8 Geothermal Fluids independently of the liquid phase and discharge as fumaroles. Alternatively, the vapours may dissolve in groundwaters or condense in the cooler ground to form steam-heated, acid sulphate and/or bicarbonate waters. The conceptual structure of geothermal systems, and the inter-relationship of the fluid types, is discussed in Section 1.3 and illustrated in Figures 1.4-1.6. Evolution of steam: boiling point-depth relations ‘As a geothermal fluid ascends towards the surface, the pressure imposed upon it by the overlying column of water (hydrostatic pressure) will decrease. Eventually, the pressure will drop to a level which permits the dissolved gases and steam to separate from the liquid phase. This phase separation is commonly referred to as "boiling". It is one of the most important processes controlling the chemistry of liquid and vapour (ie. water and steam) discharges. Enthalpy-temperature and enthalpy-temperature-pressure-density relationships are shown in Figs 1.1 and 1.2, which summarise the data presented in steam tables (Appendix 1). ‘The relationship between boiling point and depth has been described by Haas (1971) and is illustrated in Fig. 1.3. The curve indicates the maximum temperature a fluid can attain at any given depth (or pressure), and therefore shows the depth at which a reservoir fluid at a given temperature wi From this depth the boiling, or two-phase zone, can extend upwards towards the surface. The curve assumes that only hydrostatic pressure acts upon the fluid. In practice however, it has been found that hydrodynamic pressures exist at depth in a commence boiling. geothermal system at about 10% above hydrostatic. This excess pressure is necessary to maintain flow through the system. It is created by the buoyancy of hot water relative to cold water recharge and by a hydrostatic head in recharge waters from areas of greater relief (Grant et al., 1982; Henley, 1985). This means that higher temperatures can exist at shallower depths than indicated by the curve, and therefore that boiling will occur at shallower depths. ‘The relationship shown in Fig. 1.3 is for pure water. An increase in the salinity of water lowers the vapour pressure of water, raises the curve and prevents boiling until shallower depths are attained (Sutton and McNabb, 1977). However, for most geothermal systems, the fluids are dilute and small changes in salinity will not significantly alter the boiling point-depth profile of the system. More significant however, is the gas content of the fluid. The presence of several wt% gas in the fluid will depress the isotherm: a system below the usual boiling point-depth curve.