Geothermal Systems 5 demonstrated that Larderello shows many characte (conductive) system in steady state. ics more typical of a static Low - temperature systems: Low-temperature (also called low-enthalpy) systems can occur in a variety of geological settings of both elevated and normal heat flow. Deep fluid circulation through faults or folded permeable strata, tectonic uplift of hotter rocks from depth and the residual heat from intruded plutons can all yield low- temperature fields. ‘These are found throughout Europe and Asia, and along some areas of Tertiary vulcanism in the Pacific. ‘The structure of low-temperature systems is not illustrated as no idealised model can be developed given the varied origins of these types of system. ‘They usually discharge dilute waters, with total dissolved solids concentrations of around 1000mg/kg or less, through warm springs at ~30- 65°C. Many such springs deposit minerals of retrograde solubility (calcite, gypsum) with only minor or no silica deposition. The composition of the waters will depend on the relative contributions of formation waters and meteoric waters to the discharge features. Waters held in limestone and other carbonate-rich reservoir lithologies will be bicarbonate-rich, possibly with low chloride concentration. Waters from reservoirs composed of marine clastic sediments, especially shales, often have high concentrations of chloride, boron and carbon dioxide. Static (conductive) systems Static systems are characteristically found in strata deposited in deep sedimentary basins. The fluids are derived from the formation waters trapped within the thick sedimentary sequences. ‘These waters attain reservoir temperatures of around 70-150°C at depths of 2-4km, and are therefore low-temperature systems. The fluids are typically very saline chloride waters or brines, which remain trapped, as the vertical permeability is low within the formations until released tectonically or by drilling. Examples of such fields have been reported from Eastern Europe, USSR and Australia. Within this category can be included the geopressurised system (eg. Gulf of Mexico, USA). Such systems are found at depths of ~3-7km and consist of permeable sedimentary rocks, contained within impermeable, low-conductivity strata (eg. shale). Under these conditions the heat and fluids within the permeable strata cannot be expelled on compaction, as would normally occur, and are therefore trapped within the system. The pore fluids actually bear a proportion of the pressure of the overlying lithologies, and the fluid pressure therefore approaches lithostatic