES

2) DISCHARGE NOZZLE - LOCATED ON THE AIR FILTER HOUSING SIDE OF THE

VENTURI
3) OPERATION:
A) DURING RAPID THROTTLE OPENINGS, THE PUMP DIAPHRAGM
PRESSURIZES THE FUEL IN THE PUMP BODY
B) UN-ATOMIZED FUEL IS THEN FORCED THRU A PASSAGE TO THE
DISCHARGE NOZZLE
4) IN MULTI-CYL, MULTI CARB ENGS, ONE ACCELERATOR PUMP IS USED TO
FEED ALL CARBS (IN MOST CASES)
2) AIR CUT-OFF VALVES:
a) PURPOSE: PREVENT ENG BACK-FIRING DURING RAPID DECELERATION
b) OPERATION:
1) DURING RAPID DECELERATION, A VERY STRONG ENG VACUUM IS
DEVELOPED

49
 2) STRONG ENG VACUUM MOVES A PISTON TO BLOCK OR REDUCE AIR FLOW
THRU THE IDLE AIR BLEED PASSAGE
3) IDLE CIRCUIT BECOMES RICH, PREVENTING ENG BACKFIRES
3) POWER-JET (THUNDER JET) FOUND ON SOME M/C‟S AND SNOW MOBILES
a) POWERJET WILL ENRICHEN FROM 7/8 TO FULL THROTTLE TO SUPPLEMENT THE
MAIN JET
b) ALLOWS FOR BETTER TRANSITION FROM MID-RANGE TO FULL THROTTLE
c) MAIN JET BECOMES THE PRIMARY FUEL SOURCE FROM ½ TO 7/8 THROTTLE,ITCAN
BE CLEANER FOR BETTER TRANSITION(RESPONSE) THAN SYSTEMS WITHOUT A
POWER JET.
d) PARTS:
1) FUEL JET - CAN BE LOCATED IN THE FUEL BOWL OR THE DISCHARGE NOZZLE
2) DISCHARGE NOZZLE IS LOCATED IN THE MOUTH OF THE CARB
3) IT WILL HAVE A FUEL LINE FROM THE FLOAT BOWL TO THE DISCHARGE
NOZZLE
4) MAY OR MAY NOT HAVE AN AIR BLEED IN THE DISCHARGE NOZZLE
e) HOW IT WORKS:
1) AT 7/8 THROTTLE AIR VELOCITY IS GREAT ENOUGH TO REDUCE PRESSURE
AT THE DISCHARGE NOZZLE, THIS CAUSES FUEL TO BE PUSHED FROM THE
FLOAT BOWL
2) PROVIDES ADDITIONAL FUEL TO THE MAIN JET FROM 7/8 TO FULL THROTTLE

NOT TESTABLE
3 JET CARBS
1) VARIABLE VENTURI CARB VARIATION: (3-JET, MOST COMMON)
A) ALLOWS FOR BETTER ATOMIZATION OF FUEL IN MID RANGE
B) HAS A RIDER CONTROLLED THROTTLE PLATE ( BOTH MECH & CV )
2) IDLE CIRCUIT - SAME AS 2-JET MODEL
3) MID-RANGE CIRCUIT:
A) PRIMARY MAIN JET ADDED:
1) MAIN EFFECT - 1/4 TO ½ THROTTLE
2) PURPOSE: SMOOTH TRANSITION THRU THE THROTTLE RANGE AND HELP LOWER EXHAUST
EMMISIONS
3) PRIMARY MAIN-JET CIRCUIT CONSISTS OF:
a) PRIMARY MAIN JET
b) PRIMARY AIR BLEED PASSAGE / JET
c) DISCHARGE NOZZLE ( LOCATED BETWEEN THE TRANSFER PORTS AND THE NEEDLE
JET / JET NEEDLE
B) THE NEEDLE JET / JET NEEDLE WORK SIMILAR TO A 2-JET CARB FROM ½ TO 3/4 THROTTLE
4) MAIN JET CIRCUIT - SIMILAR TO 2-JET CARBS:
A) MAIN EFFECT - 3/4 TO FULL THROTTLE
B) CONSISTS OF:
1) SECONDARY MAIN JET (FUEL)
2) NEEDLE JET / JET NEEDLE ( JET NEEDLE TAPER STARTS ABOUT ½ THROTTLE
3) SECONDARY MAIN AIR BLEED AND JET

ELECTRONIC FUEL INJECTION

1. INTRODUCTION
A) DEFINITION: ELECTRONICALLY METERED, TIMED AND DELIVERED FUEL SYSTEM TAKING PLACE OF
CARB.
B) PURPOSE: FUEL DELIVERY THAT IS INDEPENDENT OF ENGINE ORIGINATED PRESSURE DIFFERENCES,
WHICH EFFECT;
1) ELIMINATING ENGINES CONTROL OF IDUCTION PROVIDES MORE CONSISTENT AND PRECISE
DISCHARGE UNDER ALL CONDITIONS.
2) CALLED “INJECTION” TO EMPHAZIZE FACT THAT CONTROL OF INDUCTION IS FROM OUSIDE THE
ENGINE
2. THREE TYPES: INDIRECT, DIRECT, SEMI-DIRECT
A) INDIRECT FUEL INJECTION

50
 1) FUEL ENTERS INTAKE TRACT UPSTREM OF INTAKE VALVE
2) MOST COMMON: FOUND ON MANY CURRENT, FOUR STROKE HIGHWAY VEHICLES INCLUDING
AUTOS
3) INDIRECT F.I. MAJOR COMPONENTS
a) COMPUTER: “ECM” (ELECTRONIC CONTROL MODULE) OR “ECU” (ELECTRONIC CONTROL UNIT)
(1) CONTROLS AIR/FUEL RATIO BY SELECTING AMONG SEVERAL PRE-PROGRAMMED
OPERATIONAL SCENARIOS CALLED “MAPS”
(2) THE ECM THEN SIGNALS INJECTORS TO STAY OPEN A SPECIFIC AMOUNT OF TIME
DICTATED BY THE MAP. THIS IS CALLED DISCHARGE DURATION.
(3) BASIC DURATION IS DETERMINED BY A COMBINATION OF THROTTLE OPENING AND ENGINE
RPM.
(4) FINAL DURATION DETERMINED BY SIGNALS FROM OTHER SENSORS, SUCH AS ENGINE
TEMP, ETC.
EX: THROTTLE POSITION+RPM=CYLINDER AIR VOLUME+INTAKE AIR
TEMPERATURE+BAROMETRIC PRESSURE= CYLINDER AIR DENSITY CYLINDER
AIR VOLUME:CYLINDER AIR DENSITY= BASIC MIXTURE BASIC AIR
MIXTURE+ENGINE TEMP=FINAL MIX
b) INJECTORS
(1) ELECTRONIC SOLENOIDS WHOSE “PINTLES” SNAP OPEN IN RESPONSE TO ECU SIGNALS
PERMITTING PRESSURIZED FUEL TO ESCAPE IN A SPRAY PATTERN.
(2) ONE OR MORE TINY HOLES IN DISCHARGE END PROVIDE ATOMIZATION SUPERIOR TO
CARBS
(3) MOTORCYCLES HAVE AT LEAST ONE INJECTOR PER CYLINDER
c) THROTTLE BODY
(1) PHYSICALLY REPLACES THE CARB
(2) CONTAINS THROTTLE BUTTERFLIES
(3) IN SOME SYSTEMS, HOLDS THE INJECTORS
(4) OFTEN CONTAINS ONE OR MORE SENSORS
d) SENSORS
(1) TRANSDUCERS (DEVICES WHICH CONVERTS PHYSICAL INFORMATION INTO ELECTRONIC
SIGNALS) WHICH SUPPLY THE ECM WITH INFORMATION WITH WHICH THE ECM;
(a) SELECTS THE APPROPIATE MAP
(b) COMPENSATES ie ADJUSTS FOR CONDITIONS NOT MAPPED
(2) TYPICALLY AS MANY AS SEVEN SENSORS
(a) THROTTLE POSITION
(b) CRANKSHAFT POSITION
(c) CAMSHAFT POSITION
(d) ENGINE TEMP
(e) INTAKE AIR TEMP
(f) OXYGEN (O2)
e) OTHE FUEL INJECTION SYSTEM COMPONENTS
(1) FUEL PUMP
(2) FUEL PRESSURE REGULATOR
4) TWO VARIATIONS OF INDIRECT INJECTION
a) OPENLOOP
(1) NO OXYGEN SENSOR
(2) ALL 2-STROKE APPLICATIONS
(3) MOST 4-STROKE MOTORCYCLES
b) CLOSED LOOP
(1) OXYGEN SENSOR IN EXHAUST WHICH TELLS ECM WHETHER MIXTURE IS RICH OR LEAN
(2) MOST CARS, SOME MOTORCYCLES
B. DIRECT FUEL INJECTION
1) DISCHARGES DIRECTLY INTO CYLINDER
2) COMMON IN HIGH PERFORMANCE 2-STROKES AND DIESELS
3) UPDATED VERSION BEING USED IN MARINE ENGINES AND WATERCRAFT. THESE NEW SYSTEMS
HAVE THE FOLLOWING IN COMMON
a) INJECTION DELAYED UNTIL AFTER EXHAUST PORT CLOSES TO MINIMIZE CHARGE LOSS
(EMMISSIONS)
b) TO PERMIT DELAY, INJECTION MUST BE FASTER

51
 c) TO BE FASTER IT MUST BE MORE FORCEFUL
d) THE ADDED FORCE IS APPLIED AFTER THE FUEL PUMP AT THE INJECTOR ITSELF
4) TWO VARIATIONS OF DIRECT INJECTION
a) ORBITAL:FUEL PRESSURE STEPPED UP AT THE INJECTOR BY ONE OR MORE OF THE
FOLLOWING:
(1) ENGINE DRIVEN AIR COMPRESSOR
(2) PRIMARY AREA PRESSURE
(3) FORWARD MOVING PINTLE
b) FICHT:UTILIZES ELECTRONIC PLUNGERS BUILT INTO THE INJECTORS WHICH STEP UP
INJECTED FUEL PRESSURE.
C. SEMI-DIRECT FUEL INJECTION
1) SEADOO SYSTEM IN WHICH INJECTORS ARE LOCATED IN TRANSFER PORTS
2) COOLING SYSTEM FOR CRANKCASE TO COMPENSATE FOR REDUCTION IN FUEL TO CRANKSHAFT
AREA
3. ADVANTAGES OF FUEL INJECTORS
A. CONSISTENT FUEL DELIVERY
B. SUPERIOR ATOMIZATION
C. INCREASED FUEL EFFICIENCY
D. MORE CLOSELY LINKED FUEL SYSTEM CONTROL WITH OTHER CONTROLS SUCH AS A DIGITAL
IGNITION FOR MORE CENTRALIZED ENGINE MANAGEMENT
E. THE RESULT: INCREASED COMBUSTION EFFICIENCY, PERFORMANCE AND DRIVEABILITY, AND
REDUCED EMMISSION.
ELECTRICAL TERMINOLOGY
1) ELECTRICITY
A) THE FLOW OF ELECTRONS THRU A CONDUCTOR
B) THE FORM OF ENERGY THAT CAN PRODUCE MAGNETISM, LIGHT, HEAT AND CHEMICAL CHANGE
2) ATOM: SMALLEST PART OF MATTER: (HAS 3 BASIC PARTS)
A) PROTON:
1) POSITIVE CHARGED PARTICLE
2) FOUND IN THE NUCLEUS
B) NEUTRON:
1) PARTICLE THAT HAS NO CHARGE
2) FOUND IN THE NUCLEUS
3) NEUTRON ADD WEIGHT AND OCCUPY SPACE
C) ELECTRONS:
1) NEGATIVE CHARGED PARTICLE
2) FOUND ORBITING THE NUCLEUS
3) ELECTRON‟S ORBITS ARE CALLED SHELLS
4) THE OUTER MOST SHELL IS CALLED THE VALANCE SHELL
a) ELECTRONS IN THE VALANCE SHELL ARE VALANCE ELECTRONS
b) VALANCE ELECTRONS UNDER CERTAIN CIRCUMSTANCES, CAN LEAVE THEIR SHELL
5) ATOMS THAT HAVE LOST AN ELECTRON WILL TRY TO CAPTURE ANOTHER
3) ELECTRO-MOTIVE - FORCE (EMF)
A) ELECTRICAL PRESSURE: THE FORCE THAT CAUSES ELECTRICAL FLOW
B) ALSO KNOWN AS “VOLTAGE”, WHICH IS THE UNIT OF MEASURE FOR “EMF”
C) POTENTIAL DIFFERENCES:
1) AN IMBALANCE OF ELECTRICAL CHARGE BETWEEN TWO POINTS IN AN ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT
2) THE VOLTAGE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN TWO POINTS IN AN ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT
D) EMF IS THE CAUSE OF POTENTIAL DIFFERENCES
E) CREATED BY:
1) HEAT
2) LIGHT
3) FRICTION
4) CHEMICALS
5) MAGNETISM
4) RESISTANCE:
A) THE IMPEDIMENT OF CURRENT FLOW
B) UNIT OF MEASURE FOR RESISTANCE IS OHMS ( )
C) THE HIGHER THE RESISTANCE, THE MORE OPPOSITION TO CURRENT FLOW, WHICH RESULTS IN

52
LESS CURRENT FLOW
1) EXAMPLE: A DEVICE WITH 4 OHMS OF RESISTANCE ALLOWS MORE CURRENT TO FLOW
THAN A DEVICE WITH 10 OHMS OF RESISTANCE
D) A GOOD SWITCH, WHEN CLOSED, OR A GOOD FUSE, SHOULD HAVE ZERO (0) OHMS OF
RESISTANCE
5) CONTINUITY:
A) THE ABILITY OF A DEVICE (WIRE, SWITCH, FUSE) TO FLOW CURRENT
B) CONTINUITY HAS NO MEASURED VALUE, THE DEVICE EITHER HAS A CONTINUITY OF DOES NOT
C) EXAMPLE:
1) AN OPEN SWITCH HAS NO CONTINUITY
2) A CLOSED SWITCH HAS CONTINUITY
3) A GOOD FUSE HAS CONTINUITY
4) A BLOWN FUSE HAS NO CONTINUITY
6) CONDUCTORS:
A) MATERIALS THAT ALLOWS FREE MOVEMENT OF ELECTRONS (ALLOWS ELECTRICITY TO FLOW
THRU IT)
1) A CONDUCTOR WILL HAVE 3 OR LESS VALANCE ELECTRONS
B) EXAMPLES OF GOOD CONDUCTORS:
1) SILVER
2) GOLD
3) COPPER
4) STEEL
5) ALUMINUM
7) WATT:
A) THE MEASUREMENT OF ELECTRICAL POWER
1) ONE WATT IS EQUAL TO ONE AMPERE OF ELECTRICAL FLOW UNDER ONE VOLT OF
ELECTRICAL PRESSURE
8) INSULATORS:
A) MATERIALS THAT DO NOT ALLOW FOR FREE MOVEMENT OF ELECTRONS
1) INSULATORS WILL HAVE FIVE OR MORE VALANCE ELECTRONS
B) EXAMPLES OF INSULATORS:
1) RUBBER
2) PLASTIC
3) AIR
4) GLASS
5) MICA
6) BAKELITE
9) SEMICONDUCTORS:
A: CLASS OF SOLIDS WHOSE ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY IS BETWEEN THAT OF AN INSULATOR AND A
CONDUCTOR, DEPENDING ON CONDITIONS
1) SEMI CONDUCTORS HAVE FOUR VALANCE ELECTRONS
B) SEMICONDUCTOR EXAMPLES:
1) SILICON
2) GERMANIUM
3) SELENIUM
C) EXAMPLES OF SEMI-CONDUCTORS USED ON M/C’S:
1) DIODE:
a) HAS THE ABILITY TO FLOW ELECTRICAL CURRENT IN ONE DIRECTION, WHILE
BLOCKING THE FLOW OF CURRENT IN THE OPPOSITE DIRECTION
2) TRANSISTOR:
a) USED TO CONTROL OR AMPLIFY THE ELECTRON FLOW OF AN ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT
3) SILICON - CONTROLLED - RECTIFIER:
a) HAS THE ABILITY TO CONTROL THE FLOW OF CURRENT PASSING THRU ITS GATE
10) CURRENT:
A) THE AMOUNT OR FLOW RATE OF ELECTRICITY
B) THE UNIT OF MEASURE IS THE AMPERE (AMP, AMPERAGE, A.)
11) POLARITY:
A) DIRECTION OF CURRENT FLOW
12) DIRECT CURRENT (DC)

53
 A) CURRENT THAT FLOWS IN ONE DIRECTION ONLY
B) EXAMPLE: CURRENT FLOW FROM BATTERIES IS D.C.
C) DC CURRENT FLOW THEORIES:
1) CONVENTIONAL:
a) OLDEST AND MOST ACCEPTED IN THE M/C INDUSTRY
b) STATES: CURRENT FLOWS FROM POSITIVE TO NEGATIVE
c) M/C APPLICATION: CURRENT FLOWS FROM THE POSITIVE BATTERY TERMINAL, THRU
THE CIRCUITS, AND RETURNS, THRU THE NEGATIVE BATTERY TERMINAL
d) THIS THEORY IS USED BY MMI
2) ELECTRON THEORY:
a) USED MOSTLY BY ELECTRONICS TECHNICIANS
b) STATES: CURRENT MOVE FROM NEGATIVE TO POSITIVE
3) HOLE THEORY:
a) USED MOSTLY BY ELECTRONICS ENGINEERS
b) STATES: ELECTRONS TRAVEL FROM NEGATIVE TO POSITIVE, AND THE HOLE TRAVEL
POSITIVE TO NEGATIVE
c) HOLES: DEFINED AS THE VOID OR ABSENCE OF AN ELECTRON
13) ALTERNATING CURRENT (AC)
A) POLARITY ALTERNATES - CURRENT FIRST FLOW ONE WAY - THEN THE OTHER WAY
B) EXAMPLE: CURRENT FLOWING FROM MOST M/C CHARGING SYSTEMS IS A.C.
C) ALTERNATING CURRENT IS PRODUCED BY A METHOD KNOWN AS INDUCTION WHICH USES:
1) MAGNETIC FIELD
2) CONDUCTOR (OIL OR WIRE)
3) MOTION: MOVEMENT OF THE CONDUCTOR THRU MAGNETIC FIELD, OR MAGNETIC FLUX
LINES

ELECTRICAL CIRCUITS
1) CIRCUITS OR CURRENT LOOPS:
A) A COMPLETED PATH FOR CURRENT TO FLOW
1) CURRENT WILL FLOW FROM IT‟S SOURCE AND BACK TO THE OPPOSITE END OF ITS
SOURCE THRU THE PATH OF LEAST RESISTANCE
2) FOUR REQUIREMENTS FOR A FUNCTIONING CIRCUIT:
A) SOURCE OF EMF (VOLTAGE)
1) EXAMPLE: BATTERY CHARGING SYSTEM OR AN AC SOURCE COIL
B) LOAD DEVICE:
1) DEVICE THAT CONVERTS ELECTRICAL ENERGY TO SOME OTHER FORM OF ENERGY,
EXAMPLE - LIGHT, HORN, COIL OF WIRE
2) LOAD DEVICES HAVE RESISTANCE
C) COMPLETE PATH:
1) A PATH FOR CURRENT TO FLOW FROM THE SOURCE TO THE LOAD, AND FROM THE LOAD
BACK TO THE SOURCE
a) EXAMPLE: WIRE, M/C FRAME
D) MEANS OF CONTROL:
1) DEVICE THAT CONTROLS OR LIMITS TOTAL CURRENT FLOW
a) EXAMPLE: SWITCH
3) CIRCUIT PROTECTION:
A) FUSES/CIRCUIT BREAKERS
1) FUSE AND CIRCUIT BREAKERS ARE CIRCUIT PROTECTION DEVICES
2) FUSE/CIRCUIT BREAKERS ARE HEAT SENSITIVE, EXCESSIVE CURRENT CAUSES EXCESSIVE
HEAT, WHICH RESULTS IN BLOWN FUSE/CIRCUIT BREAKERS
4) CIRCUIT TYPES:
A) SERIES CIRCUIT:
1) A CURRENT LOOP WITH ONE PATH FOR CURRENT TO FLOW FROM THE SOURCE THRU THE
LOADS, AND BACK TO THE SOURCE
2) IN A SERIES CIRCUIT, THE APPLIED VOLTAGE WILL DIVIDE PROPORTIONATELY BETWEEN
THE LOADS IN THE CIRCUIT
3) TOTAL RESISTANCE (Rt) OF A SERIES CIRCUIT IS THE SUM OF EACH INDIVIDUAL LOADS
RESISTANCE
a) R1, R2, R3, ETC = TOTAL CIRCUIT RESISTANCE (Rt)

54
 4) IF SOURCES OF EMF (BATTERIES) ARE WIRED IN SERIES, THE VOLTAGE WILL INCREASE,
BUT THE CURRENT REMAINS THE SAME.
a) EXAMPLE: FLASHLIGHT WITH MULTIPLE BATTERIES IN SERIES WILL RESULT IN
INCREASED VOLTAGE WHILE THE AMPERAGE STAY THE SAME
B) PARALLEL CIRCUIT:
1) CIRCUIT THAT HAS MORE THAN ONE PATH (LEG OR BRANCH) FOR CURRENT TO FLOW)
2) THE APPLIED VOLTAGE TO EACH LEG OR BRANCH WILL BE THE SAME
3) TOTAL CIRCUIT RESISTANCE HAS LESS RESISTANCE THAN THE LOWEST LOAD RESISTANCE
a) REASON: DUE TO MORE PATHS FOR THE CURRENT TO FLOW, THERE IS MORE
CIRCUIT CONDUCTIVITY
b) FORMULA: = TOTAL CURRENT RESISTANCE (R)
1/R + 1/R2 + 1/R3 - ETC
4) IF SOURCES OF EMF (BATTERIES) ARE WIRED IN PARALLEL, THE CURRENT WILL INCREASE,
BUT THE VOLTAGE WILL REMAIN THE SAME.
a) EXAMPLE - TWO 12 VDC - 18 AMP/HRS BATTERIES WIRED IN PARALLEL WILL RESULT
IN 12 VDC - 36 AMP/HRS
C) SERIES - PARALLEL CIRCUIT:
1) A SERIES - PARALLEL CIRCUIT WILL FLOW CURRENT THRU A LOAD (SERIES), BEFORE
BRANCHING OUT INTO LEGS OF A PARALLEL CIRCUIT
a) MOST M/C‟S THAT HAVE A BATTERY WILL USE SERIES - PARALLEL CIRCUITS
5) UNWANTED CIRCUIT CONDITIONS:
A) OPEN CIRCUIT:
1) AN INCOMPLETE PATH FOR CURRENT TO FLOW (NO CONTINUITY)
2) SYMPTOMS: COMPONENT WILL NOT WORK
3) EXAMPLES: BROKEN WIRE, BLOWN FUSE, OPEN SWITCH
B) SHORT CIRCUIT:
1) A CIRCUIT THAT HAS DEVELOPED A PATH FOR CURRENT FLOW BACK TO THE SOURCE, BY-
PASSING THE LOAD DEVICE AND TAKING THE RESISTANCE OUT OF THE CIRCUIT.
2) SYMPTOMS:
a) BLOWN FUSE - A SHORT CIRCUIT IS THE ONLY PROBLEM CONDITION THAT CAN
CAUSE THIS
b) EXCESSIVE HEAT/DAMAGE TO WIRES AND OR COMPONENTS, ESPECIALLY IF THE
CIRCUIT DOES NOT USE A PROTECTIVE DEVICE
C) GROUNDED CIRCUIT: (UNWANTED)
1) A CIRCUIT THAT HAS DEVELOPED A PATH FOR CURRENT TO FLOW BACK TO ITS SOURCE,
AFTER THE LOAD DEVILE, BUT BEFORE ITS MEANS OF CONTROL
2) SYMPTOMS: LOSS OF CONTROL OVER A CIRCUIT
3) EXAMPLE: HORN SWITCH ON GROUND SIDE OF HORN, IF AN UNWANTED GROUND
DEVELOPS, HORN WILL BLOW ALL THE TIME.
6) VOLTAGE DROP:
A) THE AMOUNT OF VOLTAGE USED BETWEEN TWO POINTS
B) TOTAL CIRCUIT VOLTAGE DROP WILL EQUAL THE TOTAL APPLIED VOLTAGE
C) IF THERE IS MORE THAN ONE LOAD IN A CIRCUIT, PART OF THE VOLTAGE WILL DROP ACROSS
EACH LOAD
D) PURPOSE OF MEASURING VOLTAGE DROP:
1) HELPS IN TROUBLE SHOOTING BY LOCATING UN-WANTED RESISTANCE
E) SUM OF ALL INDIVIDUAL VOLTAGE DROPS WILL EQUAL THE APPLIED VOLTAGE.

ELECTRICAL OPERATIONS
1) OHM’S LAW
A) EXPLAINS THE FORMULA USED TO CALCULATE THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN VOLTAGE, CURRENT,
RESISTANCE
B) STATES - IT TAKES 1 VOLT TO PUSH 1 AMP THRU 1 OHM OF RESISTANCE
C) FORMULA: SYMBOLS DEFINITION MEASURED VALUE
E = ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE.VOLTAGE
I = INTENSITY OF CURRENT.AMPS
R = RESISTANCE…OHMS

55
 D) USING OHMS LAW FORMULA
1) COVER ANYONE OF THE SYMBOLS WITH YOUR FINGER. THE TWO REMAINING SYMBOLS
GIVE THE FORMULA FOR FINDING THE VALUE OF THE COVERED SYMBOL
2) FIGURE A: BASIC OHMS LAW FORMULA
3) FIGURE B: VOLTS ¸ OHM = AMPS
4) FIGURE C: VOLTS ¸ AMPS = OHMS
5) FIGURE D: AMPS x OHMS = VOLTS
6) EXAMPLES:
a) WHAT IS THE CURRENT DRAW OF A 12 VDC 4 OHM LIGHT BULB? 3A
b) WHAT IS THE RESISTANCE 12 VDC 3 AMP LIGHT BULB? 4 OHMS
c) WHAT IS THE VOLTAGE OF A 3 AMP, 4 OHM LIGHT BULB? 12 V
2) WATTS LAW:
A) EXPLAINS THE FORMULA USED TO CALCULATE THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN VOLTAGE, CURRENT,
AND WATTAGE
B) STATES - ONE WATT IS EQUAL TO ONE VOLT PUSHING ONE AMP IN ONE SECOND.
C) WATTS LAW FORMULA:
ELECTRICAL SYMBOL.DEFINITION.MEASURED VALUE
P ELEC POWER.WATTS
I.INTENSITY OF CURRENT.AMPS
E.ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE.VOLTS
D) USING WATTS LAW FORMULA:
1) BY COVERING ANY OF THE SYMBOLS WITH YOUR FINGER, THE TWO REMAINING SYMBOLS
GIVE THE FORMULA FOR FINDING THE VALUE OF THE COVERED SYMBOL.
2) FIGURE A: BASIC WATTS LAW FORMULA
3) FIGURE B: WATTS ¸ VOLTS = AMPS
4) FIGURE C: WATTS ¸ AMPS = VOLTS
5) FIGURE D: VOLTS x AMPS = WATTS
6) EXAMPLES:
a) WHAT IS THE WATTAGE OF A 12 VDC, 3 AMP LIGHT BULB? 36W
b) WHAT IS THE AMPERAGE OF A 12 VDC, 36W LIGHT BULB? 3A
c) WHAT IS THE VOLTAGE OF A 36W, 3A LIGHT BULB? 12V
3) OHMS AND WATTS LAW AS THE PERTAIN TO SERIES CIRCUITS:
ET = 12 VDC
R1 = 10 OHMS
R2 = 15 OHMS
R3 = 20 OHMS

A) TYPE OF CIRCUIT? SERIES

B) CALCULATE RT = 45 OHMS
C) CALCULATE IT = 0.267 A
D) CALCULATE PT = 3.2 W
E) CALCULATE E1 = 2.67 V
F) CALCULATE E2 = 4V
G) CALCULATE E3 = 5.33V
H) CALCULATE P1 = 0.713 W
I) CALCULATE P2 = 1.068 W
J) CALCULATE P3 = 1.423 W

4) OHMS AND WATTS LAW AS THEY PERTAIN TO PARALLEL CIRCUITS:

ET = 12 VDC
R1 = 10 OHMS
R2 = 15 OHMS
R3 = 20 OHMS

A) CALCULATE RT = 45 OHMS OR 4.615386

B) CALCULATE IT = 0.267 A
C) CALCULATE PT = 3.2 W

56
 D) CALCULATE I1 = 1.200A
E) CALCULATE I2 = 0.800A
F) CALCULATE I3 = 0.600A
G) CALCULATE P1 = 14.4W
H) CALCULATE P2 = 9.6W
I) CALCULATE P3 = 7.2W
5) WHERE DO WE USE THESE LAWS ON M/C’S?
A) INSTALLATION OF ACCESSORIES SUCH AS: RADIO‟S, LIGHT BARS, FOG LITES,ETC.
B) BY USING THESE LAWS YOU WILL BE ABLE TO VERIFY THAT THE UNIT BEING WORKED ON IS
CAPABLE OF HANDLING THE ELEC. LOADS ASKED OF IT.

MAGNETISM
1) PRINCIPLES OF MAGNETISM:
A) MAGNETISM - AN INVISIBLE FORCE OF ENERGY
B) POLES - (NORTH AND SOUTH) - ENDS OF THE MAGNET
1) IF A THIN BAR MAGNET IS SUSPENDED ON A STRING, IT WILL ALIGN ITSELF WITH THE
NORTH AND SOUTH POLES OF THE EARTH.
C) FLUX LINES:
1) LINES OF INVISIBLE FORCE SURROUNDING THE MAGNET
2) THEY ARE CONCENTRATED AT THE ENDS OF THE MAGNET
3) FLUX LINES TRAVEL FROM NORTH POLE TO SOUTH POLE
D) IF TWO MAGNETS ARE PLACED NEXT TO EACH OTHER THE FOLLOWING WILL RESULT
1) LIKE POLES REPEL EACH OTHER
2) UNLIKE POLES ATTRACT EACH OTHER
2) TYPES OF MAGNETS:
A) NATURAL ROCK (MAGNETITE) VERY WEAK MAGNET - NOT USED ON M/C‟S
B) PERMANENT MAGNET:
1) MAN-MADE OF METAL ALLOYS
2) VERY STRONG - LONG LASTING - COMMONLY FOUND ON M/C‟S
C) ELECTROMAGNETS:
1) CURRENT FLOWING THRU A CONDUCTOR CREATES A MAGNETIC FIELD AROUND THE
CONDUCTOR
2) TO CONCENTRATE THE FLUX LINES, THE CONDUCTOR IS COILED
3) STRENGHTH OF THE MAGNETIC FIELD CAN BE INCREASED BY:
a) INCREASING CURRENT FLOW
b) COIL THE CONDUCTOR AROUND AN IRON CORE (IRON HAS HIGH PERMEABILITY)
1) PERMEABILITY - THE EASE AT WHICH FLUX LINES PASS THRU A SUBSTANCE
2) FLUX LINES PASS THRU IRON 2,000 TIMES EASIER THAN AIR
3) TWO TYPES OF IRON CORES:
A) SOLID (SOFT) IRON CORE:
1) RETAINS RESIDUAL MAGNETISM
2) CONCENTRATES FLUX LINES
B) LAMINATED IRON CORE:
1) MADE OF THIN SHEETS OF IRON - BONDED TOGETHER
2) CONCENTRATES FLUX LINES
3) DECREASE RESIDUAL MAGNETISM
4) IGNITION COILS ARE ELECTROMAGNETS:
a) USED TO STEP UP A LOW VOLTAGE TO A HIGH VOLTAGE (STEP-UP TRANSFORMERS)
b) OPERATES ON THE PRINCIPLE OF MUTUAL INDUCTION

c) MUTUAL INDUCTION: USES 2 COILS AND A MOVING MAGNETIC FIELD TO CHANGE

THE VOLTAGE/CURRENT VALUES
d) PARTS CONSIST OF:
1) PRIMARY COILS (ELECTROMAGNET)
A) PRODUCES A MAGNETIC FIELD WHEN LOW VOLTAGE IS APPLIED TO IT
B) HAS FEW HUNDRED TURNS OF WIRE
2) SECONDARY COIL (SOURCE OF EMF)
A) PRODUCES A HIGH VOLTAGE WHEN THE MOVING MAGNETIC FIELD
INDUCES IT

57
 B) CONSISTS OF MAY THOUSANDS OF TURNS OF WIRE
C) TWO TYPES OF COILS - DETERMINED BY HOW AND WHEN THE HIGH
VOLTAGE IS INDUCED INTO THE SECONDARY
WINDINGS.
1) COLLAPSING TYPE (EXTERNALLY GROUNDED)
a) TRIGGERED WHEN THE CURRENT TO THE PRIMARY
COIL IS TURNED OFF
b) WHEN CURRENT STOPS, MAGNETIC FIELD COLLAPSES
QUICKLY
c) COLLAPSING FIELD CROSSED THE SECONDARY COIL,
INDUCING A HIGH VOLTAGE INTO THEM
2) RISING TYPE (INTERNALLY GROUNDED)
a) TRIGGERED WHEN THE CURRENT TO THE PRIMARY
COIL IS TURNED ON
b) WHEN CURRENT STARTS, THE MAGNETIC FIELD RISES
RAPIDLY
c) RISING FIELD CROSSES SECONDARY COILS, INDUCING
A HIGH VOLTAGE INTO THEM
5) ELECTRO-MAGNETIC SWITCHES: (RELAYS - SOLENOIDS)
a) PURPOSE:
1) HANDLE HIGH CURRENT RATHER THAN A SWITCH
2) ENERGIZE OR DE-ENERGIZE AN ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT
b) COMPONENTS:
1) COIL OF WIRE
2) SPRING LOADED PLUNGER
c) TWO TYPES:
1) NORMALLY OPEN:
A) WHEN ENERGIZED, IT CLOSES
B) AN ENERGIZED, NORMALLY OPEN RELAY, WILL HAVE ZERO
RESISTANCE THRU IT
2) NORMALLY CLOSED:
A) WHEN ENERGIZED, IT OPENS
B) AN ENERGIZED, NORMALLY CLOSED RELAY, WILL HAVE INFINITE
AMOUNTS OF RESISTANCE THRU IT.

BATTERIES, IGNITION, AND CHARGING SYSTEMS

1) PURPOSE OF BATTERIES:
A) PROVIDE INITIAL POWER TO START THE M/C OR RUN ACCESSORIES WHEN THE ENG IS OFF
B) PROVIDE ENERGY TO THE ELECTRICAL SYSTEM WHEN THE DEMAND EXCEED ALTERNATOR
OUTPUT (ENGINE IDLING, HEAVY ELEC. LOAD)
C) ACTS AS A BUFFER TO SMOOTH OUT VOLTAGE SURGES AND SPIKES
D) STABILIZE ELEC. SYSTEM CHARGING VOLTAGE WHEN THE ENG. IS RUNNING
2) WHAT THE BATTERIES DO:
A) BATTERIES DO NOT PRODUCE ELEC., THEY ARE STORAGE DEVICES FOR ELEC.
B) BATTERIES STORE ELEC. IN A CHEMICAL FORM
C) UPON REQUEST, THEY CONVERT CHEMICAL ENERGY BACK TO ELEC. ENERGY, THIS PROCESS IS
CALLED ELECTRO-CHEMICAL CHANGE AND IS NOT 100% EFFICIENT.
3) TYPES OF BATTERIES FOUND ON M/C’S:
A) CONVENTIONAL:
1) REQUIRES FREQUENT WATER REPLACEMENT
a) USE ONLY DISTILLED WATER, IT HAS NO IMPURITIES (MINERALS OR CHEMICALS)
B) LOW-MAINTENANCE:
1) PROVIDES MORE CRANKING POWER THAN CONVENTIONAL
2) REQUIRES LESS FREQUENT WATER REPLACEMENT
C) MAINTENANCE FREE:
1) PROVIDE APPROX. THE SAME CRANKING POWER AS A LOW MAINT.BATTERY
2) PERMANENTLY SEALED, NO REPLACEMENT OF WATER NEEDED
4) BATTERY CELL BASIC:
A) USED TO STORE ELECTRICITY

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 B) EACH CELL STORE 2.1 TO 2.2 VDC
C) SIZE OF CELL WILL NOT EFFECT VOLTAGE, BUT AFFECT CURRENT OUTPUT
D) LEAD/ACID CELL CONSTRUCTION:
1) NEGATIVE PLATES:
a) MADE OF LEAD
b) GRAY IN COLOR
2) POSITIVE PLATES:
a) MADE OF LEAD PEROXIDE
b) REDDISH - BROWN IN COLOR
3) SEPARATOR SHEETS:
a) A POROUS MATERIAL
b) INSULATES THE POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE PLATES FROM EACH OTHER
4) ELECTROLYTE:
a) A MIXTURE OF DILUTED SULPHIC ACID AND DISTILLED WATER
5) CASE:
a) CONTAINS ALL PARTS OF THE CELL
b) USUALLY MADE FROM PLASTIC OR HARD RUBBER
E) PLATE ARRANGEMENT:
1) IN EACH CELL THE PLATES ARE WIRED IN PARALLEL
2) EACH PLATE INCREASES THE CURRENT OUTPUT WHILE THE VOLTAGE (2.1 TO 2.2 VDC)
STAYS THE SAME
F) CELL ARRANGEMENT:
1) CELLS ARE WIRED IN SERIES
2) EACH CELL INCREASES TOTAL VOLTAGE OUTPUT, WHILE THE OUTPUT REMAINS THE SAME
3) EXAMPLES:
a) 12 VDC BATT. HAS 6 CELLS
b) 6 VDC BATT. HAS 3 CELLS
G) CELL-DISCHARGING:
1) DURING DISCHARGING, THE ELECTROLYTE SPLITS TO FORM DISTILLED WATER AND
SULPHURIC ACID
2) SULPHURIC ACID COMBINES ON THE NEGATIVE PLATES AND FORM LEAD SULPHATE
a) IF LEAD SULPHATE IS EXPOSED TO OXYGEN, A WHITE CRYSTALLINE BUILD-UP
KNOWN AS SULPHATING IS CREATED
3) DISTILLED WATER COMBINES ON THE POSITIVE PLATES
4) THIS LIQUID (DISTILLED WATER) IS PRONE TO FREEZING
5) A DEAD BATTERY WILL FREEZE AT 20° F
H) CELL RECHARGING:
1) WHEN THE BATTERY IS RECHARGED, THE CHEMICAL PROCESS IS ALMOST REVERSE.
2) BUBBLES CAN BE SEEN DURING CHARGING
a) CAUSED BY EXCESS HYDROGEN AND OXYGEN MOLECULES WHICH COULD NOT
COMBINE WITH SULPHATE AND LEAD
b) THIS IS KNOWN AS “FREE-GASSING”
c) THIS IS WHY BATTERIES MUST BE VENTED (EXCEPT MAINT. FREE)
3) CAUTION: HYDROGEN/OXYGEN GASSES GIVEN OFF DURING FREE GASSING ARE HIGHLY
EXPLOSIVE
4) A FULLY CHARGED LEAD ACID BATTERY WILL FREEZE AT - 75° F
5) AMP HOUR RATINGS
A) THE MEASUREMENT OF A BATTERY‟S ABILITY TO DISCHARGE (DELIVER) CURRENT FOR A
SPECIFIED PERIOD OF TIME BEFORE IT REACHES A STATE OF DISCHARGE

1) STATE OF DISCHARGE:
a) CELL VOLTAGE STATE OF DISCHARGE - 1.75V
b) 12 VOLT BATT. STATE OF DISCHARGE - 10.5V
c) 6 VOLT BATT. STATE OF DISCHARGE - 5.25V
B) RATINGS SPECIFIC TIME PERIOD FOR M/C BATT’S USUALLY 10 HRS
1) EXAMPLE - A 14 AMP HOUR RATED BATTERY:
a) CAN DELIVER 1.4 AMPS FOR 10 HOURS BEFORE REACHING STATE OF DISCHARGE
b) CAN DELIVER 14 AMPS FOR ONE HOUR BEFORE REACHING STATE OF DISCHARGE
c) CAN DELIVER ONE AMP FOR 14 HOURS BEFORE REACHING STATE OF DISCHARGE

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6) EFFECTS OF TEMPERATURE ON BATTERIES:
A) BATT‟S NOT BEING USED WILL DISCHARGE DEPENDING ON HUMIDITY AND AMBIENT (OUTSIDE)
TEMP‟S
1) CONVENTIONAL BATT‟S - 0.5% TO 1% DAILY AT AN AMBIENT TEMP OF 77° Fu
2) LOW MAINT/MAINT FREE BATTS - 0.15% TO 0.3% DAILY AT AMBIENT TEMP OF 77° F
B) COLD SLOWS THE CHEMICAL REACTION AND CAUSES A SLOWER DISCHARGE RATE
C) HEAT/HUMIDITY SPEEDS THE CHEMICAL ACTION AND CAUSES A HIGHER DISCHARGE RATE
D) WHEN NOT USED, STORE BATTERIES IN A COOL DRY LOCATION
7) FACTORS AFFECTING BATTERY PERFORMANCE:
A) ENGINE CONDITION
1) ANYTHING THAT INCREASES THE ENGINES RESISTANCE TO CRANKING, INCREASES THE
ELECTRICAL EFFORT NEEDED TO START IT
2) EXAMPLES: COLD OIL, BAD STARTER BRUSHES
B) BATTERY’S STATE-OF-CHARGE - A NEARLY DISCHARGED BATTERY HAS LESS CRANKING POWER
THAN A FULLY CHARGED ONE
C) WATER LEVEL IN EACH CELL - W/O SUFFICIENT ELECTROLYTE THE BATT. CAN‟T CONVERT
CHEMICAL TO ELECTRICAL ENERGY
D) TEMPERATURE:
1) COLD WEATHER RETARDS THE CHEMICAL REACTION REDUCING PERFORMANCE
2) OVER HEATING CAN INCREASE CORROSION ON THE PLATES, OR CAN CAUSE THE PLATES
TO WARP.
E) VIBRATION - EXCESSIVE VIBRATION CAN SHAKE OFF ACTIVE MATERIAL FROM THE PLATES, AND
REDUCE BATTERY LIFE.
8) M/C AC CHARGING SYSTEMS:
A) PURPOSE IS TO SUPPLY CURRENT TO ALL ELEC. COMPONENTS AND MAINTAIN A FULLY CHARGED
BATTERY
B) THE AC CHARGING SYSTEM CONSISTS OF THE FOLLOWING COMPONENTS
1) BATTERY - STORES REGULATED DC CURRENT
2) AC GENERATOR:
a) CONSISTS OF A STATOR AND A ROTOR
1) ROTOR CONSISTS OF A SERIES OF MAGNETS
2) THE STATOR CONSISTS OF A SERIES OF SOFT IRON POLES WHICH ARE
WOUND W/COILS OF WIRE
b) THIS AC GENERATOR IS POWERED BY ENG REVOLUTIONS
c) TWO TYPES OF AC PRODUCING GENERATORS
1) PERMANENT MAGNET:
A) PERMANENT MAGNETS ARE ASSEMBLED ONTO THE ROTOR, AND
GENERATES AC CURRENT WHEN THE PASSES THRU THE STATOR
2) EXCITED FIELD:
A) USES THE FIELD COIL TO MAGNETILE THE ROTOR, GENERATES AC
CURRENT AS THE ROTOR PASSES THRU THE STATOR
B) TWO TYPES OF EXCITER FIELD SYSTEMS:
1) BRUSH
2) BRUSHLESS
3) RETIFIER:
A) CONVERTS AC CURRENT TO DC CURRENT BY USE OF DIODES
4) REGULATOR:
A) MAINTAINS BATTERY VOLTAGE WITHIN A SPECIFIED RANGE
B) CONTROLS THE VOLTAGE TO THE FIELD COIL BY CHANGING THE
AMOUNT OF ROTOR MAGNETISM

C) SOME OLDER, AND SMALLER CHARGING SYSTEMS DID NOT USE A

REGULATOR, INSTEAD INCAPABLE OF OVER-CHARGING THE
BATTERY, THESE ARE KNOWN AS “BALANCE SYSTEMS”
C) THREE BASIC TYPES OF CHARGING SYSTEMS:
1) HALF WAVE SYSTEM:
a) USES ONE CHARGING COIL THAT IS GROUNDED ON ONE SIDE, THE OTHER END

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 GOES TO THE RECTIFIER
2) FULL WAVE SYSTEM:
a) USES A CHARGING COIL THAT HAS BOTH SIDES OF THE COIL GOING TO THE
RECTIFIER
3) THREE PHASE SYSTEM:
a) USES 3 CHARGING COILS CONNECTED TO EACH OTHER THAT HAS 3 COIL LEADS
GOING TO THE RECTIFIER
D) BASIC OPERATING PRINCIPLES OF A PERMANENT MAGNET CHARGING SYSTEM:
1) WHEN ENG ROTATES, MAGNETS ON/IN THE ROTOR SPIN BY THE STATOR COILS
a) THIS PRODUCE AC VOLTAGE
2) THE AC VOLTAGE GOES TO THE RECTIFIER
a) THE RETIFIER CONVERTS AC VOLTAGE TO DC VOLTAGE BY USE OF DIODES
3) THE DIODES ONLY LET ½ OF THE CURRENT FLOW PAST
a) THIS ALLOWS ONLY ½ OF THE CURRENT TO GET TO THE BATTERY (DC CURRENT,
ONE-WAY FLOW)
4) VOLTAGE REGULATOR MAKES SURE THE BATTERY DOES NOT GET TO MUCH CURRENT
a) IT DOES THIS BY SENSING WHEN THE BATTERY HAS ENOUGH VOLTAGE, AND
ALLOWS ACCESS VOLTAGE TO GO TO GROUND
b) THIS CAN BE SENSED TWO DIFFERENT WAYS:
1) INTERNALLY
2) THRU THE BATTERY
E) HOW AN EXCITED FIELD CHARGING SYSTEM WORKS:
1) WORK THE SAME WAY A PERMANENT MAGNET SYSTEM DOES WITH THE EXCEPTION THAT
THE BATTERY SUPPLIES VOLTAGE TO A FIELD COIL, ACTIVATING AN ELECTRO-MAGNET
2) THESE SYSTEMS USE VOLTAGE REGULATORS TO SENSE THE VOLTAGE AND VARY THE
POWER OUTPUT TO THE ELECTRO-MAGNET TO REDUCE THE MAGNETIC FIELD, THUS
REDUCING THE OUTPUT FROM THE SYSTEM.
9) M/C IGNITION SYSTEMS:
A) PURPOSE: PROVIDE AND CONTROL THE SPARK, THIS IS USED TO IGNITE FUEL VAPORS IN THE
ENG.
B) MOST OF TODAYS M/C’S USE ELECTRONICALLY CONTROLLED IGNITION SYSTEMS
C) ELECTRONICALLY CONTROLLED IGNITION SYSTEMS CONTAIN THE FOLLOWING BASIC

COMPONENTS:
1) SOURCE OF EMF
2) TRIGGERING DEVICE
3) IGNITION CONTROL MODULE
4) IGNITION SWITCH
5) SPARK PLUG
6) SWITCHING DEVICE (MAIN SWITCH)
D) TWO BASIC TYPES OF ELECTRICALLY CONTROLLED IGNITION SYSTEMS:
1) CAPACITOR DISCHARGE IGNITION (CDI)
2) TRANSISTORIZED POINTLESS IGNITION (TPI)
E) BASIC OPERATING PRINCIPLES:
1) BOTH SYSTEMS HAVE A SOURCE OF VOLTAGE
2) TRIGGERING DEVICES USED ARE SIMILAR IN USE AND DESIGN-A SMALL COIL OF WIRE
3) TRIGGERING DEVICE SENDS A SIGNAL TO THE IGNITION CONTROL MODULE, IT SENDS
VOLTAGE TO THE IGNITION COIL.
4) THE PROCESS OF MUTUAL INDUCTION TAKE PLACE IN THE COIL - VOLTAGE IS GREATLY
INCREASED
5) THIS VOLTAGE FIRES THE SPARK PLUG AND IGNITES THE FUEL VAPORS IN THE ENG

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