THE NEW ZEALAND MARITIME SCHOOL MANUKAU INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGYCOASTAL NAVIGATION Lessono CONTENTS New Zealand and Beyond es How to Use these Lessons Lesson Summary~ Methods and Layout of Work ‘What you will Need oe Coastal Navigation Equipment for the Boat ‘Accuracy Answers Practice! Index COPYRIGHT ® JANUARY 1994 Mike Scanian ‘THE NEW ZEALAND MARITIME SCHOOL Manukau Poiytechnic Protected by copyright This lesson, any part of this lesson, or any other material Used in this ‘course of instruction, must nat be copied or used for any purposes unless authorised by the author ‘or The New Zealand Martime School.Introduction Navigation is the art of finding a boat's position at sea, and conducting her safely from place to place. There are various forms of navigation; astro navigation, ocean navigation, satellite navigation, coastal navigation. All share the same concepts whereby position is fixed relative to some other object of known position. In astro navigation position is fixed relative to the Sun, stars, Moon and planets; in satellite navigation position is fixed relative to satellites orbiting in space. {In coastal navigation, position is fixed relative to landmarks around the coast, the positions of which are located on charts. The use of various techniques for fixing position relative to these landmarks is the art of coastal navigation, the subject of these lessons. New Zealand, and Beyond ‘These lessons deal primarily with navigation around the coasts of New Zealand. All ‘examples and questions for exercise use New Zealand charts and publications. However, the principles and techniques of coastal navigation are the same world-wide, ‘The methods you will lear here may be used to navigate any charted coast. Marine navigation charts are produced to intemational standards, using the same symbols, terminology and configuration throughout the world. So, once you have leamed to navigate safely around New Zealand coasts, armed with the appropriate charts and publications you should be able to safely navigate around any charted coastline of the word, Page 0-4COASTAL NAVIGATION INTRODUCTION How to Use These Lessons You may use these lessons as a standard text while attending a coastal navigation course, or as a correspondence course administered by the New Zezland Maritime ‘School, or as an on-board reference manual. Standard Text. You can use these lessons as a standard reference text for any course leading to a coastal navigation examination, or as additional reading for such a course. Your course tutor will outline your examination syllabus, and the course and examination prerequisites, during your course. All parts of the chartwork syllabus for your course will be covered by these lessons. ‘Study also the other publications referred to in the appropriate lessons, and your own tutor’s notes and examples. ‘On completing this series of lessons, and their exercises, as further preparation for the examination you can then attempt the specimen examination papers prepared by your tutor. Correspondence Course. To gain the maximum benefit from these lessons you should start at the beginning and work progressively through them in their correct sequence. For each lesson, read the notes carefully and work through the examples. given. Then try the exercise given at the conclusion of the lesson. ‘The examples and exercises given in each lesson are based upon the notes and principles covered in that lesson, but will also include topics and principles covered in Previous lessons. Therefore, do not skip lessons. Do not skip topics because they may appear inappropriate or irrelevant. And do not proceed to the next lesson until ‘you have completed the concluding exercise and you have fully understood the lesson you have been working on. Reference Manual. In these lessons each topic, principle, and method is explained independently. Chartwork methods are summarised and highlighted for quick reference, and there are numerous examples showing how each method is used, and how different methods can be combined. You may keep these lessons separately, or combine them into a ring binder to form a handy reference manual for use in the classroom or on the boat. Lesson Summary ‘A summary of these navigation lessons is given on the opposite page. The full content of each lesson is given inside that lesson's front cover. An alphabetical index of coastal navigation topics is given at the conclusion of this lesson Ml Students for New Zealand Coastal Master, and Yachtmaster Coastal, should complete all lessons. Page 0-2COASTAL NAVIGATION INTRODUCTION COASTAL NAVIGATION LESSONS ‘Summary LESSON TE 0 Introduction. 1 First Principles. 2 ‘The Chart. 3 ‘The Tide Tables. 4 The Boat's Course. 5 Position Lines. 6 Position Circles, 7 The Position Fix. 8 ‘The Effects of Wind and Tide. 9 Allowing for Wind and Tide. 10 ‘The Running Fix. " Satellite Navigation. Planning and Making a Passage. Page 0-3COASTAL NAVIGATION INTRODUCTION Methods and Layout of Work Note carefully the method by which examples in these lessons are worked, the lay-out of the working and calculations. Note how the items in the working are labelled, and the symbols and abbreviations used. If you use the same methods of layout, labelling and abbreviations yourself, this will not only help you to understand what you are doing, but will also enable you to look back at your work at a later time and understand what you have done, and perhaps detect errors. Do not take short cuts or omit these labels to save time. A page of unidentified scribbled figures will mean nothing to you at a later time, and will only result in a greater waste of time in trying to remember what those figures meant. Using these methods of layout, labelling and abbreviations, will stand you in good stead for the Coastal Navigation examination, and will go a long way towards trouble- free navigation on the water. What You Will Need To use these lessons you will need the following items. The purchase of each item Is money well spent, for all items will also be necessary to effectively coastal navigate your boat. Chart NZ532. The exercises in these lessons use chart NZ532 "Approaches to Auckland", October 1992 edition, published by the Hydrographic Office of the Royal New Zealand Navy. Worked examples in these lessons also use this chart, but illustrations and examples are also included using other charts. New Zealand Nautical Almanac. All examples and exercises use the New Zealand Nautical Almanac extracts given in the appropriate lessons. However, you must also have your own copy of the current edition of the Aimanac for further reference. Parallel Rules. You must be able to quickly and effectively transfer directions and lines across your chart. There are various types of parallel rules available for this Purpose. Those best suited for coastal navigation are the Field pattem parallel rule or ‘a good quality roller rule, such as a Bi-rola rule. Also available, but less popular for serious coastal navigation, are the chart protractor, or a pair of set squares or Douglas protractors. You should decide which instrument you prefer; your tutor will give advice and examples of each. ‘When selecting a parallel or roller rule for your own use, ensure that you can use it ‘comfortably in your navigation work-station aboard your boat. A longer ruler is easier to use, but may be too long for the space available on the boat, On the other hand, too short a rule is a hindrance. Ideally your rule should not be less than about 35cm in length Dividers and Compasses. For measuring distances and drawing circles and arcs on your charts, choose good quality dividers and drawing compasses. These should preferably be constructed from stainless steel or brass, for their non-comoding and Page 0-4COASTAL NAVIGATION INTRODUCTION non-magnetic properties (they will not interfere with the boat's magnetic compass). Divider and compass arms should be as long as possible; short-armed dividers and compasses will slow down your work on the chart considerably. The arms should be free-moving, and not spring-bowed. To minimise damage to charts, points on dividers and compasses should not be needle sharp. If your dividers and compasses have adjustable points, use the shauldered points rather than the needle points. Protractor. Some position-fixing methods require the construction or measurement of angles upon the chart. Some models of parallel rule include a protractor, but a 360° plastic protractor is never-the-less a useful additional chartwork tool. Pencils and Erasers. Your chart pencils should preferably contain 2B or softer leads, for ease of reading and easy erasing. A pencil lead harder than this is difficult to erase, and may permanently damage the chart. Do not press hard with the pencil when working on the chart - you are the one who will have to rub your work off later. Include also a pencil sharpener, or a knife or blade, for sharpening your pencil leads. Do not over sharpen pencil points, this will also permanently damage the chart, Erasers for use on the chart should be of soft plastic, and white in colour. Coloured erasers will permanently stain the char. Calculator. Choose a calculator that you can use easily, and is rugged enough to withstand life aboard a boat. Remember to include a supply of spare batteries. A calculator with scientific functions is useful, but not absolutely necessary for coastal ‘navigation. Coastal Navigation Equipment for the Boat To effectively coastal navigate, your boat must have a magnetic compass, a property equipped navigation work station, and a comprehensive stock of charts. Magnetic Compass. You must have a compass by which to steer the boat. if the boat's steering compass cannot be used for taking compass bearings, an additional hand-beasing compass is necessary. Full details of how these compasses are used for coastal navigation will be given in these lessons. ‘The Boat's Navigation Work Station. You should have an afea within the boat where you can spread a chart and work easily upon it. The chart table surface should be level and fat, with no lumps or bumps to prevent proper use of your parallel rules. ‘An ideal chart table surface is of toughened glass, which as well as being perfectly flat provides space beneath through which useful notes, tables, and deviation card can be Tread. Edge the table with a lip so that the glass top, and the pencils and instruments you are using, will not slide off when the boat rolls. Provide spaces adjacent to the ‘chart table for your chart instruments, to hold these instruments in place when not in use. Page 0-5COASTAL NAVIGATION INTRODUCTION Include drawer space beneath the chart table for chart storage. Charts should be kept flat, so the drawer space and the chart table should be at least the dimensions of a half-folded chart (approximately 75cm x 60cm). Your work station should have a small bookshelf, with an anti-roll bar to prevent the books from spilling out, Stock your bookshelf with the navigational tables and reference books discussed later in these lessons. Include also the manuals for the various navigational instruments you are carrying on the boat. ‘The work station should be well Ii, and artificial lighting provided for night use. Night lighting should be dimmer-controlled, and red or orange in colour so that night vision Is not impaired. If possible, include in your work station your radio, a clock, and duplicate read-outs of your navigation instruments. Charts. Always carry a complete set of up-to-date charts, large and small scale, for the areas you regularly boat in or intend to visit. Full details of charts, and their care and upkeep, will be given in lesson 2. Additional Equipment. Other items of navigational equipment you will find useful, but not essential, are a speed and distance log, echo sounder, sextant, radar, and satellite navigation receiver. The use of each of these will be explained in these lessons. A radio weather-fax receiver and an aneroid barometer will be found ‘extremely useful for weather predictions. ‘Accuracy Always strive for the greatest degree of accuracy your instruments, tables, chart, and ability will allow. You will invariably find that your navigational accuracy will increase with the amount of practice you obtain, and with your enthusiasm, In these lessons, courses and bearings are read to the nearest whole degree, and variations and deviations are rounded off to the nearest whole degree. This is adequate for practical purposes, you cannot normally use or read a compass any more accurately than this. Some mathematics calculations in the worked examples and exercises in these lessons have been worked to three decimal places, but this has been done for demonstration purposes only. Answers ‘At the end of each lesson, answers are given for that lesson’s concluding exercise. ‘The given answers are brief only. They are provided only so that you can obtain an idea of whether you are tackling each problem correctly. Your own working for each problem must be laid out in the preferred manner, as demonstrated in the worked examples. Page 0-6COASTAL NAVIGATION INTRODUCTION If completing these lessons as a correspondence course, your full answers, and your working for achieving your answers, are required to be forwarded to the New Zealand Maritime School for marking; answers only are not sufficient. Similarly, in your Coastal Navigation examination, answers only are not sufficient; all working is required to be shown. Your answers should generally be within one degree for courses and bearings; 0.3 minutes of latitude and longitude for positions; 0,3 miles for distances; and 3 minutes for times. These values are approximate, you must be guided by your own instinct and initiative, bearing in mind the nature of the question and the navigational method involved. I your own answers to the exercises are not the same as those given, check your work and try again, If you still do not achieve the correct answer, then go back to the beginning of the relevant section and read those notes again - you may have missed or misunderstood an important principle. If necessary, refer back to previous sections or lessons to revise particular topics. It is recommended you do not erase your chart plots for an exercise until your answers: for that exercise have been checked by the tutor. If there is an error in your work it will be easier to trace if your charted plot is still available. The questions in each exercise have been designed so that their chart plots should not overtap. Practicel ‘The greatest factor governing your success as a coastal navigator, and your success in the Coastal Navigation examination, is the amount of practice you obtain. Proficiency will improve with practice. The speed with which you can fix position will improve with practice, as will the accuracy of your fix. And, your own confidence, and the confidence your crew has in your navigation, will improve with practice. Just reading the notes in these lessons is not enough. You must thoroughly practice the techniques explained, and possibly develop them further to suit your own style of boating, Coastal navigation is not a precise science. It is an art built upon a series of techniques. Knowing how to do the various techniques involved is not enough. The att is in recognising which technique to use in which situation; recognising where to use a certain technique and not another; and in recognising what has gone wrong, or why something is wrong. ‘These lessons show you "how", but can only give guidance in the ‘which’, “where”, “what” and “why”. The more you practice, the more you will become aware of them, "However well versed a person may be in the art of navigation, and with whatever skill he may apply the principles involved, the final test of his ability as a navigator is whether his craft remains safely afloat at all times. Page 0-7COASTAL NAVIGATION INTRODUCTION COASTAL NAVIGATION LESSONS Abbreviations, 5-2 Earth, 1-2 Aero lights, 2-15 Ebb tide, 8-6 ‘Ambiguity, 7-4, 10-23 Elevation, 2-13, 6-5 ‘Anchorage, 12-25 Equator, 1-2 Angle of cut, 7-3 Estimated Position, 8-14 Annual Summary, 2-29, 12-6 ETA, 1-6, 12-42 Expressing position, 7-15 Beaching, 12-26 Breakdowns, 12-24 Fix, 2:23, 7-1 Flood tide, 8-5 Cable, 1-5 Calibration error, 5-31 Chart care, 2-31 Chart catalogue, 2-7, 12-3 Chart corrections, 2-30, 12-5 Chart numbers, 2-4 Chart production 2-1 Chart projection, 2-2 Chart reliability, 2-30 Chart scale, 2-2 Chart symbols, 2-10 Chart titles, 2-4 Clearing marks, 5-25 Cocked hat, 7-6 Compass course, 4-25, 12-10 Compass bearings, 5-3 ‘Compass directions, 1-1 ‘Compass error, 5-4 Compass rose, 4-2 Correction of course, 4-25 Course, 4-1 Course card, 12-11 Currents, 8-8 Danger angles, 6-15 Datum error, 11-8 Datums of measurement, 2-7 Dead Reckoned position, 8-24, 12-22 Depths, 2-7 Depth contours, 5-29 Deviation, 4-14 Deviation card, 4-16, 4-17, 437, 5-23 DF, 5-30 Differential GPS, 11-27 Dipping, 6-8 Distance, 1-5, 2-23 Doppler curve, 11-4 Drift, 85, 8-27 Drying heights, 2-9 Duration of the tide, 3-7 Geographical range, 6-5 GPS Navstar, 11-10 Ground speed, 8-13, 9-5 Ground track, 8-13, 9-2 Haif-convergency, 5-31 Hand-bearing compass, 5-10 Heights, 2-8 Height of eye, 6-5 Horizontal angles, 6-18, 7-16 Intermediate positions, 9-14 Interval, 3-22 Knot, 1-5 Landfall, 12-28 Latitude, 1-3, 2-18 Leading lights, 2-13, 5-26 Leeway, 8-2, 9-24 Lights, 2-13 Light List, 2-16 Light sectors, 5-28 Local magnetic anomalies, 4-9 Log distance, 8-1, 9-5, 9-18 Log speed, 8-1, 9-5 Longitude, 1-3, 2-18 Lumincus range, 6-8 Magnetic course, 4-9 Magnetic North, 4-5, Man overboard, 12-28 Measurement of arc, 1-1 Mercator projection, 2-3 Meridians, Mistakes, 12-22 Monitoring position, 7-14, 12-20 Page 0-8COASTAL NAVIGATION INTRODUCTION Nautical mile, 1-5 Tide tables, 3-1 Navigational wamings, 2-10, 12-23 Tides, 2-10, 3-1, 12-13 Neap tides, 3-2 Time, 1-5 NNSS, 11-1 Time, speed, distance, 1-8, 8-17, 0-8 Nominal range, 6-8 Notices to Mariners, 2-27, 12-5 NZ Pilot, 12-5 Outages, 11-27 Parallel streams, 9-18 Passage planning, 12-1 Period, 2-13 Permanent corrections, 2-27 Position, 1-4 Position lines, 5-1, Preliminary correc Publications, 12-5 Radar bearing, $17 Radar range, 6-2 Radio direction-finder, 5-30 Raising, 6-8 Range of the tide, 3-6 Range table, 3-17 Rate, 8-5, 8-27 Refraction, 6-7, 11-8 Relative bearing, 5-13, 8-17, 9-15, 10-28 Reporting dangers, 2-20 Restricted visi Rocks, 2-11 Running fix, 10-1 Sectored lights, 2-13, 5-28 Selective Availability, 11-25 Set, 8-5, 8-27 Shaping a course, 9-27 Shelter, 12-26 ‘Small corrections, 2-29 ‘Soundings, 2-7 ‘Source data, 2-1 Spring tides, 3-2 Standard Ports, 3-5 Station pointer, 7-21 Steering compass, 5-3 Survey, 2-30 ‘Temporary corrections, 2-27 Tidal reference points, 8-0 Tidal streams, 3-13, 8-5, 12-15 Tide rips, 8-7 Transducer depth, 5-29 ‘Transferred position circle, 10-18 ‘Transferred position line, 10-5 Transit bearing, 5-19 Transit Sat-Nav, 11-1 Transverse Mercator projection, 2-4 True bearings, 5-7 True course, 4-25 True North, 4-2 UERE, 11-23, 11-26 Variation, 4-5 Vertical sextant angle, 6-13 Water speed, 8-1, 9-5 Water track, 8-2, 2 Waypoint navigation, 11-28, 12-10 Wind, 8-1 Page 0-9COASTAL NAVIGATION 1 First Principles aneanniacnncteaeetart ea etiiemia. THE NEW ZEALAND MARITIME SCHOOL MANUKAU INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGYCOASTAL NAVIGATION Lesson 1 CONTENTS Page Measurement of Arc a a wt Compass Directions. on _ tt 360 Degree Notation 2 ‘TheEarth ... vs -~ - Z io 1-2, ‘The Equator... see 1-2 Latitude and Longitude... vs - - wo 1-3 Parallels of Latitude 7 see 1-3 Meridians of Longitude 1-3 Position = aco E ce ‘The Measurement of Distance... 1S ‘The Knot om “ em a 1-5 Time _ ~ ~ oe v os 1-5 Time Calculations ... we “ “ ve a oo 1-6 Exercised aM AMSWETS nam COPYRIGHT © JANUARY 1994 Mike Scanian ‘THE NEW ZEALAND MARITIME SCHOOL, Manukau Polytechnic Protected by copyright. This lesson, any part of this lesson, or any other matenal used in this course of instruction, must not be copied or used for any purposes unless authorised by the author ‘or The New Zealand Martime SchoolFirst Principles TD in this lesson you will leam about the basic principles of navigation, including the measurement of arc and direction; the measurement of latitude and longitude; and the measurement of distance, speed, and time. Before looking at the specifics of coastal navigation, we must first re-confirm some of the basic principles upon which all forms of navigation are based. ‘Measurement of Arc Modem navigation measures arc in degrees of arc. If using a scientific calculator, ensure your calculator is set for calculations in “degrees” and not in "radians". Each degree of arc (*) may be further sub-divided into minutes ('), with sixty minutes of arc in one degree; and each minute may be further sub-divided into seconds ("), with sixty seconds of arc in one minute. Seconds of arc are seldom used nowadays in navigation, and arc is generally expressed in degrees, minutes, and decimals of a minute. For example: 63° 357 Use of the correct symbols for degrees and minutes of arc is important. Note that the minute of arc symbol should always be placed before the decimal point. Compass Directions Early navigators used compass points for indicating directions. Compass cards were divided into 32 points, because that was about the accuracy with which the compasses of those days could be read. Modem navigation uses degrees of arc for indicating direction, allowing a simpler, but more precise method. ‘A more detailed study of the compass, and its use for steering the boat and for fixing Position, will be covered in later lessons. Page 1-1COASTAL NAVIGATION 1 FIRST PRINCIPLES ‘360 Degree Notation In 360° notation there are 360 degrees around the compass card, measured clockwise around the card from 000° to 359°. North on the compass card is 000°, and East, South and West are 090°, 180° and 270° respectively. Note that when using this notation for stating directions, there should always be three figures in the direction stated; thus north-east Is Indicated as 045° and not simply as 45°. A direction of 6 degrees to the right of North is stated as 006". ‘A boat's compass can normally be read only to the nearest degree, and s0 for practical purposes, all compass directions may be rounded off to the nearest whole degree. ‘Thus 123° 25' to the nearest whole degree Is 123°. A direction of 034° 36° to the nearest whole degree is 035°. ‘The Earth ‘The Earth rotates in space about a spin axis. The two points where the spin axis pass through the Earth's surface are the Earth's geographic poles, named the True North Pole and the True South Pole. From a point directly above the True North Pole the Earth would appear to rotate in an anticlockwise direction. True North Pole Equator True South Pole Figure 1.4 ‘The Earth's surface is somewhat iregular in shape, and is also slightly flattened in polar regions, giving it the shape of an irregular oblate spheroid. ‘The Equator ‘The equator is an imaginary line inscribed around the Earth so that every position on the equator is equidistant from the True Poles. The plane of the equator passes through the centre of the Earth. Page 1-2COASTAL NAVIGATION 1 FIRST PRINCIPLES Latitude and Longitude ‘The Earth is inscribed with imaginary lines, called parallels of latitude and meridians of fongitude. Parallels of latitude always cross meridians of longitude at right angles, thus forming a ‘grid upon the surface of the Earth. Any point on the Earth's surface can then be defined as a grid reference In terms of latitude and longitude. Parallels of Latitude Parallels of latitude encircle the Earth In an eastWwest direction, each circle being parallel to the equator. Each parallel is named as an angle, the angle being measured at the Earth's centre between the equator and that parallel. QD. Figure 1.2 For greater accuracy, the angle is given In degrees, minutes, and decimals of minutes, ‘and named North or South depending upon the hemisphere. Thus the latitude of the ‘equator is 0° 00.0 and the North and South poles are 80° 00.0 N and 80° 00.0 respectively. New Zealand is in south latitude, Meridians of Longitude Meridians of longitude encircle the Earth in a north/south direction, passing through the Earth's North and South True Poles. The prime me ‘meridian passing through Greenwich. meridian ian is that The longitude of a place is given as an angle, the angle being measured at the Earth's centre between the Greenwich meridian and the meridian passing through that place. As with latitude, longitude can be expressed more accurately in degrees, minutes and decimals of a minute, and is named East or West according to which side of the Greenwich meridian the place lies. New Zealand is in east longitude. Page 1-3COASTAL NAVIGATION 1 FIRST PRINCIPLES /, # Greenwich Figure 1.3 Position The lines of latitude and longitude now provide a convenient method of giving position on the Earth's surface as a grid reference. in marine navigation, position is given as a latitude and longitude reference in this format Latitude 36° 42.6 South Longitude 175° 04'3 East Note the correct usage of the degree, minute and decimai signs, and the inclusion of the zero before the 4.3 to prevent this mistakenly being read as 43. The suffixes "South" and “East” must always be included to prevent confusion with other positions elsewhere on the Earth's surface. Note also that the latitude reference is always given before the longitude reference. Thus if the words “latitude” and “longitude” are omitted there can be no confusion. For example, this same position may be given in abbreviated form as 36° 42.6 S; 175° 04.3 E Position may also be given as a bearing and distance, to or from a convenient landmark. When using this method for stating position care must be taken to ensure that the type of bearing given is stated (Irue or magnetic), and whether the bearing is 10 or from the landmark. This method of stating position will be covered in more detail later. Page 1-4COASTAL NAVIGATION 1 FIRST PRINCIPLES ‘The Measurement of Distance The Sea Mile. A sea mile is the length of one minute of arc of latitude, measured along the meridian in that particular position. Because of the oblate spheroidal shape of the Earth, the length of the sea mile varies from about 1842.9 metres at the equator, to about 1861.7 metres at the poles. To overcome these slight differences in distance ‘measurement, the Intemational Nautical Mile has been introduced. The Nautical Mi 1852.0 metres exactly, The international Nautical Mile is a standard fixed length of The errors caused by using nautical miles instead of sea miles are negligible (less than half a metre per nautical mile in New Zealand), and for practical navigation purposes the nautical mile and sea mile may be assumed the same. Thus ‘nautical mile + 1 minute of latitude 1852.0 metres 1.8520 kilometres 6076 feet 1.18 land miles. Nautical miles may be presented in abbreviated form as "n mile", or “nm”; for example 34.5nm. Or, because the nautical mile is considered equivalent to one minute of latitude, the same symbol for a minute of arc (") may be used. For example 34.5, means 34.5 nautical miles. The Cable. A cable is one tenth of a sea mile (or nautical mile). 7 cables, for example, is equivalent to 0.7 nm. The Knot ‘The unit for measurement of speed is the knot. One knot is one International Nautical Mile per hour. \tis incorrect to Say "knots per hour’. The knot may be written in abbreviated form as "kn". Thus a boat travelling at 7 kn is travelling at a speed of 7 nautical miles per hour. Time To avoid confusion between a.m. and p.m. the 24-hour clock should always be used. Time is expressed as four figures; the first two indicating the hours of the day, from 00 to 23, and the last two indicating the minutes, from 00 to 59. Decimals are not used in time keeping, and no decimal point should be inserted between the hours and minutes. Page 1-5COASTAL NAVIGATION 1 FIRST PRINCIPLES For example: 3 am. iswritten as 0300 4 p.m. is written as 1600 8.15 a.m. is written as 0815 9.45 p.m. is written as 2145 If necessary, indicate the time standard used, for example New Zealand Standard Time (NZST), New Zealand Daylight Time (NZDT), or Greenwich Mean Time (GMT). Time Calculations ‘When doing calculations involving times, remember there are only sixty minutes in an hour, not a hundred! Example 1.1 If a boat departed an anchorage at 1030, and took 1 hour 45 minutes to complete a journey, at what time did she arrive? Departure time = 40h 30m Time taken . + Oth 45m Anival time = 12h 158m Anivaltime = 1218 Example 1.2. {f a boat arrived at her destination at 2115, after completing a journey in 2 hours 20 minutes, at what time did she depart? Arivaltime = 2h 15m Timetaken = = == 92h 20m Departure time = {gh 55m Departure time = 1855 1 When using a calculator for time calculations, remember that your calculator will calculate in hours and decimals of an hour, and not in hours and minutes. 1 To convert the decimal of an nour into minutes, multiply the decimal by 60. Page 1-6COASTAL NAVIGATION Example 1.3 2.5 hours Example 1.4 1.83 hours Example 1.5 0.25 hours 1. FIRST PRINCIPLES Zhours + (0.5 x60) mins Zhours 30 ming ‘Thour + (0.83 x 60) mins Lhour4e.8mins Ohour + (0.25 x 60) mins Qhour 15 mins W_Toconvert minutes into decimals of an hour, divide the minutes by 60. Example 1.6 1 hour 15 mins Example 1.7 2 hours 25 mins Example 1.8 S hours 45 mins 0 1 + (15 +60) hours 1 + 0.25 hours ‘L2Shours 2 + (25 +60) hours 2 + 0.417 hours 447 hours 3+ (45 +60) hours 3 + 0.750 hours 3.750 hours Page 1-7COASTAL NAVIGATION 1. FIRST PRINCIPLES Time, Speed and Distance Calculations Time, speed and distance are related to each other by the formulae Time = Distance + Speed or, Distance = Speed x Time or, Speed = Distance + Time where time is expressed in hours (and decimals of an hout), speed knots, and distance is in nai Example 1.9 What time would it take for a boat to travel a distance of 15.0 nautical miles at a speed of 6.0 knots? Time = Distance + Speed = 150 + 60 = 25hours = Rhours 30 minutes Example 1.10 How far would a boat travel in 2 hours and 33 minutes at 5.6 knots? Distance Speed x Time = 56 x 255 = 14280m Example 1.11 If a boat covers a distance of 9 miles in 1 hour 20 minutes, what is her average speed? Speed = ~—Distance «+ = Time a) Ea t223) = $15 knots Page 1-8COASTAL NAVIGATION 1. FIRST PRINCIPLES Example 1.12 At what speed should a boat travel to cover a distance of 15.5 miles in two hours? ‘Speed Distance + Time 155 + 20 Example 1.13 A boat left harbour at 1030 NZDT to travel to a bay 22.5 nautical miles away. If the boat's average speed is 8.5 knots at what time should she arrive at the bay? Time taken Departure time Time taken Arrival time Distance + Speed 28 + 85 2.65 hours 2hours 39 mins 10h 30m NZDT g2h_ 39m 13h 09m NZDT 14309 NZDT Page 1-9COASTAL NAVIGATION 1 FIRST PRINCIPLES EXERCISE 1 10 What would be the time taken for a boat to travel a distance of 10 n miles at a speed of 6 knots? If a boat travelled a distance of 12.5 nm in two hours, what was her average speed? A boat is travelling at a speed of 5.5 knots. What distance will she travel in two and a half hours? How many cables will a boat travel in § minutes if she is doing 6 knots? What would be the time taken to complete a passage of 14.0 n miles at an average speed of 5 knots? A boat left a position at 1100 NZDT and reached her destination at 1445 NZDT. ‘What was the time taken on passage? ‘A boat took 3 hours 45 minutes to complete a passage. If she departed at 1430 NZST, what was her arrival time? A boat left her anchorage at 0930 NZST, and travelled at an average speed of 8 knots to reach a destination 12 n miles away. At what time should she reach the destination? Between 1320 NZDT and 1500 NZDT 2 boat travelled at an average speed of 8 knots. What distance did she travel? ‘A navigator intends to leave a position at 2230 NZDT, and complete a joumey of 25:n miles to arrive at 0100 NZDT the following moming. What average speed is required? Page 1-10COASTAL NAVIGATION 1 FIRST PRINCIPLES ANSWERS Exercise 1 10 Time taken 1 hour 40 mins, ‘Average speed 6.25 knots Distance travelled 13.75 n miles Distance travelled 5 cables Time taken 2 hours 48 mins Time taken 3 hours 45 mins Arrival time 1815 NZST Anival time 1100 NZST Distance travelled 13.333 n miles Speed required 10 knots Page 1-11COASTAL NAVIGATION 2 ‘The Chart ie wo oS) THE NEW ZEALAND MARITIME SCHOOL MANUKAU INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY‘The Production of Charts. Chart Scale ao Chart Projection... 5 ‘The Mercator Projection Chart Titles and Numbers. ‘Tha Chart Numbering System... ‘The Chart Catalogue Units of Measurement Datums of Datums and Tides... ow Navigational Wamings .. Chart Symbols and Abbreviations Charted Rocks Navigational Lights oe ‘The Light List. Latitude and Longitude Charting a Measuring Keeping a Chart UptoDste Reporting Dangers... ‘The Reliability of Charts... ‘The Care and Use of chats... Exercise 2 Answers COASTAL NAVIGATION Lesson 2 CONTENTS: ‘Measurement Position 5 Distance on aChart... ww COPYRIGHT © JANUARY 1964 Mike Scanian, ‘THE NEW ZEALAND MARITIME SCHOOL Manukau Polytechnic. Protected by copyright. This lesson, any part of this leason, of any other materat used in this course of instruction, must not be copied or used for sny purposes uniess authorised by the author or The New Zealand Martime Schoo! 24 22 22 23 24 26 27 27 27 210 210 210 211 213 216 218 223 2:23 227 229 2-30 231 233oe The Chart snes a this lesson you will leam about the chart; the information portrayed upon the chart; the use of the chart for coastal navigation; and the care and up-keep of the chart A navigators chart is his most essential navigational aid. It is his map, representing a portion of the Earth's surface on a sheet of paper, upon which features of the sea, the coastline, land, and other information of interest to navigation is presented ‘The chart shows the navigator the positions of the various landmarks he can use to determine his position, and so it is also the navigator's worksheet, upon which he can plot his present position, monitor his past progress, and determine a safe course to ‘each his destination. The Production of Charts New Zealand charts are produced by the Hydrographic Office of the Royal New Zealand Navy. The RNZN Hydrographic Office is a member of the Intemational Hydrographic Organisation (IHO), and the information shown on our charts conforms to an intemational standard set by the 1H and used by most seafaring nations. Thus although there may be language problems when using foreign charts while overseas, there will generally only be very minor differences in the method of portraying the charted information. If you can use one New Zealand chart, then you can use any New Zealand chart and you should be able to use any chart of almost any other country of the wortd. ‘The information portrayed on charts is derived from a variety of sources. Most New Zealand coastal and harbour charts are compiled from surveys conducted by the RNZN, but information is also taken from older surveys, often made by early British ‘Admiralty expeditions; from Lands and Surveys Department surveys; and from local surveys conducted by harbour boards, port authorities, or port companies. A chart will generally indicate under its main title the origin of its information, and many charts carry @ "Source Data" diagram, as shown on chart NZ 532, This information is useful when determining the reliability of the charted information, a subject dealt with in more detail later.COASTAL NAVIGATION 2_ THE CHART Chart Scat A chart's scale, sometimes called its natural scale, is the ratio between a length ‘measured on the chart and a corresponding length measured on the Earth's surface. Scale may be stated as a ratio, for example Scale 1:100 000 or in the less commonly used format as a fraction, for example Scale 100 000 The above two examples indicate Wentical scales, in which one unit (such as 1 centimetre) on the chart represents 100 000 of the same units (100 000 centimetres) on the surface of the Earth. Charts are frequently referred to as “small scale” charts, or as “large scale" charts. ‘The larger the scale of the chart, the smaller the area covered by the chart; and the more detail can be included on it. A prudent navigator will therefore always navigate on the largest scale chart available, for this will depict the greatest amount of detail. On small scale charts ‘small dangers may appear insignificant, and perhaps go undetected. ‘Small scale charts cover large areas, and are more suited for ocean navigation purposes. These charts have scales of approximately 1:10 000 000 to approximately 1:1 000 000. Medium scale charts are more suited for coastal navigation, covering reasonable lengths of coastline with sufficient detail for a coastal passage. These charts have scales of approximately 1:300 000 to approximately 1:100 000. Large scale charts cover small areas only, such as ports, harbours, anchorages and similar areas of confined waters where a greater amount of detail is required. ‘These charts have scales of approximately 1:50 000 to approximately 1:5 000. Chart Projection You cannot peel an orange and then lay the orange peel flat on a table, without some distortion to the orange peel. In the same way, it is not possible to represent a spherical portion of the Earth's surface on a flat sheet of paper without some form of distortion. Various methods have been devised to project the Earth's surface, or portions of the Earth's surface, onto a flat paper surface. Such methods are called projections. Each type of projection has features making it preferable for certain uses, but no single method suits all requirements, and no type of projection will give a map totally free of distortion. Page 2-2COASTAL NAVIGATION 2_THE CHART Most coastal navigational charts use the Mercator method of projection, or the transverse Mercator projection, named after its inventor Gerardus Mercator. The Mercator projection. The Mercator chart projection is a mathematical method of representing the Earth's surface on a plane surface. It is best visualised by imagining a sheet of paper wrapped around a transparent globe of the Earth, the globe inscribed with parallels of latitude and meridians of longitude. The paper thus forms a cylinder around the Earth, as shown in the diagram below, with the cylinder tangential at the equator. A light source is then placed at the Earth's centre, so that the fines of latitude and longitude of the Earth are "projected" onto the paper cylinder. If the paper oylinder is now unwrapped from the Earth and laid flat, the meridians will appear on the paper as straight vertical lines, and the parallels as straight horizontal lines, crossing at right-angles as in fact they do upon the Earth's surface, However, although the meridians are equally spaced, the spacing of the patallels will vary. Spacing between the parallels will increase with their distance from the equator. The North and South poles cannot be shown on this type of projection, and so charts of polar regions are constructed by a different method of projection. ——} Meridians of Longitude — Paralells of ‘The Mercator Projection Figure 2.2 Page 2-3COASTAL NAVIGATION 2_THE CHART ‘The transverse Mercator projection. This is essentially the same as the Mercator projection, except that the cylinder is turned through 90 degrees to lie tangential to a meridian. ‘A chart constructed by Mercator projection, or by transverse Mercator projection, has several features ideally suited for coastal navigation. In particular: 1 Parallels and meridians appear as straight lines, as they do upon the Earth's surface. 1 Parallels and meridians cross each other at right-angles, as they do upon the Earth's surface, thus preserving the latitude and longitude grid system, I Angles and directions are correctly represented, with no distortion. MH Atany point on the char, the scale is the same in all directions. 1H The chart correctly represents the shape of charted features in any small area. But, as with all chart projections, there is some distortion. The spacing of the parallels of latitude on the chart will vary with distance from the equator, although they do not do so on the Earth's surface. However, within small areas this distortion is equal in all directions. ‘At any point on the chart the scale is the same in all directions, but because of latitude distortion the scale will only be exactly as stated for that chart in one latitude. ‘The chart will generally state at which latitude the quoted scale is correct; at other latitudes on the chart the scale will be slightly different. Since the latitude scale represents the scale for the measurement of distance (one nautical mile is equal to one minute of latitude), care must be taken that distance measurements are made using the latitude scale af the latitude of the place concemed. ‘An explanation of how distances are measured on the chart will be given later. Chart Titles and Numbers Navigational charts are given geographical titles, for example "Approaches to ‘Auckland’, and are also individually numbered, for example "NZ 32". Each title and number is unique, allowing charts to be individually identified and catalogued, ‘The main title of the chart is always printed on the chart's face, in a place where it will not interfere with a coastline or other charted features. Important information is given under the title, and this must always be read before the chart is used, The title appearing on the face of chart NZ 532 is reproduced on the opposite page. Note also the chart's number in the lower right-hand comer of the chart. When not in use, charts must be stored folded and flat. Vessels camying large numbers of charts have their charts stored in chart folios, each folio covering a particular part of the world, or a particular coastline. The current chart folio is kept directly under the chart table, in a convenient chart drawer where the charts are Page 2-4COASTAL NAVIGATION 2_ THE CHART NEW ZEALAND NORTH ISLAND - EAST COAST APPROACHES TO AUCKLAND DEPTHS IN METRES SCALE 1:100 000 (36°) Depths in metres (under thirty-one in metres and Secimetres) reduced ta Chari Datum which Is approximately Lowest Astronomical Tide Heights in metres. Underlined figures are drying heights above Chart Datum all other heights are above Mean High Water Springs. Navigation Marks: |ALA Maritime Buoyage System Region A (Red to Por) Projection: ‘Mercator, Positions are on Geodetic Datum 1048. Sources: For information on the quality of hydrograchy see Source Data Diagram. Topography derived mainly from Deparment of Survey and Land Information dats awicarion 40s [SATELUTE peng rosions Figure 2.3 55) available for immediate use, and folios not in current use are stowed safely away for future use. Chart numbers and titles are therefore placed on charts so that quick identification can be made whether the chart is in use, or whether it is stacked with other charts in a Page 2-5COASTAL NAVIGATION 2_THE CHART chart folio or in a chart drawer. Thus, in addition to appearing on the chart's face, the chart’s number and title will also be found on the back edge of the chart, for reference when the chart is folded and closed within a drawer or folio. That chart's particular folio number can also be recorded here, ‘And, so that a chart can be quickly located within a stack by flipping through the chart comers, the chart's number is also printed on opposite comers of the chars face. Note that the number in the top left-hand comer of a chart is printed upside-down. This is not so that the chart can be used upside-down (this is a dangerous practice), but so that the number can stil be read if the chart is inadvertently placed upside- down in its stack. ‘The Chart Numbering System ‘The numbering system used on New Zealand charts is unique to this country. Other countries have adopted their own numbering systems. New Zealand chart numbers are always prefixed with the letters "NZ" following numbering system: and use the Ocean charts: Small scale charts of the Pacific Ocean and Southem Ocean have five figure numbers, the first figure always being the number 1. For example, NZ 14600 "New Zealand including Norfolk and Campbell islands" New Zealand and surrounding waters: Small scale charts of New Zealand's Economic Zone have two figure numbers, the first figure being the number 2 or 3 For example, NZ 23 "New Zealand, North island”. Coastal charts: Medium scale New Zealand coastal charts have two figure numbers, the first figure being a 4, 5, 6, or 7 depending upon the location of the coastiin ‘The figure 4 indicates the westem coasts of the North Istand; ‘The figure 6 indicates the eastem coasts of the North Island; ‘The figure 6 indicates the eastem coasts of the South Island; ‘The figure 7 indicates the westem coasts of the South Island. For example, NZ 53 “Bream Head to Slipper Island including Hauraki Gull. Larger scale New Zealand coastal charts have three figure numbers, the first two figures being the same as the larger scale coastal chart of the same area. For example, NZ 532 “Approaches to Auckland”. Harbour charts: Large scale charts of harbours, harbour entrances, anchorages, or similar confined waters, have four figure numbers; the first three figures being the same as the next smaller scale chart within which the harbour is located. For example, NZ 5322 “Auckland Harbour", ‘Special Purpose charts: The Hydrographic Office also produces charts showing Page 2-6COASTAL NAVIGATION 2_THE CHART New Zealand's Exclusive Economic Zone, and various fishing limits. These are generally conventional charts, over-printed with additional information. Also available are ocean sounding charts, bathymetric charts, routeing charts, climatic and current charts, and ocean plotting charts. The Chart Catalogue The New Zealand Chart Catalogue (NZ 202), published by the Hydrographic Office of the Royal New Zealand Navy, lists all charts available for the New Zealand region, including relevant British Admiralty charts, ‘The catalogue pictorially shows the areas covered by each char relates to neighbouring charts, together with an index of charts gi titles, scales, and dates of publication. Also included in the catalogue is a list of selected nautical publications, authorised chart agents, in New Zealand and overseas, from which New Zealand charts and publications may be purchased. ‘The use of the chart catalogue for selecting charts for a coastal passage will be explained in a later lesson. Units of Measurement Most charts now give depth and height measurements in metres. On metric charts “Depths in Metres" will be stated beneath the charts title, and on the chart's upper ‘and lower borders. However, there are still some older imperial unit charts in use on which depths are given in fathoms and heights given in feet. Again, the units of measurement wit stated under the charts title, but particular care must be taken not to confuse metric units with imperial units. ‘metre = 3.2808 feet ‘metre = 0.8468 fathoms ‘fathom = 6 feet 1 fathom 1.8288 metres 1 foot = 0.3048 metres Datums of Measurement Depths. All depths, or "soundings", shown on the chart are given below a selected evel of water called chart datum. On most coastal charts chart datum is close to Lowest Astronomical Tide (LAT), which is the lowest predictable tide level to be expected in average meteorological conditions. This level is selected for safety reasons, for only in exceptional circumstances will the water level fall below the level of chart datum, and only on these rare occasions should the actual depth be less than is given on the chart. There should normally be ‘more water than is actually shown on the chart Page 2-7COASTAL NAVIGATION 2_THE CHART. The level selected for chart datum is always stated beneath the char's title, Depths are indicated on the chart by figures and by contour lines. The exact position of the sounding is at the centre of the space occupied by the figure. oN - » On metric charts depths are given in whole metres, with depths in metres and tenths (Gecimetres) in shallower waters. On non-metric charts depths are given in fathoms, with fathoms and feet in shallower waters, For example 6 on a metric chart indicates a depth of 6.3 metres below chart datum, 6, on a non-metric chart indicates a depth of 6 fathoms 3 feet below chart datum’ Heights. Charted heights, except drying heights, are given above a common height datum, usually Mean High Water Springs (MHWS). This datum is again selected for safety reasons; the height clearance of a bridge above water level, for example, would rarely be less than is stated on the chart The height datum used for a chart is always stated beneath the charts title. - In most cases the position of the charted height is given by a dot alongside the - figure: Figure 2.5 Page 2-8COASTAL NAVIGATION 2_ THE CHART Datums of Measurement Height datum (MHWS) Water level Height oftide Chart datum Charted Tota depth depth ' aa ee eS ee Se Se ee eee I the chan’s scale does not permit this, Such as on small isiands, rocks or islets, the height is placed alongside the feature. Any height displaced from its Correct position in this manner is placed in brackets, Drying Heights. Heights lying between the levels of chart datum and the height datum (MHWS) are called drying heights. Drying heights are always given above chart datum, meaning that if the water level ever fell to the level of chart datum that particular area would appear at the height stated above the water's surface, But, at other water levels, perhaps even at normal tow water, that area may well be covered Page 2-9COASTAL NAVIGATION 2_ THE CHART Drying heights are shown on charts as underlined figures. For example, on a metric chart: 2, if the water level was at chart datum, this area would be 0.4 metres above water level. (On non-metric charts drying heights are given in feet, and are also undertined. For example, on a non-metric chart: If the water level was at chart datum, this area would be 2 feet abave water level. Datums and Tides Whereas depths on charts are given below chart datum, tidal heights are measured above chart datum. Tidal heights for any time of day may be found in tide tables. ‘Summing the charted depth with the height of the tide given in the tide tables will therefore enable an exact depth or height to be calculated for any given place or time. ‘The relationships between charted depths and heights, and tidal heights, and ‘examples of the calculations involved, will be covered in detail in lesson 3, Most charts will also carry additional tidal height information and datum information ‘An example of this can be seen on chart NZ 532 along the lower border of the chart. Navigational Warnings Important navigational wamings, and other notes of interest to the navigator relating to the area covered by the chart, are always printed beneath the chart tile, These notes and warnings should always be read before the chart is used. Chart Symbols and Abbrevi To save space on the chart, and to prevest the chart being cluttered with unnecessary wording and explanations, features on the chart are indicated with symbols. For the ‘same reasons, many items on the chart are labelled in abbreviated form. The symbols and abbreviations used on New Zealand charts are as used on all [HO standard charts. A complete list of these symbols and abbreviations is contained in the book Symbols, Abbreviations and Terms used on Charts (NZ 201), published by the Hydrographic Office of the Royal New Zealand Navy. All navigators should be thoroughly familiar with these symbols and abbreviations, and NZ 201 is an important reference book to keep ready at hand. Neverthe-less, ‘you must !eam these symbols and abbreviations, Page 2- 10COASTAL NAVIGATION 2_ THE CHART The essence of coastal navigation is in fixing position relative to landmarks, and the relevant symbols for those landmarks must be quickly and correclly identified on the chart. And, you should be able to look at a charted coastline, and know what to expect when it is seen visually from the boat. It is of vital importance to be able to instantly recognise and interpret those chart symbols and abbreviations referring to dangers, and recognise the implications that these may have on ycur navigation. ‘An explanation of the various symbols for rocks is given below, and some other symbols and abbreviations are shown on page 2 - 12, but these are only a few of the many with which you must be familiar. All examples given here are those found on metric charts. Charted Rocks Chart datum & —_— ee s. 4 - Symbol: 8, + (4s) + # * (14) R By 3B BE 3 B2e 38 3 ge s ses 35 33 2s 3 oa” zs Be Es 2 Bas ee tg ide BSA | $48 208 323 fe 22 g08 208 353 S88 ees §Fs S's 9s F058 Bas Pas Pos as ee eo3 g°3 32 33 Size B48 re M28 8s 2355 <83 <88 <83 <é <523 Figure 2.8 Page 2-11SOASTAL NAVIGATION 2_ THE CHART ——— Depth (sounding) of 37 metres = below chart datum. Fishing prohibited in this area. Meridian of longitude. Anchoring prohibited in this area, Obstruction on the sea bed, at 29.4 metres below chart datum. Depth of 27.5 metres below chart datum, Nature of the sea bed: Fine sand, Mud and broken Shells, Takapu Rock, checked by wire ‘sweep, or diver, t0 be no less than 49 metres below chart datum. Several rocks, at various depths, with limiting danger line. ‘Small island, 21 metres above MHWS. pate Red beacon with can-shaped topmark, on Awash Rock which dries to 2.7 metres above chart datum, Edge of an overlapping chart. ‘Submarine power cable, Submarine cable Position for tabulated tidal stream data Occutting light; white, red and green sectors (full details on the lange scale chart, and in the Light List) Black, yellow and black East cardinal beacon with topmarks. Yellow and black South cardinal buoy with topmarks. z 9; Parallel of latitude. Page 2-12COASTAL NAVIGATION 2_THE CHART Navigational Lights By day, landmarks along the coast used for fixing position can be recognised and identified with their appropriate charted symbol, but by night position must be fixed using navigational lights placed at strategic positions around the coasts and on buoys and beacons, So that a light can be identified, and not confused with neighbouring lights, each light ye colour and rhythmic pattem, known as the light's character. Each light's character is indicated on the chart, in abbreviated form, and is tabulated in the Light List in the New Zealand Nautical Almanac. To identify a light, note its colour and character, and then time the light to see how often the characteristic pattem is repeated. This is the light's period. Character. A summary of light characteristics, or rhythmic light pattems, is given in the New Zealand Nautical Almanac, reproduced on the next page. The appropriate charted symbol for each character is also given. A more detailed list of the various Hight characters, symbols and abbreviations will be found in Symbols, Abbreviations and Terms used on Charts. t to duration of Note that pattems are generally identified by the ratio of duration o intervening darkness. Period. A lights period is the time taken, in seconds, to complete each pattem cycle, Elevation. A light’s elevation is the vertical distance in metres between the height datum, Mean High Water Springs (MHWS), and the light's focal plane. Range. A light's range is the distance at which the light can be seen. Various factors will affect a light's range, such as the light's elevation, your own height above sea level, the light's intensity, and the prevailing meteorological visibility and atmospheric refraction. A closer study of these factors, and examples of how a light's range can be calculated, will be covered in more detail in lesson 6. The range of a light given on the chart is the distance in nautical miles at which the fight can be seen when the actual (or meteorological) visibility is 10 miles, This is known as the light's nominal range. Colour. Unless stated otherwise, the colour of a charted navigational light is white. Coloured lights have less range than white lights, and are generally only used for identification purposes on certain buoys and beacons, to conform with the standard system of buoyage and beaconage, or to indicate particular areas around a light. A light using this latter method is known as a sectored light. Sectored lights. This light displays different colours, and in some cases different characteristics, over different areas. The light may be used to draw attention to certain areas, which may be danger areas due to rocks or shallows, or to mark fairways and indicate whether the observer is in the fairway or to one side of the fairway. Arcs of visibility and sector boundaries are marked on larger scale charts with pecked lines. Leading lights. These are two (or more) lights, placed apart horizontally and vertically, to "lead" the mariner in a certain direction. The direction of the lead is Page 2-13COASTAL NAVIGATION 2_THE CHART Fathoms and Metric Charts Fed (9h) 7 (seahing ota! atin of Kg mop ten cet) aoe ae o_x31_2r Tr Groupoccuting *9) ox eset o_o 1 Compasie grospocculing #91 oa a 9 cua-s | CCS ees sophene fig and dark eau) we mE Fusing tl avon of oh ss tan ck) Eres a Seg aig * Lorotosing we zeortones | in t | cmpemng ta] no er Wyewwwerw comeonie goon — eal nae cone) | SS a wr aoe wt Cc 5010 7-year $04 0s we conn 5 on op ack +s] oa: oy Te er Quek (81 158—uualy eae 1000 120-—tare mow) a ve et ta) vem von | CACC TEL | Ue i 15001 more—suny 34016 200—tastes oer unses) | Conran vin a © | eee | Morte Coe eo son ars | = —— Garon Srarea | O0r [Wow T ¥ ‘Sng onge ep j we | Be » . | cca ° owes o ofa ee] ws From the New Zealand Nautical Almanac Figure 2.10 Page 2-14COASTAL NAVIGATION 2_ THE CHART @ Basins % ae An Explanation of a Charted Light The light is placed on Maria Island, this island having a maximum height of 26 metres above Mean High Water Springs (MHWS). The exact posttion of the light is marked by the star-shaped symbol. This, and the magenta “lash” symbol, identifies the light as a navigational light. The light is a sectored light, the arcs and limits of each sector are shown on the chart around the light. The red sectors mark the areas around the light dangerous due to rocks. The fight has a group-flashing character, flashing in groups of three every period of 15 seconds. The light’s colour wil appear red or white, depending on the sector within which the observer lies. An observer to the north of the light will therefore see a red light flashing in groups of three every 15 seconds; and an observer to the south will s¢@ a white light flashing in groups of three every 15 seconds. The light has an elevation of 38 metres, meaning that the light's focal plane is 38 metres above Mean High Water Springs (MHWS). The white light has a nominal range of 7 nautical miles, and the red light a nominal range of 4 nautical miles, each range referring to the range of the light in 10 mile ‘meteorological visibility. given on the chart, the direction being given from seaward. When the lights are observed in line, usually with the reac light showing above the front (closer) light, the observer is then “on the leads" “Lights in line", In some cases a chart may indicate where lights appear in a line to designate certain areas, such as anchorages, cable areas, or fairway limits. The direction is again indicated on the chart, but this does not indicate a direction to be followed, Aero lights. These lights are for the use of aircraft, but if likely to be visible from Page 2-15COASTAL NAVIGATION 2_ THE CHART ‘seaward are included on marine charts with the prefix “Aero”. They are often high intensity lights and often placed at high elevation, giving them considerable range, but they are not designed for marine navigation and may be subject to changes of ‘which the marine navigator is not aware. They should therefore be used with caution, Obstruction lights. High structures such as towers, chimneys antd_ high-rise buildings, are often marked with waming lights for the use of aircraft. These are generally red in colour. Obstruction tights corsspicuous from the sea are marked on Charts, on their particular structure, but like aero lights they are not maintained for marine navigation and must be used with caution. ‘The Light List Chart scale, and available space on the chart, may preclude much of the light's information being given on the chart. More detailed information of a tight will appear on the largest scale chart of the area, but full details of all navigational lights are contained in the Light List, ‘The Light List for all New Zealand lights is published in the New Zealand Nautical Almanac. Similar lists are published in several volumes by the British Admiralty for all lights throughout the world. ‘A portion of the Light List appearing in the New Zealand Nautical Almanac the entry for Maria (sland light, the light described above, is given on the ne: An Explanation of Light List Entries Column (1) contains the individual reference number of each light. These numbers are part of an intemational numbering system, covering all lights of the world, and are the Same as those appearing in Volume K of the Admiralty List of Lights, listing all lights in the South Pacific, Southem Ocean, Australia and New Zealand area. Column (2) gives the name and location of the light. If the light has a range of 15 miles or greater, the name is given in bold type. _(M) indicates that the light is owned and operated by the Maritime Transport Division of the Ministry of Transport. Column (3) gives the latitude and longitude of the light. Column (4) gives the characteristics and colour(s) of the light. Column (5) gives the elevation of the light's focal plane, in metres above Mean High ‘Water Springs (MHWS). Column (8) gi which the the nominal range of it may be seen in 10 fe light, the dista meteorological in nautical mites at ity. Column (7) gives a description of the light structure, for recognition during the day when the light may not be shown, and the height of the structure in metres above ground level. Column (8) gives general remarks about the light. This usually includes the light's periods of flash (fl) and eclipse (ec), the intervals between flashes; sectors and arcs over which coloured sectored lights are visible: areas where a light may be ‘obscured by intervening land; and any other minor lights exhibited nearby. Page 2-16COASTAL NAVIGATION 2_THE CHART NORTH ISLAND—continued a or ae ” a GPROWR Gt Wp Wine meals 00, TAO ATION aa aa ee eBe™ a iene BERR PR s ia pare pA vo eR Ap Re MP romoemgenne Qe iar == ye ae TT Gyan nan 0s eas ae id ra Eyes Tt Gag percoen iar mas HE ee Gag paren Fer Fos ERee a We Rw fo mee vou Hae! apggrn ns » Seas Apel Det ‘A Portion of the Light List From the New Zealand Nautical Almanac Figure 2.12 Page 2-17COASTAL NAVIGATION 2_THE CHART Latitude and Longitude ‘The latitude scale on the chart extends southwards vertically down the left- and right-hand sides of the chart. The parallels of latitude run horizontally across the chart, between the left-hand and right-hand scales. ‘The longitude scale on the chart extends eastwards horizontally across the top and bottom edges of the chart. The meridians of longitude run vertically up and down the chart, between the top and bottom scales. Both latitude and longitude scales are graduated and labelled in degrees and minutes. The minutes are further graduated into one-tenth or two-tenths of a minute, depending on chart scale; a closer examination of the graduations will determine which, The graduations on chart NZ 532 are to one-tenth of a minute, Determining Latitude and Longitude from the Chart Positions in terms of latitude and longitude can be determined using parallel rules, or dividers, or both. To find the latitude of a position on the chart, place one edge of the parallel rule along the nearest parallel of latitude printed on the chart. Then “walk” the rule (or roll the rule if it is a roller type) carefully across the chart so as not to allow the rule to slip, until any edge of the rule passes through the position and the latitude scale at the side of the chart. ‘The latitude of the position can now be read from the latitude scale, The longitude of the position is found in a similar manner, except that the rule is aligned with the vertical meridians of longitude, and taken to the longitude scale at the top or bottom of the chart. As an alternative to using the parallel rule, you may find it easier, qu accurate to use dividers, as explained below. cer, and more To find latitude with dividers, place a point of the dividers on the position, and open the dividers so that the other point of the dividers reaches to the nearest parallel of latitude printed on the chart, immediately above or below the position. Without disturbing the setting of the dividers, take them to the latitude scale at the side of the chart. Place one divider point on the same printed parallel of latitude, and read the position's latitude at the dividers other point. This is demonstrated on page 2-20. ‘The longitude of a position may be found using dividers in the same manner, using the nearest printed meridian and the longitude scale. Page 2-18COASTAL NAVIGATION 2_THE CHART METHOD: Determining the Latitude and Longitude of a Position. Using dividers find the position’ distance from the Nearest printed parallel of latitude. Place the dividers on the latitude seal, with one point on the same printed parallel. - The other divider point indicates the po: tion's latitude on the latitude scale. Using dividers, find the position's distance from the Nearest printed meridian of longitude. Place the dividers on the longitude scale, with one point ‘on the same printed mer ‘The other divider point indicates the position’s longitude ‘on the longitude scale. Page 2-19COASTAL NAVIGATION 2_THE CHART Example 2.1. On chart NZ 532, find the latitude and longitude of position "x". EES Page 2-20COASTAL NAVIGATION 2_THE CHART Plotting a Latitude and Longitude Plotting position from a given latitude and longitude may be done using parallel rules and dividers, as fottows. First, locate the appropriate latitude on the latitude scale at the side of the chart, and the longitude on the longitude scale at top or bottom of the chart, to determine approximately in which area of the chart the required position will lie. Place the parallel rule on the chart in the approximate area of the required position. Align the rule with the nearest parallel of latitude printed on the chart, with one end of the rule extending onto the latitude scale. Now “walk” (or roll) the rule up or down the latitude scale to the latitude of the required position, taking care not to let the rule slip. With @ pencil, now draw in a new parallel for the required latitude in the approximate longitude of the required position The parallel rules may be used in the same manner, using a nearby printed meridian and the longitude scale, to construct a new meridian at the required longitude, however, the longitude may now be plotted in a quicker method by using dividers. Place the dividers on the longitude scale, with one point on the longitude of the required position. Open the dividers to the left or right along the longitude scale to reach the nearest meridian of longitude printed on the chart. Without disturbing the setting of the dividers, now take them to the new parallel of latitude you drew with the parallel rule. Place one point of the dividers on the same printed meridian, and the other point, to the left or right as appropriate, will mark the required longitude on the required latitude, This procedure is demonstrated in example 2.2, on the next page. METHOD: —_ Plotting a Position from a Given Latitude _ and Longitude. Determine the approximate area on the chart in which the required position lies. With parallel rules and pencil, now construct anew. parallel of latitude in the area where the required position lies, atthe given latitude. "With dividers, measure the distance along the longitude _Scale between the given longitude and the nearest _ Meridian printed on the chart. : 4 | Take the divider tothe new parallel constructed in 2 -§ Transfer the same distance from the same printed eS ‘meridian, along the new parallel tn the same direction. “This gives the position in the required latitude and longitude. Page 2-21COASTAL NAVIGATION 2_THE CHART Example 2.2 On chart NZ 532, plot the position latitude 36° 26'.5 South; longitude 175° 38.0 East. Longitude te | 175° 98.0 East Position Lat 36° 26'.5 S; Long 178° 38'.0 E Latitude 36" 26.5 South Page 2 - 22COASTAL NAVIGATION 2_THE CHART Charting a Position When a boat's position is “fixed”, by any of the position-fixing methods deait with in later lessons, the position must be recorded on the chart in a recognisable manner. This is so that at a later time any person can refer back to that position, and other ast positions, to monitor his boat's progress. The conventional chartwork method of marking a boat's position-fix, or “fix’, is with a dot, surrounded with a circle to make the fix readily identifiable on a chart that may well be cluttered with other symbols and lines. ‘As a convenient reference, every position fix should always be labelled with the time at which that fix was made. There are other symbols used for marking positions on the chart, depending on whether the position is an estimated position, a dead-reckoned position, or a hypothetical position used in a chartwork plot. These other symbols will be explained later, but always mark definite fixes on the chart with the correct symbols, together with their appropriate times, as illustrated below. Figure 2.15 Measuring Distance on a Chart It will be remembered from lesson 1 that one nautical mile (or sea mile) is equivalent to one minute of latitude. The latitude scale, at the sides of the chart, therefore provides the scale of distance in nautical miles. HM Never use the longitude scale for measuring distance. One minute of longitude is not equivalent in length to one minute of latitude. MI Never use your chart upside-down, or sideways, on your chart table, This may lead to mistaking the latitude scale with the longitude scale. Your chart should always be woright (North uppermost) on the char table. Page 2-23COASTAL NAVIGATION 2_ THE CHART Remember also, as stated earlier, the Mercator projection distorts the latitude scale. on a Mercator chart, distances must always be measured using the latitude scale at that same latitude. Distances on the chart are measured using the dividers. An example is shown on the next page. To measure the distance between two charted positions, place one point of the dividers on the first position, and then open the dividers until the other point is on the second position. Then, without disturbing the setting of the dividers, take them to the latitude scale horizontally alongside the positions and read off the measured distance on the latitude scale. One minute of latitude is one nautical mile. This is demonstrated in example 2.3, If the distance between the two charted positions exceeds the span of the dividers, set the dividers to @ convenient distance from the latitude scale, say 10 miles, and then *step" off the distance by walking the dividers across the chart, from the first position to the second, in steps of ten miles. Any remaining distance of less than ten miles can then be measured by closing the dividers to the remaining distance, measuring this along the latitude scale, and adding this figure to the total. This is demonstrated in example 2.5. METHOD: Measuring Distance on the Chart For short distances: 1 Span the distance with the dividers. 2 Take the dividers to the latitude scale, at the same \atitude. 3 Read the distance in nautical miles from the latitude ‘scale. One nautical mile is equivalent to one minute. of latitude. For longer distances: 4 From the latitude scale, set the dividers to a convenient distance, for example 10 nautical miles. 2 Measure the distance in steps of ten mil 3 Measure the remaining distance and add this to the total. Page 2-24COASTAL NAVIGATION 2_THE CHART Example 2.3 Find the distance between positions "A" and "B", on chart NZ 532. ——— Example 2.4 On chart NZ 532, find the distance between the boat's 1200 position and Brazier Rock beaconCOASTAL NAVIGATION 2_THE CHART Example 2.5 On the chart below, find the distance between positions 38° 57.0 S; 173° 10.0 E and 39° 22.0 S; 173° 151.0 E. 39° 22" 173° 18.0 ECOASTAL NAVIGATION 2_THE CHART Keeping a Chart Up to Date Changes are constantly taking place along any coastline. Banks and river bars shift position; new structures and new navigational lights are constructed, and existing structures and lights are altered; areas are being re-claimed; and new dangers are frequently discovered. With each change, chart will progressively become more and more out of date. ‘An up to date chart is an asset. But a chart with obsolescent or inaccurate information on it, or a chart with information missing from it, will be of litle value to the navigator and could well prove more of a danger than an asset. Changes to marine navigational charts, and other nautical publications, are published as Notices to Mariners. New Zealand Notices to Mariners. These are a collection of Notices, published weekly by the Hydrographic Office of the Royal New Zealand Navy. They contain the information necessary for the mariner to keep all his New Zealand charts and publications corrected, and also bring to his attention important navigational warnings. ‘The Notices are available gratis at authorised chart agents throughout the country, or, an annual subscription to cover postage costs will place you on a regular mailing list. (Notices to Mariners are also published by the British Admiralty, containing wamings and corrections to British Admiralty charts and publications throughout the world.) For reference, each Notice is consecutively numbered commencing at the beginning of each year. Notices containing corrections to charts may have their corrections classified as temporary corrections, aS preliminary corrections, or as small corrections. Temporary corrections. These advise of temporary changes that have been made to charted features, for example the temporary shift or removal of a navigational buoy for maintenance purposes. ‘A temporary Notice is identified by an additional (T) following its consecutive number. ‘Temporary corrections to a chart should be made in pencil, following the instructions given in the Notice. The year and Notice number should be recorded in pencil alongside the carrection for reference ‘The correction can later be rubbed out when the Notice cancelling the correction is, received. Preliminary corrections. These wam in advance that a change is going to be made, such as a forewaming that a navigational buoy is going to be permanently shifted to a new position at a given later date. A preliminary Notice is identified by an additional (P) following its consecutive number. Preliminary corrections should also be made in pencil, and the reference year and number recorded. Later, when the Notice is received that the change has actually been made, the pencilled correction is then rubbed out and a permanent correction made to the chart as a "small correction”, Page 2-27COASTAL NAVIGATION 2_THE CHART A Correction to the chart froma Notice to Mariners 1 From a weekly edition of a Notices to Mariners, Notice number 22 of year 1993 is noted as a correction to chart NZ532: NOTE: [290/92] advises that the last correction to chart NZ532 was given in Notice number 330 of year 1992. Nz2293 NEW ZEALANO - North sland - Hauraki Gulf - D'Urvile Rocks ~ Amendmentto Char. (chan nz 632 22082] Inset Ding height, 2) mates se aga, 175061 E Hysographie Oe, ANZ. 2 The correction is made to chart NZ532, in waterproof ink: 3 Record of the correction is noted at the chart’s bottom left hand corner. smaneorestons JQ92~ S¢D~ 350 | 4 Acheck is made that the previous correction, 330 of year 1992 has been made to the chart. Page 2-28COASTAL NAVIGATION 2_THE CHART ‘Small corrections. These are permanent corrections made to the chart. They ‘should be made on the chart in waterproof ink, preferably violet in colour. ‘The correction is made as directed in the Notice. When correcting a charted feature, Just nealty cross out the original information, and write the new it, Do not allow the correction to obliterate any other information already on the chart. ‘As a record that the correction has duly been made, the year and Notice number is then noted, also in waterproof ink, in the special space provided at the bottom left- hand comer of the chart. The Notice will also inform you of the previous small correction to that char should check that this previous correction has also been made and recorded. and you ‘An example of a Notice containing a small correction, the correction itself, and the ‘appropriate record, is shown on the previous page. Blocks. If a large portion of the chart requires changing, or if several changes are to be made in one area, a re-print of that portion of the chart may be included in the weekly Notices fo Mariners, known as a block. The biock is cut out and neatly aligned and pasted over the affected area on the chart. New editions. If a chart requires major revision, it is withdrawn and a new edition of the chart is published. A Notice is issued to advise of the new edition's publication. (A chart’ edition and date of publication is given below the charts lower border.) Other corrections. The Notices to Mariners also contain any corrections required to be made to other nautical publications, such as the Nautical Almanac, the New Zealand Nautical Almanac, the Admiralty List of Lights, the Admiralty List of Radio Signals, and the Admiraty Sailing Directions (Pilots). Navigational wamings. — Wamings conceming safety of navigation, and other ‘general information of interest to mariners, is also included in the weekly editions of the Notices to Mariners. The New Zealand editions of the Notices only include warnings relevant to New Zealand coastal waters and surrounding ocean regions. The British Admiralty editions include wamings for areas world-wide. Annual Summary. A summary of New Zealand Notices stil in force, including Temporary and Preliminary Notices, is issued annually by the Hydrographic Office. Editions of the annual summary can be obtained gratis from authorised chart agents. A similar annual summary is also published by the British Admiralty. Reporting Dangers ‘Although New Zealand's marine charts are prepared and published by the Royal New Zealand Navy, these charts are forthe use of all who go to sea, Every effort is made by the Hydrographic Office to ensure that the published charts are as accurate as possible, and the Notices fo Mariners enable seafarers to maintain the accuracy of their charts. In this respect, the Hydrographic Office welcomes reports from all seafarers, Naval, ‘commercial or pleasure, of any changes that need to be made to charts, and of any errors or discrepancies found on them. it is from such reports that many Notices originate. Page 2-29COASTAL NAVIGATION 2 THE CHART If you know of or discover any new or previously undiscovered or reported danger, or know of any information appearing on a chart that is incorrect, or find any change to a navigational aid that is not charted or appearing in the Light List, you should notify the Hydrographic Office immediately. In urgent cases you may report your finding by radio through a coast station as a Securité message, but in all cases also make your repart in writing as a "Hydrographic Note" to the Hydrographic Office. ‘Samples of Hydrographic Notes, blank forms, full instructions for making and forwarding the Notes, and the address of the Hydrographic Office are included ‘New Zealand Nautical Almanac and in the weekly and annual editions of the Notices. ‘A recommended method of forwarding such information to the Hydrographic Office is to mark your findings in red on a cutting from the largest large scale chart of the area, Forward your chart, together with any other useful data such as echo-sounder recordings, to the address given in the Almanac. Receipt will be acknowledged by the Hydrographic Office, and your chart will be replaced. The Reliability of Charts, The information given on any chart must never be taken for granted, No chart is infallible, every chart is liable to be inaccurate. The degree of reliability you place on ‘a chart must depend on several factors: Quality of the survey. Soundings shown on the chart should be regular and close together. Treat with caution any large blank spaces on the chart with few or no soundings. Depth and height contours should be continuous, with no broken or discontinued lines. Detail on the land should be good, with no blank areas, The coastline should be continuous, with no pecked stretches of coastline indicating uncertain or lack of information. Date of the survey. The dates of the one or more surveys from which the chart is compiled are given under the chart's main tie, and often in a separate Source Data diagram. Be wary if the survey is not reasonably modem. Alterations since the survey. In some areas the sea bed is unstable and depths may have changed considerably since the last survey of that area was made. This is particulary relevant around many coastlines of New Zealand, where volcanic activity and under-sea earthquakes frequently disturb the sea bed. Coral reefs constantly grow and change shape, and shifting banks, bars and sandwaves often alter charted depths. Chart scale, For the reasons described on page 2 - 2, a small scale chart cannot show as much detail as a large scale chart. On small scale charts small dangers appear insignificant, and may go undetected. Always use the largest scale chart available, Chart corrections. Refer to the date of the char's edition at the base of the chart to determine how recent is the date of publication. Refer also to the record of smati corrections at the chart's bottom left-hand comer to see how up to date, or out of date, the chart is. Page 2-30COASTAL NAVIGATION 2_THE CHART Distortion of the chart paper. For various reasons, during the process of its Printing the chart may suffer distortion. Normally this distortion is not sufficient to seriously affect navigation, but bearings of objects may not plot correctly. Similarly, during the charts lifetime the chart paper may periodically distort, as the paper shrinks or stretches with use and with variations in the atmosphere's humidity. At any time, during use or before purchase, distortion of the chart can be checked by measuring the dimensions of chart's inner borders and comparing these measurements with the correct dimensions printed in millimetres near the chart's bottom right-hand comer. The Care and Use of Charts Aways use the chart on a firm, fat surface, Keep the chart dry. A wet chart stretches, and may not retum to its original size afier drying charts soak up drink. The drink may dry, but the stain will rem Permanent corrections are made to the chart in ink, but all other chartwork ‘must be done with a soft pencil. Do not have a pen or ball-point pen anywhere ‘near your chart in case you inadvertently pick it up, instead of your chart pencil, to plot a position when the voyage is over, erase your charts carefully with a soft white eraser. (f involved in a collision or grounding, do not erase your charts. The formation plotted on them may be useful in any investigation or insurance ) . Keep cups of drinks well away from the chart table. Boats roll, cups spill, and a al WE Regularly update and replace your charts, and regularly apply the corrections from the Notices fo Mariners. Replace any chart which becomes damaged from excess use. if excessive use of an eraser means you cannot see those very tiny rocks on your chart, they may make a very large hole in your boat. BS When not in use, fold the chart to protect its face. index your charts in folios, and stow the folio with those charts for your current stage of the voyage where they are immediately available. IH Stow folios which are not in current use safely away in flat, dry drawers. I it wearing wet-weather gear, spread a dry towel along the chart table's nearside edge before working on the chart. Harbour charts used for reference during harbour transit may be folded more than once and placed in a clear plastic pack for use on deck. But a coastal navigation chart should only be folded once, at its original crease. Too many creases or folds in the chart will cause parallel rules to slip, distortion of the Paper, and inaccurate plotting. a Never use a chart upside-down or on its side, to prevent mistaking the longitude scale with the latitude scale. 1H Never use one chart placed over another open chart on the chart table. You ‘may inadvertently use the scale at the edge of the undemeath chart, instead of ‘on the chart you are using. Page 2-31COASTAL NAVIGATION 2_THE CHART. EXERCISE 2 Give the latitude and longitude of the following features on chart NZ 532; 1. Tiritii Matangi Island lighthouse. 2 Rangitoto Island summit. State the meanings of the symbols and abbreviations shown on chart NZ 532 in the following positions: 3 Latitude 36° 25'6 South; Longitude 175° 25:2 East. 4 Latitude 36° 45.5 South; Longitude 175° 24:4 East. 5 Latitude 36° 54'.0 South; Longitude 175° 05.0 East Using chart NZ 532: © Fully describe the light shown on Tiritini Matangi island, 7 Using the Light List in the New Zealand Nautical Almanac, describe how you would recognise the light structure in position 36° 42.9 S; 174° 45'.0 E during daylight hours. 8 Find the shortest distance, in nautical miles, between Tiritiri Matangi Island and the end of Whangaparoa Peninsula. 9 Find the distance in nautical between position 36° 40'.0 S; 174" 50.0 & and position 36° 40.0 S; 175° 00.0 E. 10 Find the distance in nautical miles from position 36° 23'.8 S; 174* §3'.5 E to the anchorage in Port Jackson (approximate longitude 175° 20°. E). Page 2-32COASTAL NAVIGATION 2_THE CHART ANSWERS Exercise 2 1 36°36" $;174° 53.8 2 36°47.48;174° 51.45 3 The direction of the flood tidal stream. 4 Arock which covers and uncovers, and dries to 1.7 metres above chart datum, 5 Awreck, showing any portion of its hull of superstructure at the level of chart datum, 6 —_Awhite light flashing at 15 second intervals, elevation 91, metres above MHWS, nominal range 18 miles. 7 Ametal column, 2 metres high. 8 1.90m, 9 8:05am. 10 22.35.nm. Page 2-33The Tide Tables 3 THE NEW ZEALAND MARITIME SCHOOL MANUKAU INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY es g ISN) te ea ptedLy PEPART A Tides... The Cause of Tides ow Spring and Neap Tides Tidal Heights ee COASTAL NAVIGATION Lesson 3 ‘Standard and Secondary Ports ... ‘Standard Ports ‘The Range of the Tide 7 ‘The Duration of the Tide... ‘Secondary Ports ‘Tidal Streams Exercise 3A Blank Secondary Port Pro-F¢ on Answersto3A ew PART B. To Find the Height of Tide at a Required Time To Find the Time of a Required Tidal Height... Blank Pro-Forma Graph cs ‘Complex Tidal Height Problems Exerise3B 0 we Answersto3B oe Blank Secondary Port Pro-Formas Tide Table Extracts, First edition January 1994 Revised edition March 1996 COPYRIGHT © MARCH 1996 ‘Mike Scanian ‘THE NEW ZEALAND MARITIME SCHOOL Manukau Polytechnic. Protected by copyright This lesson, any part of this lesson, of any other material used in this, course of instruction, must not be copied or used for any purposes unless authorised by the author ‘or The New Zealand Marttime School 317 218 a9 320 321 3-28‘StaoanenenomaRRN a SR The Tide Tables sense ee PARTA 1 inthis par of the lesson you will leam how to use the New Zealand Tide Tables to find the times and heights of tides at ports and places in New Zealand, and how to use the tidal stream tables. ‘The Tide Tables are published each year by the Hydrographic Office of the Royal New Zealand Navy. The tables are available as separate publications, or are available included in the New Zealand Nautical Almanac. Although the figures within the tables will change each year, the layout of the tables, and the method of using them, remains essentially the same, You should also have your own current edition of the Tide Tables for use on your boat. You are encouraged to study your own tables to become thoroughly familiar with their use and layout. Read the notes and explanations given in the front of your Tide Tables. MI At the back of this lesson are Tide Table extracts. These extracts are not intended to represent any particular year, and are for demonstration and instructional purposes for these lessons only. Use these extracts fer all examples and exercises in this lesson, and in all future lessons and questions involving the use of Tide Tables. Do not use these extracts for practical Purposes aboard your boat Tides AA tide is a vertical movement of water, the water moving up and down under the daily influence of the Sun and the Moon, These vertical movements do, however, cause horizontal flows, called tidal streams. We will look at tidal streams latet'in this, lesson ‘The Cause of the Tides Tides are caused by the forces of gravity. It is the Earth's gravitational force which keeps us and the sea on the surface of the Earth, but the Sun and the Moon also exert a gravitational force felt on the Earth as they pass overhead. As the Moon passes overhead it pulls the sea surface towards i, producing a high water level directly beneath its overhead position. Centrifugal forces will also cause another high water level on the opposite side of the Earth. These two high water levels are called “high tides". On the remaining two sides of the Earth, where the Moon's Gravity has least effect, there are "low tides” Page 3-1COASTAL NAVIGATION 3. THE TIDE TABLES Low Water High High Water Water Moon Low Water These two high tides and two low tides follow the Moon around the Earth as a tidal "wave". In a period of a lunar day, any place on the Earth will experience two high tides and two low tides. Spring and Neap Tides In the same way, the Sun's gravity also affects the heights of the water, but because the Sun is further away than the Moon, its influence is considerably less. If both Sun and Moon are acting together in the same place higher tides than normal are experienced, with corresponding lower tides. These are called spring fides and ‘occur at about the times of new moon and full moon. Low Water Springs High High avatar, Water a Springs Springs “n ‘Moon Low water ‘Springs Page3-2COASTAL NAVIGATION 3_THE TIDE TABLES If the Sun and Moon are acting against each other, high tides are not as high as normal, and low tides are not as low as normal. These are called neap tides, and ‘occur at about the times of half-moon. High Water Neaps Low. Low Water Water Neaps Neaps High Water Neaps Moon These tidal movements are not entirely regular, because the paths of the Sun and Moon across the sky vary throughout the year. However, because the relative sitions of the Earth, Sun and Moon are predictable, the times and heights of the tides can be calculated. These are called tidal predictions, and are the basis of the Tide Tables. Tidal Heights ‘The Tide Tables give the predicted heights of high tide and low tide above the chart datum of the largest scale chart of that location. It will be remembered from lesson 2 that depths of water, or soundings, on a chart are given below chart datum. Water level ~~ Height of tide ttn ee ep == Chart Datum — Charted depth Sea bed Page 3-3COASTAL NAVIGATION 3_ THE TIDE TABLES: (On rare occasions, during spring tides, the level of low tide may fall below the level of chart datum. On such occasions the predicted tidal height in the Tide Tables is preceded with a minus sign. To calculate the total depth of water at any location, the predicted tidal height for that ovation is added to the charted depth. Take particular care if tidal heights are preceded with a minus sign, as showm in the following examples. Example 3.1. _ If the predicted tidal height is 2.2 metres, and the charted depth for ‘tat location is 4.5 metres, what is the total depth of water? Charted depth 4.5 metres Predicted height of tide = (2.2 metres Answer: Total depth of water = © 6.7. metres Example 3.2. __ If the predicted tidal height is -0.2 metres, and the charted depth for that location is 2.5 matras, what is the total depth of water? Charted depth = 25metres Predicted height of tide = 0.2 metres Answer. Totaldepthofwater == = 2a. melres IM Remember that the Tide Tables give predicted tidal heights in metres. If using an older fathoms chart, you must first convert the units. Conversion tables are given on charts and in the Tide Tables. Caution The times and heights of tides given in the Tide Tables are predictions only. These predictions cannot take weather conditions into account. I strong or prolonged winds may affect the predicted times of tides, and also their predicted heights. MH Unusually high or low barometric pressures may affect the predicted heights of tides. You must therefore regard the Tide Table predictions with caution, particularly in adverse weather conditions. You will find more information on these effects in the explanatory notes given in the Tide Tables. Page 3-4