Professional Documents
Culture Documents
8'&
Robert DJIDJIAN,
Rima AVALYAN
$1,0$//($51('*(1(7,&&2*1,7,21$1'7+(/,0,762)
$17+52320253+,&$3352$&+
$EVWUDFW
7KLV DUWLFOH GLVFXVVHV WKH FRJQLWLYH IXQFWLRQ RI LQVWLQFWV LQ DQLPDO ZRUOG 7KH XQGHUWDNHQ UH
search demonstrates that the formation of individual’s ability for a certain (complex) action requires
KDYLQJDFRUUHVSRQGLQJVSHFLILFLQERUQJHQHWLFFDSDFLW\–WKHVFKHPHRILQVWLQFWIRUWKDWDFWLRQ8V
LQJDQWKURSRPRUSKLFDSSURDFKDQGWKHFULWLFDOYHULILFDWLRQRILWVDSSOLFDWLRQDXWKRUVRIWKLVDUWLFOH
KDYHUHYHDOHGWKHHOHPHQWDU\LQERUQFRJQLWLYHFDSDFLWLHVO\LQJDWWKHEDVLVRIWKHPDLQW\SHVRIDQ
imals’ learned behavior. Special atteQWLRQLVJLYHQWRWKHLQERUQPHFKDQLVPRIDQLPDOOHDUQLQJE\
LPLWDWLRQ7KHVXJJHVWHGFRQFHSWLRQRIWKHVFKHPHVRILQVWLQFWLYHEHKDYLRULVDSSOLHGWRWKHDQDO\VLV
RIWKHOHYHORIFRJQLWLYHVNLOOVWKDWFRXOGEHDFKLHYHGE\H[HUFLVLQJDQGWUDLQLQJ
Keywords:LQVWLQFWVLQERUQFDSDFLWLHVVFKHPHRIDQLQVWLQFWFRJQLWLRQOHDUQHGEHKDYLRUHOH
mentary cognitive capacities, animals’ learning by imitation, abilities and skills.
,QWURGXFWLRQ PDO EHKDYLRU SXWWLQJ WKHP LQWR FDJHV DQG
VXJJHVWLQJXQQDWXUDOWDVNVVRFKDUDFWHULVWLF
,Q PRGHUQ ELRORJLFDO VFLHQFH VLQFH WKH IRUWKHSHULRGRIUDGLFDOEHKDYLRULVP
SXEOLFDWLRQ RI WKH UHPDUNDEOH ZRUNV RI .RQ 5HDGHUVRI/RUHQW]ZRUNVZHUHLQIOXHQFHG
UDG /RUHQ] FRJQLWLYH HWKRORJ\ RFFXSLHV D E\ GHWDLOV RI KLV DSSURDFK HVSHFLDOO\ E\ KLV
SURPLQHQWSRVLWLRQ(WKRORJ\FDQEHGHILQHG IDPRXVLPSULQWLQJSKHQRPHQRQ5HDGHUVZHUH
DVEUDQFKRIELRORJ\VWXG\LQJDQLPDOEHKDY GHOLJKWHG ZLWK WKH SLFWXUH RI D JURXS RI
LRUXQGHUQDWXUDOFRQGLWLRQV%\WKHVHWLPHV JRRVOLQJV KDVWLO\ IROORZLQJ WKHLU PRWKHU
ELRORJLVWVKDYHXQGHUVWRRGWKDWWKHUHLVIHZ VWUROOLQJ3URIHVVRU.RQUDG/RUHQW]7KHUHZDV
FKDQFH RI UHYHDOLQJ WKH WUXH QDWXUH RI DQL DOVR D VLJQLILFDQW VFLHQWLILF DFKLHYHPHQW /R
UHQW] UHYHDOHG WKH SKDVHV RI DQLPDO LQVWLQFWLYH
7KH PRVW LQIOXHQWLDO SXEOLFDWLRQV RI &RQUDG DFWLRQ ,QVWLQFWLYH DFWLRQ EHJLQV ZLWK WKH SHU
/RUHQ] LQFOXGH .LQJ 6RORPRQ
V 5LQJ 5RXW
FHSWLRQ RI WKH WULJJHULQJ LQGLFDWRU FDOOHG WKH
OHGJH &ODVVLFV &LYLOL]HG 0DQ
V (LJKW
“releasing stimulus”. The following rigid sH
'HDGO\ 6LQV (JPRQW %RRNV %HKLQG
TXHQFH RI LQYDULDQW LQVWLQFWLYH DFWLRQV /RUHQ]
WKH 0LUURU $ 6HDUFK IRU D 1DWXUDO +LVWRU\ RI
+XPDQ.QRZOHGJH0DULQHU7KH<HDU FDOOHG IL[HG DFWLRQ SDWWHUQ )$3 7DNHQ DV D
RI 7KH *UH\ODJ *RRVH (\UH 0HWKXHQ ZKROH WKH /RUHQW] FRQFHSW RI LQVWLQFWV ZDV
7KH)RXQGDWLRQVRI(WKRORJ\6SULQJHU VWULFWO\ HYROXWLRQDU\ IXQGDPHQWDOO\ EDVHG RQ
11
WKH SULQFLSOH RI QDWXUDO VHOHFWLRQ $PRQJ WKH tremes. It raises doubts if wouldn’t the present
GULYLQJ IRUFHV RI DOO RUJDQLF IRUPDWLRQ DORQJ DQWKURSRPRUSKLF DSSURDFK WR DQLPDO FRJQL
ZLWKWKHSURFHVVHVRIPXWDWLRQDQGUHFRPELQD WLRQODQGLQWRHUURUVRIH[WUHPHV
WLRQ RI JHQHV QDWXUDO VHOHFWLRQ SOD\V WKH PRVW $Q\KRZWRPRYHIRUZDUGZLWKWKHVWUD
important role,” ZURWHWKHIRXQGHURIHWKRORJ\ WHJLF OLQH RI JHWWLQJ EHWWHU XQGHUVWDQGLQJ RI
/RUHQ] DQLPDO EHKDYLRU DQG FRJQLWLRQ E\ DSSO\LQJ
6LQFH WKH VL[WLHV RI WKH ODVW FHQWXU\ WKH DQWKURSRPRUSKLF DSSURDFK ZH KDYH ILUVW WR
IROORZLQJJHQHUDOFKDUDFWHULVWLFVRILQVWLQFWLYH IRUPXODWHVWULFWO\WKHPHDQVDQGEDVLFSULQFL
EHKDYLRUKDYHEHHQZLGHO\UHFRJQL]HG SOHV RI PRGHUQ FRQFHSWLRQ RI KXPDQ FRJQL
x DXWRPDWLFLW\ D PRGHUQ WHUP IRU WKH ULJ WLRQ6RZHFRPSOHWHWKHVHLQWURGXFWRU\QRWHV
LGQHVVRILQVWLQFWLYHEHKDYLRU E\ D VKRUW RXWOLQH RI WKH EDVLF VWDWHPHQWV RI
x insuperability (in regard of individual’s WKHWKHRU\RIFRJQLWLRQDQGSUREOHPVROYLQJ
FDSDFLWLHV /HWXVVWDUW ZLWKDVKRUWRYHUYLHZRIWKH
x PDWXUDWLRQDWDFHUWDLQSRLQWLQWKHGH WKHRU\ RI FRJQLWLRQ &RJQLWLYH V\VWHP LV D
YHORSPHQWRIWKHLQGLYLGXDO V\VWHP FRPSRVHG RI VFRSH RI LQLWLDO EDVLF
x ODXQFKE\VRPHH[WHUQDOLQGLFDWRU NQRZOHGJH FDSDEOH WR SURGXFH QHZ NQRZ
x WKH LQKHUHQW QDWXUH IRU HDFK VSHFLHV RI OHGJH 7KH KLVWRU\ DQG SKLORVRSK\ RI VFLHQFH
DQLPDOV SURYH WKDW NQRZOHGJH LV D NLQG RI UHODWLYH
x LPPXWDELOLW\IRUWKHSHULRGRIDFWLYHQHVV WUXWK WKDW EHFRPHV PRUH SUHFLVH DQG UHOLDEOH
RIWKHJLYHQLQVWLQFW ZLWKWKHSURJUHVVRIVFLHQFHV
x QRW UHTXLULQJ DQ\ SULRU OHDUQLQJ %LUQH\ .QRZOHGJH LV DQ DQVZHU WR D FHUWDLQ
7HHYDQ TXHVWLRQ 7KH ODWWHU WRJHWKHU ZLWK LWV FRQWH[W
0DQ\ DVSHFWV RI FRJQLWLYH SV\FKRORJ\ FRPSRVHV D SUREOHP 6R SURGXFLQJ NQRZ
DFWXDOO\ SUHVHQW SKLORVRSK\ RI DQLPDO FRJQL OHGJH UHTXLUHV VROYLQJ LQWHOOHFWXDO SUREOHPV
WLRQ HVSHFLDOO\ ZKHQ WKH\ GLVFXVV QRW RQO\ 3URGXFLQJ QHZ NQRZOHGJH KXPDQV DQG DQL
SUREOHPVOLNHVHQVXDOSHUFHSWLRQDQGPHPRU\ PDOV DFKLHYH D EHWWHU YLHZ RI WKH ZRUOG – D
EXWDOVRVXFKVSHFLILFDUHDVDVDQLPDOUHDVRQ SURFHVVZKLFKLVFDOOHGFRJQLWLRQ
LQJ DQG SUREOHP VROYLQJ 3KLORVRSK\ RI DQL ,QWHOOHFWXDOFDSDFLWLHVZHFRQVLGHUDVWKH
PDLQEDVLVRIFRJQLWLRQDQGSUREOHPVROYLQJ
PDO FRJQLWLRQ WRGD\ LV ODUJHO\ RYHUODSSHG
ZLWK psychology of animal cognition evolu- )URP WKH VWDQGSRLQW RI ELRORJ\ PLQG LV WKH
tionary psychology, cognitive ethology and FRJQLWLYHIXQFWLRQRIWKHEUDLQ,WLVQRWRFFD
theory of animal intelligence. 4XLWH QDWXUDOO\ VLRQDOWKDWLQHYHU\GD\ODQJXDJHKDYLQJJRRG
WKH SKLORVRSK\ DQG SV\FKRORJ\ RI human PLQGPHDQVKDYLQJEUDLQV7KXVZHFRQFOXGH
cognitionLVIDUDKHDGRIWKHWKHRU\RIDQLPDO WKDW FRJQLWLRQ SUREOHP VROYLQJ DQG LQWHOOL
FRJQLWLRQ &RQVFLRXVO\ RU XQFRQVFLRXVO\ LQ JHQFHDUHFORVHV\QRQ\PV
YHVWLJDWRUVRIDQLPDOFRJQLWLRQXVHWKHUHVXOWV )URP WKH HYROXWLRQDU\ SRLQW RI YLHZ
RI WKHRULHV RI KXPDQ FRJQLWLRQ DQG KXPDQ KLJKHUFRJQLWLYHDELOLWLHVSURYLGHEHWWHUDGDS
WDWLRQ (YHU\RQH FRXOG DJUHH WKDW FRJQLWLRQ
LQWHOOLJHQFH $FWXDOO\ WKLV QDWXUDO WUHQG LQ
DQGNQRZOHGJHDUHUHVXOWDQWV RIWKRXJKW %XW
FRJQLWLYH HWKRORJ\ LV D NLQG RI DQWKURSRPRU
VLQFH WKHUH DUH PRUH WKDQ D GR]HQ LQWHUSUHWD
SKLVP ZHOO NQRZQ E\ LWV SHQFKDQW IRU H[
12
WLRQV DQG GHILQLWLRQV RI KXPDQ WKLQNLQJ ZH UHYHDOLQJ WKH HIIHFWLYHQHVV RI DSSO\LQJ WKH
ZLOOFRQVLGHUWKHWHUPthoughtLQLWVPRVWQDU FULWLFDO DQWKURSRPRUSKLF DSSURDFK IRU XQGHU
URZ VHQVH thinking LV ILUVW DQG IRUHPRVW WKH VWDQGLQJ EDVLF SKHQRPHQD RI DQLPDO FRJQL
SURFHVV RI VHDUFKLQJ DQVZHUV WR TXHVWLRQV WKH WLRQ
SURFHVV RI SUREOHP VROYLQJ $FFRUGLQJO\ SV\
FKHZHLQWHUSUHWDVWKHIXQFWLRQRIWKHEUDLQIRU ,QVWLQFWVDQG$QLPDO&RJQLWLRQ
guiding organism’s behavior. It is important
DOVRWRWDNHLQWRDFFRXQWWKDWKXPDQVKDYHWZR 3KLORVRSKHUV DQG ELRORJLVWV IXOO\ DJUHH
OHYHOVRIFRJQLWLRQ–WKHVHQVRU\FRJQLWLRQDQG WKDW DOO WKH LPPHQVH GLYHUVLW\ RI EHKDYLRU RI
WKHDEVWUDFWWKLQNLQJ DQLPDOV DQG KXPDQV EHORQJV WR WZR GLVWLQFW
1RZVRPHSULQFLSOHVWDWHPHQWVRISUREOHP FODVVHV–LQVWLQFWLYHEHKDYLRUDQGOHDUQHGEH
VROYLQJ DSSURDFK WR WKH SURFHVVHV DQG PHFKD KDYLRU ,W LV ZLGHO\ DFFHSWHG WRGD\ DOVR WKDW
QLVPV RI FRJQLWLRQ 3UREOHPV DUH VROYHG E\ LQVWLQFWLYH EHKDYLRU KDV TXLWH D ULJLG PHFKD
SUREOHP DQDO\VLV DQG VROXWLRQ V\QWKHVLV LGHD QLVPLWVWDUWVE\SHUFHLYLQJDJHQHWLFDOO\UHF
JHQHUDWLRQ7KHPDLQPHDQVRISUREOHPDQDO\ RUGHG LQGLFDWRU UHOHDVHU DQG FRQWLQXHV LQ
VLVDUH VWULFW VXFFHVVLRQ RI JHQHWLFDOO\ FRQGLWLRQHG
x FRQFHQWUDWLRQ RQ WKH PDLQ IDFWRUV RI WKH VWHSVDFWLRQV7KHJHQHWLFQDWXUHRILQVWLQF
SUREOHP WLYH ULJLG EHKDYLRU IURP WKH ILUVW JODQFH
x GHGXFWLRQRIFRQFOXVLRQV OHDYHV QR URRP IRU SUHVXPLQJ D FRQQHFWLRQ
x GLYLVLRQRIWKHSUREOHPLQWRVXESUREOHPV EHWZHHQ LQERUQ JHQHWLF EHKDYLRU DQG FRJQL
E\DQLPDOV–H[WHQGLQJWKHIUDPHRIPDLQ WLYHSURFHVVHV
IDFWRUV /HDUQHGEHKDYLRUE\PDQDQGDQLPDOUH
7KH DERYH RXWOLQHG SUREOHP VROYLQJ DS quires individual’s experience and in one way
SURDFKKHOSVWRFRQFHLYHWKDWWKHOHYHORIDQ RU DQRWKHU SUHVXPHV WKH SUHVHQFH RI LQWHOOL
LPDO DQG KXPDQ LQWHOOHFW PD\ EH PHDVXUHG JHQFH ,Q LWV VLPSOHVW IRUP OHDUQHG EHKDYLRU
RQO\E\VWDQGDUGWHVWVE\DQLPDOV–LQQDWXUDO FRXOGEHJDLQHGE\EOLQGWU\DQGHUURUDFWLYL
HQYLURQPHQW,QWKLVOLQHRQHFDQGHILQHFUH W\$WWKLVOHYHOWKHUHLVQRQHHGIRUDQ\KLJK
DWLYLW\DVWKHDELOLW\IRUILQGLQJQHZVROXWLRQV OHYHOFRJQLWLYHFDSDFLW\-XGJLQJVXSHUIOXRXV
,Q FHUWDLQ VLWXDWLRQV VLJQLILFDQW FUHDWLYH VROX O\ OHDUQLQJ E\ EOLQG WU\ DQG HUURU DFWLYLW\
WLRQV DUH LQGLVSHQVLEOH %XW VLJQLILFDQW FUHD QHHGV RQO\ VHQVXDO SHUFHSWLRQ DQG PHPRU\
WLYH VROXWLRQV DUH UDUH RFFDVLRQV LQ LQGLYLGX %XW ZK\ VKRXOG DQ LQGLYLGXDO NHHS RQ DW
al’s lLIH6RVXFFHVVLVEURXJKWSUHGRPLQDQWO\ WHPSWLQJ HUURUV DIWHU HUURUV" 6R ZH VKRXOG
E\ JRRG VROXWLRQV EDFNHG E\ VWURQJ DQDO\WLF SUHVXPHWKDWWRVROYHSUREOHPVE\WU\DQGHU
DELOLWLHVVXIILFLHQW DPRXQWRINQRZOHGJHDQG URU PHWKRG DQLPDOV QHHG DOVR D NLQG RI VSH
ZLOOIRUSUREOHPVROYLQJ FLDO LQVWLQFW QDPHO\ the instinct for finding
In the following parts of this article we’ll solutions of problems
H[DPLQH WKH DSSOLFDWLRQV RI WKH DERYH VKRUW )URJV DQG OL]DUGV KDYH QR WHDFKHUV WR
VNHWFKRIWKHPDLQVWDWHPHQWVRIWKHWKHRU\RI OHDUQKXQWLQJ,QVWHDGWKH\KDYHWKHLQVWLQFWRI
KXPDQ FRJQLWLRQ DQG SUREOHP VROYLQJ WR WKH KXQWLQJ7KHLQVWLQFWRIKXQWLQJDVDQ\RWKHU
PDLQIRUPVRIDQLPDOFRJQLWLYHDFWLYLWLHVWKXV LQVWLQFW WHOOV WKHP LQ D generalized IRUP LQ
13
14
FRQWDLQVWKHFRJQLWLYHH[SHULHQFHRISUHYLRXV FLHVRIDQLPDOVZHUHQRWDEOHLJQRULQJQRLVHV
JHQHUDWLRQV RI DQLPDOV RI WKLV VSHFLHV :LWK LWZRXOGVSHQGHQRUPRXVWLPHDQGHQHUJ\UH
WKH DGYHQW RI OHDUQLQJ EHKDYLRU DQLPDOV DF VSRQGLQJ WR QRLVHV DQG WKXV ZRXOG EH RQ WKH
TXLUH D QHZ FKDQQHO IRU JDLQLQJ NQRZOHGJH VLGHRIORVHUVLQWKHVWUXJJOHIRUOLIH7KHKXJH
DERXWWKHVXUURXQGLQJUHDOLW\,WLVTXLWHFOHDU DPRXQWRIHYLGHQFHRIWKHVHDUJXPHQWV OHDGV
WKDW WKH KLJKHU LV WKH UDQN RI WKH DQLPDO VSH WR WKH FRQFOXVLRQ WKDW LQ WKH DQLPDO ZRUOG
FLHV LQ WHUPV RI WKH OHYHO RI GHYHORSPHQW RI WKHUH PXVW EH DQ LQVWLQFW LQERUQ JHQHWLF FD
WKH SV\FKH WKH KLJKHU LV WKH SRVVLELOLW\ RI SDFLW\ IRU GLVWLQJXLVKLQJ EHWZHHQ “noise”
OHDUQLQJEHKDYLRULQWKLVVSHFLHVDQGWKHPRUH DQGPHDQLQJIXOVWLPXOL
LPSRUWDQW LV WKH UROH RI WKH DFTXLUHG H[SHUL 6LQFH WKH QRLVH RI VWLPXOL E\ LWV QDWXUH
PHQWDO NQRZOHGJH LQ WKH EHKDYLRU DQG OLIH LQYROYHV LQQXPHUDEOH W\SHV RI DJHQWV WKHUH
RUGHURIWKLVVSHFLHV,QWKLVUHVSHFWWKHSRVL couldn’t be any single releasing indicator for
WLRQRIWKHKXPDQVSHFLHVLVH[FHSWLRQDOVLQFH WKH QRLVH GLVFULPLQDWLQJ LQVWLQFW 6R WKLV LQ
PDQ
V ratio FDQ HYHQ RYHUFRPH LQVWLQFWLYH VWLQFWVKRXOGEHDVFKHPHRILQVWLQFWRULHQWHG
XUJHV QRWWRZDUGVDFRQFUHWHVWLPXOXVEXWUDWKHUWR
ZDUGVWKHDEVHQFHRIDOOELRORJLFDOO\UHOHYDQW
/HDUQHG%HKDYLRUDQGWKH,QVWLQFW VWLPXOL 7KH LQVWLQFW RI GLVFULPLQDWLRQ PXVW
RI0DNLQJ&RQFOXVLRQV DOVRKDYHDWKUHVKROGDVLWLVLQHYHU\FODVVL
FDOLQVWLQFW
7KHLQVWLQFWIRUILQGLQJVROXWLRQVRISURE $VSHFLDOFDVHRIQRLVH GLVFULPLQDWLRQ LV
OHPV PD\ SURYLGH DQ LQGLYLGXDO FHUWDLQ DG SUHVHQWHG E\ WKH EHKDYLRUDO SKHQRPHQRQ RI
YDQWDJHLQWKHVWUXJJOHIRUOLIHLIWKHUHZRXOG KDELWXDWLRQ*URYHV 7KRPSVRQ%RX
EH PDLG XVHIXO FRQFOXVLRQV IURP SUREOHP WRQ 'RPMDQ 'XH WR FRQVWDQW
VROYLQJ H[SHULHQFH 7KHUH DUH WKUHH ZD\V RI FKDQJHVLQFRQGLWLRQVRIH[LVWHQFHLPSRUWDQW
GHULYLQJ FRQFOXVLRQV LQ KXPDQ ORJLF RI UHD LQFHQWLYHV DQG YLWDO IDFWRUV EHFRPH LQVLJQLIL
VRQLQJ FDQW EDFNJURXQG FRQGLWLRQV ,Q RUGHU WR JHW
x 'HGXFWLYH QHFHVVDU\ FRQFOXVLRQV IURP ULG RI VXFK D EDFNJURXQG QRLVH DQLPDOV DQG
JLYHQSUHPLVHV KXPDQV KDYH GHYHORSHG D SURWHFWLYH PHFKD
x ,QGXFWLYHFRQFOXVLRQVJHQHUDOL]DWLRQVRI QLVPRILJQRULQJVXFKGHJHQHUDWHVWLPXOLLQ
HPSLULFGDWD EHKDYLRUDO VFLHQFHV FDOOHG habituation $V
x &RQFOXVLRQVE\DQDORJ\JXHVVLQJDVROX PDQ\ REVHUYHUV KDYH PHQWLRQHG DQ DQLPDO
WLRQ IRU D JLYHQ FDVH RQ WKH EDVLV RI WKH FHDVHVUHVSRQGLQJWRDVWLPXOXVWKDWSUHYLRXV
VROXWLRQRIDVLPLODUFDVH O\ZRUNHGDVDQHIIHFWLYHPHDQVRISUHGLFWLRQ
:KLFKRIWKHPFRXOGEHUHYHDOHGRUSUH MXVWLQWKHUHVXOWRIKDELWXDWLRQ
VXPHGLQDQLPDOEHKDYLRU" /HW XV WU\ PHQWDO PRGHOLQJ VXJJHVWLQJ
+XPDQV DQG DQLPDOV DUH FRQWLQXRXVO\ SRVVLEOH VFKHPHV RI DOJRULWKPV IRU FRJQLWLYH
surrounded by “noises” – GLIIHUHQW NLQG RI DFWLYLWLHVRIDQLPDOV:LWKVXFKPRGHOLQJWKH
VWLPXOL KDYLQJ VRPH ELRORJLFDO VLJQLILFDQFH SV\FKRORJLFDOSKHQRPHQRQRIKDELWXDWLRQFDQ
EXWQRWUHODWHGGLUHFWO\WRDQ\FRQFUHWHLQGLFD EH UHSUHVHQWHG E\ WKH IROORZLQJ VWHSV RI WKH
WRURILQVWLQFWLYHRUOHDUQHGEHKDYLRU,IDVSH “inner discourse” of animals:
15
IRUPXODWLRQ %
,I WKH QXPEHU RI FDVHV 6RPH DXWKRUV PHQWLRQ DPRQJ WKH EDVLF
ZKHQ D VWLPXOXV 6 ZDV REVHUYHG EHIRUH WKH IRUPVRIDQLPDOEHKDYLRUDOVRWKHlearning by
JLYHQXQFRQGLWLRQDOVWLPXOXV 86 KDVUHDFKHG observation +RZHYHU VXFK DQ DWWLWXGH GRHV
D JLYHQ WKUHVKROG YDOXH WXUQ RQ WKH PHFKD QRW VHHP FRQYLQFLQJ WR XV ,Q JHQHUDO all
QLVP RI FRQGLWLRQHG SUHGLFWLRQ $QG WKLV LV OHDUQLQJLVEDVHGRQREVHUYDWLRQ7KHVXEMHFW
WKHVFKHPHRILQIHUHQFHE\LQFRPSOHWHLQGXF RIOHDUQLQJLVWKHEHKDYLRURIWKHDQLPDOLQWKH
WLRQ LI DOO FDVHV FRQVLGHUHG FRQILUP WKDW RE VXUURXQGLQJUHDOLW\DQGLQIRUPDWLRQDERXWWKH
MHFWV6SRVVHVVSURSHUW\3WKHQZHFDQJHQHU H[WUDZRUOGFDQEHREWDLQHGRQO\E\REVHUYD
DOL]H$OO6DUH37KXVZHKDYHHVWDEOLVKHG WLRQ2QHFRXOG VLQJOH RXW OHDUQLQJE\REVHU
WKDWincomplete induction lies also at the ba- YDWLRQVHSDUDWHO\LQLWVRSSRVLWLRQWRimitation
sis of the schematic of conditioned reflexes OHDUQLQJ+RZHYHUOHDUQLQJE\LPLWDWLRQDOVR
0DQ\ HWKRORJLVWV KDYH PHQWLRQHG WKDW WDNHVLQIRUPDWLRQIURPREVHUYDWLRQWKRXJK
DQLPDOVKDYHWRIDFHDPXOWLWXGHRIVWLPXOLLQ WKLV WLPH QRW E\ REVHUYLQJ QDWXUDO SKHQRPH
WKHLUQDWXUDOHQYLURQPHQWVYHU\IHZRIZKLFK QDEXW PDLQO\E\ NHHSLQJ DZDWFKIXOH\HRQ
FRXOGEHXVHIXODVSUHGLFWRUV/HWXVWKLQNXS SDUHQWVSHHUVDQGRWKHUPHPEHUVRIWKHSDFN
ZKDWNLQGVFKHPHRIDOJRULWKPFRXOGEHKHOS 6ROHWXVFRQFHQWUDWHRQlearning by imitation
IXOLQFKRRVLQJSRVVLEOHSUHWHQGHUVIRUEHLQJD 6HULRXVVWXGLHVRILPLWDWLRQLQWKHDQLPDO
XVHIXO SUHGLFWRU" $V D ILUVW DSSUR[LPDWLRQ WR ZRUOG ZHUH VWDUWHG E\ 7KRUQGLNH EDFN LQ WKH
WKH DQVZHU ZH VXJJHVW WKH IROORZLQJ WZR ODWHWKFHQWXU\7KRUQGLNH2YHUWKH
VWHSV \HDUV VHYHUDO WKHRUHWLFDO PRGHOV KDYH EHHQ
$:KHQWKHILUVWIHZFDVHVRIVRPHDJHQWV SURSRVHG IRU DQ DGHTXDWH XQGHUVWDQGLQJ RI
DSSHDU WKDW SUHFHGH D FRQFUHWH XQFRQGL LPLWDWLRQWKHKLHUDUFKLFDODSSURDFK%\UQH
WLRQHG VWLPXOXV SXW WKHVH DJHQWV XQGHU 5XVVRQWKHVWUXFWXUDODSSURDFK:KLW
FRQWURO FRQVLGHULQJ WKHP DV SUREDEOH en, 1998), the ethological analysis (Miklósi,
SUHGLFWRUV WKHPRGHORIWKHPHFKDQLVPVRILPLWD
% ,IWKHQXPEHURIREVHUYHGFDVHVZKHUHDQ WLRQ=HQWDOOVRFLDOFRJQLWLYHDSSURDFK
DJHQWXQGHUFRQWUROKDVSUHFHGHGWKHJLY %\UQH WKH WKHRUHWLFDOFRJQLWLYH DS
HQ XQFRQGLWLRQHG VWLPXOXV H[FHHGV WKH SURDFK %DWHV %\UQH $V D UHVXOW D
VSHFLILHG WKUHVKROG YDOXH WKHQ WXUQ RQ QRQVWULFW FRQFHSW RI WUXH LPLWDWLRQ ZDV
WKHPHFKDQLVPRIFRQGLWLRQHGSUHGLFWLRQ IRUPHGRSSRVLQJLWWRDVVRFLDWLYHOHDUQLQJE\
:H ZRXOG OLNH WR PHQWLRQ DOVR WKDW WKH REVHUYDWLRQ +H\HV 5D\ +H\HV
VXJJHVWHG VFKHPDWLFV RI WKH FRQGLWLRQHG SUH
GLFWLRQ%
FDQEHHDVLO\UHDOL]HGDWWKHOHY 7KH FRPSOH[LW\ RI WKH HVVHQFH DQG PH
HO RI DQLPDO VHQVRU\ FRJQLWLRQ $OO WKH HOH FKDQLVPV RI OHDUQLQJ E\ LPLWDWLRQ KDV IRXQG
PHQWVRIWKHVXJJHVWHGIRUPXODWLRQV–thresh- LWV UHIOHFWLRQ LQ WKH WHUPLQRORJ\ RI SXEOLFD
old value, agents, observed cases, preceding WLRQV ,Q DQ HIIRUW WR HPSKDVL]H WKH FHQWUDO
cases unconditioned stimulus – ZLWKRXW DQ\ UROH RI LPLWDWLRQ LQ WKH SURFHVV RI VRFLDOL]D
GLIILFXOW\FDQEHUHDOL]HGDWWKHOHYHORIVHQ WLRQ5%\UQHWLWOHGKLVDUWLFOHLQWKHIRUPRI
VRU\FRJQLWLRQ WKHIDPRXVVORJDQ6RFLDOFRJQLWLRQLPLWD
17
18
WLRQV E\ D JHQHWLFDOO\ UHFRUGHG LQGLFDWRU re- 7KH SKHQRPHQRQ RI LQVWLQFWLYH FDSDFLW\
leaser) ,Q FRQWUDVW WKH instinct of a scheme WRDFHUWDLQDFWLRQRUEHKDYLRUGHPRQVWUDWHV
RI DFWLRQ QHHGV FHUWDLQ DPRXQW RI H[SHULHQFH LWVHOI LQ WKH fast learning RI WKLV DFWLRQ ,Q
DQGOHDUQLQJ7KHinborn genetic instinct of a KXPDQ OHDUQLQJ LW LV TXDOLILHG DV KDYLQJ DQ
scheme RIDFWLRQLV DSRWHQWLDO capacity7KH LQERUQinclinationDSWLWXGHRUWDOHQW%HVWRI
cases of an individual’s positive experience in DOO WKH LQERUQ LQFOLQDWLRQ LV GHPRQVWUDWHG E\
WKH LPSOHPHQWDWLRQ RI WKLV DFWLRQ WUDQVIRUP JLIWHG WDOHQWHG FKLOGUHQ HVSHFLDOO\ LQ WKH
WKHJLYHQSRWHQWLDOcapacityWKHSRWHQWLDOJH ILHOGV RI PDWKHPDWLFV DQG PXVLFDO SHUIRU
QHWLF VFKHPH RI DFWLRQ LQWR HIIHFWLYH DELOLW\ PDQFH
DQG VNLOO DFTXLUHG KDELW WR SURGXFH WKLV DF 7KH GHFLVLYH UROH RI LQERUQ DSWLWXGH DQG
WLRQ-XVW WKLV SURFHVV RI JDLQLQJ SRVLWLYH H[ JLIWHGQHVV LQ DFKLHYLQJ KLJKHVW OHYHO RI SHU
SHULHQFHLQH[HUFLVLQJWKHJLYHQLQERUQJHQHW IRUPDQFHLVZLGHO\DFFHSWHGLQPRGHUQSHGD
LFVFKHPHRIDFWLRQDQGWUDQVIRUPLQJWKHJLY JRJ\7KHKHDGVRIWKH HGXFDWLRQDOVSKHUHRI
HQSRWHQWLDOcapacityWKHSRWHQWLDOVFKHPHRI WKH8QLWHG6WDWHVVKRZDJUHDWXQGHUVWDQGLQJ
DFWLRQ LQWR HIIHFWLYH DELOLW\ DQG VNLOO DF RIWKHSUREOHPRIHGXFDWLQJJLIWHGFKLOGUHQ$
TXLUHGKDELWLVFDOOHGlearning IHGHUDO $FW VXJJHVWV WKH IROORZLQJ GHILQLWLRQ
/HDUQLQJLVDFRJQLWLYHDFWLRQ$VDcog- for giftedness: “The term "gifted and talenW
nitive action, LWUHTXLUHVPHPRU\DVDcogni- HGZKHQXVHGLQUHVSHFWWRVWXGHQWVFKLOGUHQ
tive action, LWUHTXLUHVPRWLYDWLRQ/HDUQLQJDV RU \RXWK PHDQV VWXGHQWV FKLOGUHQ RU \RXWK
VXFKUHTXLUHVDOVRattentive observation – at- ZKRJLYHHYLGHQFHRIKLJKSHUIRUPDQFHFDSD
tention WR ZKDW KDSSHQV DURXQG observation ELOLW\ LQ DUHDV VXFK DV LQWHOOHFWXDO FUHDWLYH
RIHQYLURQPHQW3RVLWLYHUHLQIRUFHPHQWLVLP DUWLVWLF RU OHDGHUVKLS FDSDFLW\ RU LQ VSHFLILF
SRUWDQW LQ OHDUQLQJVLQFHLWLV DPHDQVIRULQ DFDGHPLF ILHOGV DQG ZKR UHTXLUH VHUYLFHV RU
creasing learner’s motivation. Implying the DFWLYLWLHV QRW RUGLQDULO\ SURYLGHG E\ WKH
FRQFHSWLRQ RI WKH VFKHPHV RI LQVWLQFW IRU DF VFKRROLQRUGHUWRIXOO\GHYHORSVXFKFDSDELOL
WLRQWRWKHILHOGRIFRJQLWLRQRQHFDQFRQFOXGH WLHV-RKQVHQS
WKDW learning an action requires an inborn ,Q PRGHUQ SHGDJRJ\ KDV UHFHLYHG ZLGH
genetic potential capacity for this action ,Q UHFRJQLWLRQ WKHSULQFLSOHWKDWJLIWHGQHVV LV DQ
VKRUW OHDUQLQJ UHTXLUHV WKH LQVWLQFW IRU OHDUQ LQERUQ ZH ZRXOG VD\ JHQHWLF LQWHOOHFWXDO
LQJ TXDOLW\ZKLFKVKRXOGEHGHYHORSHGE\HGXFD
7KH JHQHWLF LQVWLQFW RI WKH FDSDFLW\ WR D WRUVLQWRVSHFLILFVNLOOWKHKLJKHVW GHPRQVWUD
FHUWDLQW\SHFRJQLWLYHDFWLRQEHKDYLRULVUDG WLRQRIZKLFKLVXVXDOO\ FDOOHGWDOHQW*DJQH
LFDOO\ GLIIHUHQW IURP WKH LQVWLQFW RI DFWLRQ LQ -RKQVHQ
WKDW WKDW LW UHTXLUHV OHDUQLQJ EHFRPHV DELOLW\ 7KH JLIWHGQHVV RI DQ LQGLYLGXDO LV D SR
RQO\WKURXJKOHDUQLQJ8VLQJ,PPDQXLO.DQW
V WHQWLDOFDSDFLW\2QO\KDUGZRUNDQGH[HUFLVHV
WHUPVRQHFDQSURSRVHWKDWFODVVLFDOLQVWLQFWLV FRXOGWUDQVIRUPLWLQWRKLJKVNLOOHGWDOHQW7KH
a priory LQGHSHQGHQW RI H[SHULHQFH ZKLOH UROH RI V\VWHPDWLF H[HUFLVHV LV VR VLJQLILFDQW
WKH LQVWLQFWLYH VFKHPH FDSDFLW\ RI D FHUWDLQ WKDW HYHQ H[SHULHQFHG HGXFDWRUV RIWHQ KDYH
EHKDYLRULVa posteriory, JDLQHGZLWKWKHKHOS
1R&KLOG/HIW%HKLQG$FW3/–7LWOH
RILQGLYLGXDOVH[SHULHQFH
;,9S
19
GLIILFXOWLHVLQVHWWLQJDSDUWWKHFRQWULEXWLRQRI VHDUFK RU E\ DQDORJ\ $QG WKLV LV ZKDW LV
WKH LQERUQ JLIWHGQHVV DQG KDUG WUDLQLQJ &RO FDOOHGFUHDWLYLW\
ZLQ*ODGZHOO )URPWLPHVRI:Kohler’s famouVEDQD
+HUH DULVHV WKH SULQFLSOH TXHVWLRQ LV QD SUREOHP VROYLQJ H[SHULPHQWV ZLWK FKLPSV
WKHUHDOLPLWIRUWKHVWUHQJWKHQLQJWKHOHYHORI .RKOHUWKHUHZHUHIHZVWXGLHVRQDQL
DFHUWDLQDFWLRQE\DSSURSULDWHH[HUFLVHV"<HV PDO FUHDWLYH EHKDYLRU 7KH VLWXDWLRQ UDGLFDOO\
WKLVOLPLWLVFRQWDLQHGLQWKHGHILQLWLRQRIDF FKDQJHG E\ WKH HQG RI WKH SDVW FHQWXU\
WLRQ 7KH LQVWLQFWLYH FDSDFLW\ EHFRPHV DQ *RRGDOO %RLQVNL *ULIILQ
DELOLW\ RI SHUIRUPLQJ WKH FRQFUHWH DFWLRQ 5HDGHU /DODQG 0RGHUQ HWKRORJLVWV
WKURXJK OHDUQLQJ E\ FRS\LQJ ZKLOH IDUWKHU KDYHJRWGHHSO\LQYROYHGLQWRVWXGLHVRIDQLPDO
SURJUHVV LV PDGH WKURXJK VHOIOHDUQLQJ 7KH FUHDWLYLW\ $OO RI WKHP DUH IDVFLQDWHG E\ WKH
ODWWHU FRXOG EH UHDOL]HG E\ EOLQG PHWKRG RI FUHDWLYH LQVLJKW RI WKH PDFDTXH ,PR ZKR ZDV
VHDUFK DQG HUURUV RU E\ LQGHSHQGHQW WKLQNLQJ ILUVWWRZDVKSRWDWRHVEHIRUHHDWLQJWKHP–DQ
XVLQJDQDO\VLVDQGDQDORJLHV'MLGMLDQ LQYHQWLRQ WKDW VRRQ VWDUWHG WKH WUDGLWLRQ SRWD
7KHLQERUQLQFOLQDWLRQIRUFHUWDLQDFWLYLW\ WRHV ZDVKLQJ LQ KHU WURRS 5HVHDUFKHUV FODLP
LV DSRWHQF\WKHFRQWHQWRIZKLFKLV UHDOL]HG WKDWWKH\KDYHHVWDEOLVKHGH[DPSOHVRILQQRYD
ILOOHG XS E\ DFFLGHQWDO VHDUFK DQG WUDLQLQJ WLRQV LQ SULPDWHV PDULQH PDPPDOV GRJV LQ
,Q ODUJH LW LV WKH FRPELQDWLRQ RI LQVWLQFWLYH VHFWV DQG HYHQ ELUGV DQG LQVHFWV $Q\ZD\
EHKDYLRU DQG OHDUQLQJ $SSDUHQWO\ HYHU\ DQ SURIHVVLRQDOHWKRORJLVWVKDYHWRDGPLWWKDWUHF
LPDOVSHFLHVKDVLWVRZQVHWRILQERUQLQFOLQD RUGHG FDVHV RI DQLPDO FUHDWLYLW\ DUH UDUH – E\
WLRQV SULPDWHV DERXW WZR GR]HQ .DXIPDQ .DXI
“Talented” PRUH FDSDEOH DQLPDOV OLNH PDQ
KXPDQV $%.DXIPDQDQG-&.DXIPDQFODLP
$UHTXLUHOHVVH[DPSOHV SURSRVLQJWKHILUVWPRGHORIDQLPDOFUHDWLYLW\
% DFKLHYHDKLJKHUVNLOOV .DXIPDQ .DXIPDQ7KH\FDOOWKHLU
& VKRZFUHDWLYLW\ILQGQHZPHWKRGVRIDF conception of animal creativity “threeVWHS
WLRQ pyramid”. Its first level comprises the ability
$W WKH VDPH WLPH ERWK TXDOLWLHV DUH JH WR UHFRJQL]H WKH QRYHOW\ WKH VHFRQG OHYHO LV
QHWLFDOO\DVVLJQHGVLQFHWKHVSHHGRIOHDUQLQJ SUHVHQWHGE\REVHUYDWLRQDOOHDUQLQJ7KHWKLUG
LVGHWHUPLQHGE\LQERUQLQFOLQDWLRQVIRUDWWHQ and highest level, “the actual ability to be iQ
WLRQ LQWHUHVW PRWLYDWLRQ LPLWDWLRQ XQGHU QRYDWive” authors define as the ability “to crH
VWDQGLQJ FRPSHWLWLYHQHVV 7KH OHYHO RI PDV DWHDWRRORUDEHKDYLRUWKDWLVQHZDQGGLIIHU
WHU\DFKLHYHGLVGHWHUPLQHGE\WKHDPRXQWRI HQW ZLWK WKH VSHFLILF XQGHUVWDQGLQJ WKDW LW LV
WUDLQLQJH[HUFLVHV new and different” (.DXIPDQ .DXIPDQ
+RZHYHUHYHQWKHKLJKHVWOHYHORIPDV
WHU\ EHORQJV WR WKH JLYHQ FRQFUHWH IRUP RU By stressing the importance of “VSHFLILF
VNLOO RI DFWLRQ $Q DQLPDO DQG KXPDQ LQGL XQGHUVWDQGLQJ” in the process of LQQRYDWLRQ
YLGXDO FDQ DFKLHYH D UDGLFDOO\ QHZ IRUP RU $ % .DXIPDQ DQG - & .DXIPDQ KLW WKH
PRGXVRIDFWLRQWKURXJKWKHFRQVWDQW VHDUFK SULQFLSOH SRLQW RI FUHDWLYLW\ 8QIRUWXQDWHO\
IRU QHZ LGHDV DQG VROXWLRQV HLWKHU E\ EOLQG ULJKWO\ DFFHQWXDWLQJ WKH SULQFLSOH LPSRUWDQFH
20
RI XQGHUVWDQGLQJ LQ FUHDWLYH LQQRYDWLRQ WKH\ PRGHUQ WHUPV – WKH releaser ,Q FRQWUDVW WKH
DFWXDOO\UHMHFWDQLPDOFUHDWLYLW\%HFDXVHWKHUH instinct of a scheme RI DFWLRQ QHHGV FHUWDLQ
LVQRVFLHQWLILFVWXG\SURYLQJWKDWDQLPDOVSRV DPRXQWRIH[SHULHQFH7KLVSURFHVVRIJDLQLQJ
VHVVDQ\OHYHORIXQGHUVWDQGLQJ0LNORVL SRVLWLYH H[SHULHQFH LQ H[HUFLVLQJ WKH JLYHQ
&DOO 7RPDVHOOR :KLWHQ +DP VFKHPHRIDFWLRQLVFDOOHGlearning RUOHDUQ
LQJEHKDYLRU
7KHZHOONQRZQIDFWVWHOOXVWKDWFKLPSV /HDUQLQJLVDFRJQLWLYHDFWLRQ$VDcog-
FDQ
W OHDUQ KXPDQ ODQJXDJH KDYH QRW WKH LQ nitive action, LWUHTXLUHVPHPRU\DVDcogni-
VWLQFWLYH FDSDFLW\ RI EXLOGLQJ ZRUGV ZKLOH tive action, LWUHTXLUHVPRWLYDWLRQ/HDUQLQJDV
SDUURWVGRQRWXQGHUVWDQGWKHZRUGVWKH\KHDU VXFKUHTXLUHVDOVRattentive observation – at-
DQG SURQRXQFH VLQFH WKH\ KDYH QRW WKH LQ tention WR ZKDW KDSSHQV DURXQG observation
VWLQFWRIFRQWH[WXDOXVHRIZDUGV6RLWFDQEH RIHQYLURQPHQW3RVLWLYHUHLQIRUFHPHQWLVLP
FRQFOXGHGWKDWbesides the general instinct of SRUWDQW LQ OHDUQLQJ VLQFH LW LV D IRUP RI LQ
learning there are instincts for learning a creasing learner’s motivation. Implying the
special type of action (behavior) and these FRQFHSWLRQ RI WKH VFKHPHV RI LQVWLQFW IRU DF
are the instinctive capacities for certain ac- WLRQWRWKHILHOGRIFRJQLWLRQRQHFDQFRQFOXGH
tions WKDWOHDUQLQJDQDFWLRQUHTXLUHVDQLQERUQSR
Moreover, Henri Fabre’s striking expeU WHQWLDOFDSDFLW\IRUWKLVDFWLRQ,QVKRUWOHDUQ
LPHQWVGHPRQVWUDWHXQFRQGLWLRQDOO\WKDWWKHUH LQJUHTXLUHVWKHLQVWLQFWIRUOHDUQLQJ
LVQRWUDFHRIXQGHUVWDQGLQJLQWKHPRVWFRP 7KH LQVWLQFW RI WKH FDSDFLW\ WR D FHUWDLQ
plex and “purposeful” activities of insect (FD W\SHFRJQLWLYHDFWLRQ EHKDYLRULVUDGLFDOO\
EUH ,V QRW HQRXJK WKH H[DPSOH RI WKH GLIIHUHQW IURP WKH LQVWLQFW RI DFWLRQ LQ WKDW
FKLPSEHKDYLRUZKRLPLWDWLQJDSHUVRQH[ WKDWLWUHTXLUHVOHDUQLQJEHFRPHVDELOLW\RQO\
WLQJXLVKHV D VPDOO ILUH ZLWK D ZHW FORWK WR WKURXJKOHDUQLQJ
FRQFOXGH WKDW KH KDV QR XQGHUVWDQGLQJ RI KLV 7KHFDSDFLW\WRDFHUWDLQDFWLRQLVVHWJH
DFWLRQV" QHWLFDOO\LWVLPSOHPHQWDWLRQRFFXUVGXHWRWKH
$QG KRZ LW FRXOG EH RWKHU ZD\ LI ZH PLQLPXP QXPEHU RI H[DPSOHV DQG WKH OHYHO
KXPDQVDUHVRIDUIURPXQGHUVWDQGLQJKXPDQ RIGHYHORSPHQWRIWKHDELOLW\LVGHWHUPLQHGE\
XQGHUVWDQGLQJ" WKHWUDLQLQJH[HUFLVHV
7KHUH DUH WKUHH EDVLF VFKHPHV RI WKH
&RQFOXVLRQV OHDUQHGDFWLRQ–WKHFRQGLWLRQHGUHIOH[OHDUQ
LQJE\LPLWDWLRQDQGVHOIOHDUQLQJE\DQDORJ\
,QJHQHUDOHYHU\FRPSOH[DFWLRQLQFOXG 7KHseedsRIGHGXFWLRQDUHSUHVHQWDUHSUHVHQW
LQJFRJQLWLYHDFWLRQKDVLQLWVEDVLVDQDSSUR LQ WKH VWUXFWXUH RI FRQGLWLRQDO UHIOH[HV :H
SULDWH LQVWLQFW RU LQVWLQFWLYH VFKHPH 7KH VDZ LQFRPSOHWH LQGXFWLRQ LQ WKH EDVLV RI
PDLQLGHDRIWKLVDUWLFOHLVWRLQWURGXFHEHVLGH OHDUQLQJE\LPLWDWLRQ
the classical instinct the conception “the iQ /HDUQLQJDQDFWLRQUHTXLUHVDQLQERUQSR
VWLQFt of a scheme of action”. The classical WHQWLDO FDSDFLW\ IRU WKLV DFWLRQ 7KH FDSDFLW\
LQVWLQFWODXQFKHVDFRPSOH[VXFFHVVLRQRIDF RI OHDUQLQJ LWVHOI UHTXLUHV WKH LQVWLQFW IRU
WLRQV E\ D JHQHWLFDOO\ UHFRUGHG LQGLFDWRU LQ OHDUQLQJ
21
22
23
24