RS3853 - Grade - 9 Water Supply and Sanitary Engineering

C ivil Eng ineering
Water Supply
and
Sanitary Engineering
Government of Nepal
Ministry of Education, Science and Technology
Curriculum Development Centre
9
Sanothimi, Bhaktapur
Phone : 5639122/6634373/6635046/6630088
Website : www.moecdc.gov.np
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Technical and Vocational Stream

Learning Resource Material
Water Supply and Sanitary Engineering

(Grade 9)
Secondary Level
Civil Engineering
Government of Nepal
Ministry of Education, Science and Technology
Publisher: Government of Nepal Ministry of Education, Science and
Technology
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Layout by Khados Sunuwar
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced,

stored in a retrieval system or transmitted, in any other form or by any
means for commercial purpose without the prior permission in writing
of Curriculum Development Centre.
Preface
The curriculum and curricular materials have been developed and revised on a
regular basis with the aim of making education objective-oriented, practical,
relevant and job oriented. It is necessary to instill the feelings of nationalism,
national integrity and democratic spirit in students and equip them with morality,
discipline and self-reliance, creativity and thoughtfulness. It is essential to develop
in them the linguistic and mathematical skills, knowledge of science, information
and communication technology, environment, health and population and life
skills. it is also necessary to bring in them the feeling of preserving and promoting
arts and aesthetics, humanistic norms, values and ideals. It has become the need of
the present time to make them aware of respect for ethnicity, gender, disabilities,
languages, religions, cultures, regional diversity, human rights and social values
so as to make them capable of playing the role of responsible citizens with applied
technical and vocational knowledge and skills. This Learning Resource Material
for Civil Engineering has been developed in line with the Secondary Level Civil
Engineering Curriculum with an aim to facilitate the students in their study and
learning on the subject by incorporating the recommendations and feedback
obtained from various schools, workshops and seminars, interaction programs
attended by teachers, students and parents.
In bringing out the learning resource material in this form, the contribution of the
Director General of CDC Dr. Lekhnath Poudel, Dr. Jagatkumar Shrestha, Dr.
Kamal Thapa, Dr. Bharat Mandal, Dr. Rabindranath Shrestha, Kamal Ale, Arjun
Basnet, Santosha Acharya is highly acknowledged. The book is written by Kedar
Dahal, Khushiram Adhikari, Jagadishchandra Karki, Achyut Neupane and the
subject matter of the book was edited by Badrinath Timalsina and Khilanath
Dhamala. CDC extends sincere thanks to all those who have contributed in
developing this book in this form.
This book is a supplimentary learning resource material for students and teachrs.
In addition they have to make use of other relevnt materials to ensure all the
learning outcomes set in the curriculum. The teachers, students and all other
stakeholders are expected to make constructive comments and suggestions to
make it a more useful learning resource material.
2076 BS Ministry of Education, Science and Technology Curriculum

Development Centre
Table of Contents
Unit Content Page No.
Unit 1 Introduction 1
Unit 2 Source of Water 8
Unit 3 Demand of water 22
Unit 4 Quality of Water 36
Unit 5 Treatment of Water 56
Unit 6 Distribution of water 89
Unit 7 Plumbing 103
Unit 8 Sanitary Engineering 121
Unit 9 Sewage Disposal 134
Unit 10 Disposal of excreta in un-sewered area 143
Unit 11 Solid waste management 150
Unit 1 Introduction
Learning outcomes
After the completion of this unit, students will be able to
1. Explain the structure of water supply schemes

2. Describe the importance of water to life and environment
3. Explain the objectives of water supply schemes.
4. Explain use and necessity of water
Introduction
Water is the natural resource (surface and underground water) for the survival of
human as well as living things. It is useful for production of food and energy that
contributes to the economic and industrial development of a society. So, safe and
reliable supply of water is essential for any city or town.
This unit mainly gives the idea about water supply schemes, importance of water
and sanitation to the life and environment. Furthermore, this unit covers the
content of the necessity and objectives of water supply schemes and making a
flow diagram of the water supply schemes as well.
Importance of water to life and environment
Water cover two third of the earth's surface and 75 percent of a human body, by its
volume, is water. It shows that water is one of the prime elements responsible for
life on earth. Water circulates through the land just as it does through the human
body, transporting, dissolving, and replenishing nutrients and organic matter,
while carrying away waste material. Further, in the body, it regulates the activities
of fluids, tissues, cells, lymph, blood and glandular secretions.
An average adult body contains 42 liters of water and with just a small loss of 2.7
liters he or she can suffer from dehydration, displaying symptoms of irritability,
fatigue, nervousness, dizziness, weakness, headaches and consequently reach a
state of pathology.
Directly or indirectly, water affects all facets of life. Without it, there would be no
vegetation on land, no oxygen for animals to breathe and the planet would look
entirely different than it does today. Water is necessary to keep people's bodies
Water Supply and Sanitary Engineering: Grade 9 1

and the environment healthy, so it should be valued and protected as the precious
resource.
Necessity of water
The use of water by man, animal and plants is universal. Without it, there can be
no life. Every living things requires water. Everywhere water is necessary for
various purposes. Such as,
a. For drinking and cooking
b. For bathing and washing
c. For watering of lawns and gardens
d. For growing of crops
e. For street washing
f. For fire fighting
g. For power production
h. For various industrial production
i. For recreation in swimming pools, fountains and cascades
j. For heating and air conditioning system
k. For sanitation
Importance of water and sanitation

Water is one of the most important substances on earth. All plants and animals
must have water to survive. If there were no water, there would be no life on earth.
Apart from drinking it to survive, the other uses for water include
 Cooking
 Bathing
 Washing clothes
 Washing Kitchen utensils
 Keeping houses and communities clean
 Recreation; such as swimming pools
2 Water Supply and Sanitary Engineering: Grade 9

 Keeping plants alive in gardens and parks
Water is also essential for the healthy growth of farm crops and farm stock and for
manufacturing of many products. It is most important that the water, which people
use to drink and use for other purposes, be clean and pure water. This means that
the water must be free of germs and chemicals.
Sanitation literally means measures necessary for improving and protecting health
and well-being of the people. Sanitation is any system that promotes proper
disposal of human and animal waste, proper use of toilet and avoiding open space
defecation. The Following points clearly illustrates the importance of water and
sanitation
 Disease spread from poor quality water and sanitation are a huge cause of
mortality and morbidity worldwide, especially in children.
 Diarrheal disease caused by contaminated water contributes to malnutrition
and respiratory disease, these results in about 2.4 million preventable deaths
every year mainly in children. (Water Aid report 2008)
 WHO estimates that a tenth of the global disease burden could be prevented
by improving water, sanitation and hygiene (WHO report June 2008)
 Children cannot attend school if they suffer from various type of water
related disease.
 Adolescent girls and women do not have privacy and dignity in lack of
proper sanitation system
 Expenditure on medical aid cuts the poor man’s pocket
 Causes most death due to gastro intestinal disease, jaundice, worms etc.
Objective of water supply system
 To supply safe and wholesome water to consumer.
 To supply sufficient quantity of water to the consumer at right time.
 To control possible water borne disease.
 To supply water at reasonable cost to the consumer.
 To encourage personal and household cleanliness of users.
 To provide sufficient quantity of water for firefighting.
 To supply sufficient water for sanitation.

Water supply schemes and Flow diagram
Water supply schemes is the branch of engineering which deals with the supply of
safe and suitable water in sufficient quantity for various purposes such as domestic
purpose, industrial purpose, public purpose etc. Water supply is the provision of
water by public utilities, commercial organizations, community endeavors or by
individuals usually via a system of pumps and pipes. A water supply schemes
extracts a suitable water from a source and supplies it to the water consumers
through its distribution system after giving necessary treatments. A typical water
supply schemes consists of following components.
1. Sources of water: River, streams, lakes, ponds, wells etc.
2. Intake/collection work : For collection of water
3. Treatment system: For making, water safe and suitable for various
purposes.
4. Distribution system: To distribute treated water in the right time.

Flow diagram of water supply scheme

Glossary
Schemes: Arrangements, Structures, Systems
Wholesome water: The water, which is not chemically pure but do not contain
anything harmful to human health Reliable: Constant, Regular,
Replenishing: refilling, replacing
Dehydration: Dryness, Lack of moisture, Thirst
Defecation: excretion, elimination, evacuation
Well: A vertical hole made on ground to intercept underground water.
Mortality: Death
Morbidity: sickness, illness
Summary
 Water is one of the prime elements responsible for life on earth.
 An average adult body contains 42 liters of water.
 Just for a small loss of 2.7 liters of water as individual can suffer from
dehydration, displaying symptoms of irritability, fatigue, nervousness,
dizziness, weakness, headaches and consequently reach a state of pathology.
 Sanitation literally means measures necessary for improving and protecting
health and well-being of the people
 Water is necessary keep people's bodies and the environment healthy and
should be valued and protected as the precious resource it is.
 Disease arise from poor quality water and sanitation are a huge cause of
mortality and morbidity worldwide, especially in children.
 WHO estimates that a tenth of the global disease burden could be prevented
by improving water, sanitation and hygiene.
Self-evaluation
A. Short question.
1. What do you mean by water supply?
2. Name the various sources of water.
3. Why water necessary?

4. Write various uses of water.
5. What do you mean by sanitation?
B. Long question.
1. Describe the importance of water for life and environment.
2. Write various uses of water.
3. Describe the role of water in human body.
4. What are the objective of water supply schemes?
5. Enlist the various component of water supply schemes.
6. Describe the importance of water and sanitation.
7. Draw a flow diagram of water supply schemes.
Unit 2 Source of Water

Learning outcomes
After the completion of this unit students will be able to
1. Explain about various sources of water

2. Identify the suitable source of water for water supply scheme
3. Explain about the source selection criteria
4. Measure the yield of a source by volumetric method
5. Explain the different types of surface source of water such as Streams,
Rivers, lakes, ponds, etc.

Introduction
The source of water is that place from where water can be extracted for various
purpose. These unit focuses on the various sources of water. Introduction about
rainwater, surface water and ground water. Explanation about the criteria to be
adopted, while selecting a source for a water supply scheme has also been given
here. Furthermore it provides the idea to measure the yield of source.
Sources of water
Water comes from the three main sources: Rainwater, Underground water and
Surface water. Rainwater includes rain, snow, and other forms of precipitation.
Underground includes water tables and water hidden in the soil. Surface water
includes oceans, river, lakes, ponds and any other above ground collection of
water. The various sources of water are briefly described below.
Rain water
The evaporated water from large water bodies like sea, ocean, river etc. condensed
at the high altitude in the form of clouds and when it falls below the dew point, it
starts falling in the form of rain, hails, dew, frost etc. During its fall from high
altitude to ground, it absorbs oxygen, carbon dioxide and other gases along with
dust smoke, fumes, bacteria, etc. Therefore, rain water may contain large amount
of impurities. The quantity of impurities is maximum in the first rain and
minimum in the last season rains.

Fig 2.1: Collection of rain water
The rain water can be collected in following ways,
a. The roof of the houses: Water is stored in small underground tank or
cistern, for small individual supply.
b. From prepared catchment: The surface of catchments is made impervious
by suitable lining material, and suitable slope is given so that water is stored
in moderate size reservoirs. This water is used for communal supplies,
mostly for drinking purposes.
The quality of rainwater falling on the open land is better than that falling on the
cities or town. The quality of rainwater of the last season is usually good and can
be used after little treatment.
Surface source of water
The water, which is available in the surface of the earth, is known as the surface
source of water and the source containing that surface water is termed as surface
sources. Surface so urce of water include rivers, streams, lakes, ponds, etc. There
is large variation in the water yield of the surface source, which may vary from
season to season. The following are the main surface source of water.
1. Streams
2. Rivers
3. Lakes
4. Ponds
5. Impounded reservoirs
1. Streams
Streams are formed by runoff in the mountainous region. The discharge in streams
is much in rainy seasons than other seasons. Those streams, which dry up in
summer and contain water only in rainy season, are called “Raining Streams”. The
quality of water in the streams is normally good except the water of first runoff.
However, sometimes stream water may contain large amount of clay, sand and
dissolved impurities.

Fig. 2.2: Stream
As the quantity of water in the stream is not more, streams can be used as source
of water supply only for small village after giving a necessary treatment.
2. River
Rives are born in the hills, when discharge of large number of springs and streams
combine together. In mountains, the quantity of water in river remains small,
therefore at such place these are called as small rivers. But as it moves forward,
water from more and more streams and spring combine in it and it becomes large
river.
Rivers are the only surface source of water which have maximum quantity of
water and that can be easily taken. Therefore, river is widely used as a source of
water supply throughout the world. River water should always be used after
necessary treatment as they might contain suspended and dissolved impurities in
it.

Fig. 2.3: River
3. Lakes
In mountains at some places, natural basins are formed with impervious beds.
Water from springs and streams generally flows towards these basins and lakes are
formed. The quantity of water in the lakes depends on its basin capacity,
catchments area, annual rainfall porosity of ground etc.
Fig. 2.4: Lake
The quality of large lakes is better than that of the small lakes. The lake, which is
situated at high altitudes, contain almost pure water, which can be used without
any treatment.
4. Ponds
Ponds are the depressions in plains, like lakes of mountain, in which water is
collected mostly during rainy season. Ponds are constructed artificially for some

purpose or sometimes, they are formed when much excavation is done for
building construction, embankment for road and manufactures of brick.
Fig. 2.5: Pond

Generally, quantity of water in ponds is very small and it contain large amount of
impurities in it, therefore pond water cannot be used for water supply purpose but
it can be used for washing of clothes, animal bathing etc.
5. Impended Reservoirs
It is found that there is great variation in the quantity of water in the river in the
monsoon and the summer season. In some rivers, the flow become very small and
cannot meet the requirement of hot weather. In such cases, it become essential to
store the excess water of monsoon to for summer season.
The water can be stored in the river by constructing a weir or a dam across the
river at suitable location. The reservoir thus formed is known as impounded
reservoir.
Ground water
The water, which is found below the surface of the earth, is known as underground
water and the source containing such water is known as underground source of
water.
The main source of ground water is precipitation. A portion of precipitation enter
the surface of the earth. The entrance of rain water into the ground is known as
infiltration and the movement of this water after infiltration is known as

percolation. A portion of rainfall percolates into the ground and is stored as a
ground water at hard (impervious) stratum. The ground water reservoir consists of
water held in voids within a soil stratum. Sometimes this ground water percolates
through the soil and appears again at surface in the form of spring. Alternatively,
this stored water below the earth surface can be taken out by some suitable
arrangement like construction of well and tube well.
The following are the main underground sources of water:
1. Springs
2. Wells
1. Springs
A spring is any natural situation where water flows from an aquifer to earth
surface.
Ground water is stored in aquifers, which are underground water reservoirs. They
contain billions of gallons of water. Sometimes this water reappears at the ground
surface in the form of spring. A spring is formed when the pressure in aquifer
causes the water to flow at the surface.
Generally spring are formed under following circumstances,
1. When the surface of earth drops sharply below the normal water table
2. When, due to an impervious obstruction the ground water is collected in the
form of reservoir and forces the water to overflow at the surface.
3. When fissure in impervious stratum allows artesian water to flow in the
form of spring.

Fig. 2.6 (a, b, c): Formation of springs
Spring generally can supply small quantity of water; hence, these cannot be used
as a source of water to big towns. Good developed springs can be used as a water
supply source for small towns. Normally the quality of water in the spring is good
and little treatment is enough before supplying.
2. Wells:
Wells are the vertical hole or shaft excavated in the earth for bringing ground
water to the surface. Wells are mainly divided into two types, they are
a. Open wells or Dug wells
b. Bored or Drilled wells or Tube well
a. Open well
These are shallow wells, which are usually confined to soft ground, sand and
gravel to intercept water form topmost water bearing stratum. These wells are
suitable for small discharge of about 20 cu.m/hour. Open wells are constructed

mostly in circular shape, diameter of which may be between 1 to 4 m and depth
may be up to 20m.The walls of these wells may be constructed with precast
R.C.C. blocks, bricks or stone masonry.
 Dug wells are very cheap in construction
 Yield of open well is low, because they receive water from top unconfined
aquifer only.
Fig. 2.7: Open well
a. Tube well
The discharge available from the ordinary open well is very low. Due to their low
yield, open wells are only useful for small locality or for private building. For
obtaining more yield, nowadays tube-wells are commonly used.
A tube well is long pipe sunk into the ground with the strainer, which allows water
to pass through but prevents sand from coming along with water. Because of the
strainer, water can be taken out from aquifer at high velocity without any danger
of soil particles being carried away with water. These wells receive their yield

from large number of aquifers; hence, their discharge capacity is much more than
ordinary open wells.
Fig. 2.8: Tube well

 A tube well consists of long special pipe with strainer, installed deep below
the surface of earth to tap water from various water layer.
 The depth of tube well may vary from 50 to 500m.
 The maximum yield of tube well may be up to 200 liter/second
 The yield of average tube well is 50litre/second

 Tube discharge more water than open well this is because tube well receive
their supply from more than one water layer but open well get supply from
only top layer of underground water.
 The quality of water from tube well is much better than open well as they
drew their supplies from deep.
Source selection criteria
There are two sources of water – surface source and underground sources. Both
the sources may be selected for the public water supply schemes. The selection of
particular source depends upon its permanency, adequacy, and the cost of scheme.
The selected source should have the capability to fulfill the water demand of
targeted group through the years. In addition, the source should be located at such
places from water can be distributed to consumer easily at low cost. Thus, the
following points are considered while selecting a source.
i. Quality of water
Quality of water is the most important point to be considered while selecting a
source. The quality of water in the source should be good, so that it can be treated
easily at low cost. It should not contain disease germs and pathogenic bacteria,
which may endanger the public health.
ii. Quantity of water

The selected source of water should have sufficient quantity of water to meet
various demand of the city throughout the year. The selected source should be able
to meet the present as well the future demand of the city. The source of water
should be able to meet the maximum demand in dry weather also.
iii. Location of source

The source should be selected at such location, which is free from pollution. If
possible, source should be selected at high altitude from the service area, so that
water can be supplied to the consumer by gravity system avoiding the cost of
pumping.
iv. Cost
The cost of water supply project should also be taken into account while selecting
the source of water. The cost of water supply scheme depends on many factors
such as system of supply, distance between source and supply area, method of

distribution, treatment method etc. if water flows under the gravitational force it
will be cheap. Similarly, if the distance between the source and service area is
more, it will be costly.
Discharge measurement (Volumetric method)
The volume of water following through the source is called discharge. It is
generally expressed as 𝑚 /𝑠
Fig. 2.9: Discharge measurement by volumetric method

Volumetric method of discharge measurement is the simplest way to estimate the
flow by direct measurement of time to fill a container of known volume. The
following procedure is followed to measure discharge from the source
1. Take a suitable size of container and determine its volume, say V liter
2. The flow from source is diverted into a channel or pipe which discharge into
a container.
3. The time required to fill the container is measured accurately with the help
of stopwatch. Let say it is T second
4. Discharge (Q) is calculated as,
Q = liter/second
Glossary
Infiltration: The entrance of rain water into the ground is known as infiltration.

Percolation: The movement of water below the ground surface after infiltration is
known as percolation.
Aquifer: A permeable stratum, which is capable of yielding appreciable quantities
of ground water under gravity, is known as aquifer.
Unconfined aquifer: The topmost water bearing stratum, having no confined
impermeable overburden laying over it, is known as unconfined aquifer
Confined aquifer: When an aquifer is confined on its upper and under surface by
impervious rock formation, it is called confined aquifer.
Discharge: Volume of water following through a source called discharge. It is
expressed as liter/sec. or cubic meter per second.
Runoff: The draining away of water (or substances carried in it) from the surface
of an area of land, a building or structure, etc.
Summary
 Mainly there are two types of water sources; they are surface sources of
water and ground water.
 Both sources can be used as source of water for water supply schemes after
giving necessary treatments.
 The water, which is available in the surface of the earth, is known as the
surface source of water and the source containing that surface water is
termed as surface sources.
 Surface source are the streams, rivers, ponds, lakes, impounded reservoir
etc.
 Rivers are the only surface source of water which have maximum quantity
of water and that can be easily taken.
 The lake, which is situated at high altitudes, contain almost pure water,
which can be used without any treatment.
 The water, which is found below the surface of earth, is known as the
underground water and source containing such water is known as
underground source of water.
 Underground sources are springs and Wells
 A spring is any natural situation where water flows from an aquifer to earth
surface.

 Spring generally can supply small quantity of water; hence, these cannot be
used as a source of water to big towns.
 Normally the quality of water in the spring is good
 Wells are the vertical hole or shaft excavated in the earth for bringing
ground water to the surface.
 The discharge available from the ordinary open well is very low.
 Dug wells are very cheap in construction
 Tube discharge more water than open well
 The quality of water from tube well is much better than open well.
 While selecting a source for a water supply schemes factors to be considered
are its location ,cost quality and quantity
Self-evaluation
A. Very short question
1. What is the source of water?
2. What do you mean by discharge?
3. Define percolation.
4. Define infiltration.
5. Define aquifer.
6. What is the average yield of a tube well?
7. Quality of water from tube well is better than open well why?
8. Quality of rain water falling on open land is better, why?
9. What are the springs?
10. How lakes are formed?
B. Short question.
1. Discuss the suitability of streams as a source of water supply.
2. Write short notes on “Rain water”.

3. Justify the statement “The quality of large lake situated at high
altitude, contain almost pure water”.
4. What is under ground water?
5. Discuss the suitability of spring as a source of water supply.
6. The discharge available from the Tube well is more than open well
why?
7. What do you mean by aquifer?
8. What are the differences between confined and unconfined aquafer?
Long Question
A. Write short notes on following.
a. Streams b. Lakes c. Rivers d. Ponds
1. Discuss the characteristics of river water.
2. If both source (surface and underground) of water is available, which
one source is preferable and why?
3. Rainwater can be utilized for water supply or not?
4. What is difference between tube well and open well
5. Write short notes on
a. Open well b. Tube well
6. Write, under what circumstances spring are formed.
7. Write how you measure a yield of a small source.
8. What are the criteria for selecting a source for a water supply schemes.
Unit 3 Demand of water

Learning outcomes

1. Explain the various type of water demand

2. Calculate future population of city or town form past record of population
3. Explain about population forecasting methods such as arithmetical increase
method, geometrical increase method and incremental increase method.
4. Calculate water demand of city or town
5. Explain, what is per capita demand
6. Compute fire demand
7. Explain factors affecting per capita demand
8. Decide a suitable design period for a water supply scheme.
Introduction
The demand of water is the total amount of water used by the consumer within the
water system. Determination of water demand is the most important aspect before
designing a water supply schemes. This unit gives the idea on how to determine
the total water demand of a city/town. Various types of water demand of
city/towns are described in this unit with reasonable data. Population forecasting
methods such as arithmetical increase method, geometrical increase method and
incremental increase method have also been described with suitable example to
facilitate learning of student.
Water demand
When designing the water supply scheme for a city and a town, it is necessary to
determine the total quantity of a water required for various purposes by city. The
duty of a water engineer is to determine the water demand of town and to find out
the suitable water sources from where the demand can be met.
The determination of the water demand involves the following items,
1. Rate of demand ( Per capita demand) determination
2. Population determination
To calculate the rate of demand it is necessary to understand the types of water

demand

Types of water demand
Following are the various types of water demand of a city or a town:
1. Domestic water demand:

2. Commercial and Industrial demand
3. Demand for public use
4. Fire demand
5. Compensate losses demand
6. Institutional water demand
1. Domestic water demand:

It includes the quantity of water required in the houses for drinking, bathing,
cooking, washing etc. The quantity of water required for domestic use mainly
depends on the habits, social status, climatic conditions and customs of the people.
The water requirement for domestic purpose are given below.
S.NO. Community Adopted Remarks

Population (lpcd)
1 <70000 45 Supply through public tap
2 <70000 70-100 Supply through private tap
3 70000-100000 100-150 Supply through private tap
4 >100000 150-200 Supply through private tap

Source: Design guidelines for community based gravity flow rural water supply
schemes (DWSS)
2. Commercial and Industrial demand

The presence of industries in town has a great effect upon total consumption of
water. There is no direct relation of this consumption with the population and
hence the actual requirements for all industries should be carefully estimated. The
water required in the industries mainly depends on the type and size of industry.

The water required by the factories, paper mills, cloth mills, sugar refineries etc.
comes under industrial use. The quantity of water demand for industrial use is
around 20 to 25% of the total demand of the city.
Commercial building and commercial centre include office building, warehouse,
stores, hotels, shopping centers, health centers, schools, cinema houses, bus station
etc. The requirements of commercial and public places may be up to 45
liters/day/capita. The water requirements for commercial buildings are given
below
S.No. Types of building Demand Remarks

1 Health post 500lit/bed
3000lit/day If not bedded health post
2 Public institutions 500-100

lit/day
3 Restaurant, Tea stall 500- etc. 100lit/day
Tourist hotel 500lit/bed Unclassified
schemes (DWSS)
3. Demand for public uses

Quantity of water required for public utility purposes such as for washing and
sparkling of roads, cleaning of sewers, watering of public parks etc. comes under
public demanded. Usually 5% of the total water demand of the city should to be
considered for public use
Institutional use
Institutional demand refers to the water needed for offices, schools and health
posts in the community. The following institutional water demand should adopted.
S.NO Types of institutions Demand Remarks
1 School 10lit/student Day scholars
65lit/student Boarders

2 Health post 100lit/day Without sanitation
3000lit/day With sanitation

3 Health Centre 500lit/bed
schemes (DWSS)
4. Fire demand
The water required for the firefighting is generally known as the fire demand. It is
related as a function of population and may be computed from the following
empirical formulae.
1. Kuichling’s formula
𝑄 3182√𝑃
2. Buston’s formulae
𝑄 5663√𝑃
3. Freeman’s formulae
𝑃
𝑄 1136 10
5
Where
Q = Quantity of water in liters per minute P
= Population in thousand
5. Compensate losses demand

All the water, that goes into the distribution pipe, does not reach the consumers.
Some portion of this is wasted in the pipelines due to defective pipe joints,
cracked and broken pipes, faulty valves and fittings. Sometimes consumers keep
open their taps on or public taps even when they are not using the water resulting
in the continuous wastage of water.

While estimating total requirement of water of a town, compensation for these
losses and wastage should be done. Generally, 15% of the total quantity of water
is needed to compensate for losses, thefts and wastage of water.
Per capita demand:
Per capita demand means the average amount of water each person in a particular
community uses in a daily basis, this is expressed as “liters per capita per day”.
If Q is the total quantity of water consumed by a town per years in liters, and the
population of town is P, the per capita demand will be
Per capita demand = liters/day
Design Period
The extensions or expansions in the water works, networks of pipeline etc. is not
an easy work. The design and construction should be such that thus could meet.
The number of year for which the design of water works have been done is known
as design period. In another word design period refers to the duration for which a
scheme will met water demand of water user. This period should be neither too
short nor too long. Mostly in Nepal, water works are designed for designed period
of 15- 20 years.
The Following factors should be kept in mind while fixing the design period.
a. Fund available for the competitions of the project. The more the funds less
the design period.
b. Life of pipe and other structural materials used in the water supply schemes.
c. Design period in no case should have more life than the components and
materials used in the scheme.
d. As far as possible design period should be nearly equal to the materials used
in the water supply works.
e. If the rate of interest is less, it will be good to keep design period more. But
if the interest rate is very high , the design period should be small
f. Rate of population growth.
Factors affecting water demand:

It has been noted, that the average per capita demand of various cities considerably
varies. The following are main factors, which affect the per capita demand of the
city.
1. Climatic conditions
A large quantity of water is required in the hotter and dry place because the
consumption of water in these place are high due to use of air coolers, air
conditioners, sprinkling of water in lawns, more washing of clothes, bathing etc.
In cold places, the quantity of water required is less.
2. Size of community
The per capita demand of town increases with the size of town, because much
water will be required in street washing, running sewers, maintenance of parks and
gardens.
3. Class of consumer
High-class families consume much water due to their better living standard. They
use water for air conditioner, room coolers, maintenance of lawns, use of flush
latrine etc. Middle class families consume less water as compared to higher-class
families. For low class families a single water tap may be sufficient.
4. Quality of water
If quality of water is good, large quantity of water will be consumed. Since by
using good, safe and wholesome water, public find themselves safe against water
borne disease.
5. Cost of water
The cost of water affects its demand. Higher the cost of water, lower the demand
and lower the cost of water, higher the demand, if all other conditions remain the
same.
6. System of sanitation
The per capital demand of the towns having water carriage system will be more
than the town where this system is not being used.
7. System of water supply

There are two types of water supply system: Continuous and Intermittent. In
continuous system, water is supplied for 24 hours. While in intermittent system,

water is supplied for limited hours only. The amount of water used in continuous
system is more than in the intermittent system due to carelessness of the
consumers.
8. Metering or non-metering system

Water supply schemes having non-metering system requires more water than
metering system due to more wastage of water.
Population forecasting
Methods of population forecasting
The following are the standard methods used to forecast the population of an area.
1. Arithmetical increase method

2. Geometrical increase method
3. Incremental increase method
4. Decreasing rate method
5. Simple graphical method
6. Comparative graphical method
7. Mater plan method
8. The logistic curve method
Note: Only first three methods will be described in this unit
1. Arithmetical increase method

This is the simplest method of population forecast. In this method, the increase in
population from decade to decade is assumed constant. From the census data of
past 3 to 4 decades, the increase in population for each decade is found, and from
that, an average increment is found.
Following Expression is used to forecast the population by this method
𝑃 𝑃 𝑛𝐼
Where
𝑃 = Future population at the end of n decades

𝑃 = present population
𝐼 = average increment for a decade
2. Geometrical Increase method

This method is based on the assumption that the percentage increase in population
from decade to decade remains constant. From the population data of previous
three or four decades, the percentage increase in population is found and its
average is determined. In this method, population is forecasted by using following
formulae.
𝑟
𝑃𝑃1
100
Where,

𝑃 = present population
𝑟 = Average percentage growth of population per decade

This method combines both the arithmetic increase method and geometrical
increase method. From the census data for the past several decade, the actual
increase in each decade is found. Then the increment in increase for each decade
is found. From these, average increment of the increase is found.
In this method future population at the end of n decades is given by,
𝑛𝑛 1
𝑃 𝑃 𝑛𝐼 𝑦
2
Where,

𝑃 = Present population 𝐼=
Average increase per decade n
= Number of decades
𝑦 = Average incremental increase
Demand calculation

Water demand calculations requires the following two data
1. Water consumption rate ( per capita demand in liters per day per head)
2. Population to be served
After computations of population to be served and water rate of water
consumption
(i.e. Per capita demand) the water demand of city/town is calculated as
Water demand = Per capita demand Population to be served
Example 1: The following is the population data of a city available from past
census records. Determine the population of the city in 2011 by a) Arithmetical
increase method b) Geometrical increase method c) Incremental increase method
Year 1931 1941 1951 1961 1971 1981 1991
Population 12000 16500 26800 41500 57500 68000 74100

Solution:
Year Population Increment % increment Incremental
per decade per decade increase
1931 1200 4500 37.5 +5800
1941 16500 10300 62.42 -4400
1951 26800 14700 54.85 -1300
1961 41500 16000 38.55 -5500
1971 57500 10500 18.26 -4400
1981 68000 6100 8.97
1991 74100
TOTAL 62100 220.55 -1600
AVERAGE 621000/6 220.55/6 1600/5
=10350 =36.76 =320
1. Arithmetical increase method 𝑃 𝑃 𝑛𝐼
Where 𝑃 = Population in 1991 = 74100 n
= Number of decades = 2
𝐼 = average increase per decades = 10350
∴ 𝑃 =74100+2 10350

= 94800
2. Geometrical increase method

𝑃𝑃1 𝑟
Here, 𝑟 = average percentage increase per decade = 36.76 %
𝑃 = 74100
𝑛 =2
.
∴ 𝑃 741001
= 138590

𝑛𝑛 1
2
Where, 𝐼 = 10350
𝑦 = average incremental increase = 320 n
=2
∴ 𝑃 74100 2 10350 320
95760
Example 2: Compute the “fire demand “for a city having population of 150000,
using various formulae.
Solution: P = Population in thousand = 150
1. Kuichling’s formula
𝑄 3182 = 38971 liters/min.

2. Buston’s formulae
𝑄 5663 = 69357 liters/min.

3. Freeman’s formulae

𝑄 1136 10 = 1136 10 = 45440 liters/min
Example 3: Estimate the water requirements of a town in 2030 by projecting the
population of town by the incremental increase method, from data given below. In
this town, it has been decided to provide 200 litres per head per day.
Year 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010
Population 250000 480500 550300 638600 695200

Solution
Year Population Increase in population Incremental increase

1970 250000
230500
1980 480500 -160700
69800
1990 550300 +18500
88300
2000 638600 -31700
56600
2010 695200
Total 445200 -173900
Average 445200/4 =111300 -173900/3

= -57967
Here,
𝑃 = 695200
𝐼 = 111300 𝑦
= -57967
𝑛 =2
We knew that,
𝑛𝑛 1
2
∴𝑃 695200 2 111300 -57967
= 743899

Hence the water requirements in 2030 AD @ 200 litres/head/day
= 743899 200
= 148.8 10 litres/day
Glossary
Decade: Period of ten years
Census: An official count of member of a population
Compensate: give back, pay off
Empirical: Experimental, Practical, Pertaining to or based on experience
Summary
 Domestic demand includes the quantity of water required in the houses for
drinking, bathing, cooking, washing etc.
 The water required in the industries mainly depends on the type and size of
industry.
 Institutional demand refers to the water needed for offices, schools and
health posts in the community.
 Usually 5% of total water demand of a city is considered for public use
while designing water supply scheme.
 The water required for the firefighting is generally known as the fire
demand.
 Kuichling’s formula, Buston’s formulae , Freeman’s formulae etc. are used
to calculate the fire demand for a city/town
 Generally, additional supply of 15% of the total quantity of water is made to
compensate for losses, thefts and wastage of water.
 The number of year for which the design of water works has been done is
known as design period.
 Design period should be neither too short nor too long.
 Mostly in Nepal, water works are designed for designed period of 15- 20
years.
 Per capita demand = liters/day, where Q = total quantity of water
consumed by city/town in a year, P= population of town /city

 Water demand = Per capita demand × Population to be served
Self-evaluation
A. Very Short question
1. Define water demand.
2. What percentage of water demand is usually considered for public use?
3. Write Kuching’s formula.
4. Write Boston’s formulae.
5. Write Freeman’s formulae.
6. What design period is suitable for water works in context of Nepal?
7. What is water demand of health post with sanitation?
8. What is fire demand?
9. Define design period.
B. Short question
1. How water demand of a city/town is calculated?
2. Write, a short notes on domestic water demand.
3. Write, a short notes on fire demand.
4. What do you mean by compensate loss demand?
5. Why population forecast is necessary in the design of water supply scheme?
6. How system of sanitation affects the per capita water demand?
7. How class of consumer affects the per capita water demand?
8. Write short notes on design period.
C. Long questions
1. Write down the factors affecting demand of water.
2. What are the different types of water demand of a community? Describe

briefly
3. Write down the different method of population forecasting and explain
them.
4. What do you understand by design period? Write down the factors that
affects the design period of water supply scheme.
5. How the total quantity of water required by town is estimated?
6. Explain in brief various expressions used to determine the fire demand.
7. Estimate the future population of town in 2035
i. By Arithmetical method ii.
Geometrical increase method iii.
Incremental increase method
Year 1965 1975 1985 1995 2005 2015
Population 350000 466000 995000 1560000 1630000 1840000

8. The following data shows the variation in population of town from 1922 to
1972.Estimate the population of city in the year 2002. Use various method.
Year 1922 1932 1942 1952 1962 1972
Population 72000 85000 110500 144000 184000 221000

9. Compute the “fire demand “for a city having population of 250000, using
various formulae.
Unit 4 Quality of Water

Learning Outcomes
 explain about safe water and wholesome water.
 categorize different types of water related diseases and be aware from them.
 distinguish the category of impurities, category of pathogenic bacteria and
other living organisms which may be present in water.

 know the transmission routes and apply the preventive measures.
Introduction
Quality of water refers to the chemical, physical, biological and radiological
characteristics of water. It is a measure of the condition of water relative to the
requirements of human need or purpose. Condensation of water vapor make
rainfall but this water initially is pure containing two parts of hydrogen and one
part of oxygen only by volume. On the way of falling, it absorbs different gases,
dust and other impurities. Also during surface runoff, the water carries large
number ofimpurities such as silt, organic, non-organic minerals, suspended
matters etc. while moving on earth surface. These substances not always be
harmful but may be useful to human life.
Water we drink should not create any problem. In this unit concept of wholesome
water and requirements of safe water will be discussed. Water becomes polluted
due to different types of impurities and the disease causing organisms survive in
these impurities. Preventive measures are needed not to suffer from those diseases.
Hence different types of impurities, types of living organisms surviving there and
the preventive measures will be discussed in this unit. The diseases related to
water are categorized in four types and there are different transmission routes for
causing water related diseases which are also discussed in this unit.
Characteristics (Requirements) of Good and Safe Water
The water will be safe if it has following characteristics.
 It should be free from bacteria and other pathogenic organisms.
 It should be colorlessness and odor free.
 It should be tasty and cool.
 It should not corrode pipes.
 It should be free from iron, manganese, lead, arsenic and other poisonous
metals and objectionable gases.
 PH should be balanced. For drinking purpose PH value ranging from 6.5 to
8 is allowable
 If it is soft, washing of becomes easy.
 It should contain dissolved oxygen.
 If water contains some chemicals which are not harmful to health then that
water is called wholesome water.

Water Pollutants and Their Effects On Health
Water becomes polluted if it contains impurities like suspended impurities,
colloidal impurities and dissolved impurities. Impurities may contain living
organisms like virus, algae, worms, bacteria etc. Contaminated or polluted water is
the water from rivers, lakes and seas that have become impure by fertilizers,
pesticides, sewage, oil or toxic waste from households, lands, ships and factories.
Impurities in Water
All undesirable substances containing in water in any form is called impurities in
water. Following are the types of impurities.
Suspended Impurities
The suspended impurities in water are because of the presence of bacteria, algae,
clay, silt etc. These are those impurities or pollutants which remain in suspension.
Some types of bacteria cause diseases. Suspended impurities cause turbidity in
water. Besides turbidity, presence of algae, protozoa may cause odour and colour.
Colloidal Impurities
These impurities are small and cannot be seen with naked eyes. They which
remain in continuous motion. They are materials generally contain organic
matters containing bacteria. Their size is between 10¯³mm to 10 -6mm. The
organic matters may be vegetable waste, dead animals etc which produce harmful
disease germs.
Dissolved Impurities
Water being a good solvent some solid, liquid and gas get dissolve in the water
when they moves over the rocks and soil etc because water is the good solvent.
Organic compounds, organic salts and gases that dissolve render bad taste,
hardness and alkalinity to water . the concentration of these impurities is
measured in ppm or mg/litre.
Alkalinity in Water
When PH value of water is more than 7, it is said to be alkaline. If PH is 14 it
indicates maximum alkalinity in water. Generally, alkalinity is caused by
hydroxides, carbonates and bicarbonates but most natural alkalinity is due to
bicarbonates. Alkalinity caused by hydroxides is called hydroxide alkalinity or
caustic alkalinity, caused by carbonate is carbonate alkalinity and caused by
bicarbonate is called bicarbonate alkalinity. Mostly drinking water is alkaline due

to sweeping of salts during the flow and decaying of organic matter in water.
Alkaline water is harmful if taken directly for public water supply. Drinkable
range of PH of water is in between 6.5 to 8.
Living organisms in Water
The natural water contains various types of living organisms. Some organisms are
born in water and remain in it due to their natural habitat. Some organisms are
introduced in the water by human beings during disposal of sewage. Some
organisms found in water are given below.
Virus
It is an unicellular organism. It can be plant as well as animal. Most of virus are
harmful and communicate disease from one person to other. Water may
contaminate with virus due to sewage disposal in water source. Thus for
prevention from disease due to viruses care should be taken while disposing
sewage. All viruses are parasitic and grow in the body of another living
organisms. Viruses cause infections such as hepatitis, yellow fever and variety of
gastro- intestinal disease.
Algae
It is a photosynthetic plant life with unicellular organs of reproduction. Their
nutrients are phosphorus, sulphates etc. In fresh water they are generally
microscopic size but in salty waters algae may be several hundred meters in
length. Sometimes they occur in form of cells and sometimes they grow in
numbers and cover the surface of water body. It develops color, odor, turbidity
and taste in water, clogs the filter and can trouble in treatment plant. Hence
prevention should be taken for not to clog the filter plants and other treatment
plants.
Worms
They are organisms of animal life both unicellular as well as multi-cellular. They
are visible to naked eyes but ova (eggs) and larva may not be visible. Worms are
parasitic in nature and hence create different problems if inside the human body.
Round worms, hook worms, tape worms etc. are examples of worms. For
prevention from worms care should be taken for cleanliness of living yards and
washing hands before meal and after toilet.
Bacteria

Bacteria are unicellular micro-organisms with a simple nucleus. They can
multiply outside the body also. Bacteria present in water may vary from 0.15 to 60
microns in size. Bacteria may be harmful and beneficial also. It spreads in
optimum temperature in household disposal. For prevention from bacterial
diseases care should be taken in sewage disposal.
On the basis of oxygen consumption, bacteria is classified into (a) aerobic bacteria
(b) anaerobic bacteria and (c) facultative bacteria. Aerobic bacteria is that bacteria
which need oxygen for survival. Anaerobic bacteria is that bacteria which survives
without oxygen and facultative bacteria is that bacteria which can survives in
presence or the absence of oxygen.
According to shape, bacteria is classified into (a) spherical (cocci) (b) straight
(bacilli), (c) curved (vibrio), (d) spiral (spirilla) and (e) trichobacteria (flat and
hooked)
According to food consumption, bacteria is classified into (a) parasite and (b)
saprophyte.Parasite is that bacteria which survives within the body of living
organisms and also causes disease. Saprophyte is the bacteria that does not
develop in the living organism but feed on the waste generated by them or get
energy from dead organic matter like decaying pieces of plants and animals.
According to Causing Disease bacteria is classified into (a) pathogenic bacteria
and (b) non-pathogenic bacteria. Pathogenic bacteria is that bacteria which is
capable of causing disease. Non-pathogenic bacteria is that bacteria which does
not cause disease.
According to Temperature bacteria is classified into (a) sychrophilicbacteria , (b)
mesophilic bacteria and (c) thermophilic bacteria. Sychrophilic bacteria is the
bacteria which survives in 10 to 20 °C. Mesophilic bacteria is the bacteria which
survives in 20 to 40 °C. Thermophilic bacteria is the bacteria which survives in 40
to 65°C.
Water Related Diseases, Causes and Prevention
Some diseases are due to consumption of impure water, some are due to infection
transmitted through aquatic animals and pathogens, some are transmitted through
biting of mosquitoes and some are due to lack of sufficient water or cleanliness.
They can be categorized into following types.

Water Borne Disease
The diseases caused due to consumption of impure water are known as water
borne diseases. They spacing are due to chemicals in water or presence of micro-
organism in water. Hence for the prevention of water borne disease water should
be free of germs and it should be made wholesome or it should be drinkable.
Examples of the water borne diseases are Cholera, Typhoid, Paratyphoid,
Diarrhea, Dysentery etc.
Water Based Disease
Disease or infection transmitted through aquatic animals and pathogens which
spend their lifecycle in water is called water based disease. For the prevention of
this type of water related disease, we should avoid the collection of rain water and
dirty water near to our vicinity. Water bodies near to our living place should be
clean. Moreover, we should not be in contact of dirty water where these is the
possibility of disease causing animals and pathogens. Common diseases to this
group are Bilharzia, Guinea worm, Lung flukes, schistosomiasis etc.
Water Vector Transmitted Disease
It is most commonly transmitted through biting of mosquitoes that breed, those
are developed near water bodies. We should avoid the collection of rain water and
we should not make the nearby water bodies dirty. Disease in this group are
malaria, yellow fever, dengue, sleeping sickness, filariasis etc.
Water Wash Disease
This disease is also called water hygiene disease. It is caused the due to lack of
sufficient water or cleanliness. Common diseases in this group are trachoma (eye
inflammation), scabies, fungal infection, lice infection etc. For prevention
awareness and quantity of water should be increased.
Transmission Routes
Water is one of the means of transmission of various diseases formed. The major
diseases that are responsible for most of death in developing countries are form of
fecal-oral group. Fecal oral infections may be water born and water washed.
Organisms from the urine and faeces reach to the water sources manly from
sewage disposal and then this water is transmitted in the human body orally from
the food or contaminated water. This transmission is called faecal-oral
transmission. The pathways of faecal oral transmission are as shown below.

Faecal oral transmission
Preventive Measures
Following are the preventive measures for the transmission of diseases through the
faecal oral way.
 Proper arrangement of faeces should be done by making and using toilets. It
should be prevented from mixing with water.
 Hand cleaning should be done properly before meal, after works and after
toilet.
 Food and water should be kept covered.
 There should be arrangement of water supply in sufficient amount.
 There should be awareness development programmes to make people aware
about their health and hygiene.
Analysis of Water
Water should be analysed for its physical and chemical qualities. In physical
analysis it should be tested for temperature, color, turbidity, taste and odour.
Water is analysed chemically for determination of total solids, determination of
total dissolved solids and determination of total suspended solids. Similarly the
chemical analysis involves taste for PH value and chlorine content. For all these
tests sample of water should be taken and the sample should be stored for certain
period.
Water sampling and storing
For carrying out physical, chemical or biological test of the water, first the sample
water is collected. The collection of water follows some simple rules which when

not taken into account may vary the result. The water should be collected in such a
way that it represents the whole water from that source.
Following are the points to be remembered for collecting and storing water
samples.
 In case of rivers , streams, lakes water the surface water should be avoided
because it contains the suspended matter, so the water should be collected
from 40 to 60 cm below the surface.
 For the ground water , sufficient quantity of water should be pumped out so
that floating matter can be removed.
 After the sampling is done the sample water should not be stored for long
time specially for the biological test. The test should be performed within 24
hours and the water should be kept in a cool place.
Physical Analysis
Following tests prevail for physical analysis of water sample.
Test for Temperature

Temperature of water can be measured by digital or ordinary thermometer. For
domestic water, temperature should be controlled to about 10°C to 16°C.
Although, the most desirable temperature is 4.4°C to 10°C, the water above 26°C
is undesirable, and more than 35°C is unfit for drinking purpose.
Test for Color
Color in water is due to organic matters in colloidal condition and minerals
dissolved impurities of iron, manganese etc, decayed vegetable matter, weeds,
humus, plankton ( unicellular plant or animal which are aquatic) and industrial
wastes. The presence of these substances in water change the water color
undesirable appearance of water is disliked by the people and it may spoil clothes
and affect the industrial process.
The water color can be measured by platinum cobalt method. In this method
various standard solutions are made by dissolving various amount of platinum
cobalt in distilled water and the color of water sample is compared with these
solutions using tintometer. A tintometer consists of an eyepiece with two holes
inside. In one hole tube of color of standard solution and in other hole tube of
color of water sample are inserted. The standard coloured solution is changed until
the color of two tubes matches and the scale of color of the sample becomes same

as that of colored solution where the scale is such that 1 platinum cobalt scale
means 1ppm or 1mg/l.which is the color imparted by 1 mg of platinum cobalt in 1
litre of water. Hence while preparing sample of one platinum cobalt scale we have
to put 1 mg of platinum cobalt in 1 litre of water and required amount of this is
taken in the tube to compare with the sample.
The platinum cobalt method is not convenient for field use therefore another
method is used in the field. In this method the water sample to be tested is
compared with glass colour discs with color compatible to different platinum
cobalt scale. For domestic water 5 unit of platinum cobalt scale is permissible.
However it should not exceed 25 units. Color is removed by sedimentation,
filtration, aeration and use of chemicals.
Test for Turbidity
Turbidity is the resistance for light to pass through the water sample. Turbidity is
created due to presence of suspended matters such as clay, silt, finely divided
organic and inorganic matters etc. Filtration of water becomes more difficult and
costly with the increase in turbidity. If turbid water contain sewage solids these
sewage solids may be incased with matters of turbidity and disinfection may not
become effective. It is measured in the terms of ppm or mg/l, NTU
( Nephelometric Turbidity Unit) or JTU ( Jackson Turbidity Unit). Turbidity
should be between 5 to 10 ppm in silica scale.
Nephelometer and Digital Turbidity Meters
Nephelometer and digital turbidity meter

These are the modern commercial turbidity meters , which give turbidity value
directly in digital display after calibration with standard turbidity solutions.
Turbidity Rod or Tape
This is a simple and reliable method for the measurement of turbidity of a water
sample. It is the graduated aluminum or steel rod of 203 mm long which is
graduated to give turbidity in ppm. One platinum needle of 25 mm long and 1mm
diameter is fixed at the lower end . The eye is kept constant at the eye mark and

the rod is immersed in the water sample under standard light conditions. As soon
as needle disappears the corresponding reading is noted which is turbidity of water
sample in ppm.
Turbidity rod
Turbidity Tube
A tube is calibrated from 0 to 120 cm. A painted disc is placed at the bottom of
the tube and the bottom is covered with a PVC cap. Water is poured from top of
the clear tube and observed for light from the top. The level of water at which the
image of the color disc ceases to be seen is noted in cm. Different levels of
turbidity can be observed for different sources of water. Standard level of water in
cm which has been defined earlier by practice for allowable turbidity should not
be exceeded by the water sample.

Turbidity tube
Turbidity comparison
Jackson Turbidity Meter
It is most commonly used method for the measurement of turbidity above 50 ppm.
It consists of a graduated glass tube or a turbidity tube placed in a metal
cylindrical container or an annular tube which is supported in standard stand and
a standard candle is placed in the candle holder supported above a spring as
shown in figure. To measure the turbidity, candle is lighted, some quantity of
water is placed into the glass tube or the turbidity tube and image of candle is

observed from the top of this glass tube. The depth of the water is increased by
adding sample to the tube till the image of the candle ceases to be seen.The depth
of water at this stage is noted and turbidity with respect to this height is
determined from standard table.
Jackson turbidity meter

Test for Taste and Odor
Taste and odor are closely related and they may be in water due to the action of
dead and living micro-organisms, dissolved gases like hydrogen sulphide,
methane, carbon dioxide, minerals (Iron compounds, sodium chlorides, sulphates)
and so on. Taste and odor in water sample is very difficult to find out by any

experiment . However, smelling and tasting may be the effective method to find
out contamination. The taste and odor is measured in terms of threshold number.
The taste of water is measured by flavor threshold test. In this test the water
sample to be tested is diluted with water free from taste to such extent that the
mixture becomes taste free. Then flavor threshold number (FTN) can be defined
as
FTN = (A + B)/A
Where,
A = volume of water sample in ml.
B = volume of water free from taste added to sample in ml.
Hence less the FTN purer is the water. Thus FTN should be very low.
The odor of water is measured by threshold odor test. In this test the water sample
to be tested is diluted with water free from odor to such extent that the mixture
becomes odor free. Then threshold odor number (TON) can be defined as
TON = (A + B)/A Where,
A = volume of water sample in ml.
B = volume of water free from odor added to sample in ml.
Hence less the TON purer is water. Thus TON should be very low.
Chemical Analysis
In chemical analysis we determine total solids that consists the solids in
suspension, colloidal and dissolved forms. We also determine the total dissolved
solids and the total suspended solids in separate tests.
Determination of Total Solids (TS)
100 to 300 ml of water is placed in a crucible and it is evaporated to dryness in an
oven at 105°C. Weight of dry residue left in the crucible is taken.
Total solid can be determined by dividing weight of dry residue left in crucible in
mg
by volume of water sample taken in crucible in liter
Determination of Total Dissolved Solids (TDS)

Whitman filter paper of no. 44 is taken and measured volume of filtered water
through this filter paper is taken in a crucible. Then it is evaporated to dryness in
an oven at 105°C. Weight of dry residue in the crucible is taken.
Total dissolved solid is determined by dividing weight of residue left in crucible in
mg by volume of water sample taken in crucible in liter.
Determination of Total Suspended Solids (TSS)
We can determine total suspended solids by using the relation TSS = TS –TDS.
Or alternatively;
Whitman filter paper of no. 44 is taken and the known volume of water is filtered.
Weight of dry residue left on the filter paper is taken.
Then total suspended solids can be determined by dividing weight of dry residue
left on the filter paper in mg by volume of water sample filtered in liter.
Test for PH Value
PH value indicates the acidity or alkalinity of water. Neutral water has PH value
7.If PH value is less than 7 the sample will be acidic otherwise it will be alkaline.
Ph scale
PH is determined by the calorimetric or the electrometric method.
Colorimetric Method
In colorimetric method , the color of water sample is compared with the standard
color disc of different PH value after adding the of indicator such as methyl
orange, methyl red etc in the sample. The color disc corresponding to different
indicators with different PH value is available.

Colorimetric test set
Electrometric Method
In this method, the instrument measures the PH valve and displays it in the
digital display in the range of 0 to 14.This method is faster and more reliable.
Electrometric test set

For drinking purpose the PH value near to 7, is considered PH value optimum
between 6.5 to 8 is also allowable.
Test for Chlorine
Chlorine may be present in water in the form of disinfectant. Some amount of
chlorine remains in water after the treatment process or the chlorination. This
remaining chlorine in water is called residual chlorine which is useful to destroy
pathogenic organisms which still remain. The residual chlorine is very important

for drinking water. However, its whose range should be in between 0.05 to 0.2
ppm. Its content is calculated with the help of starch iodide test.
Chlorine test set

Summary
 Safe water should be free from pathogens, color and odor. It should be free
from objectionable chemicals and gases. It should be soft. PH should be
within range. Water should be wholesome.
 Fertilizers, pesticides, sewage, oil etc. make water polluted. Vegetable
waste, dead animals etc cause colloidal impurities and they cause growth of
pathogenic bacteria. Suspended impurities mainly cause turbidity except
color and odor. Dissolved impurities cause bad taste, hardness and
alkalinity.
 There are different types of alkalinity as hydroxide alkalinity, carbonate
alkalinity and bicarbonate alkalinity. It is caused by decaying of organic
matters The PH range for drinkable water is 6.5 to 8.0.
 Virus may be plant or animal. They communicate disease. Viruses grow in
sewage disposed in water source. Viruses cause infection.
 In fresh water algae are microscopic and in salty water they may be several
hundred meters in length covering body of water. Algae develop color, odor
and turbidity and clog the treatment plant.
 Worms are parasitic and create different problems if inside the human body.
 Bacteria in water may vary from 0.15 to 60 microns in size. They may be
harmful ie. disease causing and beneficial. Some of them need oxygen, some

do not need oxygen and some of them may survive with or without oxygen.
They may have spherical, straight, curved, spiral or flat shapes. They may be
parasitic and saprophytic. They may be pathogenic or non-pathogenic. Some
bacteria survive in 10 to 20 °C and called
psychrophilic ,othersmesophilicsurviving in 20 to 40 °C and the others
thermophilic surviving in 40 to 65 °C.
 Water borne diseases are the diseases caused due to consumption of impure
water having the presence of micro-organisms. For prevention water
distributed should be free of germs and for this disinfection is needed.
 Infection transmitted through aquatic animals and pathogens which spend
their lifecycle in water is water based disease.
 Water vector transmitted disease is the disease transmitted through biting of
mosquitoes. Collection of dirty water in the surrounding should be avoided.
 Water washed diseases are water hygiene diseases which are caused due to
lack of sufficient water or cleanliness.
 Faecal oral transmission is that in which diseases transmit from feaces to
mouth through different means. It may transmit from hand to mouth
directly, from water to mouth or from food to mouth. Germs transmit to
food from soil, water, flies and hands. Germs may transmit to water from
fromfaeces directly or from soil.
 For preventive measure of faecal oral transmission of disease, using of toilet
and hand cleaning habit is necessary, food and water should be covered,
water should be sufficient and awareness is needed.
 Most desirable temperature of drinking water is 4.4°C to 10°C.
 Color of water sample is compared with platinum cobalt solutions made in
water.
 Modern digital turbidity meters and nephelometer provide digital display for
turbidity of sample.
 Turbidity rod provide turbidity when it is immersed in water.
 When light ceases to be seen the corresponding reading is taken in Jackson
turbidity meter.
 Threshold numbers are used for test of odor and taste.
 In chemical analysis total solids, total dissolved solids and total suspended
solids are calculated.

 PH value is determined by comparing color disc of different PH with sample
with indicators or it can be directly read in digital display.
Glossary
Prevention: measure before disease
Corrode: wear away by chemical reaction
Contaminated: polluted
Sewage: toilet waste
Toxic: harmful to health
Habitat: living place
Hygiene: practice of keeping clean
Infection: affecting by disease causing organism
Avoid: do not let
Prevail: exist
Domestic: household, of the house
Compatible: coinciding
Self Evaluation
A. Tick (√) the correct answer.
1. What is the range of PH for water to be drinkable ?
(a) 5.0 to 6.5 (b) 6.5 to 8.0
(c) 8 to 9.5 (d) 9.5 to 10
2. If water contains some chemicals which are not harmful to health, that water
is called
(a) pure water (b) polluted water
(c) wholesome water (d) clear water
3. What do you mean by ppm ?
(a) part per minute (b) part per man
(c) part per month (c) part per million

4. Bacteria which survive without oxygen is called
(a) aerobic bacteria (b) anaerobic bacteria
(c) facultative bacteria (d) none of the above
5. What is the depth of water for taking water sample in rivers, streams and
lakes?
(a) 30 to 50 cm (b) 40 to 60 cm
(c) 50 to 70 cm (d) 60 to 80 cm
6. What is the most desirable temperature for drinking water?
(a) 3.5 to 5.5°C (b) 5.2 to 7.5°C
(c) 4.4 to 10°C (d) 7 to 9.5°C
7. What is length of platinum needle of turbidity rod ?
(a) 10 mm (b) 15 mm
(c) 20 mm (d) 25 mm
8. What is the maximum value of acidity ?
(a) 0 PH (b) 5 PH
(c) 7 PH (d) 14 PH
9. Water wash disease is caused by
(a) drinking impure water (b) mosquitoes
(c) lack of cleanliness (d) viral infection
B. Give very short answer for the following questions.

1. What is the range of the size of particle for colloidal impurities ?
2. What is the unit of measurement for concentration of dissolved
impurities ?
3. What is the maximum value of acidity and alkalinity ?
4. What is the other another name of hydroxide alkalinity ?
5. What is parasite ?
6. Why do you take water sample ?

7. What is the temperature of water is considered to be unfit to drink ?
C. Give short answer for the following question

1. What make water sources polluted ?
2. What is the trouble created by algae in treatment plant ?
3. Write types of alkalinity.
4. What is water borne disease ?
5. What is faecal oral transmission ?
6. What are the points to be remembered for collecting water sample ?
7. Write formula for FTN and TON.
8. How can you find PH of water sample by calorimetric method ?
D. Answer the following questions in detail.

1. Write requirements of safe water.
2. Write causes for colloidal impurities and growth of pathogens.
3. Where do viruses grow? What they cause?
4. Write about size of bacteria. Explain types of bacteria according to
different classification.
5. What is water vector transmitted disease ? Give examples. Write how
they can be prevented
6. Prepare sketch showing the transmission of disease through faecal
oral way.
7. Explain the preventive measures for the faecal oral transmission of
disease.
8. Describe how water is tested for color in platinum cobalt method ?
9. Describe, with sketch, how turbidity is taken with the help of turbidity
rod.
10. Describe with a simple sketch the function of Jackson turbidity meter.
11. How can you determine total solids, total dissolved solids and total
suspended solids ?

Unit 5 Treatment of Water
Learning Outcomes
 explain the purposes of water treatment.
 explain the purposes and methods of aeration.
 differentiate the purposes and explain the methods of fine and coarse screen.
 explain the function of sedimentation and their types.
 answer why coagulation is needed.
 explain the need of filtration, theories of filtration and working of different
types of filter.
 explain the purpose and methods of disinfection.
 answer what is break point chlorination.
 explain why and how temporary and permanent hardness can be removed.
Introduction
In this unit different types of impurities and how these impurities could be
removed are discussed. In oder to remove the impurities in the water, the water
needs to be treated. These are different types of treatment of water.
Need of Water Treatment
Raw water may contain suspended, colloidal and dissolved impurities. The
purpose of water treatment is to remove all those impurities so as to make it
suitable for drinking and other household purpose. Water needs to be treated in
order to:
 reduce the objectionable colour, odour, turbidity, hardness and taste.
 kill pathogens harmful to human health.
 make water safe and potable for drinking.
 eliminate corrosive nature of water to avoid corrosion of pipes and boilers.
 make water suitable for a wide variety of industrial purpose.
 remove harmful gases dissolved in water.
The types of treatment f water are as follows:

Aeration
Aeration is a method that is used to bring the water into contact with the
atmospheric air so that oxygen is absorbed from air and the objectionable gases,
odour, taste etc are released in atmosphere. Iron, manganese and other organic
impurities are also removed by aeration. However, excessive aeration causes
excessive oxygen absorption which further increases corrosion of pipes.
Methods of Aeration
Aerators can be categorized as gravity aerators, spray aerator and diffuse aerator.
Gravity aerators can be further classified as cascade aerator, inclined aerator, salt
tray aerator and gravel bed aerator.
Cascade Aerator
Cascade aerator
Water is allowed to fall 1 to 3 m height over a series of 4 to 6 concrete steps.
During this fall the water is mixed with air and gets aerated. It removes 20 to
45% carbon dioxide and 35% of hydrozensulphide.
Inclined Aerator ( inclined apron with riffle plate aerator)
In this aerator, water is made to fall over the inclined plane with riffle plates.
Riffle plates help to produce effervescence in water, and hence there is absorption
of oxygen.

Inclined aerator
Salt Tray Aerator

It consists of cylindrical encloser containing wooden trays kept one above another
with some vertical gap between them. The water falls through the trays absorbing
oxygen. The water so aerated is taken away to the pure water reservoir from the
lower end.
Tray aerator
Gravel Bed Aerator

In this method, the gravel is packed in a container, and the water is diffused from
the top of the container onto the gravel. The aerated water is thus collected at the
bottom of the container and collected from there.

Gravel bed aerator
Spray Aerator
In this aerator the water flow is divided into fine streams and small droplets which
come into contact with air and aeration takes place. In this method of aeration
70% to 90% carbon dioxide can be removed.
Spray aerator
Diffuse Aerator
In this aerator, perforated pipe network is installed at the bottom of aeration tank
and the compressed air is blown through the pipes network. The air bubbles travel
upward through water which causes aeration. Air diffuser tanks have a retention
period of about 15 minutes and a depth of 3 to 5 metres.(Length and breadth may
be different.). These are many erator pipes may be of different numbers depending
upon length and breadth.

Diffuse aerator
Screening
The process followed by passing water through screens to remove large suspended
matters like sticks, branches of tree, leaves, dead animal body, pebbles, ice etc.
and other small suspended matters is called screening.
Two types of screens are used for the process of screening.
Coarse Screen
Coarse screens are generally placed in front of the fine screens at the inlet to
remove large suspended and floating matters from surface sources. These screens
are generally called trash rack or bar screen and, they consists of bar grills of 25
mm diameter. If openings are of 50mm to 150mm it is called as coarse screen and
if it is 20mm to 50mm it is called medium screen. Mostly bar screens are kept
inclined so that they can be cleaned easily with a rake and to increase the flow
area of the water. The slope of inclined bars is 3 to 6 vertical to 1 horizontal. The
bars are supported at the bottom by base support and by support beam at the top.

Section of bar screen (trash rack)
Plan of bar screen (trash rack)

Bar screen (trash rack)
Fine Screen
It is used to remove smaller suspended impurities at the surface or ground water
intakes, sometimes alone or sometimes following a bar screen. Fine screens are
usually drums perforated with holes of about 6mm diameter and called drum
strainers. Fine screens normally get clogged and are to be cleaned frequently. So
they are avoided nowadays for surface intakes and fine particles are separated in
sedimentation.
Fine or perforated screen
Sedimentation
This is the process to make suspended particles settle down in a tank and make
achieve purer water from the downstream side of the tank or directly from the
upper part of the tank. Sedimentation can remove suspended particles such as silt,

sand, clay etc. It reduces the load in subsequent treatment plants. This also reduces
the clogging of pipes and also reduces the load in pipes and fittings.
Rectangular sedimentation tank

A sedimentation tank is ideal if the length and depth of tank is enough to settle
down all moving suspended particles in its way, and the breadth is also enough to
contain the whole discharge.
Types of Sedimentation Tank
Fill and Draw Type Sedimentation Tank
This tank is normally rectangular in plan. The water is first filled and then allowed
to some detention period of normally 24 hours for sedimentation of particles. The
clear water is drawn from outlet and the tank is then made empty and cleaning of
sediment is done. After cleaning, again the filling and emptying process is
repeated.
These tanks need long detention period, more labor and supervision.
Continuous Flow Type Sedimentation Tank

In continuous flow type sedimentation tank raw water is continuously admitted
into the tank and allowed to flow slowly in the tank during which the particles in
suspension settle down and clear water flows out continuously from the tank.
These tanks work on the principle that by reducing the velocity of flow of water a
large amount of suspended particles present in water can be made to settle down.
The velocity of flow of water in these tanks is reduced by providing

Continuous flow sedimentation tanks
sufficient length of travel for water in tank. Further the velocity of flow of water in
these tanks is so adjusted that the time taken by a particle of water to move from
inlet to outlet is slightly more than that required for settling of a suspended particle
in water. The continuous flow type sedimentation tanks may be rectangular,
square or circular in shape.
Sedimentation with Coagulation
If sedimentation is done by adding certain chemicals to accelerate settling of fine
suspended particlesas well as to allow settling of colloidal particles then it is
known as sedimentation with coagulation. Very fine suspended clay particles are
not removed by plain sedimentation explained earlier. Particle of 0.06 mm size
requires 10 hours to settle in 3 m deep plain sedimentation and 0.002 mm particle
will require 4 days for settling. This settling time is spacing impracticable.

Therefore we need sedimentation with coagulation. Colloidal particles being
charged particles and in continuous motion do not get sediment in plain
sedimentation. The detention time required in sedimentation with coagulation will
greatly reduce. The size of tank required is also smaller. In rural water supply
projects it is not feasible to apply chemicals regularly but in urban water supply
system sedimentation with coagulation may be necessary .
It removes fragments of animal and vegetable matters ,plankton, finely divided
matter including colloidal matter, organic coloring matter, some bacteria and
viruses and also turbidity, odour and taste producing substances.
The following steps prevail for the process of sedimentation.
Feeding of Coagulant
Coagulant may feed to water in dry or wet form known as dry feeding or wet
feeding. Wet feeding means feeding after making solution.
Mixing of Coagulant, Flocculation and Sedimentation
After the addition of coagulants to raw water it is thoroughly (whole part) and
vigorously (with great speed) mixed so that the coagulants get fully dispersed into
the entire mass of water. For mixing process basins with baffle walls are used.
These basins may be horizontal or vertical with proper arrangement of baffle
walls. The disturbance created by the presence of baffle walls in the path of
flowing water cause vigorous agitation of water which thoroughly mixes water
with coagulant. These coagulation tanks can be constructed in the same way as
that of plain sedimentation tanks. These tanks are thus divided into many
chambers where the flocculation also takes place, and the water is passed to the
deeper sedimentation tank where flocs are settled down and treated water can be
taken from outlet to pass to the filtration chamber.
Alternatively rapid mixing of coagulant is done in a basin at the entrance of raw
water after addition of coagulant. Mixing is done mechanically with vertical shaft
and horizontal blades. Then water from top of the tank is taken to another slow
mixing tank with similar type of blades arrangements but of larger sizes. Water
from bottom of the slow mixing basin passes to the clarifier where the sludge or
the large particles formed with coagulants settle at the bottom and treated pure
water passes from the outlet. Treated water is commonly taken to filtration tank
for further treatment.

The amount of coagulant required is 40% less in the mechanically operated
coagulation basins because of vigorous agitation. But the initial cost in the baffle
type is less.
Sedimentation with coagulation
Types of Coagulant
Following are the commonly used coagulants .
Sulphate or Alum .Al2(SO4)3.18H2O
It is available in powder or liquid form. Its dose is 10 to 30 mg per litre of water. It
is cheap, effective and widely used. If raw water contains no alkalinity we have to
add it by adding lime or soda ash since to use alum and form floc it is necessary
that water should have some alkalinity.
If water already contains bicarbonate alkalinity,
Al2(SO4)3.18H2O + 3Ca(HCO3)2→2Al(OH)3↓ + 3CaSO4 + 18H2O + 6CO2↓
If lime is added,
Al2(SO4)3.18H2O + 3Ca (OH)2→2Al(OH)3↓+ 3CaSO4 + 18H2O
If soda ash is added,

Al2(SO4)3.18H2O + 3Na2CO3 →2Al(OH)3↓ + 3Na2SO4 + 18H2O +3CO2
Al(OH)3 settle in clarifier and CaSO4 and Na2SO4 are not harmful to health though
it remains in water.
Amount of alum required depends upon turbidity and color of raw water. Usual
dose is 5 mg/l for relatively clear water to 30mg/l for high turbid water.
Iron Salts
FerrousSulphate FeSO4.7H2O
It is also called copperas and used with lime. Amount depends on turbidity,
alkalinity and free carbondioxide.
FeSO4.7H2O + Ca (OH)2→Fe(OH)2↓ + CaSO4 + 7H2O.
The ferrous hydroxide Fe(OH)2 is an efficient floc which soon oxidize by
dissolved oxygen in water forming more amount which settle down and taken as
sludge from bottom of the clarifier.
Fe(OH)2 + O2 + 2H2O → 4Fe(OH)2↓ Ferric
Chloride. FeCl3
It may be used with or without lime.
2FeCl3 + 3Ca(OH)2 → 2Fe(OH)3 ↓ + 3CaCl2

Fe(OH)3 ie ferric hydroxide is a floc which settle at the bottom of the clarifier and
taken as the sludge.
Ferric Sulphate.Fe2(SO4)3
Fe2(SO4)3 + 3Ca(OH)2→3CaSO4↓ + 2Fe(OH)3
CaSO4 ie. Calcium sulphate settle as a floc and this can also be taken away from
the bottom of the clarifier.
Chlorinated Copperas. FeCl3. Fe2(SO4)3
The mixture of ferric chloride and ferric sulphate is called chlorinated copperas
and prepared by chlorine and ferroussulphate.
6(FeSO4.7H2O) + 3Cl2 → 2( FeCl3. Fe2(SO4)3) + 42H2O.
It when added to water forms a tough floc which is removed in sedimentation from
the bottom of the clarifier.
Sodium Aluminate. Na2Al2O4

It is sometimes used as coagulants. When it is mixed in water it reacts with salts of
calcium and magnesium and forms the precipitate of calcium and magnesium
aluminate which can be taken out as sludge from the bottom of the clarifier.
Na2Al2O4+Ca(HCO3)2→CaAl2O4↓ + Na2CO3 + CO2↑ + H2O

Na2Al2O4+ CaCl2→CaAl2O4↓ +2NaCl
Na2Al2O4+ CaSO4→CaAl2O4↓ + Na2SO4 Factors
Affecting Coagulation
Following are the factors which affect coagulation
(i) Kind of coagulant
(ii) Quantity of coagulant

(iii) Amount, type of color and turbidity of water.
(iv) The PH value of water.
(v) Time period of mixing and flocculation

(vi) Temperature
(vii) Violence of agitation
Determination of Optimum Dose of Coagulant

Jar test is conducted for determining optimum dose of coagulant. In jar test there
are commonly 6 number of jars or beakers which are placed in their places to
which light is given from the bases of them. There are movable blades which are
dipped into the beakers containing same samples of water and different dozes of
coagulants those described earlier.The rotation of blades agitates the samples and
the dose of coagulant which gives the most clear water is selected to be the
optimum dose. If clear water couldn’t be obtained in first trial, repeated trials
should be done.

Jar test
Filtration
The process of passing the water through a bed of filtering media is called
filtration. Sedimentation process removes the large particles only which can settle
down at the bottom. There are some particles which never settle down and thus for
removing such particles, bacteria, colour, dissolved minerals, filtration is used.
Theory of Filtration
Mechanical Straining
It states that the larger particles cannot pass through the pores in between sand.
The pore size continuously become smaller due to use and hence the smaller
particles are also checked in the sand layer. The floc which does not settle in the
coagulation tank is checked by the layers of filtering media in the filter.
Sedimentation
The interstices between the sand grains act as a small sedimentation tank where
the suspended matters and very small particles like bacteria and colloidal particles
settle.
Biological Action
The organic impurities in the water become food for the micro-organisms. These
micro-organisms decay the organic matters and form a layer at the top of sand bed
which is called dirty skin. Micro-organism feeding on the dirty skin remains at the
top layer and act on the incoming organic matters.
Electrolytic Action
As per ionic theory, when two substances of opposite charges come into contact,
the charge is neutralized and in doing so, new chemical substances are formed.
Sand particles in filter media also have charges of some polarity which attracts the
suspended , colloidal and dissolved matters of opposite polarity. In neutralizing
new, heavy chemicals are formed which settle down. After a long use charges in
sand grains get exhausted by coating of new chemicals and thus it becomes
necessary to clean filter for regeneration of charges
Types of Filter
There are three types of filter which are classified according to design and time
period required for filtering water. They are classified as slow sand filter, rapid
sand filter and pressure filter.

Slow Sand Filter
This filter is called slow sand filter because rate of filtration is slow in this filter.
Bed cleaning needs a lot of labors and hence this filter has high maintenance cost..
Filter Media for Slow Sand Filter

 It consists 90 to 110 cm thick sand layer with size of sand 0.25 to0.35 mm.
Finer the sand better will be the removal of turbidity and bacterial removal
efficiency but lowers the filtration rate.
 The sand layer is supported on base material of 30 to 75 cm thick gravel
bed. Gravel bed has four layers with 3 to 6 mm, 6 to 20 mm, 20 to 40 mm
and 40 to 65 mm size gravel. Each layer is about 15 cm thick.
Working and Cleaning of Slow Sand Filter
Water from sedimentation tank enters the filter through inlet, then it passes
through filter media (sand and gravel) The purified water is collected from under
the filter media and comes out of the outlet to clear water reservoir. The top layer
of sand is scrapped after long use and washed to reuse. Cleaning of slow sand
filter is done after 1 to 3 months.

Slow sand filter
(ii) Rapid Sand Filter

Filter Media For Rapid Sand Filter
 This filter is free Free from dirt and clay, it consists of filter media consists
60 to 90 cm thick sand layer with effective size of sand 0.35 to 0.60 mm.
 The sand layer is supported on the base material of 45 to 60 cm thick gravel
bed. There are four layers for gravel beds each layer with maximum 15 cm
thick. These layers have gravel size of 2 to 6 mm, 6 to 12 mm, 12 to 20 mm
and 20 to 50 mm from the top

Rapid sand filter
Working of Rapid Sand Filter

 Water to be filtered or the influent enters through the inlet chamber from
valve
1. The water valve 3 has to be turned off when the water enters.
 Water from inlet chamber overflows to the main chamber.
 Water infiltrates through sand layer and gravel layer and then becomes
filtered.
 This filtered water is captured by lateral drains.
 Water from lateral drains passes to central drain, and then it is taken to
filtered water storage tank. In doing so valve 2 is turned on and valve 5
turned off.
 Air compressor unit forces air to the gravel layer and thus the pores inside it
are created again. After providing compressed air wash water is a
 lso collected by lateral drains and captured by central drain which passes
through wash water drain. In doing so valve 2 should be closed and valve 5
should be turned on.

 To clean the central drain water stored in wash water storage tank is used.
Pressure Filter
Pressure filter is a rapid sand filter that consists of a closed steel cylindrical tank in
which water is passed through pump under the pressure of 3-7 kg/cm 2 through
pumping. Pressure is controlled with the help of pressure gauge. Raw water with
coagulant commonly alum is fed directly to this tank where coagulation also
directly takes place inside it.
The Raw water enters from inlet valve and passes through sand and gravel bed,
and then it enters to central drain through lateral drains. The drain pipes are
covered with a perforated steel plank through which filtered water from gravel
media passes to the lateral drains and to the central drain.
Pressure filter
Disinfection
Disinfection means to kill bacteria and micro organism which cause disease and
make water safe for drinking.
Methods of Disinfection
There are different methods of disinfection the most common ones are as follows:
Boiling
Boiling of water kills pathogenic bacteria and makes water safe to drink.

Treatment by boiling
Excessive lime treatment

Lime is usually used for reducing hardness of water. Excessive use of lime also
disinfects the water .
Excess lime in water increases PH value of water. If PH value increases to more
than 9.5, all the bacteria are killed.
Iodine and Bromine Treatment
Addition of Iodine and Bromine in water kills all the pathogenic bacteria. The
quantity of Iodine and Bromine should not exceed 8 ppm (mg/l). They can kill the
bacteria in minimum contact period of 5 minutes. These are found in form of pills
and the very handy.
Ozone Treatment
Ozone is used in gaseous form, blue in colour. It is the unstable form of oxygen
containing 3 atoms of oxygen.
First ozone should be prepared by
The ozone is unstable and breaks down the liberating nascent oxygen to normal
condition.

Nascent oxygen kills all the bacteria. The water is let into a chamber containing
ozone gas through the inlet where it is disinfected and comes out from the outlet.
Ozone dose is 2 to 3 ppm. It also removes colour, odour and taste.
Ozone generators
Potassium Permanganate Treatment

This is most common disinfectant used in village for disinfection of well water,
pond water or private source of water. In addition to the killing of bacteria it also
reduces the organic matters by oxidizing them.
A small amount of KMnO4 is dissolved in a bucket of water and mixed it in water
of the well frequently to kill the bacteria.
Dose of KMnO4 is 1-2 mg/litre of water. Contact period is 4 to 6 hours. It kills
only 98%of pathogenic bacteria.
Silver Treatment or Electro-Katadyn Process
Metallic silver ions are introduced into water by passing the ions through silver
electrode tubes. The introduction of silver ions in water is highly effective as it
kills 100% bacteria.
Ultraviolet Ray Treatment
Water is allowed to pass in thickness not exceeding 10 cm before the ultraviolet
rays. These rays penetrate the water and kill the bacteria.

Ultraviolet treatment
Ultraviolet ray is produced in the ultraviolet germicidal lamp. The intensity of ray
is controlled by the ultraviolet intensity monitor. Frequent cleaning of the lamp
is needed and is done by tube cleaner. There is provision of outer shell pressure
vessel to entrap the ultraviolet rays inside the chamber. Untreated water enters the
tube from inlet and is taken from outlet in other end.
Bottles filled with water can be placed in the direct sunlight where u-v rays of the
sunlight penetrates the water the bacteria. The bottles should have the diameter
less than 10 cm. This method is known as sodis method.
Sodis treatment
Chlorination

Chlorine in its various forms is the most widely and universally adopted product
for disinfecting water. It is reliable, cheap and not very difficult to handle. The
chlorine reacts with water and forms hydrochloric acid and hypochlorous acid.
Cl2 + H2O →HCl + HOCl
HOCl→ H+ +OCl-
The HOCl ionizes into hydrogen ions (H+) and hypochlorite ions (OCl-). Thus the
hypochlorous acid and the hypochlorite ions accomplish the disinfection. The
disinfection is rapid when the PH value is about 7 or slightly more.
The chlorine can be employed generally in three form, viz.(i) in the form of
bleaching powder or chloride of lime for small supplies. (ii) liquid chlorine or
solution of sodium hypochlorite ( containing chlorine 10-15 % by weight) for
small town, and (iii) in the form of gas by gaseous chlorinator for medium or large
size waterworks.
The chlorine is added to the water in pipe leading from the filtered water reservoir
to the distribution mains so that the sufficient contact period is ensured. However;
if the water is highly polluted it will be more advantageous to add some chlorine
into the suction pipes of raw water pumps before any other treatment is given.
This is called pre-chlorination.
The storage of chlorine should be sufficiently cured because it forms a very
explosive gas when mixed with CO. Also since it is poisonous, sufficient
ventilation should be provided to take care of leakage of chlorine.
Adding of chlorine to a large volume of water for it treatment is teamed
chlorination. The amount of chlorine that is added to leave 0.2 mg/l or ppm of free
resistance chlorine after 10 minutes of contact period is called optimum dose of
chlorine.
Generally, the chlorine is supplied in steel cylinders compressed into liquid form
(i.e.liquefied gas). A number of dosing apparatus are available for adding chlorine
the chlorine is generally allowed to come in contact with water at least for 10 to 15
minutes, and the water is thoroughly agitated. Usually it takes 30 to 45 minutes to
kill the bacteria. The amount of chlorine to be added to the water depends upon
the type of water.

If water has no chlorine demand, any chlorine added to such water will appear as
residual chlorine and hence relation between applied and residual chlorine is
indicated by line A in the figure below.
However, water generally has some chlorine demand and when chlorine is added
it first reacts with compounds such as ammonia, proteins, chloramines and hence
residual chlorine is obtained then only it performs the function of killing of
bacteria ,therefore more addition of chlorine suddenly drops the amount of
residual chlorine and further addition of chlorine again produces the residual
chlorine. The sudden increasing point of residual chlorine is called break point
chlorine and if this volume is applied then it is known as break point chlorination
(or no further chlorination needed).
This can be interpreted it in graph.
Break point chlorination
In the above figure

Curve O to A : Initial stage, total residual chlorine.
A to B : less residual chlorine because chlorine reacts with compounds as
ammonia, proteins, chloramines etc.
BC : sudden decrease in residual chlorine because chlorine reacts with bacteria or
kills it.
CD : full residual chlorine – equal amount as applied dose.
Effects of Break Point Chlorination
 It removes taste, odour and manganese.

 It kills all bacteria.
 Desired amount of residual chlorine can be kept after break point.
 It completes oxidation of other compounds such as ammonia, proteins etc
Factors Affecting Chlorination
1) Turbidity
This more the turbidity, the less is the bacterial efficiency of chlorine i.e. more
chlorine is needed.
2) Presence of metallic compound

More chlorine is needed if there are metallic compounds.
3) PH value of water
If PH is high in water or there is alkalinity then alkalis react with chlorine forming
HOCl and this delays affecting bacteria.
e.g. 2NaOH + Cl2 →2HOCl + 2Na.
4) Type, condition and concentration of micro organism

Efficiency becomes low if the favorable condition for bacteria is available and
concentration of bacteria is high. For virus more volume of chlorine is needed.
Chemicals for Chlorination
Chloramines
Since chlorine is an evaporative chemical, the residual chlorine will not be
available after some time and hence the safeguard against further pollution in the
distribution mains is not possible. The ammonia is added to filtered water before
addition of chlorine, and then chloramines are formed. The ammonia retains the
chlorine for longer period and also removes the unpleasant taste and odor. So, the
large amount of chlorine will be available in water without imparting any taste and
odor. Dose of ammonia and chlorine is 1:4.When the treatment is given before
sedimentation, the growth of algae may be controlled in settling chambers.
Bleaching Powder
This Is the hypochlorite of lime (CaOCl2) and is employed for temporary or
emergency chlorination. It contains about 30 to 35 % chlorine when fresh and
loses its chlorine content with age and exposure to air. For application, the

bleaching powder is dissolved in water and the solution is added to filtered water
according to requirement. A dose of 1.5 to 4.0 kg/ml is common. The solution of
5% powder and 95% of water by weight is prepared in the form of paste and then
thinned to a slurry, this is then injected in the service mains. The bleaching
powder requires 24 hours for its action. The treatment with bleaching powder is
also called ‘hypochlorination’.
Water Softening
If water contains some chemicals i.e. bicarbonates of calcium and magnesium that
causes hardness in water. It is called temporary hardness. If water contains
sulphate and chloride of calcium and magnesium the hardness thus developed is
termed as permanent hardness. Removal of both of the hardness is called softening
of water.
Hardness in water causes difficulty in washing.
Removal of Temporary Hardness

Boiling
Temporary hardness can be removed by boiling the hard water. Bicarbonates of
Ca and Mg change into insoluble carbonates which can be removed by
sedimentation process in sedimentation tank. For large scale it is expensive.
Mg(HCO3)2 + heat→MgCO3 + CO2 + H2O
Ca(HCO3)2 + heat → CaCO3 + CO2 + H2O
Lime Treatment
Temporary hardness can also be removed by adding lime to the water. Hence
Mg(HCO3)2 + Ca(OH)2→MgCO3 + CaCO3 + 2H2O
Ca(HCO3)2 + Ca(OH)2→2CaCO3 + 2H2O
Removal of Permanent Hardness
Lime Soda Process
Permanent hardness of water which is caused by sulphates and chlorides of Ca and
Mg canbe removed by adding lime ie. Ca(OH) 2 and soda ie. Na2CO3. The
chemical reactions are as under.
MgSO4 + Ca(OH)2→Mg(OH)2 ↓ + CaSO4 .
MgCl2 + Ca(OH)2→Mg(OH)2 ↓ + CaCl2.

MgCl2 + Na2CO3→MgCO3 ↓+ 2NaCl.
CaSO4 +Na2CO3→CaCO3↓+ Na2SO4
CaCl2.+ Na2CO3→CaCO3↓+ 2NaCl.
Mg(OH)2, CaCO3 and MgCO3 are insoluble in water and removed by
sedimentation. Other products are soluble and do not impart in hardness.
Raw water is entered to the chamber from one side of the rectangular tank.
Similarly lime and soda are entered to the chamber from another side of the
chamber. Then water with these chemicals are agitated with the help of blades.
Blades are connected to the central shaft, and at the end of the shaft outside the
chamber there is a stirrer. Chemicals are mixed thoroughly in water while rotating
the shaft with the stirrer. Mg(OH) 2 , CaCO3 and MgCO3 which are settled at the
bottom of the chamber and are taken out as sludge.
Lime soda process

Zeolite or Base Exchange or Ion Exchange or Ionization Process.
This is a commonly used process to remove temporary hardness. Zeolite is a
natural or artificial granular substance. Natural zeolite is green in colour and
artificial is white The zeolite is also called permutit. The commonly used permutit
is sodium aluminiumsilicate (SiO2.Al2O3.Na2O).
Hence;
2SiO2Al2O3Na2O + Ca(HCO3)2→2SiO2Al2O3CaO + 2Na(HCO3).
2SiO2Al2O3Na2O + CaSO4→2SiO2Al2O3CaO + Na2SO4.

2SiO2Al2O3Na2O + CaCl2→2SiO2Al2O3CaO + 2NaCl 2SiO2Al2O3Na2O
+ Mg(HCO3)2→2SiO2Al2O3MgO + 2NaHCO3 2SiO2Al2O3Na2O +
MgSO4→2SiO2Al2O3MgO + Na2SO4.
2SiO2Al2O3Na2O + MgCl2→2SiO2Al2O3MgO + 2NaCl.
Here the compounds of 2SiO2Al2O3CaO and 2SiO2Al2O3MgO are insoluble and
settle inside the chamber above the permutit. Hence permutit should be
regenerated by adding NaCl.
2SiO2Al2O3CaO + 2NaCl →2SiO2Al2O3Na2O + CaCl2
2SiO2Al2O3MgO +2NaCl→2SiO2Al2O3Na2O + MgCl2
Zeolite process
In this process hard water is entered from top of the chamber from the inlet. There
is provision of gravel packing above a certain height from the bottom of the
chamber. Above the gravel bed zeolite bed is provided.Compounds of
2SiO2Al2O3CaO and 2SiO2Al2O3MgO formed after reaction of bicarbonates,
sulphates and chlorides of calcium and magnesium withzeolite are insoluble and
settle inside the chamber above the zeolite bed.Softened water infiltrates below the
gravel bed and passes through the soft water outlet. Some floating impurities
formed in the process are removed from the outletto the sink. There is storage of
brine solution ie. the solution of common salt side by side. Aftera log use zeolite

ceases to function and brine solution is injected from the tank to the softening
chamber where the regeneration of zeolite takes place.
Summary
 Water treatment is needed to reduce color, odor, turbidity, hardness and to
kill pathogens.
 Aeration provides absorption of oxygen and removal of iron, manganese and
other organic impurities.
 Coarse screen removes large suspended matters like sticks, branches of tree,
leaves, dead animal body, pebbles etc.
 Fine screen placed after coarse screen removes smaller particles coming out
from bar screen.
 Plain sedimentation removes suspended particles such as silt, sand clay etc.
There are two types of plain sedimentation ie. intermittent and continuous.
 Adding some chemicals accelerate settling of fine suspended particles and
allow settling of colloidal particles. This is termed as sedimentation with
coagulation.
 In traditional method vertical or horizontal baffle walls are used to create
disturbance for thorough mixing of water.
 Alternatively rapid and slow mixing are done for agitation of coagulants in
modern method.
 Common coagulants are alum, ferrous sulfate, ferric sulfate, ferric chloride,
chlorinated copperas, sodium aluminate etc.
 Optimum dose of coagulant is determined by jar test.
 Some particles which do not settle down should be removed by filtration.
Moreover; bacteria, color, dissolved minerals are also removed by filtration.
 Rate of filtration is slow in Slow Sand Filter and fast in Rapid Sand Filter.
 Disinfection removes pathogens in water.
 Boiling kills pathogens, lime increases PH killing bacteria, Iodine and
bromine kill bacteria, nascent oxygen kills bacteria, potassium
permanganate and silver ions kill bacteria and water passing through u-v
rays also kills bacteria.

 Chlorination is used for large volume disinfection. Dose of chlorine should
be such that chlorine added to water should leave 0.2 ppm freely available
residual chlorine.
 Contact period of chlorination is 10 minutes.
 If there is no function of chlorine after any addition this point is called break
point chlorination.
 Ammonia is added to filtered water before adding chlorine to form
chloramines for retaining chlorine in water for longer period and to remove
taste and odor.
 Bleaching powder is dissolved in water and the solution is added to filtered
water in a dose of 1.5 to 4.0 kg/ml.
 Temporary hardness caused by bicarbonates of calcium and magnesium can
be removed by boiling and lime treatment.
 Permanent hardness caused by sulphate and chloride of calcium and
magnesium can be removed by lime soda process and zeolite process.
Glossary
Commercial: large scale selling and buying
Allowable: acceptable
Objectionable: negatively commentable
Excessive: large amount
Effervescence: giving off bubbles
Diffuse: spread over a large area
Fine: very small
Sufficient: enough
Optimum: proper
Reservoir: water collecting tank for future use
Nascent: just coming into existance
Self Evaluation
A. Tick (√ ) the correct answer.

1. Aeration is done to
(a)Kill pathogens (b) settle suspended matters
(c) increase dissolved oxygen (d) all of the above
2. Coarse screen is also called
(a) diffuse screen (b) trash-rack
(c) fine screen (d) none of the above
3. Detention period of fill and draw type sedimentation tank is
(a) 24 hrs (b) 48 hrs
(c) 72 hrs (d) 96 hrs
4. Filtration removes
(a) bacteria (b) particles which cannot settle
(c) color (d) all of the above
5. Compressed air in rapid sand filter is used to
(a) take away wash water (b) clean the filter media (c) take away clean
water (d) enter raw water.
6. What is the maximum dose of Iodine and Bromine to kill bacteria in 5
minutes?
(a) 6 ppm (b) 7 ppm
(c) 8 ppm (d) 9 ppm
7. What is the percentage killing of bacteria in silver treatment ?

(a) 90 % (b) 94 % (c) 96 % (d) 100 %
8. What are the sizes of holes in fine screen ?
(a) 5mm (b) 6mm
(c) 7mm (d) 8mm
9. What is dose of ammonia and chlorine to form chloramines?
(a) 1:3 (b) 1:4
(c) 1:5 (d) 1:6

10. Time required for bleaching powder for its action is
(a) 12 hrs (b) 18 hrs
(c) 24 hrs (d) 30 hrs
11. The dose of bleaching powder to mix in water for treatment is
(a) 1.0-1.5 kg/ml (b) 1.5-3.0 kg/ml
(c) 1.5-3.5 kg/ml (d) 1.5-4.0 kg/ml
12. The percentage of bleaching powder and water to use in disinfection is
(a) 5% and 95% (b) 10% and 90%
(c) 15% and 85% (d) 20% and 80%
13. Brine solution is used for
(a) disinfection (b) chlorination
(c) filtration (d) regeneration
B. Give very short answers for the following questions.

1. Why fine screens are avoided ?
2. What is filtration ?
3. Name four theories of filtration.
4. What is sedimentation ?
5. What is the cleaning interval of slow sand filter ?
6. How can ozone be prepared ?
7. What is the dose of KMnO4in disinfection ?
8. What is the thickness of water film in u-v ray treatment ?
9. What is sedimentation with coagulation ?
10. What is the purpose of disinfection?
11. Write the chemical formula for permutit.
12. What do you mean by sludge?
C. Give short answers for the following questions.

1. Why is the rack in bar screen placed inclined ? What is the inclination
of it ?
2. Differentiate fill and draw type and continuous flow type
sedimentation tank.
3. Explain the steps of sedimentation with coagulation with a sketch.
4. What is dirty skin ?
5. What are the sizes of gravel bed and sand layer in slow sand filter ?
6. Which type of filter provides continuous filtering of water and how ?
7. What is ionic theory ?
8. How can we reduce detention time and size of sedimentation tank ?
D. Answer the following questions in detail.

1. Explain why water treatment is needed.
2. Explain the function of any four types of aerations.
3. Describe with sketch how a trash rack functions.
4. Describe functioning of fine screen with a sketch.
5. Explain the working of slow sand filter and rapid sand filter with
sketches.
6. What is break point chlorination ?
7. What are the factors affecting chlorination ?
8. List down the processes of removal of temporary hardness with
equations.
9. Describe base exchange process and regeneration of permutit with
chemical equations.
10. Describe lime soda process with equations.
References
BirdieG.S. and BirdieJ.S.(1992), “water supply and sanitary engineering including
environmental engineering”. Fifth Revised and Enlarged Edition; DhanpatRai and
Sons Publishing Company (P) Ltd, NaiSarak, Delhi, India.

Er.Bhatt Dinesh Prasad.,Water supply Engineering; Civil Diploma (DCE) II year.
II part
Er.ParajuliArun Prasad, Water supply engineering; head/senior lecturer ,
Department of Civil Engineering, Kathmandu Engineering College, Kathmandu.
Husain S K, “Text Book of water supply and sanitary engineering”Second Edition;
Oxford and IBH publishing company Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi, Bombay, Calcutta.
Unit 6 Distribution of water
Learning Outcomes
After the completion of this chapter, students will be able to:
 Explain distribution system of water.
 Know the knowledge of good requirements for distribution.
 Explain the way about the continuous system, intermediated system.
 Collect the information about the clear water reservoir.
 Describe about the break pressure tank.
Introduction
The purpose of distribution system is to deliver water to consumer with
appropriate quality, quantity and pressure. Distribution system is used to describe
collectively the facilities used to supply water from its source to the point of
usage. It is the network of pipe lines inside the locality. The distribution system
required the different large size mains, arterial mains of intermediate size and
minor distribution together with valve, hydrant service connection, etc. This unit

you will study about the requirement for water distribution, different water
distribution system, and water reservoir and break pressure tank.
Requirements of good distribution system
The distribution system consists of a network of pipes for transporting water from
purification plant to the consumer’s tap. The distribution system includes pipes of
various sizes, valves meters, pumps, distribution reservoir, hydrants, etc.
distribution systems are designed to satisfy the water requirements for domestic,
industrial, commercial purposes.
The following are the requirements of a good distribution system:-
a) The purity of water should be the same when it is reached to the consumers.
b) The water should reach to every consumer with the required pressure head.
c) A good distribution should able to transport sufficient amount of water
during emergency such as fire-fighting.
d) It should convey the treated water up to the consumers with the same
degree of purity.
e) The system should supply water to the consumer’s tap at reasonable
pressure head, (not less, not excessive).
f) It should be easy for operation and maintenance.
g) Sufficient quality of treated water should reach for the domestic and
industrial use.
h) Initial or construction cost must be minimum.
i) During repair works, it should not cause obstruction to the traffic.
j) It should be laid in proper way such that it causes minimum disturbance
while maintenance.
k) Water should be available even during dry season.
l) Pressures should be great enough to adequately meet firefighting needs.

m) At the same time, pressures should not be excessive because development
of the pressure head brings important cost consideration. when pressure
increases leakages increases too.
n) Note: In tower buildings, it is often necessary to provide booster pumps to
elevate the water to upper floors.
o) Purity of distributed water should be maintained. This requires distribution
system to be completely water-tight.
p) Maintenance of the distribution system should be easy and economical.
q) It should be safe against any future pollution. The pipe lines as far as
possible should not be laid below the swear lines.
r) The quality of pipe laid, should be of good quality and shouldn’t burst
pollution pipes shouldn’t laid below
Classification of distribution system

Depending upon the method of distribution, distribution system can be classified
as follows:
1) Gravity system
2) Pumping system without storage
3) Dual system( combine gravity and pumping system)
1. Gravity system
Gravity system of water supply is the system in which water flow under gravity
without use of any external energy to deliver water from source to tap
stand .When source of water is at sufficient height that city, village, there is
advantage the water can be distributed to the nearly town or village using natural
gravity force only. No pumping of water is required in this system and hence more
economic than pumping distribution system.

Fig: Gravity system
2. Pumping system without storage

In this system the pressure head is required to feed the water in the distribution
system by pumping machine. This method of distribution is suitable when source
of supply is below the city or town. The disadvantage of this system is that if,
power fails the whole supply of town will be stopped, so it better to have diesel
pumps in addition to electric pump.
Fig: Pumping system without storage
3. Dual system (combine gravity and pumping system)

Dual system is the combination of the gravity and pumping system delete. This
system is quite effective than the pumping system without storage. In this system
the excess of water pumping during low consumption period was stored in the
elevated tanks. And at the time of high demand of water this tank will fulfill the
peak demand. This method is most reliable, economical and convenient.
Fig: Dual system
DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS
A. Branching pattern with dead end.
B. Grid pattern
C. Grid pattern with loop.
A. Branching Pattern with Dead End

Fig: Dead End or tree system
Similar to the branching of a tree. It consists of:
- Main (trunk) line
- Sub-mains
- Branches
Main line is the main source of water supply. There is no water distribution to
consumers from trunk line. Sub-mains are connected to the main line and they are
along the main roads.
Branches are connected to the sub-mains and they are along the streets. Lastly
service connections are given to the consumers from branches.
Advantages
 It is a very simple method of water distribution. Calculations are easy and
simple to do.
 The required dimensions of the pipes are economical.
 This method requires comparatively less number of cut-off valves.

However, it is not usually favored in modern water works practice for the
following disadvantages.
Disadvantages
 The area receiving water from a pipe under repair is without water until the
work is completed.
 In this system, there are large numbers of dead ends where water does not
circulate but remains static. Sediments accumulate due to stagnation of the
dead end and bacterial growth may occur at these points. To overcome this
problem drain valves are provided at dead ends and stagnant water is
drained out by periodically opening these valves but a large amount of water
is wasted.
 It is difficult to maintain chlorine residual at the dead ends of the pipe.
 Water available for fire-fighting will be limited since it is being supplied by
only one water main.
 The pressure at the end of the line may become undesirably low as
additional areas are connected to the water supply system. This problem is
common in many less-developed countries.
B. Grid Pattern
In grid pattern, all the pipes are interconnected with no dead-ends. In such a
system, water can reach any point from more than one direction.

Fig: Grid –iron system
Advantages
 Since water in the supply system is free to flow in more than one direction,
stagnation does not occur as readily as in the branching pattern.
 In case of repair or break down in a pipe, the area connected to that pipe will
continue to receive water, as water will flow to that area from the other side.
 Water reaches all points with minimum head loss.
 At the time of fires, by manipulating the cut-off valves, plenty of water
supply may be diverted and concentrated for fire-fighting.
Disadvantages
 Cost of pipe lying is more because relatively more length of pipes is
required.
 More number of valves is required.
 The calculation of pipe sizes is more complicated.
C. Grid Pattern with Loops

Loops are provided in a grid pattern to improve water pressure in portions of a city
(industrial, business and commercial areas).

Loops should be strategically located so that as the city develops the water
pressure should be sustained.
The advantages and disadvantages of this pattern are the same as those of the grid
pattern
Fig: Ring system
Method of water supply

There are two types of methods of supply.
1. Continuous system
2. Intermittent system
1. Continuous system
This is the best system and the water is supplied for twenty four hours. This
system is possible when there is adequate quantity of water for supply. In this
system water is always available for fire-fighting and due to continuous
circulation water always remains fresh. It is the perfect method of supply of water.
This method will provide the water throughout the time of supply. In this method
the separately storage tank will not require and also it will reduce the time as well
as other conflict that the water time table should not be made.

Advantage of Continuous system
 Consumer gets the fresh water throughout the time of supply.
 Consumer should not store the water separately in the storage tank because
in this system water will flow continuously that consumer can collect the
water as their required time.
 Firefighting demand can be meet easily
 Wastages of water will be less because the old water is throughout as waste
water.
Disadvantage of Continuous system
 Miss use and don’t have the possess of civic sense that the important of
treated water.
 To apply this system the source of water must be enough that can provide at
the last home of the town.
2. Intermittent system
If plenty (sufficient amount) of water is not available the supply of water is
divided into zones and each zone is supplied water for the fixed hours in the day.
As the water is supplied after intervals, it is called intermittent system. The timing
of the water supply may be changed to suit the season of the year. When the
demand is high and the source does not have enough water than this system is
mostly applicable.
Advantage of Continuous system
 This system is suitable when water from the source is available is limited
amount.
 Since people make storage tanks in their homes, there won’t be any
problem of water for household purposed.
Disadvantage of Continuous system
 Due to intermittent supply consumer have to store water for non-supply
time and these stored water may get contaminated from different bacteria.
 Consumer has to construct storage tanks which will make costly the
system.
 Due to meet the large demand the size of pipe must be in big size .
 Firefighting cannot be provided at any time.

6.3. Clear water reservoir
 Before supplying to distribution system, a reservoir may be necessary to
store the treated water.
 A reservoir is necessary to store overnight water so as to provide during
day hours.
6.4. Break pressure tank (BPT)
It is a tank for allowing flow to discharge into the atmosphere, therefore reducing
its hydrostatic pressure to zero and establishing a new static level. The pressure
which is not necessary, is reduced by constructing a break pressure tank. Ferro
cement (containing iron) on stone masonry are used to construct break pressure
tank.
Construction of BPT
 Inlet pipe
 Outlet pipe with a gate valve
 Overflow pipe
 Washout pipe with a gate valve.
S.N. ITEMS SLOW SAND FILTER RAPID SND FILTER
1 Area Requires very large area Requires small area
2 Quantity of sand Requires more quantity of Requires less quantity of
sand sand
3 Rate of filtration 100-180litres/m2/hour 4000-5000litres/m2/hour
4 Size of unit 30mx60m 6mx8m to 8mx10m

5 Distribution uniform Smaller at top and coarser in
bottom
6 Period of cleaning 1-3months 24-48 hours

7 Not required Most essential
Skilled supervision

8 Overall cost of Cheap and economical
More, because large area of
unit land and much quantity of
materials are required.
9 Cost of Small More

maintained
10 Efficiency High efficiency Low efficiency

Glossary
Distribution: supply of water
Purity: pure drinking water
Sufficient: enough
Pumping: process of collection of water from lower level to higher level
Cut-off valves: valves used to block the water flow
Sediments: allow to deposited the solid particle
Plenty: lots off
Pattern: systematic
Continuous: all the time, every time
Intermittent: divided in parts, parts
BPT: Break pressure tank

Reservoir: collection of water
Summary
 The purity of water should be the same when it is reached to the consumers.
And the water should reach to every consumer with the required pressure
head.
 It should able to transport sufficient amount of water should be supplied
during emergency such as fire-fighting.
 The system should supply water at consumer’s tap at reasonable pressure
head, (not less, not excessive).It should be easy for operation and
maintenance.

 In the completion of the lesson the student are able to understand about the
distribution system of water.
 Water distribution is the process of bringing water to consumers. It takes a
number of forms around the world from pressurized municipal water that
delivers water directly into homes to traveling tanker trunks that distribute
water to community access points.
 Distribution of water resources is usually overseen by a government agency,
although private utilities may also be involved.
 Water is a finite resource. Worldwide, supplies of freshwater are limited and
there are some areas where water scarcity is a significant issue. Low water
supplies are especially pressing in desert areas and regions that have been
impacted by environmental pollution.
 Water distribution is not just about getting supplies of water to people who
need it, but about allocating water to ensure that it is used efficiently and to
provide access to safe water for as many people as possible.
 The process of water distributions starts with identifying a source of water
and determining what kind of treatment may be needed to make it usable.
 The water is moved through treatment facilities and into distribution
systems, including networks of pipes, canals, and aqueducts. Movement of
water through the system is controlled by officials who make decisions
about when to release water for distribution and how much to release at a
time.
Self evaluations
A. Very short question.
1) What is break pressure tank?
2) What is whole some water?
3) What is the ground water?
4) What is water borne diseases?
5) Explain about the filtrations.
6) What is solid waste management?
7) What is a sewer? Elaborate

B. Short question.
1) Define ground water. Briefly explain about dug well and drive well
with neat sketch.
2) List the requirements of good distribution system.
3) Write the objective of water supply system.
4) What is surface water? Explain.
5) Write about the source selection criteria.
6) What are the factors affecting on water demand?
7) What are the characteristic of safe water?
8) Write about the water based diseases.
9) Explain about the disinfections.
10) Write about requirement of good distribution system.
11) Explain about the laying of pipes.
12) Write about the system of sanitation.
13) Write about the self-purification of river.
14) Explain about the septic tank with figure.
15) What is composting? Explain
C. Long question.
1) What is the distribution system of water supply and which one is the
best method of supply? Explain.
2) What is water carriage system of sewerage? List the advantages of
water carriage system. Differentiate between conservancy system and
water carriage system.
3) Explain about method supply of water.
4) Write the process of discharge measurement

5) What is population forecast? List the different methods of population
forecasting.
6) What are the important of disposal of sewage?

7) What are the types of sewers? Explain.
References
Birdie G.S. and Birdie J.S.(1992), “water supply and sanitary engineering
including environmental engineering”. Fifth Revised and Enlarged Edition;
DhanpatRai and Sons Publishing Company (P) Ltd, Nai Sarak, Delhi, India.
II part
Er. Parajuli Arun Prasad, Water supply engineering; head/senior lecturer,
Unit 7 Plumbing
Learning Outcomes

After the completion of this chapter, students will be able to:
 To explain the different types of pipes  To understand the process of

lying of pipe.
 To collect idea about the pipe joint.
 To obtain the general knowledge of valve and fitting  To enlist the
common pipe joint fitting.
Introduction
Water supply is the process of supplying water from public water supply system to
individual building and subsequent distribution of water to various parts of the
building. The water from public water supply system to individual buildings is
supplied through pipes. A large proportion of capital is invested on pipes while
designing water supply distribution system. The following factors should be
considered in selection of pipes.
 Strength of pipe
 Water carrying capacity
 Life and durability of pipe
 Expenditure on transportation
 Jointing process, maintenance and repairs.
Types of pipes
1. CI pipes (Cast Iron)
These pipes are mostly used in water supply. They are well suited for pressure and
can withstand external load because of their thickness. The pipes are easy in
manufacturing, layout and joining. These pipes are manufactured by vertical
casting in sand moulds, horizontal casting in sand moulds and centrifugal casting
(spun casting pipes).

CI Pipes - Strong and heavy.
CI pipes are heavy in weight. Therefore transportation is costlier and they are not
suitable for inaccessible places. Due to heavy weight these are generally made in
short length. This increases layout and jointing cost. CI vertical casting pipes are
not of very good quality and can be replaced by centrifugal casting (spun casting)
pipes.
 Life up to 100 years and well functioned up to 230 years.
 Suitable for high external, internal pressure.
 Used in distribution in village with U-profile.
 Heavy and brittle.
 Corrosion increases roughness, decreases life.
2. GI pipes (Galvanized Iron)

These pipes are extensively used for water supply. They are best suitable for long
distance pipe lines of high pressure and provide satisfactory performance during
service. These pipes have excellent mechanical properties and are ideally suited
for welding. The pipes are made in length more than twice the length of CI pipes;
which saves in transport, layout of pipe and joining cost. There is minimum

damage to the pipes in transportation. The pipes being light in weight are used for
large diameter pipe lines.
 Iron pipe coated with zinc,

 Corrosion is 1/5th than that of steel.
 Thinner than CI pipe, so lighter,
 Life 20-30 years.
 Most commonly used in buildings and other structures.
3. Concrete pipe
Main advantage of cement pipes in place of metallic pipes is their corrosion
resistance. These pipes are bulky, heavy and require careful transportation and
handling. The layout process of these pipes is costlier than steel pipes.

 These may be precast pipes or cast in situation.
 Generally precast pipes are of high quality due to proper control in quality.
 With diameter Ø<0.6m-p.c.c.
 With diameter Ø>0.6m-R.c.c. Required.
 Low maintenance cost.  Commonly used in sewer
 Life span about 50 years.
4. Steel pipes
Steel pipes are long, hollow tubes that are used for a variety of purposes. They are
produced by two distinct methods which result in either a welded or seamless
pipe.
In both methods, raw steel is first cast into a more workable starting form.
 It has life 25 to 50 years.

 Steel pipe can with stand impact, vibration, bending, etc.
 More expensive than GI pipe.
 It cannot resist more external pressure.
5. Asbestos pipes
These pipes are light in weight and easy in transportation and layout. They have
smooth internal surface and are not affected by corrosion (rust). The pipes are
extensively used for water supply systems. Holes can be drilled in these pipes.
These pipes are not costlier.
 Asbestos, silica and opc are mixed to make this pipe.

 Asbestos works as reinforcing materials.
 Light in weight, smooth surface, no-corrosion bad conductor of electricity.
 Brittle, generally not used in water supply.
 Used in fire-resistant area.
6. Plastic pipes
These pipes are rigid PVC pipes. They are light in weight, tough, resistant to
chemical attack and long in length. Due to long in length the cost of handling is
much whereas transportation and installation cost is less. Smooth internal surface
of pipes provide less friction which results in saving of energy. These pipes are
not suitable for the area which is very hot.

 Various types of plastic pipes are available.
 HDP pipes are most commonly used.
 Cheap, durable, smooth, light in weight produce in longer length.
 Life span 25-30 years.
 Most commonly used in rural water supply project.
 Present from high temperature, if exposed, can easily by damaged.
 Not used if very high internal pressure.
Laying pipe
Pipe layers operate the backhoes and trenching machinery that dig the trenches to
accommodate the placement of sanitary sewer pipes and storm water sewer
drainpipes. They use surveyor’s equipment to ensure the trenches have the proper
slope and install the pieces of pipe in the trenches, joining the ends with cement,
glue or welding equipment. Using an always-open or always-closed valve called a
tap, pipe layers connect them to a wider system and bury the pipes.
Pipe fitters plan and test piping and tubing layouts, cut, bend or fabricate pipe or
tubing segments and join those segments by threading them, using lead joints,
welding, brazing, cementing or soldering them together. They install manual,
pneumatic, hydraulic and electric valves in pipes to control the flow through the
pipes or tubes. These workers create the system of tubes in boilers and make holes
in walls and bulkheads to accommodate the passage of the pipes they install.
Step for lying of pipes

1. Map preparation

1. Detailed map of pipe network must be prepared initially with reference
points shown in map and ground.
2. Setting out
1. setting out must be done by the help of reference point.
2. Centre line of pipe must be shown, usually by driving pegs in certain
internal.
3. Excavation
1. Top part of pipe must be at lower level 1 meter below ground level
(or more)
2. Slop should be maintained.
4. Laying
1. Laying may be done manually or using chains
7.3. PIPE Joints

1. At required intervals joint should be made.
2. Type of joint depends upon type of pipe material like GI, CI or HDP
pipe.
3. Before back filling and after joining, tests must be conducted for
leakage and pressure.
4. If these tests satisfy requirements, then only backfilling is done.

Pipes and plumbing fitting
Different types of fitting equipment are used in pipe systems to connect straight
pipe or tubing sections, adapt to different sizes or shapes and for other purposes,
such as regulating (or measuring) fluid flow. "Plumbing" is generally used to
describe the conveyance of water, gas, or liquid waste in domestic or commercial
environments; "piping" is often used to describe the high-performance (high-
pressure, high-flow, high-temperature or hazardous-material) conveyance of fluids
in specialized applications. "Tubing" is sometimes used for lighter-weight piping,
especially that flexible enough to be supplied in coiled form.
Material
The material with which a pipe is manufacture is often the basic for choosing a
pipe.
Material used for manufacture pipes include:
 Carbon and galvanized steel
 Impact tested carbon steel
 Low temperature carbon steel
 Stainless steel
 Malleable iron
The bodies of fittings for pipe and tubing are most often the same base material as
the pipe or tubing connected: copper, steel, PVC, chlorinated polyvinyl chloride
(CPVC) or ABS. Any material permitted by the plumbing, health, or building
code (as applicable) may be used, but it must be compatible with the other
materials in the system, the fluids being transported and the temperature and
pressure inside (and outside) the system. Brass or bronze fittings are common in
copper piping and plumbing systems. Fire hazards, earthquake resistance and
other factors also influence the choice of fitting materials.
Common piping and joint fitting

Elbow
An elbow is installed between two lengths of pipe (or tubing) to allow a change of
direction, usually a 90° or 45° angle; 22.5° elbows are also available. The ends
may be machined for butt, threaded (usually female), or socketed. When the ends
differ in size, it is known as a reducing (or reducer) elbow.

A 90º elbow, also known as a "90 bend", "90 ell" or "quarter bend", attaches
readily to plastic, copper, cast iron, steel, and lead, and is attached to rubber with
stainlesssteel clamps. Other available materials include silicone, rubber
compounds, galvanized steel, and nylon. It is primarily used to connect hoses to
valves, water pumps and deck drains. A 45º elbow, also known as a "45 bend" or
"45 ell", is commonly used in water-supply facilities, food, chemical and
electronic industrial pipeline networks, air-conditioning pipelines, agriculture and
garden production, and solar-energy facility piping.
Elbows are also categorized by length. The radius of curvature of a long-radius
(LR) elbow is 1.5 times the pipe diameter, but a short-radius (SR) elbow has a
radius equal to the pipe diameter. Short elbows, widely available, are typically
used in pressurized systems, and in physically tight locations.
Fig: 90 º elbow Fig: 45 º elbow
Coupling
A coupling connects two pipes. If their sizes differ, the fitting is known as a
reducing coupling, reducer, or an adapter. There are two types of couplings:
"regular" and "slip". A regular coupling has a small ridge or stop internally, to
prevent overinsertion of a pipe, and thus under-insertion of the other pipe segment
(which would result in an unreliable connection). A slip coupling (sometimes also
called a repair coupling) is deliberately made without this internal stop, to allow it
to be slipped into place in tight locations, such as the repair of a pipe that has a
small leak due to corrosion or freeze bursting, or which had to be cut temporarily for
some reason.. Since the alignment stop is missing, it is up to the installer to
carefully measure the final location of the slip coupling to ensure that it is located
correctly.

Fig: Pipe coupling
Union
A union, similar to a coupling, allows the convenient future disconnection of pipes
for maintenance or fixture replacement. In contrast to a coupling requiring solvent,
welding, soldering, or rotation (for threaded couplings), a union allows easy
connection and disconnection, multiple times if needed. It consists of three parts: a
nut, a female end and a male end. When the female and male ends are joined, the
nut seals the joint by pressing the two ends tightly together. Unions are a type of
very compact flange connector.
Fig: union
Nipple
A nipple is a short stub of pipe, usually male-threaded steel, brass, chlorinated
polyvinyl chloride (CPVC), or copper (occasionally unthreaded copper), which
connects two other fittings. A nipple with continuous uninterrupted threading is
known as a closed nipple. Nipples are commonly used with plumbing and hoses.

Fig: Nipple
Tee
A tee, the most common pipe fitting, is used to combine (or divide) fluid flow. It is
available with female thread sockets, solvent-weld sockets or opposed solvent-
weld sockets and a female-threaded side outlet. Tees can connect pipes of
different diameters or change the direction of a pipe run, or both. Available in a
variety of materials, sizes and finishes, they may also be used to transport two-
fluid mixtures. Tees may be equal or unequal in size of their three connections,
with equal tees the most common.
Fig: Tee
Cap
Caps, usually liquid- or gas-tight, cover the otherwise open end of a pipe. A cap
attaches to the exterior of a pipe, and may have a solvent-weld socket end or a
female-threaded interior. The exterior of an industrial cap may be round, square,
rectangular, U- or I-shaped, or may have a handgrip. If a solvent-weld cap is used
to provide for a future connection point, several inches of pipe must be left before

the cap; when the cap is cut off for the future connection, enough pipe must
remain to allow a new fitting to be glued onto it.
Fig: Cap
Valves and Fitting

To supply the water from the tank to the tap the different valves will play the vital
role. In the different condition like air release valve required to release air from
the pipe and hydrants are required for firefighting and water meter to note the
meter of water supply for the consumer. V valve is a device which is used for
controlling the flow of water in the pipe line. If any maintenances work required
then the valve will play the vital role to separate the damaged section by using
different valve.
These are different kinds of valves, such as:
i. Sluice valve ii.

Pressure relief valve iii.
Check valve
iv. Air relief valve
1. Sluice valve
Sluice valve are also known as gate valve which can be operate by rotating the
handle which will make the valve lifted up or brought down. When the valve is
lifted up the valve will make open to flow the water and if it is brought down then

it will block the flow of water. This may be completely or partially opened or
closed.
Fig: sluice valve
ii. Pressure relief valve

These valves are fitted in the pipe line where the pressure gets maximum at the
time when the water flows through the pipe. When the pressure inside the pipe
will gate maximum then the disc will forced up and the exceeded pressure is
released through the cross pipe but there is no chance of get out the water from it.
Fig: Pressure relief valve

iii. Check valve
These valve are also known as the reflux valve. It is used to make the water flow
in one direction only when it is required. When the water flow need to next
direction then at the junction of the, main pipe these type of valve is provide to
change the direction of the flow from one direction to another direction.
Fig: Check valve
iv. Air relief valve

This valve allows air to escape from or enter a pipe is called an air relief valve.
While flowing the water into the pipe, it will also carry the air with it. So if it goes
to the pipe line then it will interfere to flow of water. So all accumulated air will
be released from it.

Fig: Air relief valve
Maintenance of pipes
After the pipes are laid on the ground for water supply, proper maintenance must
be required. Time to time the waste water and the silt practical deposition should
be checked, the leakage should be stopped and cracks pipes should be replaced on
time to time.
All the maintenance works of the pipes pipe must be done by a licensed plumber
and should be as per standard specifications. And if any service connection is
needed by the consumer then the experienced and well trained plumber needs to
be employed.
Regular inspection of the pipes lines has to be done for the uninterrupted supply of
water to the consumer. If any defect or leakage are noticed, they need to be
repaired or leakage are noticed, they need to be repaired and for this different
types of pipes and fitting and an experienced plumber are required.
Glossary
Plumping: Plumbing is any system that conveys fluids
CI: Cast Iron
Moulds: key to built object
Corrosion: rusting
GI: Galvanized Iron

Excellent: good
Concrete: mixture of sand, cement and aggregate
Bending: turn, bent
Brittle: libel to break
PVC: polyvinyl chloride
HDP: High density polyethylene
Fitting: connect
Summary
 Plumbing is a system that conveys fluids for a wide range of applications.
Plumbing uses pipes, valves, plumbing fixtures, tanks, and other apparatuses
to convey fluids.
 Pipes should have Strength of pipe, water carrying capacity, life and
durability of pipe, expenditure on transportation, jointing process,
maintenance and repairs.
 CI pipes are mostly used in water supply and it has heavy in weight and long
life up to 100 year and well functioned.
 CI pipes are suitable for high external and internal pressure and heavy duty.
 GI pipes are extensively used for water supply. They are best suitable for
long distance pipe lines of high pressure and provide satisfactory
performance during service.
 GI is Iron pipe coated with zinc and Corrosion is 1/5 th than that of steel and
thinner than CI pipe, and so lighter, and has life 20-30 years.
 Concrete pipe has main advantage of cement pipes in place of metallic pipes
is their corrosion resistance. These pipes are bulky, heavy and require
careful transportation and handling.
 Steel pipe has life of 25 to 50 years and it can with stand impact, vibration,
bending, etc. and steel pipe is more expensive than GI pipe. It cannot resist
more external pressure.
 Asbestos pipe are light in weight and easy in transportation and layout. They
have smooth internal surface and are not affected by corrosion (rust).

 Various types of plastic pipes are available. HDP pipes are most commonly
used. Cheap, durable, smooth, light in weight produce in longer length. And
the life span 25-30 years.
 Pipe layers operate the backhoes and trenching machinery that dig the
trenches to accommodate the placement of sanitary sewer pipes and storm
water sewer drainpipes.
 Surveyor’s equipment is used to ensure the trenches have the proper slope
and install the pieces of pipe in the trenches, joining the ends with cement,
glue or welding equipment.
 Pipe joint at required intervals joint should be made and before back filling
and after joining, tests must be conducted for leakage.
 A fitting is used in pipe systems to connect straight pipe or tubing sections.
It is used to adapt to different sizes or shapes regulate fluid flow.
Self-evaluation
1. List the types of pipe. Briefly explain about any 3 of them.
2. Explain in brief source selection criteria.
3. List the characteristics of safe water/ whole some water.
4. Define treatment of water.
5. list the steps to be followed while lying of pipe.
6. Define ground water. Briefly explain about dug well and drive well with
neat sketch.
7. Define design period. What is the factor that affects the water demand?
8. What are water pollutants? List the disease related to the water. Briefly
explain about three of them.
9. List the objective of water treatment. List the water treatment process and
list the objective of aeration and sedimentation.
10. List the requirements of good distribution system. Briefly explain about
gravity and pumping system with neat sketch.
11. Define pipe joints. List the types of valves and fittings and briefly explain
about four of them.
12. Explain role of sanitation in maintenance of health.

13. What is water carriage system of sewerage? List the advantages of water
carriage system.
14. Differentiate between conservancy system and water carriage system.
15. Define safe yield.
References
II part
Unit 8 Sanitary Engineering
Introduction
Sanitation: Sanitation is any system that promotes proper disposal of human and
animal wastes. Sanitary engineering is the application of engineering methods to
improve sanitation of human communities, primarily by removing and disposing
human waste, and ensure the supply of safe Potable water. Traditionally it was a

branch of civil engineering, in the mid-19th century, the discipline concentrated
on the reduction of disease, and then thought to be caused by miasma.
 It is not concerned with environmental factors that do not have an immediate
and clearly understood effect on public health.
 Areas outside the purview of sanitary engineering include traffic
management, concerns about noise pollution or light pollution, aesthetic
concerns such as landscaping, and environmental conversion.
Sanitary Works
The sanitary works involves
 Collection works.
 Treatment works.
 Disposal works.
Collection works:
The collection works mean collecting all types of waste products of town.
Refuse is collected separately, and sewage separately. The collection work should
be carried out such a way that the waste matter can be collected and transported
quickly and steadily to the treatment works plant. The sewage of town is collected
through well-designed sewerage system.
The collection works include the house drainage works and networks of sewer laid
in the town to collect waste water from various places.
Treatment works
Waste water treatment works are required to treat the sewage before disposal so
that it may not pollute the atmosphere as well as the water bodies in which it will
be disposed off.
Disposal works
The works which are done to dispose off the waste water are called the disposal
works. The treated or untreated waste water are disposed off in the following
ways:
 By irrigating fields.
 By discharging into natural water bodies.

Objectives Sewage Disposal
The following are the aims and objectives of sewage disposal.
1. Proper disposal of human excreta to a safe place, before it starts

decomposition and causes insanitary conditions in the locality.
2. To take out all kinds of wastewater from the locality immediately after its
use, so that mosquitos, flies, bacteria etc. may not breed in it and cause
nuisance.
3. Final disposal of sewage on land or in nearby watercourses after some
treatment so that receiving land or the water does not get polluted.
4. To use the sewage as fertilizer to increase crop production.
Classification of Sewage
1. Storm Sewage: This includes surface runoff developed during and
immediately after rainfall in the particular area.
2. Sanitary Sewage: This includes the liquid wastes of domestic and industrial
places. This sewage is extremely foul in nature and required to be disposed
off very carefully.
System of Sanitation
There are two types of sanitation system, they are
1. Conservancy system
2. Water carriage system
Conservancy System
In this system various types of refuse and storm water are collected, conveyed and
disposed off separately. This method is also called dry system and is in practice
from very ancient times. This method is being adopted in small town, villages and
undeveloped parts of large city.
 In this method garbage or dry refuse is collected in the Dustbins and
conveyed by trucks or carts once or twice a day. All the non-combustible
portions such as sand, dust, clay, ashes, etc. are used for filing and the
combustible portions such as dry leaves, waste paper, broken furniture, etc
… are burnt.

 The decaying fruits, vegetables, grass are first dried and then disposed off by
burning or are used to manufacture manure.
 Human excreta or night soil is collected separately in privies or
conservancy latrines. From where they are removed through human agency.
After removal they are taken out of the town in closed truck or carts up to
disposal point and are buried in trenches. After 2-3 years the buried night
soil is converted into excellent manure which can be used for growing crops.
 In this system salvage and storm water are carried separately in closed or
open drains up to the point of disposal, where they are allowed to mix with
streams, rivers or sea.
Advantages and Disadvantages
Advantages
1. Initial cost is low, because storm water can pass through open drains and
hence there is no need of complicated and costly sewerage system.
2. The quality of sewage reaching at the treatment plant before disposal is low
because conservancy system uses less water.
Disadvantages
1. Possibility of storm water to get mixed with sewers causing heavy load on
the treatment plant.
2. In crowded lanes it is difficult lay two sewers or construct drains by the

roadside as it causes great obstruction to the traffic.
3. much land is required for burying human excreta.
4. Liquid refuse which is disposed on the land may enter into the sub-soil and
pollute the underground water.
5. Aesthetic view of city cannot be increased due to scattering of solid waste
everywhere during collection and conveyance. Also sewage that flows
through open drain degrades the aesthetic view of city.
6. Decomposition of sewage in an open area causes insanitary conditions
which are dangerous to public health.

7. This system completely depends upon the human labors, and if they go on
strike it can create serious problem.
Water Carriage System

In this system sewage is mixed up in the large quantity of water and are taken out
from the city through properly designed system, They are then disposed off after
necessary treatment.
The sewage so formed in water carriage system consists of 99.9 percentage of
water and 0.1 percentages of solid matters. All the solid matters remain in
suspension in the sewage and so do not settle during conveyance. Actually all the
sewage behaves as water which facilitates the conveyance through the sewage
line.
Merits and Demerits of Water Ccarriage System
MERITS
The following are the merits of water carriage system.
1. It is a hygienic method because all the sewage are collected and conveyed
through water only.
2. There is no nuisance in the streets of towns as sewage is conveyed through
underground sewerage system.
3. There won't be any problem due to strike of labor as it does not require
through manpower.
4. Self-cleaning velocity can be obtained even at fewer gradients due to more
quality of sewage.
5. The land required for the disposal work is less as compared to conservancy
system.
6. This system does not depend on manual labor every time, hence labor cost
is low.
7. The usual water supply is sufficient and no additional water is required in
water carriage system.
8. Risk of epidemics is reduced because of underground sewage system.

DEMERITS
1. Initial cost is high for constructing underground sewage system.
2. The maintenance of this system is also costly.
3. During monsoon large volume of sewage has to be treated compared to
remaining period of the year.
Comparision of Conservancy and Water-Carriage System

Conservancy System Water Carriage System
1. Very cheap in initial cost. 1. It involves high initial cost.
2. Due to foul smell from latrines, they are 2. As there is no foul smell, latrines remain
to be constructed away from the living clean and neat and hence are
room constructed with room.
3. The aesthetic appearance of the city 3. Good aesthetic appearance of the city can
cannot be increased. be obtained.
4. Storm water is carried in usually surface 4. Sewage is treated before disposing off, it
drains, hence no problem of pumping may or may not require pumping it
the storm water. depends on the topography of the
town.
5. The quantity of waste liquid reaching 5. Large quantity of sewage highly

the disposed points is less; hence it polluted in nature, it requires its
can be disposed off without any treatment before disposal so it is
treatment. costly process.
6. This system is fully dependent on the 6. Sewage is treated up to required

human agency. degree of sanitation.
7. As sewage is disposed off without 7. Sewage is treated up to required

any treatment it may pollute the degree of sanitation.
natural water courses.
8. For burying of excremental matter, 8. Less area is required as compared to

large area is required. conservancy system.
Sewerage System and Their Suitability

The entire system for collecting and carrying sewage through sewer is known as
sewerage system.
The sewerage systems are classified as follows:
a) Combined system
b) Separate system
c) Partially separate system
(a) Combined System

When sewerage system is designed to carry both sanitary sewage and storms water
on same sewer line it is called combined sewerage system.
This system is best suited in areas having small rainfall. As only one sewer is laid
in this system, it is best suited for crowded area because of traffic problems. The
combined system can also be used in area having less sewage to obtain the
selfcleaning velocity.
Merits and Demerits of Combined System
MERITS
The following are the merits of combined system
1. There is no need of flushing because self-cleaning velocity is available at
every place due to more quality of sewage.
2. The sewage can be treated easily and economically because rainwater
dilutes the sewage.
3. House plumbing can be done easily at low cost as only one set of pipes will
be required.
DEMERITS
The following are the demerits of the combined system.
1. The initial cost is higher as compared to separate system.

2. It is not suitable for areas having rainfall for smaller period during the year
because for filted up sewers.

3. During heavy rainfall, the overflowing of sewers will harm the public
health.
4. If whole sewage is to be disposed off by pumping, it is uneconomical
(b) Separate System

If domestic and industrial sewage are taken in one set of sewers, and storm water
is taken in another set of sewers, it is called separate system. For this system two
sewer lines are required.
Merits and Demerits of Separate System
The following are the merits of the separate system
1. Since the sewage flows in the separate sewers, the quality to be treated is
small which results in low treatment cost.
2. Separate system is cheaper than combined system, because only sanitary
sewage flow in closed sewer and storm water which is not foul in nature can
be taken through open channel or drains.
3. During disposal, if the sewage is to be pumped, the separate system is
cheaper.
4. There is no fear of stream pollution.
DEMERITS
1. Flushing is required at various points because self-cleaning velocity is not
available due to less watery sewage.
2. There is always risk that the storm water may enter the sanitary sewage
sewer and cause heavy load in the treatment plant.
3. Maintenance cost is more because of two sewers.
4. In busy lanes lying of two sewers is difficult. Besides, causes great
inconvenience to the traffic he caused during repairs.
C) Partially Separate System

In the separate system, a portion of storm water is allowed to enter in the sewers
carrying sewage and the remaining storm water is diverted to the separate set of
sewers, this system is called partially separate system.
Laying of Sewers
a) Marking center lines of sewers.
b) Excavation of trenches.
c) Checking the gradient.
d) Lying of sewers.
e) Jointing.
f) Testing of sewer line.
g) Back filling.
Marking Center Line of Sewer

The Centre line sewer is marked on the streets and roads from the plans (drawing)
starting from the outfall and proceeding upwards with help of chain or tape and
theodolite. To mark center line generally wooden pegs are driven at every 10
meter interval.
Excavation Trenches
After marking the layout of the sewer line on the ground, the first step is the
removal of pavement, which starts from the lower end of the sewers and proceeds
upwards.
After removing pavement the excavation of trenches is done manually or
mechanically. The width of the trench depends upon the diameter of sewer line
below the ground level. The width of sewer line is 15cm more than the external
diameter of sewer for sassiness in lowering and adjusting the sewer pipe.
Checking of the Gradient
Gradient of sewer line should be such that the sewage flows smoothly through
gravitational force maintaining self-cleaning velocity.
Laying

Smaller size pipes can be laid by the pipe-layers manually. But heavier and large
sizes are lowered into the trenches with the help of ropes around them and
supporting with hock.
Joining
After laying of the pipe, they are joined water tightly.
Testing of Sewer Line

Sewer line should be tested against water and air tightness
Back-Filling of Trenches
After testing, the defective pipes are replaced and , the trenches are filled back
with excavated soil .The trench is filled15cmabove the ground level. During the
course of time the back filled soil gets compacted and the filled soil comes to the
ground level.
Types of Sewer
According to construction materials, sewer can be classified as,
i. Asbestos cement
sewers ii. Brick sewers
iii. Cast-iron sewers iv.
Cement concrete sewers
v. Corrugated iron sewers
vi. Plastic sewers
vii. Steel sewers viii.

Stoneware sewers ix.
Wood sewers
According to the shape sewers are classified as
1. Circular shape sewer

2. Non circular sewer
Generally the sewers of circular shape are adopted because of following facts.

1. Circular shape has least perimeter and hence the construction cost is
minimum.
2. Deposition of organic matter is reduced to minimum because of no corners.
3. They are easy to manufacture or construct and handle.
Some Non-Circular Sewers

If the sewer section is semicircular shape in then it is called non – circular sewer.
In the semicircular sewer due to the corner and the flat surface the deposition of
organic matter is most likely, so it needs to be cleaned at regular interval. They are
easy to manufacture or construct and handle.
Fig: Parabolic Section Fig: Horse shoe section Fig: Basket handles section

Glossary
Refuse: The refuse is used to indicate what is rejected or left as worthless.
Garbage: The term garbage is used to indicate dry refuse and it includes decayed
fruits, paper, pieces, sweepings, vegetables, etc.
Combined sewage: This indicates a combination of sanitary sewage and storm
water without or with industrial waste.
Raw Sewage: untreated sewage is known as raw sewage.
Fresh Sewage: The sewage which has been recently originated is known as fresh
sewage.
Storm water: The storm water indicates the rain water of locality.
Subsoil water: The ground water which finds its entry into sewers through crack
is called subsoil water.
Sullage: Waste water from kitchens, bathrooms, sinks, etc. are called salvage.
Sewer: The underground conduits or drain through which sewage is conveyed are
known as sewers.

Rubbish: All sundry solid wastes as paper, broken furniture, pottery, wastes
building materials, etc. are known as rubbish.
Waste pipe: Pipe which carried discharged from sanitary fittings bathrooms,
kitchen, sinks are called waste pipe.
Vent pipe: The pipe used for the purpose of ventilation is called the vent pipe.
Self-evaluation
1) Define sanitary.
2) What are the sanitary works?
3) What is treatment?
4) Define the word disposal 5) Write about the sanitary sewage.
6) What is the laying of sewer?
7) What do you understand by testing of sewer line?
8) Explain about the sanitary work in detail.
9) What are the objectives of sewage disposal?
10) Classify the sewage and explain in detail
11) What is conservancy system and water carriage system?
12) Differentiate between conservancy system and water carriage system?
13) List the sewer system. Explain in detail
14) Explain about the laying of sewer
15) What is water carriage system of sewerage? List the advantages of water
carriage system. Differentiate between conservancy system and water
carriage system.
16) What are the types of sewers? Explain.
17) What is the importance of disposal of sewage?
References

II part
Unit 9 Sewage Disposal

Learning Outcomes
 Understand what disposal of sewage is.

 Understand the importance of disposal of sewage.
 Understand the methods of sewage disposal.
 Know the suitability of methods of sewage disposal.
 Know how we can safely dispose off sewage in different ways.
 Know about self-purification of water.
 Know the mechanism of self-purification of sewage in dilution methods.
Introduction

After conveying the sewage through sewers, the next step is its disposal. The
sewage can be disposed of without or after treatment. Sewage disposal is the
process of disposing sewage. By sewage treatment, the sewage transforms into a
harmless liquid that suffices to meet the requirements of sanitation, health and
decency. Sewage disposal is the process in which sewage is transported through
cities and inhabited areas to sewage treatment plants, where it is then treated to
remove contaminants to produce environmentally-safe waste. Disposal of sewage
waste protects public health and prevents disease as well as water pollution from
sewage contaminants. Many modern cities have sewage disposal systems. The
advanced technology has allowed for more environmentally friendly and healthy
solutions to disposing and treating sewage. Sewage systems are part of modern
infrastructure and urban utilities, which also include gas, electric, and water
supply.
Importance of disposal of sewage
The following are the importance of disposal of sewage:
1. To render sewage inoffensive, without causing nuisance or odour.

2. To reduce danger to public health by possible contamination of water
supplies, bathing places etc.
3. To prevent the destruction of fish or aquatic life by not letting raw or
untreated sewage into bodies of water.
4. To re-use or recycle waste water if possible.
5. To maintain and improve environment hygienic condition.
The methods of sewage disposal can be classified as under
A) The natural methods

1. Dilution
2. Land treatment
a) Broad irrigation or sewage farming
b) Sub-surface irrigation or land infiltration
B) The artificial methods
1. Primary treatment
2. Secondary treatment

Land treatment
When the sewage is evenly spread on the surface of land, this is called land
treatment. This is also natural method of sewage disposal. In this method, the
water of sewage percolates in the ground by straining action of ground soil and the
suspended solids remain at the surface of the ground. The organic suspended
solids are partly acted upon by the bacteria and are partly oxidized by exposure to
atmosphere action of heat, light and air. Thus the complex compounds of sewage
are converted into harmless mineral salts, which serve as a valuable fertilizer.
Fig. Overview of Land treatment
Suitability of Land Treatment

Land treatment of sewage is suitable under the following conditions
1. When the overall rainfall is very low.

2. When there is no river or natural water courses.
3. When the quantity of sewage high.
4. When rivers usually run dry or have very small flow during summer.
5. When the water table is much deep even during monsoon.
6. When the vegetable have good market.
7. When large area of land is steady, loamy or alluvial soil over soft murmur,
the land treatment is most suitable.
Dilution method
The disposal of sewage by discharging it into water courses like stream, rivers,
sea, etc. is called dilution. The disposed sewage may be raw or treated sewage is
preferable. Practically at most all the towns of our country are discharging their

sewage to the river. So while discharge the sewage in this way, care should be
taken that the sewage does not pollute the natural water and render it unfit for any
other purposes such as bathing, drinking, fish culture etc.
Fig. Overview of dilution method
Essential Condition for Dilution

Following are the essential conditions for the dilution-
1) When sewage is comparatively fresh or non-septic.

2) Where sewage has been mostly removed of the floating and settable solids.
3) Where it is possible to thoroughly mix sewage through dilution water.
4) Where at the point of disposal the depth of water is sufficient and the current
can prevent the deposition near the outfall.
5) Where diluting, water high in dissolved oxygen content, is available.
6) Where the volume of receiving water is large enough to take the load of the
sewage safely without causing pollution.
7) Where the volume of receiving water will not cause backward flow in
sewers.
8) Where the city is situated near the water courses like sea, river or lake.
Self purification of river

When sewage is disposed off in the stream, the quality of water changes. The
quality of water u/s and d/s far away from disposal are much better than at the
point of disposal. When sewage is discharged into streams, the water becomes
polluted. The suspended solids are gradually deposited in the stream layers,
depending upon the hydrographic characteristics of the stream. The organic
matters of these so formed in layers starts decomposition and stabilization. In
course of time, the decomposed materials are washed away with the current or are
converted into simple constituents. Various types of organisms, algae, bacteria,
protozoa are also responsible for self-purification of stream.
Fig. Overview of Self purification of river

The self purification of natural water systems is a complex process that often
involves physical, chemical, and biological processes working simultaneously.
The amount of dissolved Oxygen (DO) in water is one of the most commonly used
indicators of a river health. As DO drops below 4 or 5 mg/L the forms of life that
can survive begin to reduce. A minimum of about 2.0 mg/L of dissolved oxygen
is required to maintain higher life forms. A number of factors affect the amount of
DO available in a river. Oxygen demanding wastes remove DO; plants add DO
during day but remove it at night; respiration of organisms removes oxygen. In
summer, rising temperature reduces solubility of oxygen, while lower flows
reduce the rate at which oxygen enters the water from atmosphere.
Factors Affecting Self Purification
1. Dilution: When sufficient dilution water is available in the receiving water
body, where the wastewater is discharged, the DO level in the receiving
stream may not reach to zero or critical DO due to availability of sufficient
DO initially in the river water before receiving the discharge of wastewater.

2. Current: When strong water current is available, the discharged wastewater
will be thoroughly mixed with stream water preventing deposition of solids.
In small current, the solid matter from the wastewater will get deposited at
the bed following decomposition and reduction in DO.
3. Temperature: The quantity of DO available in stream water is more in the
cold temperature than in hot temperature. Also, as the activity of
microorganisms is more at the higher temperature, hence, the self-
purification takes less time at hot temperature than in the cold temperature.
4. Sunlight: Algae produces oxygen in presence of sunlight due to
photosynthesis. Therefore, sunlight helps in purification of stream by adding
oxygen through photosynthesis.
5. Rate of Oxidation: Due to oxidation of organic matter discharged in the
river DO depletion occurs. This rate is faster at higher temperature and low
at lower temperature. The rate of oxidation of organic matter depends on the
chemical composition of organic matter.
Important Self Purification Mechanisms for Rivers
A variety of plant and animal species live in the seas and the rivers. If pollution
does not attain a critical level, water can purify itself, i.e., progressively eliminate
polluting agents. The phenomena of filtration and oxidation, combined with the
action of organisms (insects, bacteria, plants, etc.) living in the water and on the
banks, help water maintain its quality and preserve its ecosystem’s balance.
(i) Dilution
When a polluted river is joined by less polluted tributaries or during the rainy
seasons, volume of water in the river is increased. It reduces the concentrations of
pollutants by dilution process.
(ii) Sedimentation
In this mechanism, sand in the river bed acts as a sink for the pollutants from the
hills, when river reaches flat lands, it spreads and its velocity reduces, and the
suspended pollutants settle on the sand bed.
(iii) Aeration
When the river runs through hills, the turbulence mixes air into water increasing
the dissolved oxygen (DO). The increased DO concentration facilitates many

chemical and microbiological processes in water to reduce the pollutants
concentration.
(iv) Absorption
Pollutants are absorbed onto sand particles, plant surfaces, rocks, etc. thereby their
concentrations get reduced in the river water.
(v) Photo-remediation
Aquatic plants and vegetation on the riverbanks absorb nitrate, phosphate and
other nutrients and remove pesticides and heavy metals from water. In this way
quality of water in the river is largely improved.
(vi) Floatation
After rapid mixing of water in falls, air bubbles act as vehicles to lift many
pollutants to the water surface in the form of froth (or a layer of foam). This froth
is exposed to atmosphere; it facilitates oxidation of pollutants to less harmful
forms. The top layer is also directly exposed to sun-light so either by increased
temperature or due to various photochemical reactions; volatile organic
compounds are removed from the top-layer. At different sections of river, various
artificial traps help in the removal of this froth and thus rivers get self-purified.
(vii) Microbial degradation
The shallow and turbulent water results in high aeration of water. It helps in
growth of bacteria and other micro-organisms. They help in river purification by
microbial degradation of pollutants.
Glossary
Percolation: movement and filtration
Evapotranspiration: movement of water bodies
Load: Loam is soil composed mostly of sand (particle size > 63 µm), silt (particle
size > 2 µm), and a smaller amount of clay (particle size < 2 µm)
Sewage: Liquid waste
Current: Flow of water
Dilution: Reducing the concentration
Summary

 After conveying the sewage through sewers, the next step is its disposal.
 The sewage can be disposed of without or after treatment.
 Sewage disposal is the process in the final stage of disposing sewage.
 By sewage treatment the sewage transforms into a harmless liquid that
suffices to meet the requirements of sanitation, health and decency.
 Importance of sewage disposal to render sewage inoffensive without causing
nuisance or odour.
 Importance of sewage disposal to prevent the destruction of fish or aquatic
life by letting raw or untreated sewage into bodies of water.
 Importance of sewage disposal to maintain and improve environment
hygienic condition.
 The methods of sewage disposal can be classified as under:-
A. The natural methods

3. Dilution
4. Land treatment
c) Broad irrigation or sewage farming
d) Sub-surface irrigation or land infiltration
B. The artificial methods

3. Primary treatment
4. Secondary treatment
 When the sewage is evenly spread on the surface of land, the method is
called land treatment.
 In land treatment the disposed sewage may be raw or the treated one.
 In land treatment method, the water of sewage percolates in the ground by
straining action of ground soil and the suspended solids remain at the
surface of the ground.
 The disposal of sewage by discharging it into water courses like stream,
rivers, sea, etc. is called dilution.

 In dilution method while discharging the sewage in this way, care should be
taken that the sewage may not pollute the natural water and render it unfit
for bathing, drinking, fish culture etc.
 Essential conditions for the dilution are, The sewage must be comparatively
fresh or non-septic, The point of disposal or the depth of water, must be.
 When the wastewater or effluents is discharged into natural body of water,
the receiving waters gets polluted due to the waste products present in the
sewage effluent. But the conditions do not remain so forever, because the
natural forces of purification, such as dilution, sedimentation, oxidation,
reductions etc. go on acting upon the pollutants and bring back the water
into original condition. This automatic purification of polluted water, in due
course of time is called the self purification of river.
Self Evaluation
1. What is sewage disposal?
2. list down types of sewage disposal?
3. Write the essential condition of land treatments?
4. What are the types of land treatments?
5. Which types of disposal of sewage are used in your locality?
6. What is a dilution?
7. Write the essential conditions of dilutions?
8. What are the effects of dilution?
9. What do you understand by self purification of river?
10. What are the essential conditions of self purification of river?

Unit 10 Disposal of excreta in un-sewered area
Learning Outcomes
 Understand the methods and types of disposal of excreta in un-sewered area.

 Understand the types of traditional latrine.
 Understand how to work the traditional latrines.
 Design and draw the pit of the traditional latrine. and.
 Design and draw the septic tank.
 Design and draw the pit privy.
 Design and draw ventilated improved pit(VIP) latrine.
 Understand the components of the latrines.
 Know the difficulties to make sewer system in the rural area.
Introduction of the Unit
Nepal is a poor country, due to which it is not possible to have water carriage
system in all towns, villages and cities. Generally, it has been seen that people do
not give any attention during the construction of bath rooms and toilets, therefore
this portion of the building remains as neglected. The rural areas, scattered
localities and isolated village which are not served by the piped water supply,
always have a shortage of water. The waste water from such areas can be easily
disposed through broad irrigation. As there is no sewerage system, some methods
should be developed for the safe collection and disposal of human excreta from
such areas.
Pit privy
Pit privy consists of a pit 1.3 x 1 m in plan and 1.5 to 2.8 m deep. At the top of
this pit the squatting seat is provided in a compartment. The superstructure is of
temporary nature. When the pit is filled, it is closed from top by 60cm thick layer
and a new pit is excavated by the side of it. The squatting pan along with the
compartment is shifted to the new trench. A 10cm diameter vent pipe is also
provided to take the foul gases. If the lime is applied frequently it will reduce the
odours. Pit privy should be constructed 30m away from the existing well in the
nearby locality.

Fig. Pit Privy
VIP latrine
These are also known as ventilated improved pit (VIP) latrines. It is same as the
pit privy but the difference is that the vent pipe is installed into the pit, which is
used to exhaust the foul odour from the pit and it control flies. The major
nuisances that discourage the use of simple pit latrines - smell and flies - are
reduced or eliminated through the incorporation of a vertical vent pipe with a fly-
screen at the top.

Fig. VIP Latrine
Pour flush latrine

Pour flush latrines use a pit for excreta disposal and have a special pan which is
cast in the floor slab and provides a water seal of 20-30 mm. This ensures the
smells cannot escape into the shelter. Sometimes a vent pipe, which should have a

fly screen, is fitted to the pit. The pit may be below or offset from the shelter. Pour
flush latrines can also be installed with the pan in the house and the pit outside.
Pour flush latrines require between 1-3 litres of water for flushing each time they
are used, although ideally more should be used. Once the excreta is flushed into
the pit, the liquids filters into the ground. Some of the solids decomposes and
others remains in the pit.
Septic tank
A tank under the ground that holds human waste from toilets is known as septic
tank. Households that are not served by public sewers usually depend on septic
systems to treat and dispose of wastewater. Septic system is a significant financial
investment. If cared for properly, a well designed, installed, and maintained
system would provide years of reliable, low-cost service.
The septic tank is the most common small-scale decentralized treatment unit for
water and black water from cistern or pour-flush toilets. It is basically a
sedimentation tank. Its shape can be rectangular or cylindrical.

Septic tanks are used for wastewater with a high content of settleable solids,
typically for effluent from domestic sources, but they are also suitable for other
wastewater of similar properties. Liquid flows through the tank and heavy
particles sink to the bottom, while scum (mostly oil and grease) floats to the top.
Over time, the solids that settle to the bottom are degraded. However, the rate of
accumulation is faster than the rate of decomposition, and the accumulated sludge
and scum must be periodically removed.

Soak pit
A soak pit, also known as a soak away or leach pit, is a covered, porous-walled
chamber that allows water to slowly soak into the ground. Pre-settled effluent
from a collection and storage/treatment or (semi-) centralized treatment
technology is discharged to the underground chamber from which it infiltrates into
the surrounding soil.
Glossary
Sewer: The underground conduct or drains through which sewage is conveyed
Scattered: separate/different direction
Waste water: waste water, is any water that has been adversely affected in quality
Black water: wastewater containing feces, urine and flush water from flush toilets
Effluent: Effluent is an out flowing of water or gas from a natural body of water,
or from a manmade structure.
Scum : the topmost liquid layer mostly oil and grease.

Summary
 It is not possible to have water carriage system in all towns, villages and
cities.
 Pit privy should be constructed 30m away from the existing well in the
nearby locality.
 The major nuisances that discourage the use of simple pit latrines are smell
and flies .
 Pour flush latrines use a pit for excreta disposal and have a special pan
which is cast in the floor slab and provides a water seal of 20-30 mm.
 Pour flush latrines require between 1-3 liters of water for flushing each time
they are used, although ideally more should be used.
 A tank under the ground that holds human waste from toilets is known as
septic tank.
 Households that are not served by public sewers usually depend on septic
systems to treat and dispose of wastewater.
Self Evaluation
1. Write the size of the pit privy?
2. Which methods are used to disposal of excreta in unsewered area?
3. What are the difference between pit privy and VIP latrine?
4. Write about pour flush latrine.
5. How much amount of water required for flushing in pour flush latrines?
6. Write about septic tank.
7. What are the conditions of septic tank?

Unit 11 Solid waste management
Learning Outcomes
 Understand solid waste
 understand solid waste management
 Know types of solid wastes
 Understand about onsite management and offsite management
 Know the how to segregation of the solid waste
 Know about 4R principle of the solid waste management
 know types of disposal of solid waste
Introduction of the Unit
Solid Waste Management is defined as the discipline associated with control of
generation, storage, collection, transport or transfer, processing and disposal of
solid waste materials in a way that best addresses the range of public health,
conservation, economics, aesthetic, engineering and other environmental
considerations.
In its scope, solid waste management includes administrative, financial, and
engineering banking and legal functions in the process of solving problems
arising from waste materials. The solutions might include complex inter-
disciplinary relations among fields such as public health, city and regional
planning, political science, geography, sociology, economics, communication and
conservation, demography, engineering and material sciences.
Solid waste management practices can differ for residential and industrial
producers, for urban and rural areas, and for developed and developing nations.
The administration of non-hazardous waste in metropolitan areas is the job of
local government authorities, on the other hand, the management of hazardous
waste materials is typically the job of the generator, subject to local, national and
even international authorities.
Definition
Solid waste is unwanted/useless solid materials generated from combined
residential, industrial and commercial activities in a given area. It may be
categorized according to its origin (domestic, industrial, commercial, construction

or institutional) according to its contents (organic, material, glass, metal,
plastic ,paper etc.) according to hazard potential (toxic, non-toxic, flammable,
radioactive, infectious, etc.).
Management of solid waste reduces or eliminates adverse impacts on the
environment and human health and supports economic development and improved
quality of life. A number of processes are involved in effectively managing waste
for a municipality. These include monitoring, collection, transport, processing,
recycling and disposal.
Types of wastes, their dangers and disposal

Types of wastes
 Rubbish
 Garbage
 Refuge
Rubbish
All sundry solid waste as paper, broken furniture, waste building materials, etc. are
known as rubbish.
Garbage
The term garbage is used to indicate dry refuge and it includes grass, leaves, paper
pieces, vegetable etc.
Refuge
The term refuge is used to indicate what is rejected or left as worthless.

Onsite management
When the waste materials are disposed at the origin of production then it is called
onsite management but if it is disposed far away from the origin is called offside
management.
Waste segregation
Waste segregation means separation of waste into dry, wet and other & so that it is
easier to handle it later.
Collection of solid waste

The frequency of refuge collection mainly depends on the quantity of the refuge
and the season. Usually the collection of the refuse from the roadside refuge
containers and bins, and its proper disposal is the responsibility of the local bodies
or municipalities. The refuse is collected in closed trucks, tractors trailers and
taken out of the town for disposal. The frequency of refuge collection is kept such
that the refuge may not start giving nuisance due to its odour and fly breeding.
Waste collection is generally considered to be the most important component of
any waste management system because it is the most expensive and visible part of
the system. Therefore, properly designed and executed waste collection systems
can result in significant savings and reduction in environmental and public health

risks. The following issues generally need to be considered in designing a waste
collection system:
 Containerization and on-site storage of waste
 Source separation
 Collection mechanism (roadside collection, door-to-door collection,
communal containers, on-time collection etc.)
 Cleansing of streets and other public places
 Time of collection
 Type of vehicles used for collection
 Frequency of collection
 Route planning
 Number of staff used for collection
 Special collection for bulk waste generators
 Separate collection for special waste such as medical waste and household
hazardous waste
 Transfer of waste from primary collection vehicles to larger vehicle for
secondary transport
4R Principle
 Reduce  Reuse
 Recycle  Replace
(https://www.google.com.np/search?q=solid+waste+management&biw=1366&bih.
If proper care is taken the recovery of solid wastes can be done to great extent.
The proper wastes can be separated and sold; kitchen refuse can also be sold if

separated separately. While thinking of recovery of solid waste wastes, multiple
bins system should be used. Glass, garbage, metal and miscellaneous commercial
wastes have market value. Scrap metal, cans, wood, scrap, leather wastes, etc. can
be sold.
Reduce
As far as practicable biodegradable or environment friendly materials have to be
used. We should minimize the use of things like plastic shopping bags and other
materials that makes the environment dirty.
Reuse
Provide separate bins for collecting used packing, card binding, and other
materials that can be reused. Use reusable cutlery (knifes, spoon etc.), dishes, cups
and coffee filters (e.g. Avoid using paper cups).
Recycle
Set up a recycling scheme in the offices for scrap paper, toner, cartridges, plastic
bottles, aluminum cans etc. Donate old computers, electronic appliances and
furniture to charities. Separate scrap metal, wood and plastic from industrial waste
for recycling.
Replace
Use durable items instead of one-off disposable items (eg. Replace paper cups
with mugs glasses, replace paper towels with hand-dryers or cloth towel.
Composting
Composting is nature's process of recycling decomposed organic materials into a
rich soil known as compost. Anything that was once living will decompose.
Basically, backyard composting is an acceleration of the same process the nature
uses. By composting your organic waste you are returning nutrients back into the
soil in order for the cycle of life to continue. Finished compost looks like soil–
dark brown, crumbly and smells like a forest floor.
Compost is organic matter that has been decomposed and recycled as fertilizer and
soil amendment. Compost is a key ingredient in organic farming.
At the simplest level, the process of composting requires making a heap of wet
organic matter known as green waste (leaves, food waste) and waiting for the
materials to break down into humus after a period of weeks or months. Modern,
methodical composting is a multi-step, closely monitored process with measured

inputs of water, air, and carbon- and nitrogen-rich materials. The decomposition
process is aided by shredding the plant matter, adding water and ensuring proper
aeration by regularly turning the mixture. Worms and fungi further break up the
material. Bacteria requiring oxygen to function (aerobic bacteria) and fungi
manage the chemical process by converting the inputs into heat, carbon dioxide
and ammonium. The ammonium (NH4) is the form of nitrogen used by plants.
When available ammonium is not used by plants it is further converted by bacteria
into nitrates (NO3) through the process of nitrification.
Compost is rich in nutrients. It is used in gardens, landscaping, horticulture, and
agriculture. The compost itself is beneficial for the land in many ways, as a soil
conditioner, a fertilizer, addition of vital humus or humic acids, and as a natural
pesticide for soil. In ecosystems, compost is useful for erosion control, land and
stream reclamation, wetland construction, and as landfill cover. Organic
ingredients intended for composting can alternatively be used to generate biogas
through an aerobic.
Composting Benefits
Soil conditioner: With compost, you are creating rich humus for lawn and garden.
This adds nutrients to your plants and helps retain moisture in the soil.
Recycles kitchen and yard waste: Composting can divert as much as 30% of
household waste away from the garbage can.
Introduces beneficial organisms to the soil: Microscopic organisms in compost
help aerate the soil, break down organic material for plant use and ward off plant
disease.
Good for the environment: Composting offers a natural alternative to chemical
fertilizers.
Reduces landfill waste: Most landfills in North America are quickly filling up;
many have already closed down. One-third of landfill waste is made up of
compostable materials.
Disposal
Solid waste management is the collection, transfer, segregation and disposal of
discarded material in a manner that is safe, efficient, environmentally sound and
cost effective solid waste disposal may be undertaken by the various methods and
some of them are as follows:
 Dumping

 Sanitary landfill
 Incineration
 Composting
Composting and recycling:
Recycling of solid waste as a resource will reduce the amount of waste that needs
to be disposed as well as the cost of waste management. The potential for
recycling the waste generated in Nepalese municipalities is high because most of
the waste is recyclable and technologies for recycling most of the waste is readily
available in the country. Furthermore, there is a market for most recyclable
materials because of the demand created by the formal and informal private sector
involved in this sector. Composting and recycling On average, about 70 percent of
the household waste generated in Nepalese municipalities consists of organic
matter, while about 20 percent consist of recyclable inorganic materials such as
paper, plastic and metal, and about 10 percent is inert materials. As about two
thirds of the waste is organic, recycling of organic waste through composting or
the application of other appropriate technologies can play an important role in
waste management. Composting of organic waste can also significantly reduce the
cost and environmental impacts of waste management ENPHO 5 6 as organic
waste in dump sites invites problems such as smell, leachate, methane gas and
scavengers. Similarly, separation of organic waste also helps keep the inorganic
waste such as paper and plastics clean, which in turn increases their market value
and potential for recycling. Composting is a simple and effective way of recycling
waste that is already being practiced by many people.
There are several different ways to compost waste such as aerobic composting in
piles or windrows, composting in bins or vessels, and vermi composting.
Similarly, in terms of scale, composting can be done at the household level,
institutional level, community level or municipal level. Household and
institutional composting systems are designed to cater to the needs of a single
house or institution, while community scale plants may treat up to 3 tons of waste
per day, while at the municipal level usually large mechanized plants treat the
waste from a whole municipality or part of the municipality. Although there aren't
any large scale compost plants in Nepal, Bhaktapur Municipality has a small plant
with a capacity to process about 6 tons of waste per day and several municipalities
such as Kathmandu and Hetauda are promoting community and household
composting. Hetauda is also in the process of setting up a 3 ton per day compost
plant with community and private sector participation. Although Bhaktapur

municipality's compost plant is not operating at full capacity, the municipality has
been operating the plant for more than 20 years and it is managing part of the
municipal waste.
The compost plant has a large platform where waste is piled to form long
windrows that are about 2 meters wide and 1.5 m high. The windrows are turned
manually about once every month. Effective Microrganisms (EM) is occasionally
placed on the piles to assist in the degradation process. After a few months, once
the compost is mature it is screened manually using inclined screens and the final
product is sold to farmers. Although there are ample possibilities to improve the
quality of the compost and expand its market to make the compost plant
sustainable (Tuladhar and Bania, 1997), this is still a good example of an initiative
by a municipality to reduce and recycle waste. It demonstrates that municipalities
can compost solid waste using very simple methods and with minimal investment.
It also shows that in order to establish a sustainable composting system, more
effort needs to be placed on preparing the waste for composting, controlling the
composting process by ensuring adequate aeration, and properly marketing the
compost. Several NGOs such as WEPCO in Lalitpur and NEPCEMAC in
Kathmandu, and some municipalities are also practicing community composting.
In these systems, the waste is collected through door-to-door collection and then
composted in piles or in large vessels or chambers. The compost is packed in bags
and sold in the local market. Kathmandu Metropolitan City has also established a
vermi composting system with a capacity to process about 1 ton of vegetable
market waste per day.
Glossary
Rubbish: Paper, broken furniture, waste building materials
Garbage: Dry refuge
Refuge: rejected or worthless materials
Hazard: a level of threat to life
Toxic: harmful
Summary
 Solid waste is unwanted/useless solid materials generated from combined
residential, industrial and commercial activities in a given area.

 Management of solid waste reduces or eliminates adverse impacts on the
environment and human health and supports economic development and
improved quality of life.
 When the waste materials are disposed at the origin of production then it is
called onsite management while far away from the origin is called offside
management.
 Waste segregation means separation of waste into dry, wet and other so that
it is easier to handle it later.
 The frequency of refuge collection mainly depends on the quantity of the
refuge and the season.
 The frequency of refuge collection is kept such that the refuge may not start
giving nuisance by odour and fly breeding.
 The proper wastes can be separated and sold; kitchen refuse can also be sold
if separated separately.
 As far as practicable we need to use goods or materials that are environment
friendly material.
 Set up a recycling scheme in the offices for scrap paper, toner, cartridges,
plastic bottles, aluminum cans etc.
 Use durable items instead of one-off disposable items.
 Solid waste management is the collection, transfer, segregation and disposal
of discarded material in a manner that is safe, efficient, environmentally
sound and cost effective.
Self Evaluation
1. What is solid waste management?
2. What are the types of solid wastes?
3. Write definitions of rubbish?
4. What is onsite management?
5. What is off site management?
6. What is waste segregation?
7. What are the processes of solid waste segregation?
8. Write about 4R principle?

9. How can we replace the solid waste?

RS3853 - Grade - 9 Water Supply and Sanitary Engineering

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C ivil Eng ineering

Technical and Vocational Stream

Water Supply and Sanitary Engineering

Layout by Khados Sunuwar

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced,

2076 BS Ministry of Education, Science and Technology Curriculum

1. Explain the structure of water supply schemes

Water Supply and Sanitary Engineering: Grade 9 1

Importance of water and sanitation

2 Water Supply and Sanitary Engineering: Grade 9

Water Supply and Sanitary Engineering: Grade 9 3

4 Water Supply and Sanitary Engineering: Grade 9

Water Supply and Sanitary Engineering: Grade 9 5

6 Water Supply and Sanitary Engineering: Grade 9

Unit 2 Source of Water

1. Explain about various sources of water

Water Supply and Sanitary Engineering: Grade 9 7

8 Water Supply and Sanitary Engineering: Grade 9

Water Supply and Sanitary Engineering: Grade 9 9

10 Water Supply and Sanitary Engineering: Grade 9

Fig. 2.4: Lake

Water Supply and Sanitary Engineering: Grade 9 11

Fig. 2.5: Pond

12 Water Supply and Sanitary Engineering: Grade 9

Water Supply and Sanitary Engineering: Grade 9 13

14 Water Supply and Sanitary Engineering: Grade 9

Fig. 2.7: Open well

Water Supply and Sanitary Engineering: Grade 9 15

Fig. 2.8: Tube well

16 Water Supply and Sanitary Engineering: Grade 9

ii. Quantity of water

iii. Location of source

Water Supply and Sanitary Engineering: Grade 9 17

Fig. 2.9: Discharge measurement by volumetric method

18 Water Supply and Sanitary Engineering: Grade 9

Water Supply and Sanitary Engineering: Grade 9 19

20 Water Supply and Sanitary Engineering: Grade 9

Unit 3 Demand of water

Water Supply and Sanitary Engineering: Grade 9 21

1. Explain the various type of water demand

To calculate the rate of demand it is necessary to understand the types of water

22 Water Supply and Sanitary Engineering: Grade 9

1. Domestic water demand:

1. Domestic water demand:

S.NO. Community Adopted Remarks

2 <70000 70-100 Supply through private tap

3 70000-100000 100-150 Supply through private tap

4 >100000 150-200 Supply through private tap

2. Commercial and Industrial demand

Water Supply and Sanitary Engineering: Grade 9 23

S.No. Types of building Demand Remarks

3000lit/day If not bedded health post

2 Public institutions 500-100

3 Restaurant, Tea stall 500- etc. 100lit/day

Tourist hotel 500lit/bed Unclassified

3. Demand for public uses

24 Water Supply and Sanitary Engineering: Grade 9

3000lit/day With sanitation

5. Compensate losses demand

Water Supply and Sanitary Engineering: Grade 9 25

Per capita demand = liters/day

Factors affecting water demand:

26 Water Supply and Sanitary Engineering: Grade 9