EMMI by Niraj Kandel

ELECTRICAL
MEASUREMENTS AND
MEASURING
INSTRUMENTS
ernirajkandel.blogspot.com
ER. NIRAJ KANDEL
Electrical Measurements and Measuring Instruments | 1
Table of Contents
MARKS DISTRIBUTION .................................................................................................................................................... 3
UNIT 1. ELECTRICAL MEASURING INSTRUMENT ......................................................................................................... 4
1.1 INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................................................................................... 4

1.2 TYPES AND APPLICATION OF INDICATING, RECORDING, INTEGRATING, ANALOG AND DIGITAL MEASURING INSTRUMENTS................. 4
1.3 ESSENTIAL FEATURES OF INDICATING INSTRUMENTS (DEFLECTING, BALANCING AND DAMPING TORQUE), THEIR CONSTRUCTION AND
OPERATING PRINCIPLES. ........................................................................................................................................................... 5
Deflecting Torque (Td) ................................................................................................................................................... 5

Controlling Torque (Tc) .................................................................................................................................................. 5
Spring Control: ............................................................................................................................................................................. 6
Gravity Control ............................................................................................................................................................................. 6
Damping Torque (Tdamp) ................................................................................................................................................ 6
1.4 MOVING COIL INSTRUMENT – CONSTRUCTION, OPERATING PRINCIPLE, SCALE FEATURES AND APPLICATION AS D.C. AMMETER AND
VOLTMETER........................................................................................................................................................................... 8
Permanent Magnet Moving Coil Instrument (PMMCI) ................................................................................................. 8
1.5 MOVING IRON INSTRUMENT (MI) – CONSTRUCTION, OPERATING PRINCIPLE, SCALE FEATURES AND APPLICATION AS A.C. AMMETER AND
VOLTMETER. ........................................................................................................................................................................ 13
A) ATTRACTION TYPE MI INSTRUMENT ................................................................................................................................ 13

B) REPULSION TYPE MI INSTRUMENT .................................................................................................................................. 14
1.6 ELECTRODYNAMOMETER INSTRUMENT – CONSTRUCTION, OPERATING PRINCIPLE, SCALE FEATURES AND APPLICATION AS AMMETER,
VOLTMETER, WATTMETER AND POWER FACTOR METER. ............................................................................................................... 17
1.7 CATHODE-RAY OSCILLOSCOPE – BASIC CONSTRUCTION, OPERATION AND APPLICATION. ......................................................... 19
UNIT 2. MEASUREMENT OF RESISTANCE .................................................................................................................. 21
2.1 CLASSIFICATION OF RESISTANCE. ................................................................................................................................. 21

2.2 MEASUREMENT OF LOW RESISTANCE USING AMMETER AND VOLTMETER METHOD AND KELVIN DOUBLE BRIDGE METHOD. ........... 21
2.3 MEASUREMENT OF MEDIUM RESISTANCE USING WHEATSTONE BRIDGE METHOD. ................................................................ 26
2.4 MEASUREMENT OF HIGH RESISTANCE AND CONTINUITY USING MEGGER ............................................................................. 29
UNIT 3. MEASUREMENT OF INDUCTANCE AND CAPACITANCE ................................................................................. 31
3.1 MAXWELL’S INDUCTANCE BRIDGE AND ANDERSON BRIDGE FOR INDUCTANCE MEASUREMENT................................................. 31
3.2 DE SAUTY BRIDGE AND SCHERING BRIDGE FOR CAPACITANCE MEASUREMENT. .................................................................... 38
UNIT 4. EXTENSION OF MEASURING RANGE OF INSTRUMENTS ............................................................................... 44
4.1 SHUNTS AND MULTIPLIERS – USE AND CHARACTERISTICS. ................................................................................................ 44

4.2 MULTI-RANGE METERS – AMMETER, VOLTMETER, OHMMETER AND MULTIMETER. .............................................................. 50
UNIT 5. POTENTIOMETER ......................................................................................................................................... 59
5.1 OPERATING PRINCIPLE, CONSTRUCTION, CONNECTION INTO ELECTRIC CIRCUIT AND APPLICATION OF D.C. POTENTIOMETER. ......... 59
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5.2 OPERATING PRINCIPLE, CONSTRUCTION, AND APPLICATION OF AC OR INDUCTIVE POTENTIOMETER .......................................... 67
UNIT 6. MEASUREMENT OF POWER, ENERGY AND FREQUENCY .............................................................................. 72
6.1 POWER MEASUREMENT IN SINGLE-PHASE WITH WATTMETER AND THREE-PHASE WITH TWO AND THREE WATTMETER METHOD. .... 72
6.2 REACTIVE POWER MEASUREMENT USING VAR METER..................................................................................................... 87
6.3 SINGLE-PHASE AND THREE PHASE ENERGY MEASUREMENT USING SINGLE AND THREE PHASE ENERGY METER. ............................. 89
6.4 MEASUREMENT OF FREQUENCY USING FREQUENCY METER. ............................................................................................... 4
6.5 MEASUREMENT OF MAXIMUM DEMAND USING MAXIMUM DEMAND METER. ........................................................................ 9
6.6 APPLICATION OF ‘TIME OF DAY’ (TOD) METER ............................................................................................................. 13
UNIT 7. MEASURING INSTRUMENTS FOR MEASUREMENT OF NON-ELECTRICAL QUANTITIES ................................. 14
7.1 THERMOCOUPLE – CONSTRUCTION, OPERATION AND APPLICATION IN MEASUREMENT OF VOLTAGE OR CURRENT. ....................... 14
Construction of Thermocouple Type Instrument ......................................................................................................... 15
Thermoelectric elements: .......................................................................................................................................................... 15
Vacuum Thermo-elements:........................................................................................................................................................ 16
Advantages of Thermocouple Type Instruments ......................................................................................................... 16
Disadvantages of Thermocouple Type Instruments .................................................................................................... 16
7.2 LUX-METER – CONSTRUCTION, OPERATION AND APPLICATION IN MEASUREMENT OF ILLUMINATION ON WORKING PLANE. ............ 16
7.3 PIEZOMETER – CONSTRUCTION, OPERATION AND APPLICATION. ........................................................................................ 17
7.4 TRANSDUCERS – CONSTRUCTION, OPERATION AND APPLICATION IN MEASUREMENT OF DISTANCE, VELOCITY AND STRAIN. ............ 17
UNIT 8. INSTRUMENT TRANSFORMERS. ................................................................................................................... 18
8.1 CURRENT TRANSFORMER – OPERATING PRINCIPLE, CONSTRUCTION, CHARACTERISTICS AND APPLICATION IN MEASUREMENTS. ...... 18
8.2 POTENTIAL TRANSFORMER – OPERATING PRINCIPLE, CONSTRUCTION, CHARACTERISTICS AND APPLICATION IN MEASUREMENTS. .... 18
UNIT 9. DIGITAL MEASURING INSTRUMENT ............................................................................................................. 19
9.1 OPERATING PRINCIPLE, CONSTRUCTION, CHARACTERISTICS AND APPLICATION IN MEASUREMENTS. .......................................... 19
Marks Distribution
Theory Practical
Course Title Asst. Final Asst. Final Total
Marks Marks Marks Marks
Electrical Measurements and Measuring Instruments 20 80 30 20 150

Unit 1. Electrical Measuring Instrument
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Types and application of indicating, recording, integrating, analog and digital measuring
instruments.

1.3 Essential features of indicating instruments (deflecting, balancing and damping torque),
their construction and operating principles.
Deflecting Torque (Td)
Controlling Torque (Tc)

Spring Control:
Gravity Control
Damping Torque (Tdamp)

1.4 Moving coil instrument – construction, operating principle, scale features and application as D.C.
ammeter and Voltmeter.
Permanent Magnet Moving Coil Instrument (PMMCI)

Solution: Given,
Voltage drop = ImRm=0.5V
Rm=1kΩ
So, Im= Voltage drop /Rm = 0.5/1000 A= 0.0005A.
Shunt (S) = 0.02 Ω
I=?
We know,
Thus,
I=0.0005 * (1+1000/0.02) = 25.0005 A
When I=10A,
Value of S is to be calculated.
i.e. from above equation,

S= ImRm/(I-Im) = 0.5/(10-0.0005) =0.05Ω
Similarly for I=75A,
S= ImRm/(I-Im) = 0.5/(75-0.0005) =0.006677Ω

1.5 Moving iron instrument (MI) – construction, operating principle, scale features and
application as a.c. ammeter and voltmeter.
a) Attraction Type MI Instrument

b) Repulsion Type MI Instrument

1.6 Electrodynamometer instrument – construction, operating principle, scale features and
application as ammeter, voltmeter, wattmeter and power factor meter.

1.7 Cathode-ray Oscilloscope – basic construction, operation and application.

Unit 2. Measurement of Resistance
2.1 Classification of resistance.
2.2 Measurement of low resistance using ammeter and voltmeter method and Kelvin double
bridge method.

2.3 Measurement of medium resistance using Wheatstone bridge method.

2.4 Measurement of high resistance and continuity using Megger

Unit 3. Measurement of Inductance and Capacitance
3.1 Maxwell’s inductance bridge and Anderson bridge for inductance measurement.

3.2 De Sauty Bridge and Schering Bridge for capacitance measurement.

Unit 4. Extension of measuring range of instruments
4.1 Shunts and Multipliers – use and characteristics.

4.2 Multi-range meters – ammeter, voltmeter, ohmmeter and Multimeter.

Unit 5. Potentiometer
5.1 Operating principle, construction, connection into electric circuit and application of D.C.
potentiometer.

5.2 Operating principle, construction, and application of AC or Inductive potentiometer

Unit 6. Measurement of Power, Energy and Frequency
6.1 Power measurement in single-phase with wattmeter and three-phase with two and three
wattmeter method.

6.2 Reactive power measurement using VAR meter.

6.3 Single-phase and three phase energy measurement using single and three phase energy
meter.

6.4 Measurement of frequency using frequency meter.

6.5 Measurement of maximum demand using maximum demand meter.

6.6 Application of ‘Time of Day’ (TOD) meter
A Time of Day Energy meter or a Time of Usage Energy meter is an Energy meter which measures the
energy consumed and also the time of day it was consumed.
The time of day energy meter, is used in many countries where the consumer is charged based on the
time of the day the power was consumed.
The Time of Day Energy meter gives it output in the form of slabs with the energy units and the time. The
utility then applies the cost per unit depending on the time and the customer gets the final bill.
The Time of day helps encourage customers to use power during the off-peak hours. It is also used in
Power wheeling in which private power producers use the transmission lines of a utility to transfer
power.

Unit 7. Measuring Instruments for measurement of Non-electrical
Quantities
7.1 Thermocouple – construction, operation and application in measurement of voltage or
current.
A thermocouple is an electrical device consisting of two dissimilar conductors forming electrical junctions
at differing temperatures. A thermocouple produces a temperature-dependent voltage as a result of the
thermoelectric effect, and this voltage can be interpreted to measure temperature. Thermocouples are a
widely used type of temperature sensor.
Basically thermocouple consists of two different metals which are placed in contact with each other as
shown in the diagram.
First part is called the heater element because when the current will flow through this, a heat is produced
and thus the temperature will increased at the junction. At this junction an emf is produced which is
approximately proportional to the temperature difference of hot and cold junctions.
The emf produced is a DC voltage which is directly proportional to root mean square value of electric
current. A permanent magnet moving coil instrument is connected with the second part to read the current
passing through the heater. One question must be arise in our mind that why we have used only a
permanent magnet coil instrument? Answer to this question is very easy it is because PMMC
instrument has greater accuracy and sensitivity towards the measurement of DC value.
The thermocouple type instruments employ thermocouple in their construction. Thermocouple type
instruments can be used for both ac and DC applications. Also thermocouple type of instruments has
greater accuracy in measuring the current and voltages at very high frequency accurately.
Now we will look how the temperature difference is mathematically related to generated emf at the
junction in thermocouple type of instruments. Let us consider temperature of the heater element be Ta and

the temperature of cold metal be Tb. Now it is found that the generated emf at the junction is related to
temperature difference as:
Where a and b are constant whose values completely depends upon the type of metal we are using.
The above equation represents parabolic function. The approximated value of a is from 40 to 50 micro
volts or more per degree Celsius rise in temperature and value of constant b is very small and can be
neglected if the air gap field of permanent magnet moving coil is uniform.
Thus we can approximate the above temperature emf relation as e = a(Ta - Tb), here we have assume b=0.
The current flowing through the heater coil produces heat as I2R where I is the root mean square value of
current, if we assume the temperature of cold junction is maintained at room temperature then the rise in
the temperature of the hot junction will be equal to temperature rise at the junction. Hence we can write
(Ta-Tb) is directly proportional to I2R or we can say (Ta - Tb) = kI2R. Now the deflection angle x in moving
coil instrument is equal to; x = Ke or x = K[a(Ta - Tb)] hence we can write k.K.a.I2R = k1I2, where k1 is
some constant. From the above equation we see that the instrument shows the square law response.
Construction of Thermocouple Type Instrument
Now let us look at the construction of Thermocouple type Instruments. Broadly speaking the thermocouple
type of instruments consists of two major parts which are written below:
Thermoelectric elements:
The thermocouple type of instruments consists of thermoelectric elements which can be of four types:
Contact Type
It has a separate heater which is shown in the diagram.The action of thermocouple type instruments can
be explained briefly as, At the junction the electrical energy is being converted to thermal energy in the
heater element. A portion of the heat is transferred to the hot junction while most of the heat energy is
dissipated away.
The heat energy which is transferred to hot junction is again converted to electrical due to Seebeck effect.
Only a portion of electrical energy is converted into mechanical energy which is used to produce a
deflecting torque. The overall efficiency of the system is low thus the instrument consumes high power.
So there is a requirement of highly accurate and sensitive DC instrument.

Non-Contact Type
In non-contact type there is insulation between the heating element and the thermocouple i.e. there no
direct contact between two. Due to this these instruments are not much sensitive as compared contact type.
Vacuum Thermo-elements:
These types of instruments are mostly employed for the measurement of electric current at very high
frequency of the order of 100 Megahertz or more as these instruments retain their accuracy even at such
high frequency.
Bridge Type:
These bridges are manufactured on the AC ratings usually from 100 mili-amperes to 1 amperes.
Advantages of Thermocouple Type Instruments
Following are advantages of Thermocouple type of instruments,

 The thermocouple type of instruments accurately indicates the root mean square value of current
and voltages irrespective of the waveform. There is a wide varieties of range of thermocouple
instruments are available in the market.
 Thermocouple type of instruments give very accurate reading even at high frequency, thus these
types of instruments are completely free from frequency errors.
 The measurement of quantity under these instruments is not affected by stray magnetic fields.
 These instruments are known for their high sensitivity.
 Usually for measuring the low value of current bridge type of arrangement is used i.e. ranging
from 0.5 Amperes to 20 Amperes while for measuring the higher value of current heater element
is required to retain accuracy.
Disadvantages of Thermocouple Type Instruments
Instead of many advantages these type of instruments posses one disadvantage, The over load capacity
of thermocouple type of instrument is small, even fuse is not able to the heater wire because heater wire
may burn out before the fuse blows out.
7.2 Lux-meter – construction, operation and application in measurement of illumination on

working plane.
Lux meters, sometimes called light meters, measure the intensity of illumination as distinguished by the
human eye. This value does not correlate to an objective value of energy radiated or reflected, as different

wavelengths within the visible spectrum are perceived with varying sensitivity by the eye, and lux meters
evaluate light intensity in consideration of this variable.
A unit of luminous flux is known as a lux (lx). It is equal to one lumen per square meter and lux values
directly correlate to brightness in consideration of distance, orientation, and environment.
One lumen is the true visible light irradiance of a source—it is equivalent to one candela per three-
dimensional angle measured, or one candela per steradian.
The photodetector is positioned perpendicular to the light source for optimal exposure—many lux meters
use an articulated or tethered photodetector for this purpose. Readouts are presented to the user via analog
instrument or digital LCD. Digital types often include basic operator inputs. Many digital types can save
measurements and have an adjustable detection range.
Photodetectors composed of selenium or silicon determine brightness by photovoltaic principle.

Generated current is proportional to the photons received. Silicon-based detectors need to amplify the
voltage generated by light exposure. Selenium-based detectors convert photons to a high enough voltage
that they be directly connected to a galvanometer, but have difficulty determining lux measurements for
light sources below 1,000 lumens.
7.3 Piezometer – construction, operation and application.
7.4 Transducers – construction, operation and application in measurement of distance, velocity

and strain.

Unit 8. Instrument Transformers.
8.1 Current transformer – operating principle, construction, characteristics and application in
measurements.
8.2 Potential transformer – operating principle, construction, characteristics and application in

measurements.

Unit 9. Digital Measuring Instrument
9.1 Operating principle, construction, characteristics and application in measurements.

EMMI by Niraj Kandel

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ELECTRICAL

UNIT 1. ELECTRICAL MEASURING INSTRUMENT ......................................................................................................... 4

1.1 INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................................................................................... 4

Deflecting Torque (Td) ................................................................................................................................................... 5

A) ATTRACTION TYPE MI INSTRUMENT ................................................................................................................................ 13

1.7 CATHODE-RAY OSCILLOSCOPE – BASIC CONSTRUCTION, OPERATION AND APPLICATION. ......................................................... 19

UNIT 2. MEASUREMENT OF RESISTANCE .................................................................................................................. 21

2.1 CLASSIFICATION OF RESISTANCE. ................................................................................................................................. 21

UNIT 3. MEASUREMENT OF INDUCTANCE AND CAPACITANCE ................................................................................. 31

UNIT 4. EXTENSION OF MEASURING RANGE OF INSTRUMENTS ............................................................................... 44

4.1 SHUNTS AND MULTIPLIERS – USE AND CHARACTERISTICS. ................................................................................................ 44

UNIT 5. POTENTIOMETER ......................................................................................................................................... 59

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UNIT 6. MEASUREMENT OF POWER, ENERGY AND FREQUENCY .............................................................................. 72

UNIT 7. MEASURING INSTRUMENTS FOR MEASUREMENT OF NON-ELECTRICAL QUANTITIES ................................. 14

UNIT 8. INSTRUMENT TRANSFORMERS. ................................................................................................................... 18

UNIT 9. DIGITAL MEASURING INSTRUMENT ............................................................................................................. 19

9.1 OPERATING PRINCIPLE, CONSTRUCTION, CHARACTERISTICS AND APPLICATION IN MEASUREMENTS. .......................................... 19

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Deflecting Torque (Td)

Controlling Torque (Tc)

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Damping Torque (Tdamp)

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Permanent Magnet Moving Coil Instrument (PMMCI)

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a) Attraction Type MI Instrument

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Construction of Thermocouple Type Instrument

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Advantages of Thermocouple Type Instruments

Following are advantages of Thermocouple type of instruments,

Disadvantages of Thermocouple Type Instruments

7.2 Lux-meter – construction, operation and application in measurement of illumination on

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Photodetectors composed of selenium or silicon determine brightness by photovoltaic principle.

7.3 Piezometer – construction, operation and application.

7.4 Transducers – construction, operation and application in measurement of distance, velocity

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8.2 Potential transformer – operating principle, construction, characteristics and application in

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