108

Lesson 5
5.1 Exponentials and Logarithms
In this section we establish the following important properties of natural logarithms.
x
ln ax = ln a + ln x ...... (5.1a) ln = ln x − ln a ..... (5.1b) ln x n = n ln x ........ (5.1c)
a
These properties hold provided x and a are positive. We also add the restriction that the exponent n
be a rational number.
dy 1
We use the fact that y = ln x satisfies the differential equation = for all x > 0 plus the
dx x
fact that if two functions have the same derivative, then the two functions can differ only by a
constant.
To prove Eq. (5.1a), we notice that ln a x and ln x have the same derivative for all positive
values of x.
d 1 d a 1 d
ln ax = ax = = = ln x
dx ax d x ax x dx
Therefore, ln ax = ln x + C
for some constant C. We can find the value of C by setting x equal to1.
ln a = ln 1 + C = 0 + C = C
⇒ ln a x = ln x + ln a (Eq. (5.1a)

To prove Eq. (5.1b), we first put x = 1 a in Eq. (5.1a) and recall that ln 1 = 0 .

 1 1 1
0 = ln1 = ln  a ⋅  = ln a + ln   ⇒ ln   = − ln a
 a a a
We now apply Eq. (5.1a) with a replaced by 1 a and ln a replaced by ln (1 a ) = − ln a .

x  1 1
ln = ln  x ⋅  = ln x + ln   = ln x − ln a (Eq. (5.1b)
a  a a

To prove Eq. (5.1c), we notice that ln x n and n ln x have the same derivative for all positive
values of x.
 109

d 1 d n 1 d
ln x n = n ⋅ ( x ) = n ⋅ nx n −1 = n = (n ln x) ⇒ ln x n = n ln x + C
dx x dx x dx

By taking x = 1 , we find that C = 0 . ⇒ ln x n = n ln x (Eq. (4.1b)

As shown in the example below, to calculate derivatives of logarithms of products, quotients and
powers of functions we can use arithmetic properties in Eq. (5.1a), (5.1b) and (5.1c).

x x+5
EXAMPLE 1 Find d y d x if y = ln .
( x − 1)3

Solution By applying Eq.(5.1a), (5.1b) and (5.1c), we find that

x x+5
y = ln = ln x x + 5 − ln ( x − 1)3 (from Eq. (5.1b)
( x − 1) 3

= ln x + ln( x + 5)1 2 − ln ( x − 1)3 (from Eq. (5.1a)

1
= ln x + ln( x + 5 ) − 3ln ( x − 1) (from Eq. (5.1c)
2
dy 1 1 1 1
= + −3 //
dx x 2 ( x + 5) ( x − 1)

The derivative of a function given by a complicated equation can sometimes be calculated more
quickly, if we take the logarithm of both sides of the equation before differentiating. The process
is called logarithmic differentiation, and is illustrated in the next example.

cos x π
EXAMPLE 2 Find d y d x if y = 2
, 0≤x≤ .
x sin x 2
Solution Take logarithm of both sides of the equation and use the properties in Eq. (5.1a – c).

cos x 1
y = 2
= ln cos x − ln( x 2 sin x) = ln cos x − 2 ln x − ln sin x
x sin x 2
Then, take the derivative of both sides, using implicit differentiation on the left.
1 d y 1 − sin x 2 cos x
= − −
y d x 2 cos x x sin x
 110

dy  1 − sin x 2 cos x 
Finally, solve for d y d x , = y − − .
dx  2 cos x x sin x 

5.1.1 The graph of y = ln x

dy 1
The slope of the curve y = ln x is given by = , which is positive for all x > 0 . Therefore
dx x
the graph of y = ln x steadily rises from left to right. Since the derivative is continuous, the
function ln x itself is continuous.

d2 y 1
The second derivative 2
= − 2 , is always negative, so the graph is always concave down. The
dx x

curve passes through the point (1, 0), since ln 1 = 0 . That means, at this point, the curve makes an
angle of 45° with the x-axis (if equal units are used on the x- and y-axes). As x approaches zero
through positive values, d y d x = 1 x tends to plus infinity (the curve makes an angle of 90°
with the x-axis). At other x-values, the corresponding y-values and the slope of the curve can be
dy 1
found by substituting the particular x-values in the relations y = ln x and = . As x → ∞ ,
dx x
ln x → ∞ and hence, ln x increases without limit as x does. Using the gathered information, the
graph of y = ln x can be plotted and it is given in Fig. 5.1.

Fig. 5.1: The graph of y = ln x .

 111

5.1.2 The exponential Function e x

We now come to the inverse of the function y = ln x , a function that appears so often in
mathematics and its applications. Since ln 2 = 0.69315 is less than 1 and ln 4 = 1.38630 is greater
than 1, according to the intermediate value theorem, there is a number between 2 and 4 whose
logarithm is equal to 1. Since ln x is a one-to-one function, there is only one such number and it is
denoted by the letter e . Thus,

e = ln −1 1 and ln e = 1 , ............ (5.2)

and the value of e has been calculated as e = 2.718281828459045 . . . . . .

When x is a rational number, we can define e x the way we define the rational powers of any other
positive number. For these powers of e , we have
ln e x = x ln e = x ⋅1 = x ............ (5.3)

That is, when x is rational, e x is the number whose natural logarithm is x. In symbols,

e x = ln −1 x , x rational .............. (5.4)

Equation (5.4) says that the functions e x and ln−1 x are the same function when restricted to

rational values of x. Although e x has been defined only for rational values of x so far, the function

ln−1 x has been defined for all values of x, irrational as well as rational. We can therefore use the
formula e x = ln −1 x to define e x for the values of x. The function y = e x is called the exponential

function with base e and exponent x. An alternate notation for e x is exp(x).

The graph of y = e x is the same as the graph of x = ln y . Therefore, the graph of y = e x may be
obtained by reflecting the graph of y = ln x across the line y = x . We see that the graph crosses the
lim lim x
y-axis at y = e0 = 1 , that e x = 0 and that e = ∞ . The graph of y = e x is given in
x→− ∞ x→∞
Fig. 5.2.
Because y = e x and y = ln x are inverses of one another,

eln x = x for all x > 0

and

ln e x = x for all x
 112

Fig. 5.2: The graph of y = ln x and its inverse y = e x .

1
EXAMPLE 3 (a) ln e2 = 2 (b) ln e −1 = − 1 (c) ln e = (d) eln 2 = 2
2

+1) e2 x
(f) ln esin x = sin x = ln e2 x − ln 5 = 2 x − ln 5
2
(e) e ln( x = x2 + 1 (g) ln
5
EXAMPLE 4 Solve for y.

(a) ln y = x 2
2 2
⇒ e ln y = e ( x )
⇒ y = e ( x ) //

1
(b) e3 y = 2 + cos x ⇒ 3 y = ln(2 + cos x) ⇒ y = ln(2 + cos x ) //
3
y −1 y −1
(c) ln( y − 1) − ln y = 3x ⇒ ln = 3x ⇒ = e3 x
y y
1
⇒ y= //
1 − e3 x
Some useful operating rules with regard to logarithms and exponentials can be given as follows.
To remove logarithms from an equation, exponentiate both sides. To remove exponentials, take
the logarithm of both sides.
1
Also it can be proven the relations that (i) e x1 ⋅ e x2 = e x1 + x2 and (ii) e − x = .
ex
 113

EXAMPLE 5 Using the above relations, simplify: (a) eln 2 + 3ln x and (b) e2 x − ln x .

(a) e ln 2 + 3ln x = e ln 2 ⋅ e3ln x = 2 ⋅ e ln x = 2 x 3 //

3

e2 x e2 x
(b) e 2 x − ln x = e 2 x ⋅ e − ln x = = //
eln x x

5.1.3 The derivative and Integration of y = e x

The function y = e x is differentiable because it is the inverse of a differentiable function whose

derivative is never zero. To find the derivative of y = e x we take the logarithm of both sides and
differentiate implicitly with respect to x.

1 dy dy d ex
y = ex ⇒ ln y = x ⇒ = 1 or =y ⇒ = ex
y dx dx dx

From the fact that the derivative of e x is positive for positive x values, we can conclude that

y = e x is an increasing function of x.

When u is a differentiable function of x, a formula for the derivative of eu can be obtained by

applying the chain rule as follows.

d eu d eu d u du
= ⋅ = eu
dx du d x dx
This in turn leads to the integration formula

∫e d u = eu + C
u

d esin x d
EXAMPLE 6 = esin x ⋅ (sin x) = esin x cos x
dx dx
−1
1
e tan x
EXAMPLE 7 Evaluate ∫ dx.
0 1+ x
2

1 π
Solution We substitute u = tan −1 x, du = d x, 0 = tan −1 0, = tan −1 1
1 + x2 4
−1 π 4
1
e tan x π 4
Then, ∫ dx = ∫ e du = e
u u
= eπ 4 − 1 //
0 1 + x 2
0
0
 114

dy
EXAMPLE 7 Evaluate = 2 x e− y , x > 3 , subject to the condition that y = 0 when
dx

x = 2.

Solution We separate the variables in the given equation by multiplying both sides by e y to
dy
obtain e y = 2 x . Then, by integrating both sides with respect to x, we obtain
dx

e y = x 2 + C . By using the given condition that y = 0 when x = 2 , we find a

suitable value for C: C = − 3 .

e y = x2 − 3 ⇒ ln e y = ln( x 2 − 3) ⇒ y = ln( x 2 − 3) //
If you have any doubt about this solution, it is always a good idea to substitute it
in the given differential equation and see if it satisfies the equation.

5.2 Applications of Exponential and Logarithmic Functions - Growth &

Decay
In this section, we present some of the applications of logarithmic and exponential functions that
account for their importance in science.

5.2.1 The law of Exponential Change

In many physical, biological, and economic phenomena, some quantity y grows or declines at a
rate that at any given time t is proportional to the amount that is present. This leads to the
equation
dy
= k y , ...................... (5.5)
dt
where k is a constant that is positive if y is increasing and negative if y is decreasing.

We solve equation (5.5) by integrating with respect to t as follows.

1 dy 1
= k ⇒ ∫ y d y = ∫ k dt ⇒ ln y = kt + C
y dt

y = e k t + C = e k t ⋅ eC = Ae k t , where A = eC
 115

If y0 denotes the value of y when t = 0 , then A = y0 . ⇒ y = y0 e k t . ............ (5.6)

This equation is called the law of exponential change. As applications of this law, we can consider
the examples given below.

EXAMPLE 8 The growth of a cell: In an ideal environment, the mass m of a cell will grow
exponentially, at least early on. If we make the assumption that, at each instant of
time, the cell’s growth rate d m d t is proportional to the mass that has already been
accumulated, then we have
dm
= km and hence m = m0 ek t …………. (5.7)
dt

EXAMPLE 9 Birth rates and population growth: Although the number of individuals in a
population is a discontinuous function of time, for a large enough number, it may be
described with a continuous and differentiable function. Assuming that the
proportion of reproducing individuals remains constant and assuming a constant
fertility, then at any instant t, the birth rate is proportional to the number y (t ) of
individuals present. Then, if we neglect departures, arrivals and deaths, the growth
rate d y dt will be the same as the birth rate. That means we have
dy
= ky and hence y = y0 ek t .
dt

5.2.2 Continuously Compounded Interest

If you have an amount A0 of money at a fixed annual interest rate r and interest is added to your
account k times a year. It turns out that the amount of money you will have at the end of t years
kt
 r
is At = A0 1 +  . The money might be added (compounded) monthly (k = 12), weekly (k =
 k
52), daily (k = 365), or even more frequently. But there is still a limit to how much you will earn
that way, and the limit is
kt
lim 
lim r
At = A0 1 +  = A0 ek t .
k →∞ k →∞  k
 116

The resulting formula for the amount of money in your account after t years is A(t ) = A0 ek t , and
this formula is called the continuous compound interest formula.

5.2.3 Radioactivity
The process of the emission of some of the mass of an atom as radiation, by reforming the
remainder into a new substance, is called radioactive decay and the element whose atoms go
through this process spontaneously is called radioactive.

Experiments have shown that at any given time the rate (the number of nuclei that change per
unit time) at which a radioactive element decays is approximately proportional to the number of
radioactive nuclei present. Thus, the decay of a radioactive element is described by the equation
d N dt = k N and the number of radioactive nuclei present at time t will be N = N0 ek t , where
N 0 is the number that were present at time zero. In this equation, the decay constant k is a
negative number whose value is a characteristic of the element that is decaying.

EXAMPLE 10 The half-life of a radioactive element: The half-life of a radioactive element is the
time required for half of the radioactive nuclei present in a sample to decay. The
half-life is a constant that does not depend on the number of radioactive nuclei
initially present in the sample.

Let N 0 be the number of radioactive nuclei initially present in the sample. Then

the number N present at any later time t will be N = N0 ekt . We want to find
the value of t such that
1 1
N0 ek t = N0 ⇒ ekt =
2 2
1 ln 2
⇒ kt = ln = − ln 2 ⇒ t = − …………… (5.8)
2 k
This value is the half-life of the element. As shown by the above relation, it
depends only on the value k and not on N 0 .
 117

5.2.4 Heat Transfer: Newton’s Law of Cooling

When any object whose temperature is higher than that of its surrounding medium, the
temperature of the object drops until it equals that of the surrounding medium and, the rate at
which the temperature of the object changes is roughly proportional to the difference between the
temperature of the object and that of the surrounding medium. This rule is called the Newton’s
law of cooling, although it applies to warming as well.
If T (t ) is the temperature of the object at time t, and Ts is the surrounding temperature, then

dT
= k (T − Ts ) .
dt

Since Ts is constant, this is the same as d y dt = k y with y = (T − Ts ) . Hence the solution to the
above equation is

(T − Ts ) = (T0 − Ts ) e k t , ……….. (5.9)

where T0 is the value of T at time zero.

EXAMPLE 10 A hard-boiled egg at 98 °C is put in a sink of 18 °C water to cool. After 5 minutes

the egg’s temperature is found to be 38 °C. Assuming that the water has not warmed
appreciably, how much longer will it take the egg to reach 20 °C?
Solution We find how long it would take the egg to cool down from 98 °C to 20 °C and
subtract the 5 minutes that have elapsed. According to Eq. (4.8), the egg’s
temperature t after it is put in the sink is

T − 18 = (98 − 18) e k t ⇒ T = 18 + 80 ekt

To find k, we use the information that T = 38 when t = 5 . This gives
1 1
38 = 18 + 80 e5k ⇒ e5 k = ⇒ 5k = ln = − ln 4
4 4
⇒ k = − 0.28

The egg’s temperature at time t is T = 18 + 80 e−0.28t .

The time at which T = 20 is given by 20 = 18 + 80 e−0.28t

1 ln 40
⇒ −0.28t = ln = − ln 40 ⇒ t= − = 13 mins.
40 0.28
 118

Since the egg took 5 mins to reach 38 °C, it will take 8 mins more to reach 20 °C.

5.2.5 The R-L Circuit

Fig. 5.3: The R-L circuit.

Fig. 5.3 shows an electrical circuit whose total resistance is R ohms and whose self-inductance
(shown as a coil) is L henries. The switch whose terminals are at a and b connects a constant
electrical source of V volts, when closed.
The Ohm’s law, V = I R , has to be modified for such a circuit, to be given in the form
di
L + R i = V , ……….. (5.10)
dt
where i is the current in amperes and t is the time in seconds. From this equation it is possible to
predict how the current will flow after the switch is closed.

EXAMPLE 11 The switch in the R-L circuit in Fig 4.3 is closed at time t = 0 . How will the current
flow as a function of time?
Solution We solve Eq. (5.10) for i under the assumption that t = 0 when i = 0 .
di di 1
L + Ri = V ⇒ = dt (variable separation)
dt V − Ri L

1
− du
1
R = dt (Substitute u = V − R i ⇒ du = − R d i )
u L
du R R
= − dt ⇒ ln u = − t+C ⇒ u = ± e−( Rt L) + C
u L L

u = Ae − ( R t L)
⇒ V − Ri = Ae−( Rt L)
(Write A = ± eC )
 119

To find A, we use the condition that t = 0 when i = 0 .

V − R (0) = Ae−( R (0) L)

⇒ V= A

The equation for the current is V − Ri = Ve−( R t L)

or i =
V
R
(
1 − e− R t L
) //
We see from this that the current is always less than V R but it approaches V R
as a steady-state value.
lim V
t →∞ R
(
1 − e− R t L
) = VR (1 − 0) = VR .
The current I = V R is the current that will flow in the circuit if either L = 0 (no

inductance) or di dt = 0 (steady current, i = constant). The graph of the current

versus time relation is shown in Fig. 5.4

Fig.: 5.4: Growth of current in an R-L circuit.

5.3 Hyperbolic Functions

Some combinations of e x and e− x arise so frequently in formulating the solutions of differential
equations in physics and engineering and these combinations are called hyperbolic functions.
They are used to describe the motions of waves in elastic solids, the shapes of electrical power
lines, temperature distributions in metal fins that cool hot pipes, etc.

5.3.1 Definitions and Identities

 120

The hyperbolic sine (often read as ‘shine’) and hyperbolic cosine (often read as ‘kosh’) are
defined by the following equati
equations:

1 u
Hyperbolic sine of u : sinh u = (e − e − u )
2 ………. (5.11)
(
1 u −u
Hyperbolic cosine of u : cosh u = (e + e )
2

The hyperbolic sine and cosine are related to each other by rules very much like the rules that relate the
functions cos u and sin u . Just as cos u and sin u may be identified with the point ( x, y) on the unit

circle x + y = 1 , the functions cosh u and sinh u may be identified with the coordinates of a point
2 2
poi

( x, y ) on the unit hyperbola x 2 − y 2 = 1 . To verify this fact, we can substitute x = cosh u and

y = sinh u in the relation x 2 − y 2 = 1 and see that they satisfy it.

1 u 1
If we let x = cosh u = (e + e − u ) and y = sinh u = (eu − e − u ) , then for all real values of u
2 2
such that − ∞ < u < ∞ , x remains positive and hence the point P( x, y ) describes the right-hand
right
branch of the hyperbola. If we let x = − cosh u and y = sinh u , then for all real values of u such
that − ∞ < u < ∞ , x remains negative and hence the point P( x, y) describes the left-hand
branch of the hyperbola (see Fig
Fig. 5.5).

As the first relation in hyperbolic trigonometry, we have established the basic identity

cosh 2 u − sinh 2 u = 1 …………. (5.12)

and this is somewhat analogous to the ordinary trigonometric identity, cos2 u + sin 2 u = 1 .
 121

Fig. 5.5: The point P (cosh u , sinh u ) lies on the right-hand branch of the hyperbola, while the
point P(− cosh u, sinh u ) lies on the left-hand branch of the hyperbola (not shown).

The remaining hyperbolic functions are defined in terms of sinh u and cosh u as follows.

sinh u e u − e − u
Hyperbolic tangent of u : tanh u = =
cosh u e u + e − u
cosh u e u + e − u
Hyperbolic cotangent of u : coth u = =
sinh u e u − e − u ………. (5.13)
1 2
Hyperbolic secant of u : sech u = = u
cosh u e + e − u
1 2
Hyperbolic cosecant of u : csch u = = u
sinh u e − e − u

If we divide the identity cosh 2 u − sinh 2 u = 1 by cosh 2 u , we get

1 − tanh 2 u = sec h2u …………. (5.14)

If we divide the identity cosh 2 u − sinh 2 u = 1 by sinh 2 u , we get

coth 2 u − 1 = csch 2 u …………. (4.15)

From the definitions of cosh u and sinh u in Eq. (5.11), we also find that

cosh u + sinh u = eu …………. (5.16)

cosh u − sinh u = e−u ..……… (5.17)

Thus, any combination of eu and e−u can be replaced by a combination of sinh u and cosh u ,

and conversely. Since e−u is positive, the equation cosh u − sinh u = e−u shows that cosh u is

always greater than sinh u . For large positive values of u, however, e−u is small and cosh u is
approximately equal to sinh u . The graphs of the hyperbolic functions are shown in Fig 4.6.
 122

Fig. 5.6: The graphs of the six hyperbolic functions.

5.3.2 Comparisons with the Trigonometric Functions

Since cosh 0 = 1 and sinh 0 = 0 , the hyperbolic functions (all six of them) have the same values
at zero that the corresponding trigonometric functions have.
The hyperbolic cosine is an even function because
1 −x 1
cosh ( − x ) = (e + e − ( − x ) ) = (e − x + e x ) = cosh x for all x.
2 2
The hyperbolic sine is an odd function because
1 −x 1
sinh (− x ) = (e − e − ( − x ) ) = (e − x − e x ) = − sinh x for all x.
2 2
Thus, the graph of y = cosh x is symmetric about the y-axis and the graph of y = sinh x is
symmetric about the origin. Here again, the hyperbolic functions behave like their trigonometric
 123

counterparts. However, there are major differences between hyperbolic and trigonometric
functions. The trigonometric functions are periodic while the hyperbolic functions are not. The
ranges of hyperbolic and trigonometric functions are also very different as shown below.

Range of Trigonometric Function Range of Hyperbolic Function

sin x oscillates between −1 and +1. sinh x increases steadily from −∞ to +∞ .

cos x oscillates between −1 and +1. cosh x varies from +∞ to 1 to +∞ .

sec x is never less than 1. sech x is never greater than 1 and is always positive.

tan x varies from −∞ to +∞ . tanh x varies from −1 to +1 .

Also, we can say nothing very specific about the behavior of the circular functions sin x , cos x ,

tan x , etc, as x → ±∞ . But, the hyperbolic functions behave very much like e x 2 , e − x 2 or the
constant functions zero and one.

For x large and positive For x negative, x large

1 x 1 −x
cosh x ≈ sinh x ≈ e cosh x ≈ − sinh x ≈ e
2 2
tanh x ≈ coth x ≈ 1 tanh x ≈ coth x ≈ − 1

sech x ≈ csch x ≈ 2e− x ≈ 0 sech x ≈ − csch x ≈ 2e x ≈ 0

Identities
Using some routine algebra, from the definition in (5.11), it is possible to produce identities
sinh ( x + y ) = sinh x cosh y + cosh x sinh y ………………….. (5.18a)
cosh ( x + y ) = cosh x cosh y + sinh x sinh y ………………….. (5.18b)
When we take x = y , these in turn give
sinh 2 x = 2sinh x cosh y …………….. (5.19a)

cosh 2 x = cosh 2 x + sinh 2 x …………….. (5.19b)

When we combine (5.19b) with the identity cosh 2 x − sinh 2 x = 1 , we get

 124

cosh 2 x + 1
cosh 2 x = ………… (5.20a)
2
cosh 2 x − 1
sinh 2 x = …………. (5.20b)
2

Derivatives and Integrals

The six hyperbolic functions are rational combinations of the differential function eu and so
have derivatives at every point at which they are defined. In this section, we find out what these
derivatives are and look at integrals that involve hyperbolic functions.
Let u be a differentiable function of x and differentiate
1 u 1 u
sinh u = (e − e −u ) cosh u = (e + e − u )
2 2
with respect to x. Applying the formulas

d eu du d e −u du
= eu , = − e−u
dx dx dx dx

d (sinh u ) du d (cosh u ) du
= cosh u = sinh u …………. (5.21)
dx dx dx dx

Then, if we differentiate
sinh u
y = tanh u =
cosh u
as fraction, we get
d (tanh u ) cosh u (d (sinh u ) d x ) − sinh u (d (cosh u ) d x) 1 du 2 du
= = = sech u
dx cosh 2 u cosh 2 u d x dx

In a similar manner, we may establish the other formulas in the following list.

d (tanh u ) du d (coth u ) du
= sech 2u , = − csch 2u
dx dx dx dx
………. (5.22)
d (sech u ) du d (csch u ) du
= − sech u tanh u , = − csch u coth u
dx dx dx dx
 125

In deriving the above formulas, we assumed that u is a differentiable function of x. In the case
d (sinh x) d (cosh x)
that u = x , du d x = 1 , we get = cosh x , = sinh x , ……………. , etc
dx dx

These derivative formulas produce the following integral formulas.

∫ sinh u du = cosh u + C , ∫ cosh u d u = sinh u + C

∫ sech u du = tanh u + C , ∫ csch u d u = − coth u + C
2 2
…… (5.23)

∫ sech u tanh u d u = − sech u + C, ∫ csch u coth u du = − csch u + C

EXAMPLE 12: Evaluate ∫ coth 5x d x .

cosh 5 x 1 du
∫ coth 5 x d x = ∫ sinh 5 x d x ,( u = sinh 5 x ⇒ du = 5cosh 5 x d x )
5∫ u
Solution =

1 1
= ln u + C = ln sinh 5 x + C //
5 5

1
EXAMPLE 13: Evaluate ∫ sinh 2 x d x .
0

1 1
cosh 2 x − 1  sinh 2 x x  1 sinh 2 1
∫ sinh x d x = ∫ dx =  −  = − = 0.40672 //
2
Solution
0 0
2  4 2  0 4 2

EXAMPLE 14: Evaluate ∫ x sinh x d x .

Solution In the integration-by-parts formula ∫ u d v = uv − ∫ v du ,
we take u = x, d v = sinh x d x ⇒ v = cosh x .

so that ∫ x sinh x d x = x cosh x − ∫ cosh x d x = x cosh x − sinh x + C //

ln 4

∫e
x
EXAMPLE 15: Evaluate sinh x d x .
0

Solution From the definition of sinh x , we have

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e x − e− x  e2 x x  ln 4
ln 4 ln 4 ln 4 2 x
e −1
∫ e sinh x d x = ∫ e ⋅ dx = ∫ dx =  − 
x x
2 2  4 2  0
0 0 0 

e2ln 4 ln 4 1 eln16 2 ln 2 1
= − − = − −
4 2 4 4 2 4
16 1 15
= − ln 2 − = − ln 2 //
4 4 4

EXAMPLE 16: Find the area of the infinite region in the first quadrant that lies between the curve
y = tanh x and the line y = 1.
Solution

Fig. 5.7: The area of the region between y = tanh x and y = 1 in the first quadrant
can be calculated with an improper integral.

The required area (shown in Fig 5.7) is given by the improper integral
∞ b
lim
∫ (1 − tanh x) d x = b→0 ∫ (1 − tanh x) d x
0 0

In terms of b, the integral on the right is

b b
 sinh x  b
∫ (1 − tanh x) d x = ∫ 1 −  d x = ( x − ln cosh x) 0 = b − ln cosh b
cosh x 
0 0

eb 2eb 2
= ln eb − ln cosh b = ln = ln b = ln
cosh b e + e −b 1 + e−2b
The value of the improper integral is therefore
∞
lim 2 2
∫ (1 − tanh x) d x = b → 0 ln 1 + e−2b = ln
1+ 0
= ln 2 //
0
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Problem - Set 1 (see Section 5.1.1)

In Problems 1 – 3, find d y d x

( x 2 + 1)5
1. y = ln x 2 + 5 2. y = ln 3 cos x 3. y = ln
1− x

In Problems 4 – 9, find d y d x by logarithmic differentiation.

x −1 ( x + 1)5
4. y 2 = x( x + 1), x > 0 5. y = ln , x >1 6. y 5 = ln
x +1 ( x + 2)10

sin x cos x ( x 2 + 1)(3 x + 4)1 2 x5 tan −1 x

7. y 4 5 = 8. y 2 3 = 9. y =
1 + 2 ln x 5
2x − 4 (3 − 2 x ) 3 x
Evaluate the integrals in Problems 10 – 15.
1 π 2 π 3
dx sec x tan x
10. ∫ x+3 11. ∫ cot x d x 12. ∫ 2 + sec x
dx
−1 π 4 0

35 3 35
xdx dx xdx
13. ∫ 1 − x2
14. ∫ 15. ∫
−1 (2 x + 3)
2
0 0 1 − x2

16. (a) Find the area of the region in the first quadrant bounded by the x-axis, the curve y = tan x ,

and the line π 3 .

(b) Find the volume of the solid generated by revolving the region (a) about the x-axis.

17. The region bounded by the curve y = 1 x , the x-axis and the lines x = 1 2 and x = 4 is
revolved about the x-axis to generate a solid. Find the volume of the solid.

Problem - Set 2 (see Section 5.1.2)

Simplify the expressions in Problems 1 - 5.

1. ln( e − x ) 3. ln(e x − 4. ln( x 2 e−2 x ) 5. eln x − 2 ln y

2
x2
2. ln(1 e x ) )

Problems 6 - 9, solve for y.

= x2 7. e ( x ) ⋅ e (2 x +1) = e y 8. ln( y − 1) = x + ln x 9. ln( y − 2) = ln(sin x ) − x

2
y
6. e
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Find d y d x in Problems 10 - 15.

ex
10. y = e3x 11. y = x 2 e x 12. y = ln 13. y = x 2 e − x
2

1+ ex
14. y = (9 x 2 − 6 x + 2)e3 x 15. y = x3e−2 x cos 5 x

Evaluate the integrals in Problems 16 - 22.

ln 5 1 π 1
ex d x
∫ e cos x d x ∫ 1 + ex
2

∫ ∫
sin x
16. e2 x d x 17. xe x d x 18. 19.
ln 3 −1 0 0

0 ln 2 4
−x ex d x e x
dx
20. ∫ e dx 21. ∫ 1 + e2 x
(Take u = e x ) 22. ∫ x
(Take u = x )
− ln( a +1) 0 1

23. The region between the curve y = e− x and the x-axis from x = 0 to x = ln10 is revolved about
the x-axis to generate a solid. Find the volume of the solid.

24. (a) Show that y = Ce a x is a solution of the differential equation d y d x = a y for any choice
of the constant C.
(b) Using the result of (a), find a solution of the differential equation d y dt = − 2 y satisfying
the initial condition y = 3 when t = 0 .

25. Find the value of the constant r for which y = er x is a solution of the differential equation
y ′′ − 4 y ′ + 4 y = 0 .

Problem-Set 3 (see Sections 5.2.1 - 5.2.5)

1. Growth of bacteria: A colony of bacteria is grown under ideal conditions in a laboratory so
that the population increases exponentially with time. At the end of 3 hours there are 10,000
bacteria. At the end of 5 hours there are 40,000. How many bacteria were present initially?

2. The increase of a disease: In the course of any given year, the number y of cases of a disease
is reduced by 10%. If there are 10,000 cases today, about how many years will it take to
reduce the number of cases to less than 1000?
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3. Suppose you deposit Rs. 621 in a bank account that pays 6% compounded continuously. How
much money will you have in the account 8 years later?

4. Atmospheric pressure: The earth’s atmospheric pressure p is often modeled by assuming that
the rate d p dt at which p changes with the altitude h above sea level is proportional to p.
Suppose that the pressure at sea level is 1013 millibars and that the pressure an altitude of 30
km is 50 millibars. (a) Solve the equation d p dt = k p (k is a constant) to express p in terms
of h. Determine the values of k and the constant of integration from the given initial
conditions. (b) What is the atmospheric pressure at h = 50 km ? (c) At what altitude is the
pressure equal to 900 millibars?

5. Discharging capacitor: As a result of leakage, an electrical capacitor discharges at a rate

proportional to the charge. If the charge Q has the value Q0 at time t = 0 , find Q as a
function of t.

6. Carbon 14 dating: In a living organism, the ratio of radioactive carbon, carbon-14, to ordinary
carbon stays fairly constant during the lifetime of the organism, being approximately equal to
the ratio in the organism’s surrounding at the time. After the organism’s death, however, no
new carbon is ingested, and the proportion of carbon-14 in the organism’s remains decreases
as the carbon-14 decays. Since the half-life of carbon-14 is known to be about 5700 years, it
is possible to estimate the age of organic remains by comparing the proportion of carbon-14
they contain with the proportion assumed to have been in the organism’s environment at the
time it lived. Archeologists have dated shells (which contain CaCo3), seeds and wooden
artifacts this way. The estimate of 15,500 years for the age of the cave paintings at Lascaux,
France, is based on carbon-14 dating. (a) Find k in Eq. (5.8) for carbon-14. (b) What is the
age of a sample of charcoal in which 90% of the carbon-14 has decayed? (c) The charcoal
from a tree killed in a volcanic eruption that contained 44½% of the carbon-14 found in
living matter. What is the age of charcoal?

7. Polonium: The half-life of polonium is 140 days, your sample will not be useful to you after
90% of the radioactive nuclei originally present have disintegrated. About how many days
can you use the polonium?
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8. Cooling cocoa: Suppose that a cup of cocoa cooled from 90 oC to 60 oC after 10 minute in a

room whose temperature was 20 oC . Use Newton’s law of cooling to answer the following

questions. (a) How much longer would it take the cocoa to cool down to 35 oC ? (b) Instead

of being left to stand in the room, the cup of 90 oC cocoa is put in a freezer whose

temperature is −15 oC . How long will it take the cocoa to cool from 90 oC to 35 oC ?

9. Body of unknown temperature: A body of unknown temperature was placed in a room that

was held at 30 oF . After 10 minutes, the body’s temperature was 0 oF . And 20 minutes after

the body was placed in the room the body’s temperature was 15 oF . Use the Newton’s law of
cooling to estimate the body’s initial temperature.

10. If there is a steady current in an R-L circuit and the switch in Fig. 5.3 is thrown open, the
decaying current obeys the equation L (d i d t ) + R i = 0 . (a) Solve this equation for i. (b)
How long after the switch is thrown will it take the current to decay to its original value? (c)
What is the value of the current when t = L R ? (This value of t is called the time constant of
the open circuit.)

Problem - Set 4 (see Section 5.3.1)

Problems 1 - 3 give the value of one of the six hyperbolic functions of u. Use the definitions and
identities given in the notes to determine the values of the remaining five hyperbolic functions.
3 7 3
1. sinh u = − 2. tanh u = − 3. sech u =
4 25 5
Rewrite the expressions in Problems 4 - 7 in terms of exponentials. Write the final results as
simply as you can.
4. 2 cosh (ln x ) 5. cosh 5 x + sinh 5 x 6. (sinh x + cosh x ) 4
In Problems 7 and 8, solve the given equation for x.
1 3
7. cosh x = sinh x + 8. tanh x =
2 5
Use the identities in Eq. (4.17a) and (4.17b) to verify the identities in Problems 9 and 10.
9. sinh ( x − y ) = sinh x cosh y − cosh x sinh y
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10. cosh ( x − y ) = cosh x cosh y − sinh x sinh y

Use the identities in Eq. (17a) and (17b) and in Problems 9 and 10 to verify the identies in
Problems 11 and 12.
11. sinh 3 x = sinh 3 x + 3 cosh 2 x sinh x = 3sinh x + 4 sinh 3 x

12. cosh 3 x = cosh x + 4 sinh 2 x cosh x = 4 cosh 3 x − 3 cosh x

13. Show that sinh 2 u − sinh 2 v = cosh 2 u − cosh 2 v .

14. Show that the equations x = − cosh u , y = sinh u , − ∞ < u < ∞ , are parametric equations

for the left-hand branch of the hyperbola x 2 − y 2 = 1 .

Problems- Set 5 (see Section 5.3.2)

Find d y d x in Problems 1 – 3.

1. y = cosh 2 5 x − sinh 2 5 x 2. sinh y = tan x 3. y = sin −1 (tanh x)

4. Show that ∫ sech x d x = sin −1 (tanh x ) + C .

Evaluate the integrals in Problems 5 – 10.

1 π 12
sinh x
5. ∫ cosh 5x d x 6. ∫ tanh 2x d x 7. ∫ ex
dx
−1 −π 0

1 2 1
cosh(ln x)
8. ∫ sinh x d x 9. ∫ dx 10. ∫ x cosh x d x
0 1
x 0

Evaluate the integrals in Problems 11 – 15.

sinh x sinh x
11. ∫ cosh 4 x d x 12. ∫ 2 cosh x sinh x d x 13. ∫ dx
x

1 − e−2 x
ln 2
14. ∫ csch x coth x d x
2
15. ∫ 1 + e−2 x d x (multiply the numerator and denominator of
0
x
the integrand by e ).