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EnviSci
Module 8: Biodiversity in the Philippines
Introduction
The Philippines is one of the 17 mega biodiverse
countries, containing two-thirds of the Earth’s
biodiversity and 70 percent of world’s plants and
animal species due to its geographical isolation,
diverse habitats and high rates of endemism. The
Philippines’ biodiversity provides several
ecosystem services. It provides food, water,
energy sources, pharmaceuticals, biomass fuels,
carbon sequestration and climate regulation,
crop pollination, cultural and spiritual inspiration
and ecotourism value.
Thirty percent of the population, including 12 to
15 million indigenous peoples, resides in the
uplands where most of the forests are located.
These forests provide timber and non-timber
products totaling $100 million in net benefits
yearly. The Philippines is also one of the world’s
hotspots with a large number of endangered and
threatened species–making it a top global
conservation priority area.
Status of Biodiversity in the Philippines
● The Philippine is a nation islands which
influences its culture and history
including its biological diversity.
● Philippine is also one of the 34
biological hotspots which means that the
country’s biodiversity and endemism is
under a high level of threat.
Terrestrial Vertebrate Fauna of the Philippines
Total Endemic %
Species Species Endemic
Land 174 111 64%
Mammals
Breeding 395 172 44%
Land Birds
Reptiles 258 168 65%
Amphibians 101 78 77%
Total 928 529 57%
Biodiversity in the Philippines
● The country is one of the worlds 17
“mega diversity” countries which
collectively claim two-thirds of the
earth’s biological diversity within their
boundaries.
● Excluded in the statistics of land
mammals such as dolphins and exotics
species deliberately introduced or
accidentally imported by humans.
● Sea birds, migrants, and strays are not
included in the total number of reptiles.
● The total number of amphibians consists
mostly of frogs.
Elevation, Climate, and Rainfall
● Declining temperature and increasing
rainfall in mountainous regions give rise
to three major types of rain forest.
● Layers of humus are thin and scattered
in lowland forest, but build into a
blanket at higher elevations.
● Lowland rainforests are previously
dominated by towering dipterocarps
(Dipterocarpaceae), prized for their
beautiful and straight hardwood.
● Because of the archipelagic nature of the
Philippines (2nd largest archipelago
country after Indonesia) each island of
the country is home to unique animal
species.
Plant Species
● More than 9,250 vascular plant species
native to the Philippines, only 1/3 of it
are endemic.
● Luzon mountain rain forests: Sierra
Madre Mountains, Philippines.
● Gingers, begonias, orchids, pandan,
palms, and dipterocarps are particularly
high in endemic species especially
 during the time when the country is
blanketed by areas of rainforests.
Birds
● Endemic Birds Areas (EBA): Mindoro,
Luzon, Negros and Panay, Cebu,
Mindanao and Eastern Visayas
● The best known endemic bird species in
the Philippines is the Philippine eagle
(Pithecophaga jefferyi), the second
largest eagle in the world.
● The Philippine eagle is bread only in the
remaining lowland rainforest in the
islands of Luzon, Mindanao, and Samar.
● The total population of the Philippine
eagle, there are less than 700 individuals
left in the country.
Mammals endemic to the Philippines
● The largest of these mammals found in
the Philippines is the Tamaraw
(Bubalus mindorensis) that lives only
on the island of Mindoro
● The total population of the Tamaraw a
country ago totals to 10,000 individuals.
● Only a few hundreds exists in the wild.
● Visayan and Philippine warty pigs (Sus
cabifrons and Sus philipinensis)
● Calamianes hog-deer (Axis
calamaniensis)
● Visayan spotted deer (Cervus alfredi)
● Golden-capped fruit bat (Acerodon
jubatus)
● Negros naked-backed fruit bat
( Dobsonia chapmani)
● Philippine Tarsier (Tarsius syrichta)
● Pigmy squirrels (Exillisciurus
concinnus)
● Flying lemurs (Cynocephalus volans)
Reptiles endemic to the Philippines
● Freshwater crocodile (Crocodylus
mindorensis) remained in natural
habitats.
● Gray’s monitor (Varanus olivaceus)
● Philippine pond turtle (Heosemys
leytensis)are unique to the country and
are considered threatened.
● Monitor lizard (Varanus mabitang),
from Panay is only the second monitor
species that specializes on a fruit diet.
Amphibians
● Philippine flat-headed frog (Barbourula
busuangensis) is one of the most
primitive frog species in the world can
be found in the Philippines.
● There are 26 endemic species of the frog
genus Platymantis, of these, 22 are
considered threatened.
Freshwater Fish
● Freshwater sardines (Sardinella tawilis)
found only in Taal lake
● The endemic species that are previously
found in lake Lanao in Mindanao are
now extinct due to the introduction of
non-native species such as tilapia.
Socioeconomic Root Causes of Loss of
Biodiversity
● Economic and political history
● Rapid population growth (contribute to
the deterioration of the environment)
● Commercial logging
● Kaingin (slash and burn agriculture)
● Human settlement (conversion of forest
lands)
● Extraction of fuel and construction
materials
● Development of fish ponds
● Access factor has a direct impact to all
these causes of loss of biodiversity.
Historical Context
Year % of total land area covered
by forests
1521 90%
1900 70%
1950 49%
1994 18%
Local Context: Cebu
● Spanish clergy and the elite turned good
agricultural lands to haciendas which
further restricted the land available to
the masses.
 ● Agricultural production was encouraged
by religious orders in their haciendas.
● The production of export crops such
sugar, tobacco, corn and cacao were
increased.
● In the post-colonial period, other forms
of business such as mining,
manufacturing, and tourism were
developed.
● Coastal areas were turned into economic
zones.
Industrialization of Cebu resulted to the
following problems:
● Pollution
● Deforestation
● Insufficient water treatment and waste
disposal facilitates
● Mangroves were destroyed due to the
development of tourist facilitates,
constructions of industrial estates, and
the development of fish ponds.
● Other environmental woes of Cebu
include deforestation and pollution from
industries owned by Cebu’s socio-
political-economic elite.
Local Context: Negros
● Large tracts of land where converted to
sugar plantations and the population has
grown phenomenally which resulted to
the destruction of forests.
● Conversion of land to sugar plantations
continued up to the mid-1900’s.
● Upland forests were cleared to give way
for human settlers.
● Forest land was cultivated for corn, rice,
coconut, cotton, banana, and sugar cane
production.
● Strong international demand for timber
influence illegal logging that took place
alongside legal cutting.
● In the mid 1980’s during the upsurge of
anti-Marcos protests, most sugar
planters convert their coastal sugar
plantations to capital-intensive prawn
farms and hatcheries.
● In the 20th century, commercial logging
was highly encouraged that leads to the
degradation of forests.
Local Context: Palawan
● 54% of the total land area is still
converted with forests.
● The Spaniards have a little success in the
colonization of Palawan due to the
influence of Muslim peoples from
Borneo and Sulu.
● No large plantations, and haciendas
were developed in the islands.
● During the American regime, the
primary products being exported were
timber. Secondary products include
rattan, tanbark, nigue, almaciga, and
beeswax.
● In the 1960’s up to 1980’s, heavy influx
of developmental corporations,
agribusiness companies, and
multinational companies have flown to
Palawan.
● The only province with a Strategic
Environmental Plan (SEP) enacted into
law.
● Comprehensive framework that guides
local government units and national
agencies for sustainable development of
Palawan.
National Context
● Loss of forest cover and of biodiversity
is correlated to increase in population
size.
● A very high density of 243 persons per
square kilometres compared to the world
average of 59 persons square kilometres.
● Pushed landless farmers to biodiversity
rich areas such as lowland forests,
coastal areas and the uplands to carve
living.
● Low implementation of the
Comprehensive Agrarian Reform
Program (CARP) has resulted to
underemployment of farmers that drive
them to head to the uplands.
Conservation Priorities
Key Biodiversity Areas (KBA’s)
● The approach is used to expand the
protected areas in the country and to
target the appropriate conservation
actions to be done.
● Identified based on the criterion
regarding its vulnerability and
irreplaceability:
a. Vulnerability – measured by the confirmed
presence of one or more globally threatened
species.
b. Irreplaceability – measured through the
presence of geographically concentrated species.
Criterion on Vulnerability:
Criterion 1: Globally Threatened Species
● KBAs are identified based on the
presence of one or more globally
threatened species.
● International Union for the Conservation
of Nature and Natural Resources
(IUCN) classification of species:
a. Extinct (EX)
b. Extinct the Wild (EW)
c. Critically Endangered (CR)
d. Endangered (EN)
e. Vulnerable (VU)
f. Near Threatened (NT)
g. Least Concern (LC)
h. Data Deficient (DD)
i. Not Evaluated (NE)
Criterion 2: Restricted-range Species (RR)
KBAs on this criterion hold a significant
proportion of the global population of one or
more species with a limited global range size.
Criterion 3: Congregatory Species (CC)
KBAs based on this criterion hold a significant
portion of species that gathers in large numbers
at specific sites during some stages in their life
cycle.
KBAs in the Philippines
● Are based on 117 Important Bird Areas
(IBA) identified by Haribon Foundation
and Birdlife International, and 206
Conservation Priorly Area (CPAs)
identified through the Philippine
Biodiversity Conservation Priority-
setting Program.
● A total of 128 KBAs were identified and
which contains all species protected
through the Wildlife Act (Republic Act
9147).
● Approximately, 20% of the total land
area of the Philippines is considered as
KBA.
● Currently, 45 of the 128 KBAs (35%)
benefit from official safeguard status in
the Philippines, having been formally
established as protected areas under the
legal framework of the National
Integrated Protected Areas System Act
(Republic Act 7586).
● The remaining 83 KBAs (65%) lack
formal governmental protection.
● Unfortunately, the number of
endangered species in the region is just
as likely to set a record, and the rapidly
progressing deforestation leaves little
hope for any improvement of the
situation.
Module 9: Threats to Biodiversity
Ecosystem conversion and ecosystem
degradation contribute to habitat fragmentation.
Habitat loss from exploitation of resources,
agricultural conversion, and urbanization is the
largest factor contributing to the loss of
biodiversity. The consequent fragmentation of
habitat results in small isolated patches of land
that cannot maintain populations of species into
the future. Tweedsmuir Provincial Park, at
974,046 hectares, is British Columbia’s largest
provincial park and is big enough to maintain
much of the composition, structure and function
of biodiversity within the protected area.
However, smaller provincial parks, such as
Buccaneer Bay at less than one hectare in size,
will not be able to maintain all of its original
biodiversity in isolation. Scientists report that the
effect of habitat fragmentation on biodiversity
may not be fully realized for decades after
habitat is degraded. Therefore, habitat
connectivity must be considered in current
management practices to prevent the devastating
effects of fragmentation on biodiversity.
The intentional and inadvertent introductions of
a wide variety of exotic species to ecosystems in
which they do not belong have resulted in
ecosystems that differ radically in structure and
function from those originally present. Exotic
species are typically introduced into ecosystems
without their co-evolved predators and parasites,
which enables an alien invader to out-compete
native species with similar ecological
requirements. In British Columbia, plants such
as Knapweed, introduced to arid grasslands, and
Purple Loosestrife, introduced to marsh and
riparian areas, are rapidly becoming dominant
plant species in their respective ecosystems. The
interactions between native species are altered or
destroyed by these exotic species, and can result
in the loss of native biodiversity.
Atmospheric and hydrologic pollution have far-
reaching negative effects on biodiversity.
Pollution from burning fossil fuels such as oil,
coal and gas can remain in the air as particle
pollutants or fall to the ground as acid rain. Acid
rain, which is primarily composed of sulfuric
and nitric acid, causes acidification of lakes,
streams and sensitive forest soils, and
contributes to slower forest growth and tree
damage at high elevations. In addition, chemical
pollutants such as pesticides and herbicides
leach into soils and watersheds. Some fish
species, such as salmonids, require small
freshwater streams to spawn. Polluted streams
result in the abandonment of traditional
spawning areas and ultimately in the loss of
salmon populations. Species’ sensitivity to
pollution is variable. However, many species are
vulnerable to the indirect effects of pollution
through the concentration of toxic chemicals in
top predators of food chains and disruption of
predator-prey interactions.
Carbon dioxide released from burning fossil
fuels and biomass, deforestation, and agricultural
practices contributes to greenhouse gases, which
prevent heat from escaping the earth’s surface
cause global climate change. With the increase
in temperature expected from increasing
greenhouse gases, there will be higher levels of
air pollution, greater variability in weather
patterns, and changes in the distribution of
vegetation in the landscape. Some species will
not be able to adapt to these changes in the
environment and will become extinct. However,
it is expected that many plant and animal species
will attempt to disperse to higher latitudes and
altitudes as the temperature increases. Therefore,
any barriers in the landscape, such as highways
and urban areas that prevent movement to more
hospitable environments, will result in loss of
biodiversity.
Such threats to biodiversity may cause the
extinction of many species. Maintaining the
corridors and connectivity of the landscape
could offset their impacts on biodiversity. The
corridor concept proposes that refuges connected
by corridors will have higher immigration rates
than isolated patches of natural habitat. This can
offset extinction by promoting gene flow and
preventing inbreeding. Corridors composed of
naturally occurring or restored strips of land that
connect large habitat patches may facilitate the
movement of species between patches, and
decrease the effects of threats to biodiversity.
Habitat patches connected by corridors must
always be large enough to maintain populations
of species, especially for large-bodied
vertebrates.
The effectiveness of wildlife corridors depends
on many corridor design parameters, which
include habitat type and structural stage, length
and width, and level of human activity in and
around the corridor. Individual species require
different scales of connectivity. Some species
are able to disperse in very narrow strips of
natural vegetation, such as hedgerows, whereas
other species require large habitat patches close
together with very short migration distances
through unsuitable habitat. Solely retaining or
enhancing narrow strips of vegetation between
habitat refuges cannot maintain biodiversity; the
habitat values of the overall landscape must be
retained.
Introduced/ Non-native Species
How are these species introduced?
● unintentionally released into new
environments without the intention of
increasing its population
● intentionally released natural areas for
agricultural, horticultural, or aquarium
use
● transported via boats and airplanes
● seeds are embedded in hiker’s boots
Reasons why invasive species are considered
major threats to the environment:
● They can alter the habitat they occupy.
● They crowd out or invade the native
species.
● They can damage human enterprises
such as commercial and recreational
fisheries.
 ● They degrade resources such as national
forests.
● They may directly harm human health.
● They can alter the genetic material of
native species due to hybridization.
An example of an aquatic invasive species in the
Philippines is the freshwater snail (Pomacea
canaliculata) popularly referred to as the
“golden apple snail”. It was introduced to the
Philippines from the United States in 1980 as an
aquarium novelty and as an aquaculture
commodity. The snail was mass produced in
concrete tanks and ponds. Due to lack of
consumer demand as the years goes by the snails
where disposed in irrigation and drainage
systems. The snails become a pest of rice in
many parts of the country. It even replaced the
native freshwater snail (Pila conica) in Luzon.
How can invasive species be managed?
1. Prevention - some methods of prevention
include:
● Decontamination of freight, shipping
boxes, packaging materials and
transportation equipment.
● Predict which species may be invasive
and will become a problem in the future.
2. Eradication - this is feasible in restricted
areas and in early declaration of the invasive
species.
3. Control - control methods include any of the
following:
Chemical control – the use of pesticides,
herbicides, and fungicides to kill the species.
Mechanical control – physically removing the
invasive species or changing habitat conditions.
Biological control – introducing a natural enemy
(predator or prey) of the invasive species.
4. Restoration - Restoring native species to
reduce the chances an area will be invaded
again.
Climate Change
● Greenhouse gases such as water vapor,
methane, carbon dioxide, and ozone trap
heat and warm the planet.
● e.g. use of nitrogen fertilizer, burning of
crop residues, etc. among other which
changes the climate.
Effects of Climate Change
● rising sea levels and degrading
permafrost
● more precipitation in temperate and
tropical regions that would result to
more floods
● less precipitation in Central Asia,
Mediterranean, Africa, Australia, and
New Zealand that
● would result to higher probability of
droughts.
● more powerful climatic events such as
storms, heat waves, and hurricanes.
● more sea-ice disappearance in the Arctic
region and Antarctica
How does climate change affect the species
component biodiversity?
● changes in the distribution of species
● increase in extinction rates
● changes in reproduction timings
● changes in length of growing seasons for
plants
Effects of climate change in polar ecosystem:
● Threatens the habitat of walruses (large
sea mammals of Arctic Ocean, and
having flippers and two large tusks),
polar bears, seals (marine carnivorous
mammals) and other marine mammals
that rely on ice for resting, feeding and
breeding.
● Population of krill, and other small
organisms essential in the entire marine
food web could be adversely affected.
● Affects the livelihood of the indigenous
people in the Arctic region particularly
fishing and hunting.
Effects of climate change in agricultural
systems:
● May affect plant growth and
reproduction due to the spread of pests
and diseases.
● May reduce yields to heat stress, drier
soils, changes in rainfall patterns, and
wildfires.
Effects of climate change in forests ecosystems:
● More vulnerable to fire and pests.
 ● Small changes in temperature and
precipitation can have significant effect
on forest growth.
● May force species to migrate or may die
off as a result.
Effects of climate change in inland water
ecosystems:
● Changing rainfall and melt patterns of
ice results to changing flow systems in
many lakes and rivers that affects the
spawning and feeding of aquatic species.
● Warmer climate forces humans to
increase their demand of fresh water to
meet domestic and agricultural needs
that would result to decreased flow in
rivers and streams.
Effects of climate change in island ecosystems:
Increases in sea-surface temperature and changes
in water chemistry can cause coral bleaching and
can intensify the probability of coral death.
Human Instrumentality:
Deforestation
● the logging, removing, or burning of
trees in forested areas
● almost 50% - 90% of all organisms
inhabit tropical rainforests. They prevent
soil erosion, flooding, and landslides.
● most of the primates live in the forest
and humans benefit from the rainforests,
from food we eat to life giving
medicines.
Causes of deforestation - logging, cattle
grazing, human settlement, fires and acid rain,
building of dam, mining and oil exploration
Effects of Deforestation
● damaged habitat
● extinction of multiple species of plants
and animals
● flooding
● soil erosion
● the degraded piece of land will unable to
recover its original biomass and fertility
for many years.
Overfishing
● occurs when fish activities deplete fish
stocks and a host of marine life below an
acceptable level
● overfishing is caused primarily by poor
fisheries management.
● fish contribute to the food supply,
health, and economy of a lot of nations.
● many people rely on fish as an important
source of protein.
Causes of overfishing - technological advances,
subsidies, fisheries agreement, pirate fishers,
catching unwanted species, destructive fishing
practices, lack of conservation program
Impacts of overfishing
● May cause unemployment for people
who rely on a certain marine species that
may never be recovered.
● The food chain of other marine species
may suffer due to lack of food.
Industrial Dumping
● the disposal of toxic waste materials
such as dredged materials, industrial
waste or chemicals, sewage- related
wastes or sludge, and radioactive wastes
in water systems and landfills.
● human sewage – excrement from toilet
flushing, wastewater from laundry,
dishwashing, and bathing, and animal
and vegetable matter from food
preparation disposed in sinks. industrial
wastes dumped indiscriminately at
illegal sites may create environmental
pollution such as foul odors and water
pollution.
Wastes in the Ocean
● wastes being dumped in the ocean can
cause serious problems to the
reproduction and development of many
marine species.
● human health can also be affected since
people depend on fish and other marine
mammals for food.
● marine life can be contaminated with
high levels of mercury, lead, copper, and
arsenic
Effects of Human Population Growth
● the poorest people due to poverty often
misuse the environment
 ● lack of better technology, education,
access to health care and family
planning
● In 1778, Thomas Malthus, an English
political economists wrote “An Essay of
the Principle of Population”
● The paper talks about the dangers of
population growth and the need to
control population.
● The continuous growth of human
population has a grave impact on
biodiversity.
Loss of Biodiversity
● human tend to overharvest that diminish
the population of the hunted or
harvested species.
● causes of the loss of biodiversity, most
of which is due to human interference.
● species extinction is part of the Earth’s
history dating back as to the Palaeozaic
era, over 100 years humans have
amplified the extinction rate by at least
100 times compared to the natural rate.
● Bob Scholes and and Oonsie Biggs,
Systems Ecologists of South Africa’s
Council for Scientific and Industrial
Research proposed a new method called
BII.
Biodiversity Intactness Index
● expert knowledge is drawn about how
human activities increase or decrease the
total populations of groups of
ecologically similar species – such as
insect-eating birds or large herbivorous
mammals.
● the index was applied to South Africa in
year 2000 and shows 84% of the
populations of all plant and animal
species have declined.
● mammals suffered the greatest loss of all
the taxonomic groups at 71%.
● among the terrestrial biomes, grassland
lost greatly 74% of its former
populations.
Module 10: Man’s Impact on the
Environment
We as humans have become dependent on
luxuries such as cars, houses, and even our cell
phones. But what does our love for
manufactured metallic and plastic goods do to
the environment? Things like overconsumption,
overfishing, deforestation are dramatically
impacting our world.
Human activity can be directly attributed to the
cause of hundreds of extinctions in the last two
centuries, versus the millions of years that
extinctions naturally occur. As we progress
through the 21st century, humans have changed
the world in unprecedented ways. Modernization
and progress have led to air getting more and
more polluted over the years. Industries,
vehicles, increase in the population and
urbanization are some of the major factors
responsible for air pollution.
Humans impact the physical environment in
many ways: overpopulation, pollution, burning
fossil fuels, and deforestation. Changes like
these have triggered climate change, soil
erosion, poor air quality, and undrinkable water.
These negative impacts can affect human
behavior and can prompt mass migrations or
battles over clean water.
It is imperative that we support the earth that we
live on, but no matter what, the earth will live
on. Human impacts the natural habitat in so
many ways and we need to be aware of our
personal environmental input. Whether we live
with it or not solely depends on the decisions
and actions we make next. Mother nature is an
unrelenting, unforgiving force, so it is probably
best if we treat her well, and maybe, just maybe
we can make up for the damage that has already
been dealt with. The best time to act, was
yesterday, the best we can do is today, but if we
wait for tomorrow, it may just be too late.
Society needs to help itself in order to survive.
Acid rain
● Acidic deposition or more commonly
known as acid rain occurs when
emissions of sulfur dioxide and oxides
of nitrogen react in the atmosphere with
water, oxygen and oxidants to form
various compounds
● the formed compounds fall to the Earth
in either wet form (such as rain, snow,
and fog) or dry form ( such as gas and
particles)
 ● acid rain formation – when it rains, the
particles are washed from these surfaces
and make the runoff water more acidic
due to the combination of water coming
from the acid rain.
● according to Danish chemist Johannes
Nicolaus Bronsted and English chemist
Martin Lowry, acid is generally ‘sour in
taste’ which often produce stinging
feeling on mucous membranes.
● strong acids are corrosive and cause
severe burns even after short contact
● the mixture forms a mild solution of
sulfuric acid and nitric acid
Problems caused by acid rain:
● acidifies bodies of water that can
eradicate marine species
● ruins plant nutrients and the plant’s
ability to survive
● accelerates the decay of architecture and
artworks (sandstone figure destroyed by
acid rain over a portal of a castle in
Germany. The castle was built in 1702.)
● causes serious illness to people
● Sandstone figure destroyed by acid rain
over a portal of a castle in Germany.
Acid rain produced by air pollution
generated in the heavily industrialized
Ruhr region of Germany probably
accounts for the severe damage. The
castle was built in 1702.
Human activities that cause acid rain:
● Burning of fossil fuels
● Combustion of fuels
What can be done?
● reduce emissions
● find alternative sources of energy
● conserve resources
● restore the damage done by acid rain
Ozone
● Ozone is a gas that occurs naturally in
the Earth’s upper atmosphere that
protects us from the sun’s harmful
ultraviolet rays produced from the
reaction of ultraviolet rays with oxygen
● Ozone in the lower atmosphere, such as
near ground level, is formed from the
pollutants emitted by cars, power plants,
boilers, chemical plants, and other
sources that react chemically in the
presence of sunlight.
How can ground-level ozone effect one’s
health?
● It irritates the respiratory system.
● It can reduce lung function by making it
more difficult to breathe as deeply as
you normally would.
● It can aggravate asthma and lung
diseases.
Who are at risk from ground-level ozone?
● Active people
● People with asthma or other respiratory
diseases
How can people defect the actual level of
ozone and other air pollutants?
● Air Quality Index (AQI) is a scale used
to report the actual levels of ozone and
other common air pollutants.
● The higher the AQI level, the greater is
the health concern.
● USA and Canada, the level of air quality
is being monitored by the AIR Now
website
● In the Philippines, the Environmental
Management Bureau of the Department
of Environment and Natural Resources
has built air quality built monitoring
stations to monitor pollution levels.
Four Air Quality Monitoring Stations that
can be found in the country
● Baguio City
● Cebu City
● Iloilo City
● Cagayan de Oro City
Each stations gives the actual level of the
following:
● Carbon dioxide (CO2)
● Nitrogen dioxide (NO2)
● Sulfur dioxide (SO2)
● Ozone (O3)
● Benzene (C6H6)
● Toluene (C7H6)
Climate change/ Global warming
● According to the National Academy of
Sciences which consists of scholars
engaged in scientific and engineering
 research in the USA, the term ‘climate
change’ is more preferred to be used
than ‘global warming’ to address the
concern that there are other changes in
the environment aside from rising
temperature.
● Climate change - any considerable
change in measures in temperature,
precipitation, or wind lasting for an
extended period (decades or longer)
● Global warming – is the increase in the
temperature of the Earth’s atmosphere
and oceans due to human influences.
Climate may result from:
● natural factors such as changes in the
sun’s intensity or slow changes in the
Earth’s orbit around the sun.
● natural processes within the climate
system
● human activities alter the atmosphere’s
composition and the land surface
The most abundant greenhouse gases are:
● water vapor
● carbon dioxide
● methane
● nitrous oxide
● ozone
● CFC’s (chloroflourocarbons)
Some of the sunlight that enters the earth is:
● absorbed and converted to infrared
radiation (heat)
● sends heat back to the atmosphere
● reabsorbed by greenhouse gases
● re-emitted toward the surface; some of
the heat is not heat is not trapped by
greenhouse gases
● escapes into spaces
● the amount of heat absorbed by the
surface increases due to human activities
that emit additional greenhouse gases to
the atmosphere before escaping to space
Oil spill - An oil spill is a form of pollution that
occurs when liquid petroleum hydrocarbon is
released into the environment such as the ocean
and coastal waters due to human activities.
Environmental effects:
● an indirect cause of decreased fish
production
● disturbs the natural ecosystems of
mangroves
● makes birds and and marines mammals
vulnerable to temperature fluctuations
and less buoyant in the water
How is oil cleansed up after a spills?
● A boom can be placed somewhere in the
ocean or around a habitat oil into many
animals alive.
● Suction skimmers are attached to a boat
and suck up the spilled oil into storage
tanks.
● Airplane can be used to drop chemicals
on the oil spill.
● Vacuum trucks can be driven on the
beaches to vacuum up the oil.
● Use of indigineous absorbent materials
such as human hair, bird/ chicken
feathers, and rice straw.
Oil spill disasters in the world:
● Philippines: Solar I, oil tanker chartered
by Petron Corp. Sank on the coast of the
Guimaras Island, Iloilo on August 11,
2006. About 200,000 liters of bunker oil
has initially spilled and an additional 1.8
million of oil still on board.
● Australia: Hongkong flagged-ship
Pacific Adventurer was toppled by
Cyclone Hamish causing 31 containers
of ammonium nitrate fertilizer to spill on
the ocean floors of Brisbane,
Queensland on March 12, 2009.
● Alaska: The Exxon Valdez spilled 10.8
million gallons of oil into the marine
environment of the Bligh Reef in Prince
William Sound, Alaska on March 24,
1989. It is one of the largest oil spills in
the world.
Chernobyl Disaster
● The Chernobyl Power Plant lies in
northern Ukraine near the border of
Belarus.
● The Uranium (U-235) nuclei split in a
nuclear reactor on the night of April 25-
26, 1986.
 ● The explosion released 100 times more
radiation than the atomic bombs dropped
on Hiroshima and Nagasaki.
● Radiation also spread over large parts of
Scandinavia, Poland, Baltic States, as
well as Southern Germany, Switzerland,
Northern France and England.
Effects of Chernobyl Disaster
● the accident is one of the most costly
nuclear disaster in history costing about
$200 billion
● the fire from the disaster was
extinguished by dropping over 5,000
tons materials like sand, lead, clay and
boron onto the burning reactor and
injection of liquid nitrogen
● most of the fire fighters who helped
control the fire on the plant described
their experience of radiation as “tasting
like metal”
Environmental effects of the disaster:
● radioactive elements such as caesium,
strontium, and plutonium contaminate
the soil and entered the food chain
through crops and livestock.
● severely contaminated aquatic species.
● almost 2,640 km of agricultural land can
no longer be formed. Forested area were
severely contaminated especially the
coniferous plants, berries, mushrooms,
lichens, and ferns.
● grazers such as cattle and goats became
susceptible to radioactivity.
● people who feed on what they have
produced or collected were at high risk.
How does radiation affect the human body?
● radiation produces free radicals that may
impair cellular function and will thus
damage the DNA of a person.
● such damage to the genetic blueprint can
thereby cancer and other genetic
abnormalities.
The following organs can also be affected by
radiation:
● cells of the embryo in the uterus
● lymph glands
● bone marrow
● intestinal tract
● thyroid glands
● female breast and egg cells
● (if above organs where affected these
may result to thyroid cancer and
leukemia, and may affect the physical
and mental development of adolescents
and children)
Module 11: Assessing the Impact of Human
activities on the Environment
An environmental impact assessment is a
formal process used to predict the environmental
consequences of a plan, policy, program of
project prior the implementation decision, it
proposes measures to adjust the impacts to
acceptable levels or to investigate new
technological.
An environmental impact assessment (EIA) is
an assessment of the possible positive or
negative impact that a proposed project may
have on the environment, considering natural,
Social and Economic aspects.
Environment Impact Assessment is a very
beneficial step to check, whether the project is
environment friendly or not.
• Since economic development is result of
interaction between natural resources and
technology supported by designed for people, so
all human activity should be economic, social
and environment friendly.
According Association of Impact Assessment
(IAIA)
The process of identifying, predicting,evaluating
to The International and mitigating the
biophysical, social,and other relevant effects of
developmentproposals prior to major decisions
being takenand commitments made.
● EIAs began to be used in the 1960s as
part of a rational decision making
process.
● It involved a technical evaluation that
would lead to objective decision
making.
● EIA was made legislation in the US in
the National Environmental Policy Act
(NEPA) 1969.
The main steps in EIAs process:
 ● Screening
● Scoping
● Prediction
● Mitigation
● Management and Monitoring
● Audit
Screening often results in a categorization of the
project and from this a decision is made on
whether or not a full EIA is to be carried out.
Scoping is the process of determining which are
the most critical issues to study and will involve
community participation to some degree. It is at
this early stage that EIA can most strongly
influence the outline proposal.
Detailed prediction and mitigation studies
follow scoping and are carried out in parallel
with feasibility studies.
The main output report is called an
Environmental Impact Statement, and contains
a detailed plan for managing and monitoring
environmental impacts both during and after
implementation.
Finally, an audit of the EIA process is carried
out some time after implementation. The audit
serves a useful feedback and learning function.
Flow diagram of the EIA process and parallel
studies
Data Requirements
Project
»Type
»Size
»Location
Area of potential impact
»Physical resources
»Biological resources
»Economic development resources
»Quality of life
»Other existing and planned projects
Externalities of EIA
Positive Externalities:
1. New jobs generated, economic growth
stimulated.
2. Growth of local business enterprises
supported.
3. Development of supporting and
complementary industries.
4. Influx of capital and disposable income.
Negative Externalities:
Social impacts:
1. Impacts on health of local population.
2. Increase in crime and deviant behaviour.
3. Additional pressure on the existing physical
infrastructure (sewage, water supply etc.).
4. Decline in community cohesion.
5. Changed cultural values.
Environmental impacts:
1. Depletion of natural resources.
2. Destruction of habitats.
3. Change in ph, oxygen level, toxicity of water.
4. Increase in toxicity of air.
5. Global warming.
6. Ozone depletion.
Benefits of conducting EIA
1. Facilitates informed decision making by
providing clear, well structured dispassionate
analysis of the effect and consequences of
proposed projects.
2. Pre-emption or early withdrawal of unsound
proposals.
3. Assists in the selection of alternatives,
including the selection of the best practicable
and most environmentally friendly option.
4. Results in best practice prediction and
mitigation of adverse effects of projects.
5. Influences both project selection and design
by screening out environmentally unsound
projects, as well as modifying feasible projects -
Mitigation of negative environmental and social
impacts.
6. Guides formal approval, including the
establishment of terms and conditions of project
implementation and follow- up.
7. Mitigation of negative environmental and
social impacts.
8. Serves as an adaptive, organizational learning
process, in which the lessons of experience are
feedback into policy, institutional and project
design - Enhancement of positive aspects
Module 12: Environmental Economics
“Our world has become a dangerous place to
live in, not because of some people who are evil,
but because of the many people who do not do
anything about it.” - Albert Einstein
Environmental Economic is an economic area
where it is believed that the environment has an
impact on the economy. This is based on the
theory that poor management of natural
resources will lead to failures in the market, and
thus environmental policies need to exist for the
market’s benefit.
Environmental economists research economic
issues relating to environmental issues. They
consider the environmental costs of economic
growth such as pollutants and how those factors
could influence economics; they may also look
into how the environment may offset costs
associated with economics.
An example of this could be the costs in
removing an ecosystem in a community. An
environmental economist would look at the
situation and consider what services the
ecosystem in question currently provides. The
trees in the area would be removing carbon
dioxide from the air, and individual species that
live in the area may be necessary for preventing
pests from entering nearby farm fields. These
factors would show that there could be a better
benefit to leaving the ecosystem than removing
it.
Environmental Economics
● Seek to reduce these losses in an
efficient ways as well as to compare the
costs of environmental damage to the
costs of its improvement.
● Seek to quantify human losses such as
damaged health, lower productivity, and
depleted natural resources brought about
by economic activities that harm the
environment.
● In classical economics, the three factors
of production are land, labor and
production. As an example, if the owner
of the land decides to burn garbage and
the resulting smoke blows into nearby
properties affecting other people, does
the responsible party pays for the
medical expenses of these people? What
if they pollute a stream affecting the
water source of people who resides near
that land, who will responsible for these
damages?
Whatever the owner of the land decides to do
with his/her properties, it will inevitably affect
the surrounding environment and other people.
Economic Principles
● Economic principles can be used to
quantify the outcomes of an
environmental project as well as costs
apportioned to it.
● The article, Tragedy of the Commons
will be analyzed to study the effects of
free and open access to natural
resources. Garrett Hardin wrote an
influential article in 1968 entitled, “The
Tragedy of the Commons”. He talks
about the use of a shared limited
resource (commons) that is ultimately
destroyed because of the self-interest of
various individuals. Hardin stresses that
overexploitation of limited resources
ultimately dooms the resource. This
concept can be applied to many
environmental problems those
mentioned in the previous lectures, not
just on overgrazing.
● In the article, he stated a hypothetical
example regarding herders sharing a
common parcel of land in which they are
allowed to let their cows graze. It is in
the interest of the herder to put as many
cows as possible that can eventually
damage the commons.
● Hardin stresses that overexploitation of
limited resources ultimately dooms the
resource. Hardin’s concept traces back
to Aristotle who noted that “what is
common to the greatest number has the
least care bestowed upon it.” To stop
tragedy from happening, one can
restraint the use of resource to allow
sustainable renewal and repair.
Garrett Hardin (1968)
- Born 21 April 1915
 - Dellas, Texas
- Died September 14, 2003 (aged 88)
- Santa Barbara, California
- Fields Ecology
- Known for The Tragedy of the
Commons
Cases: Tragedy of the Commons
Tragic Crash No.1
The influx of people from the provinces to
Manila create a lot of problems. With limited
space, resources, diminishing opportunities, and
a lot of people, the effects are: cheaper labor,
high unemployement rate, more crimes,
prostitution, etc. It creates a never ending loop of
crashes enforcing a weak decision founded on
the assumption that life is better in Manila.
Tragic Crash No. 2
Summer just began and everyone was searching
for a good grazing area. A herder found a spot
best for feeding his cattle. Soon after, other
herders knew of the place and decided to let their
“cattle” graze in the same area. Others brought
their goats, sheep, and other herbivores.
Eventually, there was little or no grass for all
animals.
Tragic Crash No. 3
Procter & Gamble and Wal-Mart share a similar
goal: to improve profitability and effectiveness
of their respective distribution/production
system. However, P&G’s price promotions not
only incur extra cost to but also take a toll on
Wal-Mart’s item stocks. Wal-Mart then blames
P&G for low sales. P&G thinks the problem is
Wal-Marts distribution system or promotion
program.
Tragic Crash No. 4
A new road was contructed to ease congestion in
your area. Upon its opening to the public,
everyone was eager to use it. A massive traffic
was formed. Considering the poor condition of
the old roads, motorists insist on using the new
one even if its primary purpose was to ease
congestion.
Understanding Problems
A problem is an obstacle which makes it
difficult to achieve a desired goal, objective or
purpose. It refers to a situation, condition, or
issue that is yet unresolved. In a broad sense, a
problem exists when an individual becomes
aware of a significant difference between what
actually is and what is desired.
Common problems can be categorized in many
different ways:
- according to level of difficulty or gravity
- by nature
- by impact
- by scope
EXTERNALITIES
● In economics, these items are labelled as
externalities in which the responsible
party does not pay for these expenses.
More technically, it is a consequence of
a decision that falls on someone other
than decision-maker. These costs
therefore, become the expenses of the
community wherein the government
decides how to deal with these costs.
● To regulate environmental common
areas and to compensate those who bear
the costs, responsible ownership should
be practiced. Thus, finding ways for
companies to comply with
environmental policies while
maintaining the robustness of the
business is the job of environmental
economists.
COST-BENEFIT ANALYSIS (CBA)
● Cost and benefits are usually measured
in dollars (or monetary value). Cost-
benefit analyses are used by
environmental economists to assess the
cost of doing business in environmental
terms. It is used analyze the cost and
benefits of a proposed environmental
policy
● The benefits of having environmental
policies can include improved air and
water quality, reduced mortality rate for
all species, species preservation, and
better recreational opportunities. Costs
can include higher taxes or the creation
of new taxes, internal and external costs,
and even externalities. If these benefits
are deemed “priceless” then the purpose
 of using costs and benefit analyses to
influence decision is forfeited. However,
not assigning monetary value to the
environment is assuming that it is free
for all to be used.
STAGES OF COST-BENEFIT ANALYSIS
1. Define project or policy. The economist must
consider whose welfare will benefit in the
project or policy and the time period of the
project.
2. Identify physical impacts of the project or
policy. The implications of the outcomes must
be identified in units. Examples can be the
removal of 400 billion tons of landfill, 800 labor
hours required to implement the project.
3. Value impacts. The impact of a specific action
or inaction must be valued in accordance to its
marginal cost or benefit.
4. Discount cost and benefit flows. The sooner
the benefit is received the more valuable it is.
For cost, the further way in time it is incurred,
the less damaging it is. Thus, to reflect present
net values, both costs and benefits must be
discounted.
5. Apply the net present value test. To get the net
present value, subtract the sum of costs in
present value to the sum of the benefits in
present value. Thus, if NPV > 0, the project must
be accepted. If the discounted benefits exceed
the discounted costs, the project must be
considered.
6. Apply sensitivity analysis. Re-compute the net
present value if certain parameters are sensitive
to changes. As an example, 40 thousand liters of
paint are needed to reduce the damage on
building structures in a city in the US by 30%. If
50 thousand liters of paint can reduce the
damage is done by acid rain by 60%. The
following parameters must be reviewed
conducting sensitivity analysis:
a. Discount rate
b. Physical quantities and qualities of
inputs and outputs
c. Project lifespan
Problems and questions that may arise in
applying CBA:
1. Determining the value of the environment, is
it unethical to place monetary value on our
ecosystem such as the rainforest.
2. Predicting the effects of change in a single
parameter on the ecosystems. Understanding the
ripple effects of a certain environmental project
or policy is often unclear.
3. Manipulation of CBA. Can the CBA be
controlled to reflect the interest of the firm?
4. Discounting future costs and benefits. Is it
proper to discount costs and benefits? If so, by
what rate?
Economic Incentives Policies
Economic incentives seek to correct the situation
presented by Hardin by setting a price for the
environmental damage or creating ownership
rights to environmental goods. Some examples
of economic incentives policies are:
1. Environmental taxation. This incentive tries
to discourage environmentally degrading
behavior. Some examples of charges include:
emission charges, fuel taxes, and water pollution
charges. These charges may be used to finance
environmental renovation and improvement
projects.
2. Deposit-refund scheme. Under this scheme, a
deposit is paid by the purchaser on a certain
product or a container of certain product as soft
drink bottles or cans, waste oil, or even old
automobiles. When the container is returned to a
designated collection center, the deposit is
instantly refunded. The scheme provides an
incentive for the consumer to return the item and
it has no negative budgetary impact since the
incentive is being provided by the consumer’s
money.
3. Liability law. This law requires the person or
the company who caused immense damage to
the environment such as an oil spill to pay for
the clean-up and to pay damages to those who
were injured resulting from the action. This law
encourages those whose activities may pose
great risk to the environment to be extremely
cautions.
4. Disclosure strategies. This is to encourage
companies or persons whose activities may
cause great risk to the environment and danger
to the public to divulge or disclose the nature of
their activities.
5. Certification strategies. Third party certifiers
monitor the production processes of various
companies and allow these companies to label
their products “green” or “environmental
friendly” if the product has passed a series of
tests and standards. A survey revealed that most
consumers are willing to pay higher for products
that pose a lower environmental risk when being
produced or consumed.
Module 13: Environmental Management
System (EMS)
Be a candle or a mirror. “In this age of
darkness, there are two ways of spreading light.
You may either be a candle, or the mirror that
reflects its light.” – Ninoy Aquino
An Environmental Management System (EMS)
is a set of processes and practices that enable an
organization to reduce its environmental impacts
and increase its operating efficiency. This site
provides information and resources related to
EMS for small businesses and private industry,
as well as local, state and federal agencies. The
EPA continues with its progress in developing
and maintaining an environmental management
system at each of its offices, labs, and other
facility operations, focusing on the reduction of
the agency's environmental footprint.
An Environmental Management System
(“EMS”) is a tool that is continuously growing
in importance for companies. Most companies
need to manage their products/services,
employee safety, public opinion, environmental
impact and other related opportunities. An EMS
encompasses the methods and means to manage
all of these aspects within your organization and
helps you run and document its programs for
environment-related management. If you want to
become certified to ISO 14001:2015 we offer an
all-in one certification package.
This can and does include comprehensive and
systematic planning and commitment of key
resources for developing, implementing and
maintaining procedures for the preservation of
the environmental systems of the planet.
Basically, an EMS allows an organization to
continuously monitor and improve all of their
processes and impacts as it relates to the
environmental system that they have created as
part of their ongoing operations. Environmental
Management System (EMS)
An Environmental Management System is a
continual cycle of planning, implementing,
reviewing and improving the processes and
actions that an organization undertakes to meet
its businesses and environmental goals.
It is a set of management tools, principles and
procedures developed by organizations aimed at
systematically managing its environmental
affairs and the protection of human health.
Monitor an organization’s environmental
performance and integrates environmental
management to the daily operations and goals
Developing an EMS is usually built on:
Plan – to decide the purpose
Do – step by step action plan
Check - implement preventive action processes
Act – review the EMS program and apply the
previous steps.
How to develop an Environmental
Management System (EMS)?
1. Plan – the first step in planning for an EMS is
to decide the purpose or objective of developing
such. Goals must be clearly identified. Another
critical step in the planning stage is securing the
commitment of the top management in the
development and implementation of EMS.
2. Do – this stage describes the step by step
action plan in the implementation of the EMS.
As an example, the services that an organization
is offering results in the generation of regulated
waste and therefore must be covered with
sanitary permit.
3. Check – conduct internal audits to the EMS
processes and use the results to implement
corrective and preventive action processes.
4. Act – the results of the audits can also be used
by the management to review the EMS program
for any needed changes.
Summary of key EMS elements:

1. Policy statements – a statement of the
organization’s management’s commitment to the
project.
2. Significant environmental impacts – identified
environmental impacts of the organization’s
products, services, and activities.
3. Environmental objectives and targets – goals
of the EMS with the overall goals of the
organization.
4. Implementation – processes to be done to
meet objectives and goals.
5. Training – ensure employees are capable of
handling their environmental responsibilities.
6. Management review – internal audit of the
EMS its progress and outcome.
Why develop an EMS?
1. Saves company money and increases profits
by reducing waste at source.
2. Improves environmental performance and
image of the company.
3. Allows the organization to successfully
comply with present and future rigid
environmental regulations.
4. Improves employee awareness on
environmental issues and responsibilities.
5. May qualify to an ISO 14001 certification.
ISO 14000 (International Organization for
Standardization) – the function of the
organization is to develop voluntary technical
standards for businesses, government, and
society that aim at making the development,
manufacture and supply of goods and services
more efficient, safe, and clean.
ISO 14001 – First published in September 1996;
second edition was published in 2004
ISO 14004:2004 – provides guidelines on the
elements of an EMS and its implementation
together with principal issues involved.
The name ISO is derived from the Greek word
isos meaning equal. ISO, located in Geneva,
Switzerland is a non-governmental organization
established in 1947. Refers to a set of standards
and guidance that assist organizations address
environmental issues. Includes the following
standards for:
1. Environmental Management Systems
2. Environmental and EMS auditing
3. Performance evaluation
4. Life cycle assessment
Objectives that can be met with compliance to
ISO 14001:2004 as stated in the ISO 14000
Essentials
Internal:
1. Provide assurance to management that the
organizational processes and activities having an
impact on the environmental are under control.
2. Assurance employees that they are working
for an environmentally responsible organization.
External:
1. Provide assurance to external stakeholders.
2. Make sure that the organization complies with
environmental regulations.
3. Support the organization’s claims and
communication about its own environmental
policies, plans and actions.
4. Provides a framework for demonstrating
conformity via suppliers’ declarations of
conformity, assessment of conformity by an
external stakeholder and for certification of
conformity by an independent certification body.
Environmental Performance Indicator
1. Identify key environmental costs and benefits
such as water use, energy use, and waste among
others.
2. Identify key interested parties and any other
concerns such as topics of complaint, and areas
of bad publicity among others.
3. Develop measures of performance that are
feasible, and that accurately reflect the area of
concern. Match this with appropriate levels of
comparable figures for the future.
4. Create simple and clear EPI’s for easier
communication and evaluation.
5. Identify all actions, and provisions for training
materials, and equipment that will be used in
data collection.
6. Identify how EPI’s will be used as it might
affect how the format in which to collect and
present data will be developed.
Sample Questionnaire: The checklist may also
guide the organization in reviewing their
activities, operations, products and services that
could significantly impact the environment.
Emission/Discharge
1. Have all sources of emissions to water, air,
and land been identified?
2. Have all stacks, vents, and exhausts and
associated air pollutant sources been identified
and located?
3. Have the emission being released into the
environment by the organization’s operations
been identified, quantified and minimized?
4. Can all emissions, including any low
concentration contaminants, be qualified? Is the
company aware of the physical and chemical
characteristics of these emissions? 5. Are
emissions monitored and are detailed records
kept? Do these emissions consistently meet legal
requirements?
Energy
1. Is energy used efficiently?
2. Have ways to reduce consumption been
investigated?
3. Is energy consumption regularly reviewed?
4. Are employees trained in energy
conservation?
5. Are energy bills/usage monitored by
individual departments or the company
centrally?
Paper
1. Can paper use be reduced or made more
efficient by means such as greater use of
electronic mail, voice communication or changes
in office practices.
2. Can more recycled paper be used in offices?
3. Have possibilities for recycling waste paper
been investigated? Would it reduce waste
disposal costs?
4. Are different types of waste paper separated
for reuse and recycling?
5. How many internal and external business
forms does the organization have? Are they all
necessary?
Storage on Site
1. Are any raw materials, products or waste
materials that are stored on site properly
managed to minimize risk environmental
damage?
2. Are any legal requirements relating to storing
potentially hazardous materials met?
3. Are storage areas contained to prevent run-off
of chemicals in the event of an accident or fire?
4. Are hazardous materials handled properly
during delivery and unloading?
5. Are bulk storage tanks fitted with low or high
level alarms, and are vent pumps fitted and
protected against electrostatic hazards for
flammable materials?
Module 14: Environmental Assessment and
Monitoring System
“We can change the future by changing it
today.” – John Maxwell
Environmental assessment (EA) is the
assessment of the environmental consequences
(positive negative) of a plan, policy, program, or
actual projects prior to the decision to move
forward with the proposed action. In this
context, the term "environmental impact
assessment" (EIA) is usually used when applied
to actual projects by individuals or companies
and the term "strategic environmental
assessment" (SEA) applies to policies, plans and
programmes most often proposed by organs of
state. It is a tool of environmental management
forming a part of project approval and decision-
making. Environmental assessments may be
governed by rules of administrative procedure
regarding public participation and
documentation of decision making, and may be
subject to judicial review.
The purpose of the assessment is to ensure that
decision makers consider the environmental
impacts when deciding whether or not to
proceed with a project. The International
Association for Impact Assessment (IAIA)
defines an environmental impact assessment as
"the process of identifying, predicting,
evaluating and mitigating the biophysical, social,
and other relevant effects of development
proposals prior to major decisions being taken
and commitments made". EIAs are unique in
that they do not require adherence to a
predetermined environmental outcome, but
rather they require decision makers to account
for environmental values in their decisions and
to justify those decisions in light of detailed
environmental studies and public comments on
the potential environmental impacts.
Human health and ecological risk assessment
from exposure to chemicals:
Risk assessment is a tool that can help scientists
and regulators identify serious health hazards
and determine realistic goals for reducing
exposure to toxic chemicals.
● prevent significant health threat to the
public due to hazards posed by toxic
chemicals in the environment.
● estimate the current and future effects of
chemical exposure from a contaminated
environment on growth, reproduction,
and survival of animal and plant species.
● Usually done by specialists and
scientists with degrees in toxicology,
and epidemiology together with
biologists, physicians, chemists,
engineers.
● An epidemiologic study is usually
performed by scientists to identify the
link between chemical exposures and
health problems within a community.
● A survey is done to determine the health
problems in a community in comparison
to the health problems with those in
other communities or cities or with the
whole population.
The National Epidemiology Center of the
Department of Health in the Philippines:
● evaluates and investigates, and analyzes
diseases outbreaks and other threats to
the public’s health.
● provides technical assistance and expert
services on matters pertaining to
epidemiological and health surveillance
capabilities
The Environmental Management Bureau of
the Department of Environment and Natural
Resources
● Provides services to the attainment of an
environmental quality that is conducive
for present and future generations. It
services include management of air
quality, water quality, and toxic and
hazardous chemicals.
Health Risk Assessment
Health risk assessments can help managers, and
environmental specialists of an organization
weigh benefits and costs of various alternatives
and programs for reducing exposure to
chemicals.
The Office of Environmental Health Hazard
Assessment of the California Environmental
Protection. The group is responsible for
developing procedures and practices for
performing health risk assessment.
Four – Step Process of risk Assessment
Step 1: Hazard Identification
● various chemical research studies are
reviewed that could assist scientists to
determine the types of health problems a
chemical could cause.
● Health effects from exposure to
chemicals:
- headaches
- nausea
- eye, nose, and throat irritation
- chronic diseases such as cancer
Step 2: Exposure Assessment
● scientists determine the extent of
exposure to chemicals: how long the
people were exposed; how much
chemical they were exposed to; and how
people were exposed.
● exposure can be through eating,
drinking, skin contact, and breathing.
● the following information are required to
determine the extent of exposure to
chemicals from industrial facilities:
- type of chemical released
- hours of operation of a
particular industrial facility
- process that release the chemical
- smokestack height and
temperature
- presence of any pollution-
control equipment
- local topography and
meteorology
- census data of the exposed
population
Step 3: Dose – Response Assessment
 ● scientists determine the amount of dose
a person was exposed to a particular
chemical.
● for chemicals that can cause cancer,
there are no exposures that are “zero
risk” since even low exposure to cancer
chemicals may still increase the risk for
cancer.
Step 4: Risk Characterization
● all the facts developed during the
exposure and dose – response
assessments are analyzed to describe the
resulting health risks that are expected to
occur in the exposed population.
● For example, a cancer risk of one in one
million means that not more than one
additional person would be expected to
develop cancer as the result of the
exposure to the chemical causing that
risk in a population of one million
people.
Air Quality Assessment and Monitoring
System
Air quality in the Philippines is officially
monitored by the Department of Environment
and Natural Resources (DENR), through the
Environmental Management Bureau (EMB)
to generate necessary information in formulating
comprehensive pollution control and
management program. The monitoring
equipment measures pollutant concentrations
stored in a data logger and transmitted to data
acquisitions system located at the EMB Central
Office in Quezon City.
The monitoring stations generate hourly
average concentrations of the following:
1. PM10 ( particulate matter with a diameter of
10 micrometers)
2. PM2.5 (particulate matter with a diameter of
2.5 micrometers)
3. SO2 (Sulfur dioxide)
4. NO2 (Nitrogen dioxide)
5. NO (Nitrogen oxide)
6. Ozone (O3)
7. CO (Carbon monoxide)
8. Benzene
9. Xylene
10. Toluene
11. CH4 (Methane)
12. Methane hydrocarbon
13. Total hydrocarbon
Sources of Pollution
1. Mobile sources – motor vehicles that do not
pass the emission testing conducted by the land
Transportation Office through Private Emission
Testing Centers (PETC)
2. Stationary sources – different facilities that
did not pass the standard emission for sulfur
dioxide or particulate matter such as industrial
boilers, thermal plants, incinerators, and
smelling furnaces.
3. Areas sources – those that did not comply the
Ecological Solid Waste Management Act 2000
(R.A. 9003) re-open burning of solid waste.
Responses of Government, NGO, and Private
Sectors:
1. Airshed designation – geothermal airsheds
cover areas with existing geothermal energy.
2. Emission standards – maximum hydrocarbons
emission from motorcycles and tricycles are set
at 7,800 ppm (parts-per-million).
3. Motor vehicle emission testing – starting
January 1, 2003, passing an emission test before
the registration of vehicles.
4. Anti – smoke belching – Makati Pollution and
Control Office (MPCO), Lapu-lapu in Cebu plan
to pass an anti-smoke belching ordinance, Task
Force Bantay Tambutso in Eastern Visayas, and
Metro Manila Development Authority (MMDA)
suggested apprehended vehicles should be
impounded to stop them from polluting the air,
and when caught for the third time, the vehicles
should be destroyed.
5. Alternative fuels – compressed natural gases
(CNG), liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), ethanol,
and coco-methyl esters (CME)
6. LGU initiatives - from two-stroke to four-
stroke tricycles, smoke-free Makati, motorized
to non-motorized transport, incineration to non-
burn technology.
7. Compliance assistance to industries - tax
credits, exemption from real property tax, tax
incentives for industries operating within Special
economic zones or Freeport zones.
Clean Air Act ( R.A. No. 8749)
1. establishment of a National Research and
Development Program.
2. ambient air quality guidelines and standards.
3. airsheds including designation of regional
industrial centers as special airsheds with
emission quotas.
4. strengthening of LGU’s role in implementing
air quality standard within its jurisdiction.
5. creation of an air quality management fund.
6. creation of an emission charge system.
7. financial guarantee mechanisms for
environmental rehabilitation of degraded areas.
8. point of emission guidelines and standards.
9. prohibition of incineration and phasing out of
bio-medical incinerators for three years.
10. exhaust emission limits for motor vehicles
including requirements for registration of motors
vehicles.
11. standard for all type of fuels and fuel –
related products.
12. prohibition on manufacture, import, and sale
of leaded gasoline and of engines requiring
leaded gasoline.
13. special mention of ozone – depleting
substances, greenhouses gases, persistent
organic pollutants and radioactive emissions.
14. increase in fines and penalties for violators
of this act.
Water Quality Monitoring
Laboratory studies are undertaken to check the
following physico-chemical and bacteriological
parameters present in water:
1. turbidity – measures the clarity of water
2. dissolved oxygen – amount of oxygen
dissolved in water
3. biological oxygen demand – measures the
amount of oxygen used by microorganisms
4. total dissolved solids – measures the amount
of dissolved solids in a solution
5. total suspended solids – measures the amount
of undissolved solid particles in water
6. fecal coliform bacteria – microscopic
organisms that live on the intestines of all warm
blooded animals, and in animal wastes or feces
7. total coliform bacteria – microorganisms that
live in large numbers in soils, plants, and
intestines of humans
8. temperature – measures how to cool or warm
the water is
9. oil and grease
Sources of bacteria in drinking water:
1. human and animal waste
2. runoff from pastures, dog runs (yard), and
other land areas where animal waste are
deposited
3. discharge from septic tanks, sewage treatment
facilities, and natural plant/soil bacteria
4. insects, rodents, and animals
Key Stakeholders in the Water Sector:
1. Department of Health (DOH) – responsible
for water quality monitoring and development of
standards for drinking water
2. Department of Public Works and Highways
(DPWH) – responsible for the construction of
major water supply
3. National Water Resources Board –
responsible for licensing water resources for
development
4. Department of Environment and Natural
Resources (DENR) – responsible for the
development of water quality criteria for
freshwater standards and effluent standard
5. Laguna Lake Development Authority (LLDA)
– monitors the provinces that contribute to the
water quality of the Laguna de Bay
6. Manila Waterworks and Sewerage System
(MWSS) – supplies water to metropolitan
ManilaLocal Water Utilities
7. Administration (LWUA) – monitors the water
districts and private utilities operating in
different provinces.
Legal framework and policies pertaining to
water quality control, use and management:
● Philippine Clean Water Act of 2004
(Republic Act No. 9275)
● National Water Code in 1976
● DENR Administrative Order No. 94-
26A Philippine National Standards for
Drinking Water
● Presidential Decree 984 Pollution
Control Law (1976)
● Presidential Decree 856 Sanitation Code
of the Philippines
Programs and activities of the EMB of the
DENR for water quality management:
● fully implements the Ecological Solid
Waste Management (ESWM) Act and
the Clean Water Act (CWA)
● implement the Sagip-Ilog Program and
Linis Hangin Program
 ● conduct water pollution discharge
inventory
● industrial effluent (wastewater
discharge) monitoring on all major
industries
● continuous implementation of Tap
Watch Program
● continuously pursue the “Beach Eco –
Watch”
Philippine Environmental Laws
● Philippine Clean Air Act of 1999 (R.A.
No. 8749) – providing a comprehensive
air pollution control policy.
● Tobacco Regulation Act of 2003 (R.A.
No. 9211) – regulating the packaging,
use, sale distribution and advertisements
of tobacco products.
● Toxic Substances and Hazardous and
Nuclear Waste Control Act of 1990
(R.A. No. 6969) – regulate, restrict or
prohibit the importation, manufacture,
processing, sale, distribution, use and
disposal of chemical substances and
mixtures that present unreasonable risk
and/or injury to health or the
environment.
● Ecological Solid Waste Management
Act of 2000 (R.A. No. 9003) – creating
the necessary institutional mechanisms
and incentives, declaring certain acts
prohibited and providing penalties.
● Philippine Clean Water Act of 2004
(R.A. No. 9275) – providing a
comprehensive water quality
management of our fresh, brackish and
marine waters focusing on pollution
prevention.
● The Water Code of the
Philippines (P.D. No. 1067) – this
decree revised and consolidated the
Laws governing the ownership,
appreciation, utilization, exploitation,
development, conservation and
protection of water resources.
● Wildlife Resources Conservation and
Protection Act (R.A. 9147) – the law
provide for the conservation and
protection of wildlife resources an their
habitats.
● National Integrated Protected Areas
System Act of 1992 (R.A. No. 7586) – the
act providing and management of
(NIPAS).
Module 15: International Collaboration in
Assessing and Monitoring the Environment
“Science is a collaborative effort. The combined
result of several people working together is
often much more effective than could be that of
an individual scientist working alone.” United
Nations (UN)
The UN Environment Programme World
Conservation Monitoring Centre
(UNEPWCMC) is an executive agency of UN
Environment Programme, based in Cambridge in
the United Kingdom. UNEP-WCMC has been
part of UN Environment Programme since 2000,
and has responsibility for biodiversity
assessment and support to policy development
and implementation.[1] The World Conservation
Monitoring Centre was previously an
independent organisation jointly managed by
IUCN, UN Environment Programme and WWF
established in 1988, and prior to that the Centre
was a part of the IUCN Secretariat.
The occurrence of natural and socially driven
catastrophic events has increased in the last few
decades in response to global environmental
changes. One of the most societally relevant
challenges in managing the effects of these
events is the establishment of risk management
strategies that focus on managing vulnerability,
particularly in disfavored countries, and
communities among them. Most cases of
enhanced vulnerability occur in, but are not
limited to, developing countries, where the
combination of social inequity, inappropriate use
of natural resources, population displacement,
and institutional mistrust, among other factors,
make risk management particularly challenging.
Environmental risks will be an area of increasing
concern in the future. The main drivers are not
only environmental processes per se, but also the
socio-economic systems which interact with
environmental processes. A successful
management of environmental risks needs to be
based on integral development planning.
Functions:
1. Maintain international peace and unity.
2. Develop friendly relations among nations
based on respect for the principle of equal rights
and self determination of people.
3. Cooperate in solving international economic,
social, cultural, and humanitarian problems and
in promoting respect for human rights and
fundamental freedoms.
4. Be a center for harmonizing the actions of
nations in attaining these ends
Main bodies of the UN that focus on
environmental issues:
Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC) – the
council is the central forum in discussing social
and economic issues, and in formulating policy
recommendations in uplifting human conditions,
promoting higher standards of living, and
identifying solution to international economic,
social, and health problems.
United Nations Economic Commission for
Europe (UNECE) – focuses on economic
cooperation and integration, energy,
environment , housing and land management,
population, statistics, timber , trade and
transport.
United Nations Environment Programme
(UNEP) – it reviews the global environment,
coordinates the development of environment
policy, and brings emerging issues to the
attention of governments and the international
community for actions.
Projects, declarations, and agreements on the
protection of the environment:
United Nations Millenium Declaration – it
fortifies the commitment of the organization in
solving various global issues including the
protection of the environment.
Kyoto Protocol – an international agreement on
climate change. The agreement sets target to 37
industrialized countries and the European
community in the reduction of greenhouse gases
emissions.
Energy Efficiency 21 Project (Energy Efficiency
Investment Project Development for Climate
Change Mitigation) – a region-wide project
which aims to assists economies in transition to
develop and promote sustainable energy
policies, pursue energy efficiency strategies,
reduce greenhouse gas emissions.
Agenda 21 (Rio Declaration on Environment
and Development) – a comprehensive plan of
action to human health conditions, human
settlement, managing the ecosystems and
biodiversity, promoting education, and
sustainable development.
Madrid Protocol (The Protocol on Environment
Protection to the Antarctic Treaty) – a treaty that
was agreed on 1991 to protect Antarctica for 50
years from commercial mining and exploration
activities, other than scientific research.
Montreal Protocol on Substances that Depletes
the Ozone Layer – the treaty is designed to
protect the ozone layer by phasing out the
production of a number of substances believed to
be responsible for ozone depletion. The ozone
layer is expected to recover from HCFC’s,
carbon tetrachloride, and methyl chloroform by
the year 2050.
G8 or Group of 8 Summit
1. An annual summit meeting that brings
together heads of government of rich and
emerging countries to discuss issues of mutual or
global concern.
2. Aims to seal an international pact for curbing
greenhouses gases
Member countries:
- Britain
- Canada
- France
- Germany
- Italy
- Japan
- Russia
- United States
ASEAN (Association of Southeast Asian
Nations)
1. Established on August 8, 1967 with the aim of
accelerating economic growth, social progress,
and cultural development in Southeast Asia.
2. Intends to promote regional peace and
stability with adherence to principles of the
United Nation chapter.
Member countries:
- Indonesia
- Malaysia
- Singapore
- Thailand
- Brunei
 - Darussalam
- Vietnam
- Lao People Democratic Republic (Laos)
- Myanmar
- Cambodia
Ten priority area:
1. Global environment issues
2. Land and forest fires and transboundary haze
pollution
3. Coastal and marine environment
4. Sustainable forest management
5. Sustainable management of natural parks and
protected areas
6. Freshwater resources
7. Public awareness and environmental
education
8. Promotion of environmentally sound
technologies and cleaner production
9 Urban environmental management and
governance
10. Sustainable development, monitoring and
reporting/database harmonization
ASEAN vision for 2020:
“a clean and green ASEAN with fully
established mechanisms for sustainable
development to ensure the protection of the
region’s environment, the sustainability of its
natural resources and the high quality of life of
its people.”
management, and enhancements of the
environment in the region.
● Member countries include:
Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, India,
Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan, and Sri
Lanka
● The organization has implemented a
number of programs and projects
concerning environment education,
environmental legislation, biodiversity,
air pollution, and the protection and
management of the coastal environment
The Male Declaration on Control and
Prevention of Air Pollution
The only environmental agreement formed in
Male, Maldives in April 1998 covering the
South Asian countries.
Major activities under the agreement:
● Base line study on air pollution and its
transboundary effects on each member
country.
● Compilation of expert’s database.
● Database on air pollution.
● Action plan to combat air pollution.
● Equipment and information for
quantitative monitoring.
● Monitoring and reporting.
● Policy recommendation for the
prevention of air pollution

Six working groups: International Union for Conservation of

● ASEAN Working Group on Nature Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN) The
Conservation and Biodiversity world’s largest and most important conservation
● ASEAN Working Group on Coastal and association that aims to influence and assist
Marine Environment societies throughout the world to conserve the
● ASEAN Working Group on Multilateral integrity and diversity of nature and to ensure
Environmental Agreement that any use of natural resources is equitable and
● ASEAN Working Group on ecologically sustainable.
Environmentally Sustainable Cities
● ASEAN Working Group on Water The IUCN has six Commissions that unite
Resources Management 10,000 volunteer workers to assess the state of
● ASEAN Working Group on the world’s natural resources and give the Union
Environmental Education advice on policies concerning issues on
conservation:
South Asia Co-operative Environment ● Species Survival Commission
Programme (SACEP) ● World Commission on Protected Areas
● Commission on Environmental Law
● An international organization composed ● Commission on Education and
of the governments of South Asia to Communication
promote and support protection, ● Commission on Environmental,
Economic and Social Policy
 ● Commission on Ecosystem Management

IUCN key products and services:

● IUCN categories for Protected Area
Management
● IUCN Red List of Threatened Species

The Conservation on International Trade in

Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora
(CITES)
● An international agreement to which
States must adhere voluntarily that
provide control structure on the trade of
animal and plants and wildlife products.

Lawsthat adopted the provisions of CITES:

● Kenyan Wildlife (Conservation and
Management) Act is one of the laws that
adopted the provisions of CITES by
banning all game animal hunting and
revoking all licenses to trade in wildlife
products since 1977.
● Zimbabwe Parks and Wildlife Act of
1975 also adopted provisions of CITES
by requiring individuals to obtain a
permit in collecting a protected
indigenous plant and or parts thereof for
export cultivation and propagation, and
for scientific purposes.