IX.

Exponential and Logarithmic Functions

9.1 The Exponential Function
The number a n ( a>0 ) is defined in algebra for all rational values of n . In calculus it becomes necessary
to attach a meaning to the function
x
y=a , a>0
as x varies continuously.
Let x 0 be any irrational number. Then a x is defined as the limit of a x , where x is rational as x
0

approaches to x 0. The function

x
y=a , a>0 ,
called the exponential function, thus becomes defined for all values of x . The exponential function is
positive for all values of x .

9.2 The Logarithm

The inverse of the exponential function is the logarithm, denoted by the statement that
y
y=log a x if x=a , a>1
This function is one-valued and continuous for all positive values of x . The number a is called the
base of the system of logarithms. The assumption a> 1 is introduced for simplicity; this condition is
satisfied in all cases of practical importance.
The following facts concerning the function
y=log a x
follow at once from the definition:
(a) Negative numbers have no (real) logarithms.
(b) Numbers between 0 and 1 have negative logarithms.
(c) Numbers greater than 1 have positive logarithms.
(d) As x → 0+¿ , y → −∞ . ¿
(e) The logarithm of 1 is 0.
(f) As x → ∞ , y → ∞ .

9.3 Fundamental Properties of Logarithms

Further important properties of the logarithmic function are as follows:

( 1 ) log a xy=log a x +log a y

x
( 2 ) log a =log a x − log a y
y
( 3 ) log a x n=n log a x
( 4 ) log a a x =x
( 5 ) a log x =x
a

9.4 Change of Base

Given a table of logarithms to any base b , the logarithm of any number x to the base a can be found
by the formula for the change of base:
log b x
( 1 ) log a x=
log b a

To prove this, let

 m=log a x ∧n=log b x
then
m n
x=a +b
Taking logarithm to the base b , we get
m log b a=n

which gives the formula at once.

Taking x=b in (1), we obtain the formula

1
( 2 ) log a b=¿ ¿.
log b a

9.5 The Number e

It will be found, that the problem of differentiating y=log a x leads to a need for evaluation of

( )
z
( 1 ) lim 1+ 1
z→∞ z

First, let z take on only positive integral values. Consider the sequence of numbers v n
(i.e. v1 , v 2 , v 3 ,. . . , v n , v n+1 , .. .),

( )
n
( 2 ) v n= 1+ 1 ; n integral ,n> 0.
n

n 1 2 3 10 100 1000 10 000 100 000

vn 2 2.25 2.37 2.594 2.705 2.717 2.7181 2.7182

( )
z
1
Theorem 9.1 lim 1+ =e
z→∞ z

9.6 Natural Logarithms

Only two system of logarithms are of actual importance in practice. Logarithm to the base 10,
called common logarithms, possess the great advantage that the “mantissa” or fractional part of the
logarithm, is independent of the position of the decimal point in the given number. However, in the
application of calculus it is more convenient to use the base e .
Logarithms to the base e are called the natural logarithms, and e is the natural base. Since the
natural logarithm enters our work often, it is worth to use a special symbol for it. We write ln x for log e x ;
that is,
( 1 ) ln x=log e x

A table for common logarithms gives

log 10 e=log 10 2.71828=0.43429

This important number, called the modulus of the common system, will hereafter be noted by M :
 log 10 e=M =0.43429
1
ln 10= =2.30259
M

We thus derive from Section 9.4, the following formulas:

1
( 2 ) log 10 x=M ln x , ln x= log 10 x
M

O
1

y=e
x
O y=ln x

Figure 9.6a Figure 9.6b

The curve
y=ln x

is shown in Figure 9.6b. It can be obtained from the curve y=e x of Figure 9.6a by interchanging the roles
of x and y ; i.e., by reflection in the line y=x .

Example (a) Find x , if

1
ln x=ln 2 −2 ln 3+ ln 5
2
ln x=ln 2 − ln 9+ln √ 5 .
ln x=¿ ln √ ¿
2 5
9
2 √5
x=
9

Example (b). Find the inverse of the function

2

y=sin5 e x .
2
x
arcsin y=5 e
2
x 2
ln arcsin y=ln 5+ ln e =¿ ln 5+ x ¿
1
x=( ln arcsin y − ln 5 ) 2

Exercises
A. Find x in the following equations.
 1
1. a ¿ log x=2 b ¿ log x=−3 c ¿ log x=
2
2
2. a ¿ ln x=3 b ¿ ln x= c ¿ ln x=− 2
3
3. ln x=ln2+ ln3+ ln 5
4. ln x=ln 12+ ln 13 − ln 3
5. log x=log 12+ log 13 − log 3
6. ln x=3 ln2 − ln6+ 2 ln3
7. ln x=3+ ln 5
1
8. ln x=2 ln − ln2+ ln5+ ln 12
2
3 1
9. ln x= ln6 − ln 3− 4
2 2
3
10. ln x= ln 6 − ln 2− 3
2

9.7 Exponential and Logarithmic Equations

Equations involving exponential functions only, or logarithms only, may in simple cases be solved by
applying the properties of exponents and logarithms respectively.
Example (a). Solve for x the equation
e x −e − x =2
Solution. By multiplying e x , we get
e 2 x − 1=2 e x
2x x
e − 2 e − 1=0

−− 2 ± √ ( −2 ) −4 ( 1 )( −1 )
2
x
e=
2( 1)
e =1+ √2 , e x =1 − √ 2
x

Therefore
x=ln ( 1+ √ 2 )

Example (b). Solve the equation

ln ( 2 x+7 ) − ln ( x −1 )=ln 5
2 x +7
ln =ln5
x −1
2 x +7
=5
x−1
2 x+7=5( x −1)
−3 x=− 12
x=4

Exercises
Solve the following equations.
1. e x +6 e − x =5 9. ln ( x +1 ) +ln ( x − 2 )=ln 4
2. e x +10 e − x =7 10. ln ( x +3 ) +ln ( x − 2 )=ln6
 3. 4 e x +3 e− x =13 11. ln ( 2 − x ) +ln ( 6+ x )=ln15
4. 3 e x +2=e− x 12. ln ( 3 − x ) +ln ( 5+2 x )=ln 14
5. e 2 x +20 e − x =21 13. log ( 3 x − 2 ) − log ( x +1 )=1+ log 2
6. 1 −3 e x =4 e − x ( e − x + 1 ) 14. 2 ln ( x+1 ) − ln ( 5 x +1 ) +ln ( x − 1 )=ln 2
7. 3 x + 8· 3− x =6 15. ln ( x 2 +3 x+1 ) − ln (1 − x ) + ln ( 2 − x )=ln 6
8. 4 x +2 · 4 − x =3

9.8 Derivative of Logarithm

To obtain the derivative of the logarithm we proceed by the method of Section 3.2.

y=log a x

y +∆ y =log a ( x+ ∆ x )

∆ y =log a ( x+ ∆ x ) − log a x

x+ ∆ x
¿ log a
x

(
¿ log a 1+
∆x
x )
∆y
=
1
∆x ∆ x
log a 1+
∆x
x ( )
∆y 1 x
= ·
∆x x ∆ x
log a 1+
∆x
x ( )
( )
x
1 ∆x
¿ log a 1+ ∆x
x x

( )
x
( 1 ) dy = lim ∆ y = 1 lim log a 1+ ∆ x ∆x
dx ∆ x →0 ∆ x x ∆ x→ 0 x

[ ( )]
x
1 ∆x
( 2 )= log a lim 1+ ∆x
x ∆ x →0 x

∆x
Let =z, and we see that the limit occurrence in (2) is, if ∆ x >0 ,
x

( )
z
1
lim 1+ =e ,
z →∞ z

By Theorem 9.1. (The argument must be slightly modified for negative ∆ x .) Therefore
 d 1
(3) log a x= log a e .
dx x

In order to remove the undesirable factor log a e , choose the base a so that log a e=1 ; take a=e .
Then log a e becomes unity, and equation ( 3 ) simplifies to the form

d 1
ln x=
dx x

This is the reason for the use of logarithm to the base e in calculus.
By the chain rule if u is any function of x ,

du
d dx
log a u= · log a e
dx u

and as special cases,

du
d dx
( 16 ) ln u=
dx u
du
M
d dx
( 17 ) ln u=
dx u

In differentiating the logarithm of logarithm of a complicated expression, a great deal of labor may
often be saved by making judicious use of properties of logarithms.
Example (a) Differentiate y=ln √ 1+3 x .
Solution:
1
2
y=ln (1+3 x )
1
y= ln ( 1+3 x )
2
' 1 3 3
y= · =
2 1+3 x 2+6 x
2
z 3 ( z 2 −1 )
Example (b). Differentiate x=ln 2
( z2 +1 )
Solution:
2
z ( z −1 )
3 2
x=ln 2
( z2 +1 )

x=3 ln z +2 ln ( z −1 ) −2 ln ( z +1 )
2 2

dx 3 4 z 4z
= + 2 − 2
dz z z −1 z +1
 3 ( z 4 − 1 ) +4 z 2 ( z 2+1 ) − 4 z 2 ( z2 −1 )
¿
z ( z 4 −1 )

3 z 4 + 8 z 2 −3
¿
z ( z −1 )
4

Exercises
Find the derivative of the given function. When necessary, use M to denote log e .
1. y=ln ( 7 −3 x ) 11.θ=ln tan φ
2. y=ln cx 12.u=lncos 3t
3
3. y=ln ( a − z ) 13. w=ln √ a − x
2 2 2 2 2

5
4. θ=ln sin 4 φ 14. w=ln ( b2 + x 2) 2
2
x 1+t
5. y=log 10 sin 15. x=ln 2
a 1− t

6. y=ln (5 x + 4)16. x=4 ln

√
7. y=ln ( 2 x + x −1 ) 17. y=log 10
3
1 −t 2
1+ t
2

4t −1
4 t +1
8. y=ln ( 3 x − x ) 18. y=x ln x
3 2

9. u=ln sec t 19. v=x ln ( 1− x )

10. α =log 10 (1 − 4 tan β ) 20. y =ln ln x

9.9 Derivative of the Exponential Function

If
x
y=a ,
ln y=x ln a

Differentiating by the rule for implicit functions, we find

1 dy
=ln a
y dx
dy
= y ln a=a x ln a
dx
If u is a function of x , this formula becomes

d u u du
( 18 ) a =a ln a·
dx dx
d du
( 19 ) eu =e u
dx dx
3
Example (a) Differentiate y=e2 x .
Solution:
 3 du 2
Let u=2 x , =6 x
dx
3

y ' =6 x 2 e2 x

Example (b) Differentiate y=sin 2 e3 x .

Solution:
3x du 3x
Let u=e , =3 e
dx
' 3x 3x 3x
y =3 e ·2 sin e cos e
y ' =3 e 3 x sin 2e 3 x

Exercises
Differentiate the following functions.
1. y=e −3 x 11. x =e 3t ( cos t −3 sin t )
3

2. y=e − x 12. x=e t ( cos 2 t +2 sin 2t )

cos t −4 x
3. x=e 13. y=cos e
− cos2 t −2x
4. x=e 14. y=arctan e
− 2x −x
5. u=x e 15. y=arcsin e
2 − 2x cos3 x
6. u=x e 16. y=10
2
7. y=ln ( e +2 ) 17. x=10
2x 2t

8. y=ln ( 5 − e 4 x ) 18. y =sec 2 ( 1 −e − x )

1
9. r=e cos 2θ 19. y=( 5 −2 e )
−θ −3 x 2

−2 θ − 3 −2 x
10. r=e sin 3 θ 20. y=x e

9.10 Variable with Variable Exponent

Let
y=u v ( u> 0 )

where both u and v are function of x .

While it is easy to develop the general formula for the derivative of this function, it is simpler not to
use the formula but to take the logarithm of both members before differentiating.

Example. Differentiate y=x x.

Solution:
ln y=x ln x
y'
=1+ ln x
y
y ' = y ( 1+ ln x )=x x (1+ ln x )

Exercises.
Find the first derivative of the given function.
x
e
1. y=x
2
x
2. y=x
 x
x
3. y=e
x
4. y= ( ln x )
ln x
5. y=x
10. Indeterminate Forms
10.1 Rolle’s Theorem
Consider a curve
( 1 ) y=f (x)
Which cuts the x −axis at x=a and x=b . That is, f ( a )=0 and f ( b )=0 . If f ( x) is continuous over the
closed interval a ≤ x ≤ b.
Theorem 10.1 If f ( x) is continuous over the closed interval