S moke Move me ntin Buildings

J . H. Mc G U IR E , S FP E
Divis ion of Building R e s e arch
National R e s e archCouncil (Canada)

S moke is a ma jo r kille r o f building occupa nts in time s o f fire .

Ho w doe s it s pre a d th ro u g h o u t a building a n d re a ch u n te n a b le
a c c u m u la tio n s be fore te m p e ra tu re s be come d a n g e ro u s ly high?
In this , th e firs t o f two a rticle s , th e a u th o r dis cus s e sth e move -
m e n t o f s moke . In th e s e cond,he will de a l with m e th o d sfor con-
trolling th e m o ve m e n tof s moke in buildings .

T
H E s m o ke g e n e ra te d b y fire s in b u ild in g s fre q u e n tly c re a te s g re a te r
p ro b le m s fo r o c c u p a n tsa tte m p tin g to e s ca pe ,a n d fo r fire fig h te rs , th a n
d o e s th e h e a t. E ye irrita tio n a n d re d u c e d vis ib ility c a u s e d b y s m o ke c a n
m a ke it im p o s s ib le to s e e , s o th a t, in o th e rwis e fa m ilia r c irc u m s ta n c e s ,a n
o c c u p a n t o f a b u ild in g m a y be u n a b le to lo c a te e s c a p e ro u te s a n d e xits .
Th e to xic c o m p o n e n tso f s m o ke , c o m b in e d with re d u c e d o xyg e n c o n te n t
o f th e a tm o s p h e re ,c a n o fte n p ro ve fa ta l, e ve n in re g io n s wh e re e xce s s ive
te m p e ra tu re s h a ve n o t d e ve lo p e d . S ta tis tic s o f fire d e a th s in O n ta rio
in d ic a te~ t h a t a t le a s t h a lf th e d e a th s re s u lt fro m a s p h yxia o r c a rb o n m o n -
o xid e p o is o n in g ra th e r th a n fro m b u rn s o r o th e r te m p e ra tu re e ffe cts . In
fa c t, th e p ro p o rtio n is p ro b a b ly h ig h e r. Wh e n in d ivid u a ls h a ve b e e n b a d ly
b u rn e d , it is n o t u n like ly t h a t th e c a u s e o f d e a th will be re c o rd e d a s a s s o-
c ia te d with b u rn s , a lth o u g h in re a lity it m ig h t h a ve b e e n th e re s u lt o f
a s p h yxia o r s o m e to xic c o m p o n e n tin th e a tm o s p h e re .
Th e fire fig h te r c a n a vo id to xic g a s a n d irrita tio n p ro b le m s b y we a rin g
b re a th in g a p p a ra tu s . His e ffic ie n c y is o fte n im p a ire d , h o we ve r, b y his
in a b ility to s e e o n c e h e is in a s m o ke -fille d b u ild in g ; a n d h e will o fte n be
u n a b le , fo r e xa mple ,"to lo c a te th e o rig in o f th e fire . Th e m a g n itu d e o f th is
p ro b le m is illu s tra te d b y th e fa c t t h a t fire m e n o fte n m a ke h ig h -le ve l o p e n -
in g s in b u ild in g s to in d u c e a ir flow th ro u g h low-le ve l in le ts , th e re b y im-
p ro vin g vis ib ility n e a r th e in le ts . Th e fire fig h te r's p ro b le m s , h o we ve r, a re

NOTE: This pa pe r is a contribution from the Divis ion of Building Re s e a rch,Na -

tiona l Re s e a rchCouncilof Ca na da ,a nd is publis he dwith the a pprova l of the Dire ctor
of the Divis ion.
163
164 Fire Te c hno lo g y
u s u a lly c o n s id e re dle s s im p o rta n t th a n th e e s ca pep ro b le m s s m o ke c re a te s
fo r th e o c c u p a n tso f a building.

ME C H AN IS M OF S MO KE MO VE ME N T
S o fa r a s m o ve m e n tis c o n c e rn e d ,s m o ky a n d n o rm a l a tm o s p h e re sa re
virtu a lly indis tinguis ha ble . Th e p rin c ip a l c o n s titu e n to f b o th is n itro g e n ,
a n d a lth o u g h th e o xyg e n a n d c a rb o n dioxide c o n te n tsm a y diffe r b y a b o u t
10 p e r c e n t, th is will n o t s u b s ta n tia llya ffe c t th e p h ys ic a lp ro p e rtie s o f th e
a tm o s p h e re . Th e p ro p e rtie s o f th e p a rtic u la te s m o ke c o m p o n e n t diffe r
m a rke d ly fro m th o s e of, s a y, n itro g e n ; b u t th e c o n c e n tra tio nwill n o t b e
s ufficie nt to influe nce th e ove r-a ll m o ve m e n to f th e a tm o s p h e re e ve n a t
le ve ls th a t re d u c e vis ibility to virtu a lly ze ro. Th e m e c h a n is m sto be dis -
cus s e d a re n o t, th e re fo re , u n iq u e ly re la te d to th e m o ve m e n to f a s m o ky
a tm o s p h e rea s d is tin c t fro m a ir.
P re s s u re diffe re ntia ls a s s ocia te dwith winds , blowe rs , fa ns , a n d m e -
c h a n ic a lve n tila tio n s ys te m swill c o n trib u te to s m o ke m o ve m e n t;h o we ve r,
te m p e ra tu red iffe re n tia ls a n d va ria tio n s a re u s u a lly e ve n m o re im p o rta n t
fa ctors . In th e im m e d ia tea re a o f a d e ve lo p in gfire , th e c o n tin u o u s in c re a s e
in te m p e ra tu reca us e sth e fa m ilia r e xp a n s io nproce s sth a t c a n d is p la c e th e
g re a te rp ro p o rtio n o f th e vo lu m e o f th e ga s e sin vo lve d .
E xp a n s io no n ly o c c u rs a s te m p e ra tu re sris e , b u t a n o th e re ffe c t, kn o wn
colloquia lly a s "c h im n e y e ffe c t," p ro c e e d s c o n tin u o u s ly wh e n e ve r th e re
is a n y te m p e ra tu red iffe re n tia l b e twe e n in te rio r a n d e xte rio r. Du rin g a
fire , c h im n e y e ffe ct, ra th e r th a n e xpa ns ion,is re s p o n s ib lefo r th e g re a te r
p ro p o rtio n o f s m o ke m ig ra tio n . Be c a u s es o m e le ve l o f te m p e ra tu rediffe r-
e n tia l u s u a lly e xis ts b e twe e n a b u ild in g a n d th e e xte rio r a tm o s p h e re ,
c h im n e y e ffe ct is a ls o re s pons iblefor m u c h o f th e n o rm a l a ir m o ve m e n tin
buildings . As th e te m p e ra tu red iffe re n tia l o f s m o ke -la d e nga s c a n fa ll off
ra p id ly a t a n y d is ta n c efro m th e im m e d ia tefire a re a ,it is th is n o rm a l m o ve -
m e n t o f a ir with in a building th a t is la rg e ly re s p o n s ib lefo r th e wid e s p re a d
d is trib u tio n o f s moke .

THERMALLY INDUCED MOVEMENT

The displacement of gases by the expansion mechanism can be con-
veniently discussed on the basis of the universal gas law, which states that
for any given mass of gas the product of pressure, P, and volume, V, is
proportional to absolute temperature, T. The zero of the absolute scale
of temperature is approximately -273 ~ C or -460 ~ F. In other words,
PV = RT where R is a constant (usually taken to relate specifically to
1 g mole of a gas).
The pressure differentials required to establish substantial flow ve-
locities are very small compared with absolute atmospheric pressure (see
Table I). It may be said, therefore, that the volume of a given mass of
ga s e sis p ro p o rtio n a lto its a b s o lu te te m p e ra tu res ince , d u rin g a ll th e re le -
va n t proce s s e s h o rt o f e xplos ions ,P in th e a b o ve e xp re s s io nh a rd ly va rie s .
S m o ke Mo v e m e n t 165
TABLE 1. Ma g n itu d e o f T h e rm a l a n d W in d E ffe c ts

He ig h t o f he ate d c o m p a rtm e n t (# ) Flo w

800~ C above be ne ath
P re s s u re He a d am bie nt (i.e ., on 9 0 ~ F above W in d s p e e d a door
(in. o f wate r) fire ) a m b ie n t (m p h ) (e u ft/m in )
0.1 9.5 33.9 14.4 103
0.2 19.1 67.7 20.4 146
0.5 47.7 169.3 32.2 230
1 95.5 339 45.6 326
2 191 677 64.5 461

P rio r to a fire , a c o m p a rtm e n tte m p e ra tu re m ig h t b e 20 ~ C, o r a p p ro xi-

m a te ly 300 ~ K (a b s o lu te ),a n d d u rin g th e c o u rs e o f th e fire it will p ro b a b ly
ris e to a t le a s t 900 ~ K (627 ~ C). Th e vo lu m e o c c u p ie db y th e g a s e so rig in a lly
in th e c o m p a rtm e n twill m u ltip ly b y th re e , a n d two -th ird s will m ig ra te to
o th e r p a rts o f th e b u ild in g .
Th e p ro c e s s kn o wn a s c h im n e y e ffe c t is illu s tra te d in F ig u re 1, a n d in-
vo lve s th e e n try o f a ir in to th e c o m p a rtm e n ta t a lo w le ve l a n d th e o u tflo w
o f g a s e sa t a h ig h le ve l. In o th e r wo rd s , e xte rio r p re s s u re e xc e e d sin te rio r
p re s s u re a t a low le ve l, a n d th e re ve rs e is tru e a t a h ig h le ve l. At a n in te r-
m e d ia te le ve l, la b e le d "n e u tra l p re s s u re p la n e " in F ig u re 1, th e in te rio r
a n d e xte rio r p re s s u re sa re th e s a m e . Th e p re va ilin g c o n d itio n s a re a n a lyz e d
b y e q u a tin g th e p re s s u red ro p c re a te d b y th e flow th ro u g h th e o p e n in g s to
t h a t re s u ltin g fro m th e d iffe re n c e sin d e n s ity o f th e in te rn a l a n d e xte rn a l
a tm o s p h e re s(us ing th e n e u tra l p re s s u re p la n e a s a re fe re n c ed a tu m ). Th e
lo c a tio n o f th e n e u tra l p la n e p ro ve s to be s u c h t h a t

h2 A I:T
- (1)
hi A22To

wh e re th e s ym b o ls a re d e fin e d b y F ig u re 1.
Th e c h im n e y e ffe c t a n d th e c o n c e p t o f a n e u tra l p re s s u re p la n e a re s o
vita l to g a s m o ve m e n t in a b u ild in g t h a t o th e r p h e n o m e n a (e .g. win d )
m a y b e d is c u s s e din te rm s o f th e m a n n e rin wh ic h t h e y m o d ify th e c h im n e y
e ffe c t. To a d o p t th is a p p ro a c h ,th e rig h t-h a n d p o rtio n o f F ig u re 1 will b e
u s e d , wh e re th e p re s s u re d iffe re n c e a c ro s s th e ve rtic a l c o m p a rtm e n t
b o u n d a rie s is d e p ic te d g ra p h ic a lly, fo llo win g th e e xa m p le s e t b y T a m u r a
a n d Wils o n .~ Th e h o riz o n ta l s ca le , with a ze ro a s m a rke d , re p re s e n tspre s -
s u re d iffe re n c e a c ro s s th e e xte rio r b o u n d a ry.

AN C ILLAR Y E F F E C TS
To d is c u s s th e e ffe c ts o f win d in te rm s o f th e ir in flu e n c e o n th e c h im n e y
e ffe c t is c o m p lic a te db y th e fa c t t h a t win d e ffe c ts a re th e m s e lve sa fu n c tio n
o f th e s h a p e a n d s ize o f a b u ild in g . Th e in te rm e d ia te s te p o f d is c u s s in g
166 F ire T e c h n o lo g y
Po-Pe)~h g (Oo-Pe}
_ _ '

Area Az I J

V e l o c i t y ~2 I
I
I I
Gas den sity ~,o Gas density po
? ,I
__§
I
Neutral " ) Po I
pressure ~ ~-
plane ) v
I
Absolute temp T
Absolute temp To h, I
Velocity~-, I

Area A,
Figure 1. C h im n e y e ffe ct.
th e e xte rio r p re s s u re d iffe re n tia ls c re a te d b y win d will, th e re fo re , b e in tro -
d u c e d a n d fo llo we d b y a d is c u s s io n o f th e in flu e n c e o f e xte rio r p re s s u re
d iffe re n tia ls o n c h im n e y e ffe c t. Th e s u b je c t o f th e e xte rio r p re s s u re d iffe r-
e n tia ls c re a te d b y a win d is c o m p le x. Te xtb o o ks o n th e a e ro d yn a m ic s o f
b lu ff b o d ie s g ive d e ta ile d c o ve ra g e ,a n d a p o p u la r d e s c rip tio n is a va ila b le .3
Th e firs t a p p ro xim a tio n o n e m ig h t m a ke in e va lu a tin g th e p re s s u re
d iffe re n tia l c re a te d b y a win d o f ve lo c ity, v, is to e q u a te it to th e s ta g n a tio n
p re s s u re , a p. Th e la tte r is re la te d to th e kin e tic e n e rg y o f th e g a s , b e in g
g ive n b y

a p - p v2 (2)
2

wh e re p is th e d e n s ity o f th e ga s .
At th e c e n te r o f a p la n e fa c e n o rm a l to a win d , th e re s u ltin g p re s s u re
d iffe re n tia l is th e s ta g n a tio n p re s s u re . Th e d iffe re n tia l fa lls o ff a s o n e a p -
p ro a c h e s th e b o u n d a rie s , h o we ve r, o fte n b e c o m in g n e g a tive a t t h e o th e r
fa c e s . Th e le e wa rd fa c e , in p a rtic u la r, will u s u a lly b e s u b je c te d to a n e g a -
tive p re s s u re d iffe re n tia l b e twe e n - 0 . 5 a n d - 0 . 7 tim e s th e s ta g n a tio n
p re s s u re .
A fu rth e r c o m p lic a tin g fe a tu re is th e fa c t th a t win d ve lo c itie s a r e th e m -
s e lve s a fu n c tio n o f h e ig h t a b o ve th e g ro u n d , b e in g n e a rly z e ro a t g ro u n d
le ve l a n d in c re a s in g with h e ig h t. Va ria tio n is u s u a lly s u b s ta n tia l o v e r th e
firs t h u n d re d fe e t a b o ve g ro u n d le ve l.
Th e h yp o th e tic a l p ro b le m o f F ig u re 2 illu s tra te s th e w a y in wh ic h
e xte rio r p re s s u re d iffe re n tia ls m o d ify c h im n e y e ffe c t; a t a n y h e ig h t th e
e xte rio r p re s s u re o n th e wa ll o n th e le ft is g re a te r th a n th a t o n t h e rig h t
b y a n a m o u n t A p . It will b e n o te d th a t th e in le t a n d o u tle t in F ig u re 2
S m o k e Mo v e m e n t 167

~ ~_ |
t

t I I I
I i f I
-k--4---~-----t-
h21
--f-
I
it- L _N- P- 1~ I - --
NP3 t
Wind (giving
pressure,~p. )
NP 2 [H

I I

hbl I
I I

NP 1 = N e u t r a l pressure plane (left hand wail)

NP 2 = N e u t r a l pressure plane (right hand wall)
NP 3 = N e u t r a l pressure p l a n e in the a b s e n c e of w i n d (both w a l l s )

Figure 2. Effe ct o[ wind.

a re o n d iffe re n t s id e s o f th e c o m p a rtm e n t. If b o th we re o n th e s a m e s ide ,

th e p re s s u re d iffe re n tia l wo u ld h a ve n o e ffe c t o n th e le ve l o f th e n e u tra l
p la n e .
Th e p re s s u re d iffe re n tia l will re s u lt in a s e p a ra tio n o f th e n e u tra l p re s -
s u re p la n e s o f th e wa lls o n th e le ft a n d rig h t, a s illu s tra te d . Th e e xte rio r
p re s s u red iffe re n tia l, A p , will b e e q u a l to th e "h e a d " g ive n b y th e d iffe re n c e
in le ve l b e twe e n th e two n e u tra l p la n e s . No z e ro h a s b e e n m a rke d o n th e
h o riz o n ta l p re s s u re d iffe re n tia l s c a le o n th e rig h t s id e o f F ig u re 2. Th e
lo c a tio n o f th e z e ro is d e p e n d e n t o n wh e th e r th e re fe re n c e p o in t is ta ke n
a s th e le ft- o r th e rig h t-h a n d e xte rio r p re s s u re . Th e two a p p ro p ria te re fe r-
e n c e a xe s a re m a rke d "L. H. Wa ll" a n d "R . H. Wa ll. "
An a lys is o f th e c o n d itio n s s h o ws th a t, u s in g th e s ym b o ls a s d e fin e d in
F ig u re 2, E q u a tio n 1 c o n tin u e s to a p p ly. F u rth e rm o re , th e d is p la c e m e n t
o f th e n e u tra l p la n e s fro m th e le ve l NP 3 , p re va ilin g in th e a b s e n c e o f a n
e xte rio r p re s s u re d iffe re n tia l, will a ls o b e in th e p ro p o rtio n g ive n b y
E q u a t io n 1.
Th e m a g n itu d e o f a win d 's e ffe c t c a n b e c o n s id e ra b le . With th e id e a liz e d
c o n d itio n s illu s tra te d in F ig u re 2, a ttrib u tin g a va lu e o f 10 ft to H, th e
flo w p a tte rn c o u ld b e re ve rs e dfo r win d s p e e d so f m o re th a n a b o u t 15 m p h .
As th e win d s p e e d a p p ro a c h e s15 m p h th e va lu e s o f h2 a n d h i wo u ld te n d
to a p p ro a c h ze ro, a n d fo r h ig h e r s p e e d s ,n o n e u tra l p re s s u re p la n e s wo u ld
e xis t.
168 Fire Te c hno lo g y
Be fo re a tte m p tin g to e xte n d th e c o n c e p ts illu s tra te d in F ig u re s I a n d 2
to d e s c rib e th e flo w o f g a s e s in a b u ild in g , th e e ffe c t o f flo w c o n s tric tio n s
with in a c o m p a rtm e n tm u s t b e d is c u s s e d . In F ig u re 3, p a rt o f th e o ve r-a ll
p re s s u re h e a d a p p e a rs a c ro s s th e in te rio r c o n s tric tio n s to e s ta b lis h th e
a p p ro p ria te flo w th ro u g h th e m . Th e lo we r o f th e two c o n s tric tio n s illus -
tra te d p ro d u c e s o n ly th e e ffe c t ju s t m e n tio n e d , b u t th e u p p e r o n e c re a te s
a n a d d itio n a l n e u tra l p la n e . Th e h o riz o n ta l s c a le in th e d ia g ra m , re fe re n c e d
to th e ve rtic a l a xis , O, re p re s e n ts p re s s u re d iffe re n c e b e twe e n in te rio r a n d
e xte rio r. Th u s , th e fa c t th a t th e ve rtic a l a xis (i.e ., th e z e ro o f th e s c a le ) is
c ro s s e d a t two le ve ls m e a n s th a t th e re will b e two n e u tra l p la n e s .

R E LAT IVE MAG N IT U D E S AN D LE AKAG E AR E AS

To a n a lyz e th e p ro b a b le c o n d itio n s in a b u ild in g , a c o n c e p t o f t h e re la -
tive m a g n itu d e s o f va rio u s e ffe c ts is re q u ire d . Ta b le 1 illu s tra te s h o w p a r-
tic u la r va lu e s o f p re s s u re h e a d m a y b e e s ta b lis h e d b y a fire , th e h e a tin g
o f a b u ild in g , a n d a win d . To c a lc u la te th e va lu e s in th e s e c o n d c o lu m n ,
it wa s a s s u m e dth a t a fire h a d ra is e d th e te m p e ra tu re in a c o m p a r t m e n t b y
800 ~ C; to c a lc u la te th e va lu e s in th e th ird c o lu m n , th a t b u ild in g h e a tin g
h a d p ro d u c e d a 90 ~ F d iffe re n tia l b e twe e n in te rio r a n d e xte rio r. In typ ic a l
c o m p a rtm e n ts o f th e h e ig h ts lis te d in C o lu m n s 2 a n d 3, th e re s p e c tive
p re s s u re d iffe re n tia ls wo u ld , in p ra c tic e , ra re ly b e fo u n d . T h e va lu e s
g ive n in Ta b le 1 re la te to th e s u m o f th e p re s s u re d iffe re n tia ls a c ro s s th e
to p a n d b o t t o m o f th e c o m p a rtm e n t. It wo u ld b e th e e xc e p tio n ra th e r
th a n th e ru le fo r th e wh o le o f th e p re s s u re d iffe re n tia l to o c c u r a t o n e le ve l
(th e p re s s u re d iffe re n tia l a t th e o th e r a p p ro a c h in g z e ro ).
C o lu m n 5 lis ts th e flow ra te s th a t wo u ld b e e s ta b lis h e db y th e p re s s u re
h e a d s g ive n in C o lu m n 1 b e n e a th a 3 -ft 3-in. wid e d o o r with ~ - in . c le a r-
a n c e fro m th e floor.
In fo rm a tio n is a ls o re q u ire d o n th e le a ka g e c h a ra c te ris tic s o f b u ild in g s ,
a n d th is is a fie ld in wh ic h n o t m a n y m e a s u re m e n tsh a ve b e e n m a d e . In
C a n a d a , h o we ve r, th e c h a ra c te ris tic s o f fo u r b u ild in g s ra n g in g in h e ig h t

Gas densitype
re
Floor t
Absolute temp
Floor

Figure 3. E ffe ct o f inte rior cons trictions .

S m o k e Mo v e m e n t 169
fro m 9 to 4 4 s to rie s a n d in floor p la n a re a fro m 12,000 to 2 0 ,0 0 0 s q ft h a ve
b e e n s tu d ie d . O n ly th e fin d in g s o f th e firs t s tu d y - - a 9 -s to ry, b ric k-fa c e d ,
re in fo rc e d c o n c re te s tru c tu re o f p la n d im e n s io n s a p p ro xim a te ly 75 b y
265 ft - - h a ve s o fa r b e e n p u b lis h e d .2
In a ll fo u r ca s e s , th e le a ka g e b e twe e n a d ja c e n t s to rie s e xc e e d e dth a t
fro m a n y o n e s to ry to th e e xte rio r. Th e o ve r-a ll e q u iva le n t le a ka g e a re a
to th e e xte rio r in th e 9 -s to ry b u ild in g wa s a b o u t 50 s q ft (e xc lu d in g ve n tila -
tio n d u c t o p e n in g s , a n d with win d o ws a n d e xte rio r d o o rs c lo s e d ). It wa s
e s tim a te d th a t le s s th a n a q u a rte r o f th is to ta l wa s a s s o c ia te dwith win d o ws .
F o r th e o th e r th re e b u ild in g s , o ve r-a ll le a ka g e (n o rm a liz e d to c a te r fo r
d iffe re n t b u ild in g d im e n s io n s ) wa s a p p re c ia b ly le s s , in o n e c a s e b y a fa c to r
o f th re e .
Th e le ve ls o f th e p rin c ip a l n e u tra l p la n e s in th e b u ild in g s ra n g e d be -
twe e n 0.35 a n d 0.72 o f th e to ta l h e ig h ts , th e lo we r va lu e s b e in g a s s o c ia te d
with th e h ig h e r b u ild in g s .

T YP IC AL B U ILD IN G C O N D IT IO N S
Be fo re d is c u s s in g m o re c o m p le x p ro b le m s , it is c o n ve n ie n t to c o n s id e r
th e s im p le c a s e o f a n y b u ild in g c o n ta in in g a m e c h a n ic a lve n tila tio n s ys te m
th a t is la rg e ly re c irc u la tin g a n d h a s o n ly o n e c e n tra l p le n u m c h a m b e r.
S m o ke fro m a fire a n ywh e re in th e b u ild in g will o b vio u s ly b e d is trib u te d
th ro u g h o u t. F u rth e rm o re , a lth o u g h th e p rim a ry s m o ke fro m th e fire a re a
will b e g re a tly d ilu te d in th e p le n u m c h a m b e r, it will u s u a lly b e o f u n d e -
s ira b ly h ig h d e n s ity in th e d e live ry d u c t; a n d e ve n a m o d e ra te fire wo u ld
b e c a p a b le o f s m o ke -lo g g in g a wh o le b u ild in g via th e ve n tila tio n s ys te m .
Th e le ve l o f s m o ke d is trib u te d th ro u g h o u t a b u ild in g will d e p e n d o n
wh e th e r th e o u tle ts fro m th e fire re g io n o p e n to th e e xte rio r o r to o th e r
p a rts o f th e b u ild in g . It h a s b e e n s h o wn~ th a t th is fe a tu re p e rm its th e con-
tro l o f s m o ke in b u ild in g s . In m o s t c u rre n t d e s ig n s n o rm a l flo w p a tte rn s
d is c h a rg e m u c h o f th e s m o ke in to th e b u ild in g s o th a t it re a c h e s re m o te
a re a s , e ve n th o u g h th e fire its e lf m a y b e loca lize d. O n ly in th e im m e d ia te
a re a o f th e fire is th e flow o f g a s e s s u b s ta n tia lly a ffe c te d b y th e th e rm a l
e ffe c ts c re a te d b y th e fire . An a n a lys is o f s m o ke m ig ra tio n is , th e re fo re ,
e q u iva le n t to a n a n a lys is o f th e n o rm a l m o ve m e n t o f a ir in a b u ild in g .
F ig u re 4 re p re s e n tsth e c o n d itio n s th a t c o u ld p re va il in a b u ild in g with
n o a u to m a tic ve n tila tio n s ys te m , n o e xte rio r win d , a n d a n in te rn a l te m p e r-
a tu re h ig h e r th a n e xte rn a l, a s in win te r. Th e a rro ws s h o wn in F ig u re 4
in d ic a te d ire c tio n o f flo w b u t n o t m a g n itu d e . It s h o u ld b e n o te d th a t th e
fu rth e r a n o p e n in g is , ve rtic a lly, fro m th e n e u tra l p re s s u re p la n e , th e
g re a te r will b e th e p re s s u re d iffe re n c e s b e twe e n in te rio r a n d e xte rio r, a n d
h e n c e , th e g re a te r th e flow. Th e p re s s u red iffe re n c e s a ls o in c re a s e in a lm o s t
d ire c t p ro p o rtio n to th e te m p e ra tu re d iffe re n tia l b e twe e n in te rio r a n d
e xte rio r.
If a fire we re to o rig in a te u n d e r win te r c o n d itio n s o n th e s e c o n d floor,
it m ig h t b e in fe rre d th a t n o n o tic e a b le le ve l o f s m o ke wo u ld d e ve lo p o n
170 F ire Te c h n o lo g y
th e g ro u n d floor. S m o ke will be fo u n d o n floors lowe r th a n th a t o n wh ic h
th e fire o rig in a te s o n ly a s a re s u lt o f m e c h a n ic a lve n tila tio n , a n o m a lo u s
win d conditions , or a n e xte rio r te m p e ra tu ree xc e e d in gth e in te rio r te m p e r-
a tu re , th u s p ro d u c in g a re ve rs e dc h im n e y e ffe ct. In th e firs t s ta ge s ,o f th e
fire , ga s e sdis pla ce dfro m a n u n ve n te dfire re g io n b y a n e xp a n s io nm e c h a n -
is m m ig h t a ls o be fo rc e d in to a lowe r s to ry; th is proce s s ,h o we ve r, wo u ld
n o t c o n tin u e fo r long.
F ig u re 4 in d ic a te s th a t s m o ke fro m a fire o n th e s e c o n d s to ry would
m ig ra te d ire c tly to th e floor a b o ve a n d , via th e e le va to ro r s ta ir s h a fts , to
Lobbi tairwell or elevator shaft

'"- ~ - .S_.--- . - - Neutral

. . . . . I " " I ----,ressure
anes

I 1

Figure 4. Idealized conditions in a building.

th e floors a b o ve th e n e u tra lp re s s u repla ne . Th u s it is p ro b a b le th a t s m o ke

d e n s ity o n th e to p floor will be g re a te rth a n th a t o n th e fo u rth a n d in te r-
ve n in g floors .
Th e flow p a tte rn illu s tra te d in F ig u re 4 re s u lts fro m a te m p e ra tu re
d iffe re n tia l b e twe e n in te rio r a n d e xte rior. Va ria tio n in th is d iffe re n tia l,
fro m win te r to s u m m e r, fo r e xa m p le , will a ffe c t th e m a g n itu d e o f a ll th e
flows . If th e in te rio r building te m p e ra tu reis lowe r th a n a m b ie n t, a s c a n
occa s iona llyh a p p e n a t th e h e ig h t o f s u m m e r, th e d ire c tio n s o f flow c a n
be re ve rs e d ,high-le ve lope ningsc o n s titu tin g inle ts a n d low-le ve l ope nings ,
outle ts . S u c h n e g a tive te m p e ra tu red iffe re n tia ls a re th e e xc e p tio n ra th e r
th a n th e rule , h o we ve r, a n d a s th e y a re b o u n d to be o f s m a lle r m a g n itu d e
S m o k e Mo v e m e n t 171
th a n th e p o s itive d iffe re n tia ls p re va ilin g in th e d e p th o f win te r, th e flow
ve lo c itie s a re c o rre s p o n d in g lylo we r.
Th e p rin c ip le s a lre a d y d is c u s s e dm a ke it o b vio u s th a t a win d o f a n y
m a g n itu d e (e .g., 20 m p h ) will h a ve a s u b s ta n tia l in flu e n c e o n a flow p a t-
te rn , s u c h a s th a t o f F ig u re 4. Ve lo c itie s o f th e o rd e r o f th o s e g ive n in
Ta b le 1 will m a ke o n e s id e o f th e b u ild in g a n in le t a n d th e o th e r a n o u tle t.
Th e re will s till b e a n u p wa rd flo w with in th e b u ild in g , in le t ve lo c itie s o n
th e win d wa rd fa c in g wa ll b e in g m in im a l a t th e to p a n d o u tle t ve lo c itie s
o n th e le e wa ll m in im a l a t th e b o tto m . Th e s e c o n d itio n s d e ve lo p o u t o f
th e m o re e le m e n ta ry c a s e illu s tra te d in F ig u re . 2. Th e c ritic a l ve lo c itie s
m a y a c tu a lly b e le s s th a n th o s e lis te d in Ta b le 1, b e c a u s e o f th e e ffe c t o f
in te rn a l c o n s tric tio n s illu s tra te d in F ig u re 3, a n d b e c a u s eth e to ta l p re s s u re
d iffe re n tia l e s ta b lis h e db y a win d a c ro s s a b u ild in g c a n e xc e e d th e s ta g n a -
tio n p re s s u re .
It is c o m m o n p ra c tic e fo r fire fig h te rs to e s ta b lis h la rg e ve n ts a t h ig h
le ve ls d u rin g a b u ild in g fire . Th is in d u c e s a ir a t lo w-le ve l in le ts a n d p e rm its
fire fig h te rs to e n te r, a tta c kin g th e fire a s th e y p ro c e e d . Be fo re a d o p tin g
th is a p p ro a c h , win d c o n d itio n s , in p a rtic u la r, s h o u ld b e n o te d . Th e m o s t
fa vo ra b le ve n t is o n e o n th e le e s id e o f a b u ild in g (a s we ll a s a t a h ig h le ve l).
S im ila rly, th e m o s t s a tis fa c to ry in le t a n d e n try p o in t will b e to win d wa rd .
If th e in te n d e d flo w p a tte rn is a c h ie ve d , th e ve n tin g o f th e fire will p ro b -
a b ly in c re a s e th e ra te o f b u rn in g g re a tly a n d , h e n c e , d e s tro y th e b u ild in g
m u c h m o re ra p id ly u n le s s fire fig h tin g is s u c c e s s fu l.
An o th e r c o m m o n p ra c tic e , in c o rp o ra te d in th e d e s ig n o f m a n y b u ild -
ings , is to ve n t th e to p o f e le va to r a n d e ve n s ta ir s h a fts with th e in te n tio n
o f m a in ta in in g th e m te n a b le fo r a s lo n g a s p o s s ib le . Th e m e rits o f th is
te c h n iq u e a re q u e s tio n a b le s o fa r a s s m o ke c o n tro l is c o n c e rn e d ; th e y c a n
b e d is c u s s e d with re fe re n c e to F ig u re 4. A h ig h -le ve l o p e n in g , la rg e in
c o m p a ris o n with th e s u m o f a ll th e o th e r o p e n in g s , will ra is e th e n e u tra l
p re s s u re p la n e s a s s o c ia te d with th e s h a ft a lm o s t to ro o f le ve l. All in le t
flo ws will th u s b e in c re a s e da n d s e ve ra l o p e n in g s th a t we re p re vio u s ly o u t-
le ts will b e c o m e in le ts . F ire s o n th e flo o rs a s s o c ia te d with th e s e la tte r
o p e n in g s wo u ld , o f c o u rs e , n o w in tro d u c e s m o ke in to th e s h a ft wh e re th e y
m ig h t n o t h a ve d o n e s o h a d th e ve n t n o t e xis te d . F ire s a t lo we r le ve ls will
in tro d u c e m o re s m o ke th a n p re vio u s ly, b u t th e re s u ltin g s m o ke le ve l will
b e lo we r b e c a u s ea ir flo w will h a ve ris e n b y a g re a te r fa c to r. An a lte rn a tive
te c h n iq u e th a t will e lim in a te th e s m o ke p ro b le m in e le va to r a n d s ta ir
s h a fts is d is c u s s e din R e fe re n c e 4.
Th e flo ws s h o wn in F ig u re 4 re la te to a fa irly s ym m e tric a l d is trib u tio n
o f o p e n in g s , a n d th e e ffe c t o f h a vin g s o m e d o o rs o p e n a n d o th e rs c lo s e d
h a s n o t b e e n d is c u s s e d in d e ta il. An e xa m p le will illu s tra te p o s s ib le dis -
a s tro u s e ffe c ts . S u p p o s eth a t a fire is in p ro g re s s o n th e s e c o n d s to ry o f th e
id e a liz e d b u ild in g illu s tra te d in F ig u re 4, a n d th a t th e e xte rio r win d o ws o n
th a t flo o r h a ve b e e n d e s tro ye d b y h e a t. Le a vin g th e lo b b y a n d s ta ir s h a ft
d o o rs o p e n wo u ld n o t o n ly g re a tly in c re a s e th e flo w o f s m o ke in to th e s ta ir
172 Fire Te c hno lo g y
s h a ft, it wo u ld a ls o lo we r th e n e u tra l p re s s u re p la n e s a n d h e n c e in c re a s e
th e n u m b e r o f s to rie s in to wh ic h s m o ke wo u ld flo w fro m th e s ta ir s h a ft.
If th e a re a o f th e o p e n d o o rs we re la rg e in c o m p a ris o n with th e s u m o f th e
o th e r o p e n in g s to th e s ta ir s h a ft, th e n e u tra l p la n e s wo u ld b e n e a r t h e le ve l
o f th e s e c o n d s to ry a n d s m o ke wo u ld flo w in to a ll th e h ig h e r s to rie s .

T IME S C ALE
To g ive a n in d ic a tio n o f th e tim e s c a le o f th e m o v e m e n t o f s m o k e in a
b u ild in g , a h yp o th e tic a l p ro b le m h a s b e e n s o lve d a n a lytic a lly. T h e h yp o -
th e tic a l b u ild in g (F ig u re 5) c o n s is ts o f s e ve ra l c o m p a rtm e n ts , e a c h o f vo l-
u m e , V, o n e o n to p o f th e o th e r. Th e n u m b e r o f c o m p a rtm e n ts (o r s to rie s )

N " 3 V

N 92 V

Flow r a t e from c o m p a r t m e n t
N 9i V to c o m p a r t m e n t = v l v o t u m e /
unit time). V o l u m e of each

L compartment * V

Figure 5. Hypotheticalproblem.

p ro ve s to b e u n im p o rta n t a n d m a y va ry fro m two to in fin ity. E a c h c o m -

p a rtm e n t is lin ke d to th e n e xt b y a n o p e n in g , a n d it is a s s u m e d t h a t g a s e s
flo w fro m o n e c o m p a rtm e n t to th e n e xt a t a ra te , v. A t e m p e r a t u r e d iffe r-
e n tia l b e twe e n th e in te rio r a n d e xte rio r wo u ld e s ta b lis h s u c h c o n d itio n s .
It is a ls o a s s u m e dth a t m ixin g ta ke s p la c e in e a c h c o m p a rtm e n t.
If it is ru le d th a t, a t tim e t = 0, c o m p a rtm e n t No . 1 b e c o m e s s m o ke -
lo g g e d , th e s m o ke d e n s ity b e in g 100 u n its p e r u n it vo lu m e , th e n t h e s m o ke
d e n s ity in c o m p a rtm e n t N is g ive n b y

DN -- 100 [,- ~t/v r (N -2) e

( N - 2) iJo "rdr
T(N -2)
= 1 0 0 1 - e -r I+ T+ + ~ . t +4 -]-''" +
S m o k e Mo v e m e n t 173
wh e re

T = v t/V .

It is in te re s tin g to n o te th a t a t th e s e c o n d s to ry th e s o lu tio n re d u c e s to
th e fa m ilia r e xp re s s io n

D = 1 0 0 (1 - e -~ d V )

Th e s e e xp re s s io n sa re illu s tra te d in F ig u re 6, a n d it m a y b e s e e n t h a t a
s m o ke d e n s ity o f o n e -te n th th a t p re va ilin g o n th e firs t s to ry will o c c u r a t a
tim e T = v t / V = 0.1 o n th e s e c o n d s to ry a n d a t tim e T = v U V = 5.4 o n
th e t e n t h s to ry.
A typ ic a l e xa m p le h a s b e e n e va lu a te d to illu s tra te th e a c tu a l tim e s
t h a t th e s e va lu e s a re like ly to re p re s e n t,a n d a fe w s a m p le re s u lts a re s e c o n d
s to ry, 5.6 m in (3 m in ); th ird s to ry, 29 m in ; a n d te n th s to ry, 4 h o u rs 50 m in .
It h a s b e e n a s s u m e dt h a t e a c h c o m p a rtm e n th a s a vo lu m e o f 3,000 c u ft
a n d is lin ke d to th e n e xt b y th e c ra c k re fe rre d to e a rlie r a s typ ic a l o f t h a t
b e n e a th a s in g le d o o r (i.e ., 3 ft 3 in. b y 0.5 in .). A 90 ~ F te m p e ra tu re
d iffe re n tia l b e twe e nin te rio r a n d e xte rio r h a s b e e n a s s u m e d ,e xc e p t fo r th e
b ra c ke te dva lu e (viz., 3 m in ) wh e re fire c o n d itio n s g ivin g 16 tim e s th e diffe r-
e n tia l (i.e ., 800 ~ C) h a ve b e e n a s s u m e d . In p a s s in g ,it s h o u ld b e n o te d t h a t
th e a s s u m p tio no f a te m p e ra tu red iffe re n tia l c o rre s p o n d in gto a fire in s te a d
o f to b u ild in g h e a t g ive s le s s t h a n a two fo ld in c re a s e in g a s flow ra te s (a n d
h e n c e th e re d u c tio n fro m 5.6 to 3 m in ).
Th e e va lu a tio n in d ic a te s t h a t e ve n th e c ra c k b e n e a th a d o o r m ig h t,
with in a fe w m in u te s , c re a te u n te n a b le c o n d itio n s in a c o m p a rtm e n ta d -
ja c e n t to o n e in vo lve d in a fire . As th e s o u rc e o f th e fire b e c o m e sfu rth e r
100
I I I I I I "'I I t

80 --

>."
" 60 -

L,J

~t
~- 40 -

20 -

o
.005 .01 .02 .05 .I .2 .5 2.0 5.0 I0 20 50 i00

TIME, T " ~'~IV

Fig u re 6. S m o k e d ilu tio n .

174 F ire T e c h n o lo g y
re m o ve d , in te rm s o f th e n u m b e r o f c o m p a rtm e n ts th ro u g h wh ic h th e
s m o ke m u s t p a s s , th e tim e s c a le in c re a s e ss u b s ta n tia lly.

C O N C LU S IO N S
R e c e n t a n a lys is o f th e le a ka g e c h a ra c te ris tic s o f s e ve ra l la rg e b u ild in g s
in d ic a te s th a t th e le a ka g e b e twe e n a d ja c e n t s to rie s a p p re c ia b ly e xc e e d s
th a t fro m a n y o n e s to ry to th e e xte rio r. G a s m o ve m e n ts b e twe e n a lo c a l-
iz e d a re a o f a b u ild in g a n d th e e xte rio r c a n n o t, th e re fo re , b e d is c u s s e d
in d ivid u a lly b u t o n ly a s a p a rt o f th e flo w c o m p le x th ro u g h o u t th e b u ild in g .
Mo s t g a s m o ve m e n ts in a b u ild in g m a y b e d is c u s s e din te lz n s o f th e ir
in flu e n c e o n c h im n e y e ffe c t. It is in te re s tin g th a t g a s flo w fro m a c o m p a rt-
m e n t o n fire to a n a d ja c e n t o n e is n o t like ly to b e m o re th a n d o u b le th e
va lu e re s u ltin g fro m b u ild in g h e a tin g u n d e r s e ve re win te r c o n d itio n s in th e
a b s e n c e o f fire . E v e n th o u g h th e te m p e ra tu re d iffe re n tia l c re a te d b y th e
fire m a y b e s ixte e n tim e s th a t re s u ltin g fro m n o rm a l b u ild in g h e a tin g , it
will e s ta b lis h le s s th a n d o u b le a typ ic a l win te r p re s s u re d iffe re n tia l. P rio r
to b re a kin g win d o ws o r e s ta b lis h in g o th e r c o n d itio n s u n iq u e ly a s s o c ia te d
with a fire , th e s m o ke m o ve m e n t m a y b e d is c u s s e din te rm s o f th e n o rm a l
g a s m o ve m e n ts with in th e b u ild in g .

R E F E R E NC E S
1 Willia m s -Le ir, G., p riva te c o m m u n ic a tio n .
2 Ta m u ra , G. T., a n d Wils o n , A. G., "P re s s u re Diffe re n c e s fo r a Nin e -s to ry Bu ild -
in g a s a R e s u lt o f C h im n e y E ffe c t a n d Ve n tila tio n S ys te m O p e ra tio n , " Tra n s a c tio n s
o f th e Am e ric a n S o c ie ty o f He a tin g , R e frig e ra tin g , a n d Air-c o n d itio n in g E n g in e e rs ,
Vol. 72, P a r t I, 1966, pp. 180-189.
3 Da lg lie s h , W. A., a n d S c h rie ve r, W. R ., "Win d P re s s u re so n Bu ild in g s , " Na tio n a l
R e s e a rc hC o u n c il o f C a n a d a , Divis io n o f Bu ild in g R e s e a rc h ,C B D 34, O c t. 1962.
4 Mc G u ire , J . H., "C o n tro l o f S m o ke in Bu ild in g s , " s c h e d u le d fo r p u b lic a tio n in
Fire Te chnology,Vol. 3, No . 4, No v. 1967.