1

FE240 Introduction to
Civil Engineering
 GCE Vision 2
An institute with a focus on excellence in academics, research and industry
collaboration and nurturing human values in students.

GCE Mission
1. Formulate and Implement Curriculum that ensures high academic standards.
2. Provide infrastructure that meets academic and advance research requirements.
3. Collaborate with National. International Institutions, Laboratories and Industries
through student and faculty exchange programs, internships.
4. Undertake research and consultancy projects that are relevant to the state & the
nation.
5. Impart human values, awareness of environment and sustainable solutions in
student and faculty.
6. Nurture innovations, entrepreneurship, leadership, research management and life
skills.
 3
Civil Dept. Vision
To impart high quality knowledge and skills to students in the field of Civil
Engineering, encourage research, industry collaboration, consultancy and nurture
human values and life skills.

Civil Dept. Mission

M1: Impart knowledge and skill based training in Civil Engineering and allied fields.
M2: Promote research and industrial collaboration and consultancy
M3: Inculcate leadership qualities, human values, concerns for environment and
society
M4: Nurture innovation, smart concepts, entrepreneurship and resource
management skills
 Course Outcomes (FE240) 4

At the end of the course the student will be able to explain:

 CO1: Explain the history and basic disciplines of civil engineering,

building materials, construction equipment, fundamentals of fire
safety, IoT in Civil engineering. (35%)
 CO2: Identify various processes and techniques involved in building
construction and structures. (25%)
 CO3: Compare various building materials, construction equipment’s,
different types of structures and fire safety systems. (25%)
 CO4: Determine sustainable building materials, IoT methods,
appropriate fire safety measures. (15%)
Syllabus Overview 5
 Basic Chemistry & Physics of Fire 6

 What is FIRE ?
Fire is a rapid oxidation process
that creates light, heat and
smoke that varies in intensity.
 Interaction of heat + fuel +
oxygen influences the
combustion rection and this
combination is called ‘Triangle
of Fire’
 Fuel involved may be in solid,
liquid or gaseous state.
 HEAT, SMOKE, LIGHT, GASES are
by-products of the reaction.
 Basic Chemistry & Physics of Fire 7
 Activation Energy:
To initiate a fire a certain amount of energy is needed.
Take the example of a simple test with petrol & diesel fuel. A match has
enough energy to light the petrol but the match extinguishes by diesel fuel.
In chemistry the energy needed to start a reaction is called the ACTIVATION
ENERGY.
 Chain Reaction:
Chemical reaction needs to surmount ACTIVATION ENERGY before the
reaction can take place.
In a fire, the initial energy sources that cause the fire can be multiple. E.g. A
spark, an open flame, electricity, sunlight, etc.
Once the reaction is started, it generates more than enough energy to self-
sustaining. A chain reaction occurs and the excess energy given off can be
seen in light and heat generated by the fire.
 Basic Chemistry & Physics of Fire 8
 Pyrolysis:
The energy liberated in the combustion process causes the chemical
composition of the fuel to breakdown into smaller molecules. This process is
called pyrolysis. This process causes the evaporation of the fuel.

 Complete Reaction:
Molecules evaporate & react with the oxygen in the air. Complete
combustion means that just enough oxygen molecules are present, to oxidise
the fuel molecules.
 Basic Chemistry & Physics of Fire 9
 Reaction Surface:
Next to fuel, oxygen & energy the mixing ratio between oxygen & fuel is also
important. Example, a log of wood will not sustain a fire if it is lit with a match.
An amount of wood shavings will causes a better mixture between fuel and
air, which favours combustion. Larger surface of the fuel in contact with the
air causes a greater REACTION SURFACE which favours combustion.
 Basic Chemistry & Physics of Fire 10
 Inhibitor:
In a fire a chemical chain reaction occurs. Radicals of fuel react with radicals
of oxygen and heat which produces the combustion products.
Adding a chemical molecule which reacts with those radicals without
sustaining the combustion process can stop the fire. This chemical is called
inhibitor.
This principle is used in dry chemical extinguishers which contain e.g.
potassium or sodium bicarbonate or in the now banned halon extinguishers.
 Basic Chemistry & Physics of Fire 11
 Catalyst:
Catalyst has the opposite effect of an inhibitor. It is a substance which
promotes the reaction (without being altered or used in the reaction). E.g.
adding metal shavings to oil rags aids their combustion.
 Basic Chemistry & Physics of Fire 12
 Ignition temperature:
The ignition temperature of a substance (solid, liquid or gaseous) is the
minimum temperature to which the substance exposed to air must be
heated in order to cause combustion of fire.
 Fire or Flash Point:
The lowest temperature at which a substance continues to burn is called fire
point or flash point.
 Auto - Ignition Temperature
The lowest temperature at which a solid, liquid or gas will self-ignite without
an ignition source. Auto-ignition temperature of substances exceeds its
flashpoint. Auto-Ignition temperature of substances exceeds its flashpoint.
 Basic Chemistry & Physics of Fire 13
 Ignition temperature:
The ignition temperature of a substance (solid, liquid or gaseous) is the
minimum temperature to which the substance exposed to air must be
heated in order to cause combustion of fire.
 Fire or Flash Point:
The lowest temperature at which a substance continues to burn is called fire
point or flash point.
 Basic Chemistry & Physics of Fire 14
 Volatility:
Volatility is how readily a liquid will evaporate. The volatility of a substance is
closely linked to its boiling point. The higher the boiling point of a liquid the
harder it will be for the liquid to evaporate. Lower the boiling point, greater
the fire risk.
 Flashover:
IN A COMPARTMENT FIRE THERE CAN COME ASTAGE WHERE THE TOTAL THERMAL
RADIATION FROM THE FIRE PLUME, HOT GASES AND HOT COMPARTMENT BOUNDARIES
CAUSES THE GENERATION OF FLAMMABLE PRODUCTS OF PYROLYSIS FROM ALL
EXPOSED COMBUSTIBLE SURFACES WITHIN THE COMPARTMENT.
GIVEN A SOURCE OF IGNITION, THIS WILL RESULT IN THE SUDDEN AND SUSTAINED
TRANSITION OF A GROWING FIRE TO A FULLY DEVELOPED FIRE. THIS IS CALLED
'FLASHOVER’. MAIN FEATURE OF A 'FLASHOVER' IS THAT THERE IS TRANSITION TO A STATE
OF TOTAL FIRE
 Basic Chemistry & Physics of Fire 15
 Backdraft:
LIMITED VENTILATION CAN LEAD TO A FIRE IN A COMPARTMENT PRODUCING FIRE
GASES, CONTAINING SIGNIFICANT PROPORTIONS OF PARTIAL COMBUSTION PRODUCTS
AND UNBURNT PYRO LYSIS PRODUCTS (UNDER-VENTILATED FIRE).
IF THESE ACCUMULATE, THEN THE ADMISSION OF AIR WHEN AN OPENING IS MADE TO
THE COMPARTMENT CAN LEAD TO A SUDDEN INCREASE OF THE FIRE.
THIS INCREASE IN FIRE, MOVING THROUGH THE COMPARTMENT AND OUT OF THE
OPENING, IS CALLED BACKDRAFT
 Basic Chemistry & Physics of Fire 16
 FIRE SPERAD:
FIRE SPREADS QUICKLY & GEOMETRICALLY.
RELEASED HEAT INCREASES TEMPERATURE IN THE VICINITY.
HIGH TEMPERATURE CAUSES SELF IGNITION IN OTHER FUELS.
THE HEAT LIBERATED BY THE FIRE ALSO CAUSES THE SURROUNDING MATERIALS TO WARM
UP. THE HEAT TRANSFER IS ACCOMPLISHED BY THREE MEANS, USUALLY
SIMULTANEOUSLY: CONDUCTION, CONVECTION, RADIATION.
 Basic Chemistry & Physics of Fire 17
 CONDUCTION:
DIRECT THERMAL ENERGY TRANSFER DUE TO CONTACT.
MATERIALS CONDUCT HEAT AT VARYING RATES. METALS ARE VERY GOOD
CONDUCTORS WHILE CONCRETE AND PLASTICS ARE VERY POOR CONDUCTORS,
HENCE GOOD INSULATORS.
NEVERTHELESS A FIRE IN ONE SIDEWALL OF A COMPARTMENT WILL RESULT IN THE
TRANSFER OF HEAT TO THE OTHER SIDE OF THE WALL.
 Basic Chemistry & Physics of Fire 18
 CONVECTION:
HEAT TRANSFER THROUGH A LIQUID OR GAS
CAUSED BY DENSITY DIFFERENCE OF THE HOT MOLECULES COMPARED TO THE COLD
ONES (eg. BOILING WATER)
HOT AIR, GASES EXPAND AND RISE.
CONVECTION NORMALLY DETERMINES THE GENERAL DIRECTION OF THE FIRESPREAD.
CONVECTION CAUSES FIRES TO RISE AS HEAT RISES
 RADIATION:
ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVE TRANSFER OF HEAT TO AN OBJECT.
WAVES TRAVEL IN ALL DIRECTIONS FROM THE FIRE AND MAY BE REFLECTED OR
ABSORBED BY A SURFACE.
ABSORBED HEAT RAISES THE TEMPERATURE OF THE MATERIAL BEYOND ITS IGNITION
POINT, CAUSING IT TO IGNITE.
 Basic Chemistry & Physics of Fire 19
 FACTORS AFFECTING DEVELOPMENT OF FIRE:
PROVIDING THAT THERE IS SUFFICIENT FUEL AND OXYGEN AVAILABLE THE FIRE MAY
TOTALLY INVOLVE THE COMPARTMENT.
THE ITEMS FIRST IGNITED IS SUFFICIENTLY FLAMMABLE TO ALLOW FLAME SPREAD OVER
ITS SURFACES.
THE HEAT FLUX FROM THE FIRST FUEL PACKAGE IS SUFFICIENT TO IRRADIATE ADJACENT
FUEL PACKAGES WHICH IN TURN WILL BEGIN TO BURN.
SUFFICIENT FUEL EXISTS.
OPEN OR WELL-SEALED COMPARTMENT.
 FLASH OVER:
A TIME COMES WHEN THE FLAMES CEASE TO BE LOCALISED AND SPREADS TO THE
WHOLE COMPARTMENT VOLUME.
FIRE CHANGES FROM A SURFACE PHEMENON TO A VOLUME PROCESS
 Basic Chemistry & Physics of Fire 20
 FACTORS AFFECTING DEVELOPMENT OF FIRE:
PROVIDING THAT THERE IS SUFFICIENT FUEL AND OXYGEN AVAILABLE THE FIRE MAY
TOTALLY INVOLVE THE COMPARTMENT.
THE ITEMS FIRST IGNITED IS SUFFICIENTLY FLAMMABLE TO ALLOW FLAME SPREAD OVER
ITS SURFACES.
THE HEAT FLUX FROM THE FIRST FUEL PACKAGE IS SUFFICIENT TO IRRADIATE ADJACENT
FUEL PACKAGES WHICH IN TURN WILL BEGIN TO BURN.
SUFFICIENT FUEL EXISTS.
OPEN OR WELL-SEALED COMPARTMENT.
 FLASH OVER:
A TIME COMES WHEN THE FLAMES CEASE TO BE LOCALISED AND SPREADS TO THE
WHOLE COMPARTMENT VOLUME.
FIRE CHANGES FROM A SURFACE PHEMENON TO A VOLUME PROCESS
Basic Chemistry & Physics of Fire 21
 Basic Chemistry & Physics of Fire 22
 FIRE load:
The term fire load is used to indicate the amount of heat liberated in kilojoules per
square meters (kJ/m2) of floor area of any compartment by the combustion of
content of the building and any combustible part of the building itself.

The fire load is determined by multiplying the weights of all combustible material
by their respective calorific value and diving the floor area under consideration.

E.g.:- If building has a floor area of 90m2, containing 15 x 103 N of combustible

material having calorific value of 1.50 x 103 J/N, then

15 × 103 × 1.50 × 103

𝐹𝑖𝑟𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 = = 250 × 103 𝐽/𝑚2
90
 Basic Chemistry & Physics of Fire 23
GRADING OF OCCUPANCIES BY FIRE LOAD (BIS: 1641-1960)

Class of Fire
Limit in J/m2 Occupancies
Load
Domestic buildings, Hotels, Boarding
houses, Schools, Hospitals, Temples,
Low Not exceeding 1.15 x 106
Factories where NH (Non-Hazardous)
materials are used, etc
Retail shops, Emporium markets, Factories,
Moderate 1.15 x 106 to 2.30 x 106
Workshops, etc.
Godowns & similar structures used for bulk
High 2.23 x 106 to 4.60 x 106
storage of NH materials
Recognition of possible fire source 24
& emergency
Recognition of possible fire source 25
& emergency
Recognition of possible fire source 26
& emergency
Recognition of possible fire source 27
& emergency
Recognition of possible fire source 28
& emergency
Recognition of possible fire source 29
& emergency
Recognition of possible fire source 30
& emergency
Recognition of possible fire source 31
& emergency
Recognition of possible fire source 32
& emergency
Procedure in an event of fire 33
Procedure in an event of fire 34
Procedure in an event of fire 35
Procedure in an event of fire 36
Procedure in an event of fire 37
Procedure in an event of fire 38
Procedure in an event of fire 39
Procedure in an event of fire 40
Procedure in an event of fire 41
Procedure in an event of fire 42
Procedure in an event of fire 43
 Types of detecting devices 44

 Fire alarm is installed for protection of

life and property. In order for fire
alarm to be successful, it must be able
to perform these functions:
1) Deter the presence of fire.
2) Notify the occupants.
3) Notify the fire department.
 Basic Fire Alarm Technology:
1) Control Panel - As shown in fig to
the right.
Types of detecting devices 45

2) Classification of fire alarm detectors

Fire Alarm
Detecrtors

Automatic

Electronic Electromechanical

Flame Heat

Infrared

Ultraviolet

Smoke

Visible Invisible
 Types of detecting devices 46

 Contd..  Stage 2:
3) Selection of Detectors: SMOLDERING: Visible smoke
particles are (> 0.3microns). Little
 Stage 1:
visible flame or noticeable heat.
INCIPIENT: Product of combustion
particles are produced (< 0.30 PHOTOELECTRIC DETECTORS TO BE
microns). No visible smoke or USED.
detectable heat. May occur for
milliseconds or days.
IONIZATION DETECTORS TO BE USED
 Types of detecting devices 47

 Stage 3:  Stage 4:
FLAME: Rapid combustion produces HIGH HEAT: Uncontrolled
radiant energy in the visible and combustion is caused by the
visible (IR, UV) spectrums begins to heating of nearby combustibles to
build at this stage. their ignition.
SPARK OR FLAME DETECTORS TO BE HEAT DETECTORS TO BE USED
USED
 Types of detecting devices 48

4) Notification Appliances (Outputs)  Contd..

 Bells: Used if they are only for fire  Horns: Loud and distinctive
or have a distinctive sound from output, often used in high noise
other bell signalling devices. environments such as
Often used as external gong to manufacturing plants.
indicate the flow of water in the
sprinkler system.
 Types of detecting devices 49

4) Notification Appliances (Outputs)  Speakers: Audible devices used

 Sirens: Extremely loud devices in conjunction with voice
generally limited in use to
outdoor or heavy industrial
areas.
 Types of detecting devices 50

 SMOKE DETECTOR:  IONIZATION SMOKE DETECTOR:

A smoke detector is a device that
senses smoke typically as an indicator
of fire.
Smoke detector consists of 2 parts:
1) A sensor to sense the smoke
2) An electronic horn to alert the
people.
2 basic types of smoke detectors are
used today.
IONIZATION & PHOTOELECTRIC
 Types of detecting devices 51

 IONIZATION SMOKE DETECTOR  IONIZATION SMOKE DETECTOR:

 Types of detecting devices
 Advantages of Ionization Smoke
Detectors:
1) Detects invisible products of
combustion. It can detect fires
that are in the incipient stage.
2) Provides earlier detection than
other detectors like thermal
detectors.
 Disadvantages of Ionization Smoke
Detectors:
1) Has potential for high false alarm
rate, may provide false detection
if used where dust and high
humidity is present.
52
 PHOTOELECTRIC SMOKE DETECTOR:
The photoelectric type detector
utilizes light as detection mechanism.
A photoelectric or optical smoke
detector contains a source of
infrared, visible or ultraviolet light, a
lens & a photoelectric receiver
(typically a photodiode).
There are 2 types of photoelectric
smoke detectors:
1) Light sensing (Scattering)
2) Light obscuring (blocking)
 Types of detecting devices 53

Advantages of Light Scattering  LIGHT SCATTERING SMOKE DETECTOR:

Photoelectric Detectors
1) Sensitive to visual particles of
smoke.
2) Detects smouldering low heat
fires.
Disadvantages of Light Scattering
Photoelectric Detectors
1) Early contamination by dust
causing reduced sensitivity.
2) Must be cleaned regularly.
 Types of detecting devices 54

Advantages of Beam Smoke  LIGHT OBSCURING SMOKE DETECTOR

Detectors (BEAM SMOKE DETECTOR):
1) Covers a large area economically
2) Quick acting in high atriums.
Disadvantages of Beam Smoke
Detectors
1) Correct alignment needs to be
maintained.
 Types of detecting devices 55

 FLAME DETECTOR:
1) Designed to detect & respond to
the presence of flame or fire.
2) It can include sounding alarm,
deactivating a fuel line and
activating a fire suppression
system.
3) A flame detector can often
respond faster and more
accurately than a smoke
detector or heat detector.
 Types of detecting devices 56

 OPTICAL FLAME DETECTOR:

1) Ultraviolet Detectors:
 UV often included to minimize false
alarms which can be triggered by
other sources.
 UV light is emitted at the instant of
ignition within 3-4 milliseconds
 Types of detecting devices 57

 OPTICAL FLAME DETECTOR:

2) Infrared:
 False alarms can be caused by
other hot surfaces and
background thermal radiation in
the area.
 The usual response time of an IR
detector is 3-5 seconds.
 Types of detecting devices 58

 OPTICAL FLAME DETECTOR:

3) Infrared Thermal Cameras:
 Infrared (IR) cameras can be used
to detect heat and with particular
algorithms can detect hot-spots
within a scene.
 These cameras can be used in
complete darkness and operate
both inside and outside.
 Types of detecting devices
 OPTICAL FLAME DETECTOR:
4) UV/IR:
 These detectors are sensitive to
both UV and IR.
 It is able to detect flame by
comparing the threshold signals of
both ranges.
 These help minimize false alarms.
59
 OPTICAL FLAME DETECTOR:
5) IR3 flame detection:
 Triple-IR flame detectors compare three
specific wavelength bands within the IR
spectral region.
 IR3 detectors can detect at up to 65m
(215ft) in less than 5 seconds.
 Most IR detectors are designed to ignore
constant background IR radiation.
 Types of detecting devices 60

 OPTICAL FLAME DETECTOR:  OPTICAL FLAME DETECTOR:

5) IR3 flame detection 5) IR3 flame detection

(Applications): Advantages:
 Hydrogen stations  Greater detection distance
 Gas-fuelled cookers  Sensitivity
 Industrial heating and drying systems  Speed of response
 Reliability
 Domestic heating systems
Disadvantages:
 Industrial gas turbines
 Narrow field vision
 Expensive
 Difficult to maintain
 Extinguishing agents & systems
61
 Types of extinguishers:
1. Water extinguisher
2. Foam extinguisher
3. CO2 extinguisher
4. Dry Chemical Powder (DCP)
extinguisher
5. DCP for metal fires
6. Water Mist extinguishers
7. Clean agent extinguisher
8. Modular automatic extinguishers
 Extinguishing agents & systems
62
1) WATER EXTINGUISHER (WE):
 Ordinary combustible materials are
best extinguished by cooling action
which is commonly effected by water.
 Such kinds of WE are commonly
installed in different places of
occupancy which are more
susceptible to Class A fires.
 The extinguisher shell contains water
with some additives. As shown in fig to
the right.
 The reach of water stream is about 6m
and a 9litre discharge should last for
2min.
 Extinguishing agents & systems
63
2) FOAM EXTINGUISHER (FE):
 The construction of FE is very similar to
WE except that the discharge nozzle
has a small foam making branch.
 Instead water, a FE contains a foam
compound mixed in water in the
required ratio as shown in fig to the
right.
 Mechanical foam is formed by action
similar to detergents (chemical foam
used earlier is obsolete).
 Foaming agents are surfactants or
surface active agents comprising
chemicals that reduce the surface
tension of water.
 Extinguishing agents & systems
64
2) FOAM EXTINGUISHER (FE) (-contd...):
 Foam concentrates having foam agents
are generally proteins, hydrocarbons-
based surfactants (detergents) and
fluorocarbon surfactants.
 When water is agitated with air, foam is
formed which comprises of trapped air
bubbles resembling lather produced
when detergent is stirred into water &
can be applied to foam a blanket over a
burning surface.
 This property is utilised to cover a burning
liquid surface and thus acts by removing
2 faces of fire tetrahedron - fuel and air.
 Extinguishing agents & systems
65
3) Carbon Dioxide (CO2) Extinguishers:
 CO2 ext. are basically CO2 gas
cylinders with a non-metallic discharge
horn as shown in fig to the right.
 The discharge of CO2 over the fire acts
to displace the air in the vicinity and
thus starve the fire of oxygen (smother
it). However, reignition may occur if the
fuel is well above its ignition
temperature and the CO2 gas has
dispersed.
 CO2 ext. need to be periodically
weighed like gas cartridges and should
be replaced if the mass loss is 10% or
more of the original.
 Extinguishing agents & systems
66
4) Dry Chemical Powder (DCP) Extinguishers:  Dry powders are also treated to improve
 The shell of DCP extinguisher has a their ‘fluidity’ and reduce likelihood of
protective coating on the inner wall. ‘caking’ by adding small quantities of fine
silica.
 The ext. is fitted with a siphon tube
connected to the body with a small length
of high-pressure flexible hose terminating
into a squeeze grip type nozzle attached to
its end.
 The nozzle is protected with a rubber cap
against the entry of moisture.
 DCP is filled in the body in the right quantity
as per capacity as shown in Fig to the right.
 The DCP are intended for use on liquid or
gas fires may have a base of sodium,
potassium carbonate, urea, potassium
chloride or ammonium phosphate.
 Extinguishing agents & systems
67
5) DCP for metal fires:
DP extinguishers for use on metal fires contain powder or granular materials that
perform by forming crust, smothering or through heat transfer. Some dry powders
used for fighting metal fires are given below.
 Sodium-chloride based Dry Powder
 Copper-based Dry Powder
 Ternary Eutectic Chloride (TEC) powder
 Graphite-based Powder
 Extinguishing agents & systems
68
6) Water-Mist Extinguishers:
 Water mist is water in a superfine spray which is discharged from the exit. As mist
through the special nozzle at the end of discharge hose.
 The droplets produced are of the order 25µm diameter.
 Deionised water is used in water-mist ext. to render mist safe for use on live
electrical equipment.
 The small droplet size is especially effective in cooling a fire by drawing its latent
heat of evaporation & there are no ill effects on people’s health too.
 The combined effects of small quantities of water used, almost nil water damage
on assets, efficient cooling achieved, no adverse health effects and safe
application on food as well as live electrical systems has made water mist a very
preferred fire fighting medium.
 Extinguishing agents & systems
69
7) Clean agent Extinguishers:
 In the 1980’s and up to the mid-1990’s, Halons were a most preffered fire ext.
medium due to its numerous +ve aspects.
 However, concerns about ozone depleting potential (ODP) and stipulation of the
Montreal Protocol brought an end to their use though Halon 1211 is still permitted
to be used on aircraft.
 Halon alternatives are being researched and some products such as Halotron
and inert gas-based products are available in the market.
 Extinguishing agents & systems
70
8) Modular Automatic Extinguishers (MAE):
 A useful innovation of ext. is the MAE
which contain a design quantity f
extinguishing medium in a sealed
container.
 The seal has fixed temperature detector
and a module may be mounted on
ceiling or a wall as shown in fig. to the
right.
 When the detector sense the designed
temperature, the seal opens and the
medium is discharges in the area.
 Such modules have been installed in the
areas of housing sensitive, high-value or
critical assets.
 Extinguishing agents & systems
71
8) MAE (-contd...) 8) MAE (-contd...)

 Automatic ext. may contain DCP or  Advantages of MAE:

clean agents in modular containers 1. Detects and ext. fire quickly are
fitted with fixed temperature detectors efficiently.
and discharge nozzles. The upper end
2. Provides concentrated fire
has fixtures for mixing on the ceiling or
protection for vital equipment.
wall.
3. Cost effective compared to
 A pressure gauge is fitted to monitor
automatic fixed fire protection
the availability of adequate working
system.
pressure.
4. Easy to install & relocate.
5. Does not depend on electrical
water supply.
Extinguishing agents
72
Extinguishing agents
73
Extinguishing agents
74
 Fire fighting installations 75

It is best if all outbreaks are prevented.  Water -based Fixed Fire Protection
Being able to extinguish them at an Systems:
early stage by using extinguishers come 1. Small bore hose reel.
next.
2. Hydrant systems.
Yet there are situations where fire start  Automatic Sprinklers
big or have grown big needs
intervention from fire tenders or fixed  Foam Systems
protection systems like those for fighting  Water Spray Systems
fires in storage tanks have to come into
action.  Water Mist Systems
 CO2 flooding systems
 Fire fighting installations
76
 WATER-BASED FIXED FIRE PROTECTION SYSTEMS:
Water in various forms has been (& still is) the most preferred fire fighting
medium because of its easy availability, ability to draw heat due to its high
heat capacity and the ease with which it can be conveyed over long
distances.
It has high latent heat of vaporisation makes it a wonderful heat-withdrawing
medium.
Water is also used to protect structures against damage by exposure to high
incident heat flux.
Another advantage of using water in fire protection is that it is mixed with some
liquid hydrocarbon fuels to render them non-inflammable either through
emulsification or by dilution.
Water is also essential component of foam systems which is basic protection for
hydrocarbon fires.
 Fire fighting installations
77
1) SMALL BORE HOSE REEL:
 It is a rubber or plastic hose of small bore
(generally 19 - 32mm internal diameter)
reeled up on drums mounted on walls in
different parts of a building where the reel
may either be fixed or can be rotated
through 1800 on vertical planes as shown
in fig to the right.
 The hose is connected to the water supply
of the premises and the discharge end
has a nozzle with provision for shutting off.
Hose reels are mounted as std.
 Throw from the nozzle should be at least equipment on some types of fire
6m, which means that the nozzle at the tenders & are also widely used on
delivery end should reach within 6m from board ships.
any point in the building.
 Fire fighting installations
2) HYDRANT SYSTEMS:
78
 The fire hydrant system is essentially
network of pipes connected to a source
of water supply & provided with all outlets
for tapping water under pressure.
 It helps deliver water in desired discharge
pattern of stream, spray or fog through
attached hose and nozzle with intent to
effectively extinguish the fire and/or
protect endangered assets or people.
 The pumps help to achieve desired flow The hydrant mains or network is
and pressure , isolation valves and effective in reaching water in all
pipelines to isolate sections when required areas & is also used to serve other fire
for operation or maintenance purpose & protection needs such as monitors,
outlets distributed over premises with foam delivery & application systems,
outlet valves & hose connectors as shown exposure protection spray systems
in fig to the right. indoor sprinkler system, etc
 Fire fighting installations
 AUTOMATIC SPRINKLERS (AS): 79
 AS are devices which can detect a fire
automatically and then act to control (and
possibly extinguish it) with minimal losses.
 A sprinkler system comprises a system of pipes
installed at or near the ceiling of a building
compartment connected to a reliable water
supply capable of delivering water at desired
flow rate and pressure.
 Sealed devices called sprinklers or sprinkler
heads are installed on the pipes and are
spaced as per design as shown in fig to the
• They are so spaced that in the event
right.
two or more heads operate
 The sprinklers themselves are designed such simultaneously, the discharge circle of
that when the ambient temperature rises to sprinklers overlaps that of the
the set limit, the seal breaks open & the water neighbouring sprinkler leaving no part
in the pipes is discharged through the opened of floor unprotected.
sprinklers in the form of spray over a large floor
area.
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 FOAM SYSTEMS:
 Foam has for long been a favourite medium
for extinguishing fires in flammable liquids.
 As specific gravity of hydrocarbons is less than
water, water is heavier and sinks to the
bottom.
 Hence, if applied directly on liquid
hydrocarbon fires, water will sink to the bottom.
 A stable foam blanket may extinguish a fire
and prevent reignition in a flammable liquid by
the combined mechanisms of cooling,
separating the flame from the product surface,
suppressing vapours and smothering.
 Foam is also used extensively to prevent fires in
flammable liquid spills.
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 WATER MIST SYSTEMS:
 The term water mist has been defined as fine
water sprays in which 99% of the volume of the
spray is in drops of diameter 1000 microns or
less as shown in fig to the right.
 As compared to other water based protection
systems such as sprinklers, medium velocity
water spray & high velocity water spray
systems, in the case of water mist, the very fine
water mist globules:
1. Provide a large surface area of cooling.
2. Vaporise rapidly into team which helps
displace oxygen & form a cloud to
attenuate radiation feedback.
3. Cool combustion gases.
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 WATER MIST SYSTEMS (-contd...): 82
 The smaller ta water droplet size is, the larger
the surface area due to the larger number of
water globules and heat removal is more
effective by water converting to steam.
 Water mist protection can be designed for use
to:
1. Protect critical single items such as
generator sets or deep fat fryers in
commercial kitchens.
2. Flooding to protect volumes such as control
equipment spaces, data processing centres
or cabins on ships.
 Water supply to water mist system can be either
through pumps or through pressurised gas
systems. The discharge nozzle may be open or
closed types where the latter is linked to a
detection system for automatic actuation.
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 CARBONDIOXIDE FLOODING SYSTEMS: 83
 A primary concern in the use of CO2 is life
safety as the gas extinguishes fire by
displacement of air from the fire area. This can
be dangerous in closed spaces such as small
rooms.
 Fixed CO2 systems are required to discharge
large volumes of gas to achieve extinguishment
by volume filling.
 The discharge of gas both from extinguishers or
fixed systems also generates loud noise which
may unnerve people.
 CO2 systems comprise of a bank of CO2
cylinders installed at a safe location with
pipework leading into the protected area and
terminating at discharge nozzles spread out to
reach all sections as shown in fig to the right.