Full Modul Structural Analysis

DAC 31502
STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS
Roslan Kolop
Ahmad Hakimi Mat Nor
Khairul Zaman Abdul Malek
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

CENTER OF DIPLOMA STUDIES
Cetakan Pertama (Modul Pembelajaran), 2016
© Roslan Kolop, Ahmad Hakimi Mat Nor & Khairul Zaman Abdul Malek
Hak cipta terpelihara. Tidak Dibenarkan mengeluar ulang dalam apa-apa juga bentuk dan juga
cara baik secara elektronik, mekanik, rakaman, atau lain-lain, mana-mana bahagian kandungan
buku ini sebelum mendapat izin bertulis daripada Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia, 86400
Parit Raja, Batu Pahat, Johor, Malaysia.
Diterbit dan dicetak oleh:
Penerbit UTHM
Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia
86400 Parit Raja, Batu Pahat,
Johor Darul Ta’zim.
Tel: 07-453 7454
Faks: 07-453 6145
E-mel: pt@uthm.edu.my
Laman Web: www.uthm.edu.my/pt
TABLE OF CONTENTS
TABLE OF CONTENTS .................................................................................................i
INTRODUCTION....................................................................................................... iv
GOALS ................................................................................................................... iv
LEARNING OUTCOMES ............................................................................................. iv
SYNOPSIS ................................................................................................................v
ASSESSMENT ...........................................................................................................v
TOPIC 1 ...................................................................................................................1
INTRODUCTION TO STRUCTURE.................................................................................. 1
1.1 Introduction..................................................................................................... 1
1.2 Classification of Structures ................................................................................. 2
1.3 Structural Analysis and Design ............................................................................ 6
1.4 Structure Idealizations....................................................................................... 7
1.5 Stability........................................................................................................... 8
1.6 Determinacy of a Structure ................................................................................ 9
TOPIC 2 ...................................................................................................................1
ANALYSIS OF STATICALLY DETERMINATE TRUSSES ........................................................ 1
2.1 Introduction..................................................................................................... 1
2.2 Classification of Plane Truss ............................................................................... 2
2.3 Types of Truss .................................................................................................. 3
2.4 Analysis of Statically Determinate Truss ............................................................... 4
2.5 Method of Sections..........................................................................................16
2.6 Determining Members Forces Using Inspection....................................................22
TOPIC 3 ................................................................................................................. 33
DEFLECTION OF STATICALLY DETERMINATE TRUSSES ...................................................33
3.1 Introduction....................................................................................................33
3.2 Work .............................................................................................................33
3.3 Principle of Virtual Work...................................................................................33
3.4 Deflections of Trusses by the Virtual Work Method ..............................................34
3.5 Calculation Steps .............................................................................................36
TOPIC 4 ................................................................................................................. 46
ANALYSIS OF STATICALLY INDETERMINATE TRUSSES....................................................46
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4.1 Introduction....................................................................................................46
4.2 Internal and External Redundancy......................................................................47
4.3 Method of Analysis ..........................................................................................48
TOPIC 5 ................................................................................................................. 61
STATICALLY DETERMINATE SPACE FRAME...................................................................61
5.1 Introduction....................................................................................................61
5.2 Advantages of Space Frame ..............................................................................62
5.3 Types of Support .............................................................................................64
5.4 Determinacy and Stability .................................................................................66
5.5 Assumptions for Design ....................................................................................67
5.6 Zero Force Member .........................................................................................67
5.7 Tension Coefficient Method ..............................................................................71
5.8 Procedures of Using Tension Coefficient Method .................................................72
TOPIC 6 ................................................................................................................. 84
ANALYSIS OF INDETERMINATE STRUCTURES ...............................................................84
SLOPE- DEFLECTION METHOD ...................................................................................84
6.1 Introduction....................................................................................................84
6.2 Slope-Deflection Equations ...............................................................................85
6.3 Slope-deflection-equation for non-sway frame. .................................................... 3
TOPIC 7 ...................................................................................................................9
ANALYSIS OF INDETERMINATE STRUCTURES ................................................................ 9
MOMENT DISTRIBUTION METHOD ............................................................................. 9
7.1 Introduction..................................................................................................... 9
7.2 Principle .......................................................................................................... 9
7.3 Stiffness Factor, Distribution Factor and Carry over Factor .....................................11
7.4 Moment Distribution Procedures .......................................................................15
7.5 Case where the outside support is pinned ...........................................................20
7.6 Non-sway frame..............................................................................................24
TOPIC 8 ................................................................................................................. 33
PLASTIC ANALYSIS....................................................................................................33
8.1 Introduction....................................................................................................33
8.2 Plastic hinge, plastic moment and collapse mechanism ........................................34
8.3 Formation of Plastic Hinge ...............................................................................36
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8.4 Plastic Moment or Collapse Moment ..................................................................37
8.5 Load Factor.....................................................................................................38
8.6 Shape Factor...................................................................................................38
8.7 Identifying Possible Locations of Plastic Hinges ....................................................39
8.8 Plastic Analysis Method ....................................................................................41
8.9 Virtual Work Method .......................................................................................49
8.10 Collapse Load on a Simply Supported Beam with Central Point Load .....................50
8.11 Continuous Beam..........................................................................................53
REFERENCES .......................................................................................................... 61
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INTRODUCTION
This module is a guideline for student DAC 31502 Structural Analysis offered by
Centre for Diploma Studies, Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia (UTHM)
GOALS
This module is intended to provide the student with a clear through the
theory, examples and application of the fundamental principles of Structural
Analysis study.
LEARNING OUTCOMES
Upon completion of the course, students will be able to:

1. Analyze the internal forces and reactions of plane frame, space frame,
continuous beam and rigid frame whether statically determinate or
indeterminate using the relevant theories correctly. (CLO1-C4, PLO1-K)
2. Produce structure test model based on criteria given. (CLO2-P4, PLO2-
PS)
3. Report detailed model test results based on the knowledge acquired in
group. (CLO3-A2, PLO8-EM)
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SYNOPSIS
Structural Analysis: Introduction to structure, determine plane truss, deformation
of determine truss, indeterminate truss, determinate space frame, analysis of
indeterminate beam and rigid frame and plastic analysis
ASSESSMENT
Course Work: 50%

Final Examination: 50%
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TOPIC 1
INTRODUCTION TO STRUCTURE
Learning outcomes
At the end of this topic, student should be able to:

1. Identify the types of structure based on the major load resisted by the
structure. (PLO1, C1, K)
2. Explain the needs for structural idealization before any structural analysis
is carried out. (PLO1, C2, K)
3. Classify the structure stability and determinacy. (PLO1, C3, K)
Content
1.1 Introduction
A structure can be defined as a construction form which consists of

interconnected members such as columns and beams, designed to carry dead
and imposed load.
Structural analysis is the determination of the effects of loads on the physical

structures and their components. The effect of loads on a structure or member is
to induce moment, shear, reaction, torsion and deformation. Various methods are
used in structural analysis to determine the internal forces which basically
depends on the types of structures being analysed. Once all the internal forces
are determined, the next stage is to design the component or member which can
resists the forces safely.
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1.2 Classification of Structures
A structure can be classified based on the primary forces that it resists.
1.2.1 Tension Structures
A tensile structure is a construction of elements carrying mainly tension and no

compression or bending. Most tensile structures are supported by some form of
compression or bending elements, such as masts as shown in Figure 1.1. Other
types of structure with significant tension members are as shown in Figure 1.2
and 1.3.
Figure 1.1: Tensile membrane structure is most often used as a roof,

as they can economically and attractively span large distances
Figure 1.2: The Akashi Kaikyo Bridge in Japan,

world's longest main span suspension bridge
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Figure 1.3: Muar Second Bridge is a cable-stayed bridge
1.2.2 Compression Structures
Compression structures develop mainly compressive stresses under the action

of external loads. Two common examples of such structures are columns and
arches. Columns are straight members subjected to axially compressive loads as
shown in Figure 1.4. When a column is subjected to lateral loads and/or moments
in addition to axial loads, it is called a beam-column.
Figure 1.4: Column under compression
An arch is a curved structure frequently used to support bridges and long-span

roofs as shown in Figure 1.5. Arches develop mainly compressive stresses when
subjected to loads and are usually designed so that they will develop only
compression under a major design loading.
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Figure 1.5: Arch supporting roof and bridges
1.2.3 Truss Structures
Trusses are made of straight members connected at their ends by hinged

connections to form a stable shape. When the loads are applied to a truss only at
the joints, its members are either in tension or compression. Trusses are
lightweight and can be used in a variety of applications such as roofs and bridges
as shown in Figure 1.6.
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Figure 1.6: Application of truss in supporting roof and bridges
1.2.4 Shear Structures
Shear structures, such as reinforced concrete shear walls as shown in Figure

1.7 are used in multistory buildings to reduce lateral movements due to wind loads
and earthquake excitations.
Figure 1.7: Application of shear wall in a multistory structure
1.2.5 Bending Structures
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Bending structures develop mainly bending stresses under the action of external
loads. Some of the most commonly used structures, such as beams, rigid frames,
slabs, and plates, can be classified as bending structures as shown in Figure 1.8.
Figure 1.8: Flat slab and beam can be classified as bending structures
1.3 Structural Analysis and Design
In a building project an architect on behalf of a client will prepare the building

layouts and general arrangement drawings which shows the building plan,
sectional and side views. An engineer role is to determine the right location and
dimensions of columns and beams so that the structure is stable and can
withstand the dead and imposed loads supposedly carried by the structure. At
this stage an engineer must be able to calculate the loads and determine the
forces on the elements of the structure due to these loads. Once the forces in the
element is determined, the next stage is to design the element by determining the
suitable size, the necessary reinforcement needed if it a reinforced concrete
structure and the deflection of the element if it is a beam. In the design stage, the
engineer calculations must comply with the design codes of practice regulations.
Figure 1.9 shows that the analysis of loads and forces has to be carried before
design works are carried out.
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Architectural
drawings
General Analyses of loads and forces

arrangements
drawing
Design
Details Drawings
Figure 1.9: Relationships between analysis and design stages
1.4 Structure Idealizations
Architectural drawings usually shown a complete building shapes and sizes and
can sometimes looks very complicated. When an engineer wants to calculate the
load on the structure and the subsequent forces in the members, he/she has to
idealized the structure to make it simpler so that the necessary calculations can
be made. Assumptions have to be made such as the types of support and loads
on the elements and these may influence on the calculation methods employed.
For the sake of analysis, real structure is model into simpler form such as lines to
signify beams and columns and arrows to show load and its directions as shown
in Figure 1.10.
Figure 1.10: Idealization of a structure which floor beam carrying slab(1),

support (2) and main beam (3)
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Actual beam as shown in Figure 1.11(a) can be idealized as shown in Figure
1.11(b).
Fig 1.11(a): Actual beam Fig 1.11(b): Idealized beam
1.5 Stability
Every civil engineering structures must be stable. They must not moved or
become mechanisms under the load. For a structure to be stable it must be in
equilibrium or usually terms as statically equilibrium. Change of geometry of a
structure due to buckling of columns or beam usually referred as instability of a
structure.
Improperly constraint conditions as shown in Figure 1.12(a) and (b) can leads to
unstable structures. In Figure 1.12(a) the reaction lines of action is concurrent at
O and the line of external action, P doesn’t pass through O thus creating an
unstable structure. However, if the line of action of P passes through O the
structure will become stable. In the case of Figure 1.12(b), the lines of action of
the reaction are parallel to one another that can leads to the movement of the
structure under load P. This unstable condition can be overcome if one of the
supports is change to pinned support.
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Figure 1.12(a): Unstable due to reaction lines of action are concurrent
Figure 1.12(b): Unstable due to reaction lines of action are parallel
1.6 Determinacy of a Structure
A stable statically determine structure is a structure that doesn’t move or become

mechanisms under load and must comply with equilibrium conditions. The
equilibrium conditions or equations is when the sum of all forces and moment in
a system whether in the x or y or z (3 dimensional structures) must be zero.
Mathematically it is written as shown below and is called equations of equilibrium .
If the unknown reactions of a structure under load can be computed or solved

using the above equations of equilibrium than the structure is terms as statically
determinate structure.
Example 1.1
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Aim: To show how equilibrium equations can be used to determine unknown
forces (i.e reactions) on a statically determinate structure.
Determine the reactions (unknown forces) at the support of the structure shown
below:
Idealized structure:
2kN 5kN 5kN 4kN 2 kN
Ay 3600 mm By
Solution
∑M b = 0, Ay x 3.6 – 2 x 3.0 – 5x 2.4 – 5 x 1.8 – 4 x 1.2 – 2 x 0.6 = 0
Ay = 9.17 kN
∑Fy = 0, Ay + By – (2+5+5+4+2) = 0
By = 8.83 kN
If for instance, in the above problem the support is change to built-in support, can
the equilibrium equations be used to solve the problem? State why?
2kN 5kN 5kN 4kN 2 kN
Ay 600 mm By
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1.6.1 Determining Statically Determinate or Statically Indeterminate
Structure
When the unknown forces exceed the number of equation of equilibriums while
the structure is stable then the structure is called statically indeterminate
structure. In other words, the equations of equilibrium alone cannot be used to
solve the unknown forces in the structure. In order to solve the problem other
methods are usually employed such as slope deflection method and moment
distribution method specifically for indeterminate beams and rigid frame where
else for indeterminate trusses unit load method/virtual work method can be used.
All these methods will be taught later in the module.
1.6.2 Determinacy of Beams and Rigid Frame
Mathematically, there is a simple rule to determine whether a beam or rigid frame

is statically determinate or indeterminate or unstable.
r = 3n, statically determinate .………(1)
r > 3n, statically indeterminate ………..(2)
r < 3n , unstable ………..(3)
where,
r : number of external reactions (Figure 12)
n : number of parts in the system.
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Figure 1.13: The number of external reactions depend on the type of support
For a statically indeterminate structure, the difference between (r) and (3n) is term
as degree of indeterminacy. The higher the indeterminacy of a structure usually
means the structure is stiffer or the structure has more load paths that make it
difficult to fail.
If a structure is found to be unstable or becoming a mechanism, then it cannot be

called either statically determinate or indeterminate until the structure is fixed
either by changing the support systems or by stiffening the joints on the members.
Example 1.2
Determine whether the structures shown below are statically determinate,

statically indeterminate or unstable. If it is statically indeterminate determine the
degree of indeterminacy.
Solution:
Free body diagram: n1 = 1
n2 = 1
r1 = (3) r2 = (1) r3 = (3)
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Total r = (r1 + r2 + r3) = 7, n = (n1 + n2 ) = 2
Using equation (2),
7 > 3(2), statically indeterminate
Degree of indeterminacy = 1, where (7 - 6)
(b)
Free body diagram:
n1 = 1 n3 = 3 Total n = 3 (parts)
n2 = 2
r1 = 3 r2 = 2 r3 = 2 r4 = 3 Total r = 10 Using
equation (2),
10 > 3(3), statically indeterminate.
Degree of indeterminacy = 10 – 9 = 1
(c)
n=1
r1 = 2 r2 = 2
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Using equation (2),
4 >3(1), statically indeterminate
Degree of indeterminacy = 4 – 3 = 1
For rigid frame where members are connected by rigid joints (transferred of
moment take place) such as multi-bays frame and multi-storey building, the
techniques of determining the value of r is by using the method of section through
the frame. The part or loop that has been cut will release the internal forces to
become three (3) external forces namely moment, shear and axial force.
Example 1.3
Cutting the loop
r2 =
3
n1 = 1
n2 = 1
r3 =
3
r1 = 3 r 4= 2
Multi- storey rigid frame
Total r = 11, total n = 2
Using equation (2),
11>3(2), statically indeterminate. Degree of indeterminacy = 11 – 6 = 5
Example 1.4
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Using equation (2),
15 >3(3), statically indeterminate. Degree of indeterminacy = 15 – 6 = 9
1.6.3 Stability and Determinacy of Trusses
A truss is essentially a triangulated system of (usually) straight interconnected

structural elements. The individual elements are connected at nodes; the
connections are often assumed to be nominally pinned. The external forces
applied to the system and the reactions at the supports are generally applied at
the nodes. When all the members and applied forces are in a same plane, the
system is a plane or 2D truss. The principal force in each element in a truss is
axial tension or compression.
A truss is considered statically determinate if all of its support reactions and

member forces can be calculated using only the equations of static equilibrium.
On the hand, if the member forces and reactions cannot be solved using static
equilibrium equations that the truss is called indeterminate truss or redundant
truss.
Mathematically, there are simple rules to determine whether a truss is statically

determinate or indeterminate or unstable as shown below.
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m + r < 2j (Unstable truss) ...........................................................................(4)
m + r = 2j (Statically determinate truss assuming it is stable) ......................(5)
m + r > 2j (Statically Indeterminate truss) ....................................................(6)
where m = number of elements

r = number of external reactions
j = number of joints
Unstable truss or when the expression m + r < 2j, is encountered when the truss
has not enough element or reaction. The joints of an unstable truss can be
displaced and can cause the structure to collapse as shown in Figure 1.14.
Figure 1.14: Unstable Truss
Trusses may externally or internally unstable. External instability occurs when

all of its reactions are concurrent or parallel as shown in Figure 1.15.
unstable concurrent reactions unstable parallel reactions
Figure 1.15: External instability
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Internal instability of a simple truss can occurs when element to form triangulation
is not present in any part of the truss as shown is Figure 1.16. It can be seen that
no restraint or fixity is provided between joints C and F or B and E, and so the
truss will become unstable internally under load.
Figure 1.16: Internal instability
If a truss is unstable, it does not matter whether it is statically determinate or

indeterminate. Obviously, the use of an unstable truss is to be avoided in practice.
Since a statically determinate truss cannot have more members than the number
required for stability, it is not a fail-safe structure. This means that if one member
of the truss were to fail, then the truss will collapse. This is a major reason for
introducing redundant members in truss structures, especially when public safety
is of primary concern.
Example 1.5
Solution:
m = 15, j = 9, r = 4
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m + r = 19, 2j = 2 x 9 = 18
Using equation 6, m + r > 2j for indeterminate truss.
The truss is stable, indeterminate and the degree of indeterminacy is 1, where
(19 - 18).
Example 1.6
m = 12, j = 8, r = 3
m + r = 15, 2j = 16
Using equation (4), m + r < 2j (unstable truss)
The truss is internally unstable. (A member is needed to complete the triangle
internally so that it become stable).
Problems
1. Classify each of the structures as statically determinate, statically

indeterminate, or unstable. If indeterminate, specify the degree of
indeterminacy.
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A. B.
C. D.
E. F.
G. H.
I. J.
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K. L.
M. N.
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TOPIC 2
ANALYSIS OF STATICALLY DETERMINATE TRUSSES
Learning outcomes

1. Classify the type of plane truss. (PLO1, C1)
2. Calculate internal force of members using the method of joints.
(PLO1, C3)
3. Identify zero-force members in a truss. (PLO1, C2)
4. Calculate internal force of members using the method of sections.
(PLO1, C3)
5. Calculate internal force using inspection method. (PLO1, C3)
Content
2.1 Introduction
A truss by definition is an assembly of straight members connected at their ends

by flexible connections to form a rigid triangular configurations. Modern trusses
are constructed by connecting members, which usually consists of structural steel
or aluminum shapes or wood struts, to gusset plates by bolted or welded
connections as shown in Figure 2.1. If all members of a truss and the applied
loads lie in a single plane, the truss is called a plane truss.
gusset plate
Figure 2.1: Gusset plate
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2.2 Classification of Plane Truss
2.2.1 Simple Truss
The simplest form of rigid and stable truss is a triangle. By adding two elements
and a joint/ node to the basic triangle as shown in Figure 2.2 will form trusses of
various configuration. Trusses constructed using this procedure is called simple
truss.
Figure 2.2: Simple truss
2.2.2 Compound Truss
A compound truss is formed by connecting two or more simple trusses as shown

in Figure 2.3 where two simple trusses are connected by a common joint C and
a member BE.
Figure 2.3: Compound truss
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In Figure 2.4 two simple trusses ABC and DEF is connected by members CD, BF
and BD to form a compound truss.
Figure 2.4: Connecting three members to two simple trusses
2.2.3 Complex Truss
A complex truss uses a general layout of members different from that used in
simple and compound trusses. It often incorporates overlapping members as
shown in Figure 2.5. Complex truss due to its complexity will not be covered in
this module.
Figure 2.5: Complex truss

2.3 Types of Truss
Some common configurations of bridge and roof trusses, been named after their
original designers as shown in Figure 2.6 and 2.7.
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Figure 2.6: Common Bridge Truss
Figure 2.7: Common Roof Truss
2.4 Analysis of Statically Determinate Truss
Basically, the force that acts on a member in a simple truss is either axial
compression or tension as shown in Figure 2.8. The sign convention adopted to
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indicate ties (i.e. tension members) and struts (i.e. compression members) in
trusses is a shown in Figure 2.9.
Figure 2.8: Axial Force on member as axial tension and axial compression
Figure 2.9: Sign convention
Before any given truss is analysed, the truss has to be classified first whether it
is statically determinate or indeterminate as mentioned in Topic 1. If it is a
statically determinate truss, the following methods can be employed to solve the
internal forces of the truss.
2.4.1 Assumptions for Analysis of Trusses
The analysis of trusses is usually based on following assumptions:
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(a) All members are connected only at their ends by frictionless hinges in
plane trusses.
(b) All loads and support reactions are applied only at the joints.
(c) The centroidal axis of each member coincides with the line connecting
the centers of the adjacent joints.
2.4.2 The Method of Joints
Method of joints is usually used when we are interested in finding the internal
force in every single member of the truss. As its name implies, it relies on the
application of equilibrium condition at each joint to solve for the member forces.
This method uses the free-body-diagram of joints in the structure to determine

the forces in each member. For example, the truss in Figure 2.10 have 5 joints
each having a free body diagram as shown in Figure 2.11.
F1
B C
F
2
A
E D
F3
Figure 2.10: Joints in a structure
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Figure 2.11: Free- Body-Diagram
If a truss is stable, then each of its joints must be equilibrium. The method of joints
consists of satisfying the equilibrium conditions, ΣFx = 0 and ΣFy = 0 for the forces
exerted on the pin at each joint of the truss. When drawing the free body diagram,
assume all the internal forces are in tension. If during calculation the force has
negative value, than the member is in compression.
The analysis of the truss by the method of joints is started by finding the reaction
of the truss supports. Then a joint is selected with a condition that it has two or
less unknown forces acting on it. Sketch the force diagram for the joint assuming
all members are in tension. By using ΣFx = 0 and ΣFy = 0, solve the unknown
forces acting on the joint. Once the forces in a joint are solved, the results can be
used to solved the forces acting on other joints of the truss. This process is
repeated on other joints until all internal forces are solved.
Example 2.1
Determine by the method of joints the forces in the members of the truss as shown
in Figure 2.12. (Remember: Pinned support has 2 reaction, and roller support
has 1 reaction)
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Ax
Ay Cy
Figure 2.12: Member of the truss
Solution:
Step 1: Evaluate the support reactions.
Take moment about A,
A 15 x 4 + 5 x 3 – Cy x 6 = 0 ; Cy = 12.5 kN
∑Fy=0; Ay + Cy – 15 = 0
Ay = 15 – 12.5 = 2.5 kN
∑Fx= 0 Ax + 15 = 0 ;
Ax = -15 kN (meaning the right direction for Ax is to the left)
Step 2: Choose the joint with two unknown forces. (In this case all the joints has
2 unknown forces). Say we choose joint A. Draw the forces that acted on the
member and the external forces calculated.
FABsin θ
FABcos θ
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Step 3: Solve using ∑Fx= 0 and ∑Fy=0
∑Fy=0 FAB sin θ + 2.5 = 0 (If you start with ∑Fx= 0, there will
be 2 unknown and therefore cannot be solved)
From the diagram, Sin θ = 3/5 and cos θ = 4/5
FAB x 3/5 + 2.5 = 0
FAB = - 4.18 kN (-ve means the member AB is in compression)
∑Fx= 0 FAB cos θ – 15 + FAC = 0
(-4.18) X 4/5 -15 + FAC = 0
FAC = + 18.34 kN (+ve means the member AC is in tension)
Now we have solve the force in member AB and AC and next we have to solve
the force in BC.
Step 4: To solve the force in BC we can select either joint B or C. Say we

choose joint C. Sketch the forces that are acting on the members at joint C.
∑Fy = 0 FBC sin α + 12.5 = 0

From Figure 3.0, sin α = 3/√13
FBC = -12.5 x √13/3 = - 15 kN (Compression)
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Example 2.2
(i) Check whether the truss is statically determinate.
(ii) Determine the force in each member of the loaded truss.
By
Bx
Ax
Figure 2.13: Member of the loaded truss

Solution:
(i) Check whether the truss is statically determinate.
m = 5, r = 3, j = 4
m + r = 8, 2j = 8
therefore, m + r = 2j stable and statically determinate truss.
(ii) Determine the force in each member of the loaded truss.

Step 1: Determine the reactions
B 3000 x 4 – Ax x 2 = 0
Ax = 6000 N
∑Fx=0 Ax - Bx = 0
Bx = 6000 N
∑Fy=0 By – 3000 = 0
By = 3000 N
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Step 2: Choose the joint with two unknown forces. (It can be either joint B or D)
Say we start with joint D. Draw the free body diagram of joint D.
Step 3: Solve using ∑Fx= 0 and ∑Fy=0.

∑Fy=0 FCDsin45 – 3000 = 0
FCD = 4242.6 N (tension)
∑Fx= 0 - FCDsin45 - FAD = 0
-4242.6sin45 - FAD = 0
FAD = - 3000N (compression)
Step 4: Select other joint with two unknowns forces. (In this case A, C or B)
Let’s say we choose joint A.
FACsin45
FAB FAC
45
FACcos45
6000 N FAD
∑Fx= 0 FACcos45 + FAD + 6000= 0

FACcos45 - 3000 + 6000= 0
FAC = - 4242.6 N (compression)
∑Fy=0 FACsin45 + FAB = 0
-4242.6 sin 45 + FAB = 0
FAB = + 3000 N
11 | P a g e
Step 5: Select joint B to calculate the remaining unknown force in BC.
3000 N
6000 N FBC
FAB
∑Fy=0 , 3000 – FAB = 0

FAB = 3000 N (T)
∑Fx= 0, FBC – 6000 = 0
FBC = 6000 N
Example 2.3
Determine the force in the members of the truss as shown in Figure 2.14.
Ax
X
Ay Cy
Fig. 2.14: Member of the truss

Solution:
M A= 0 180 x 6 – 120 x 6 – Cy x 10.5 = 0
Cy = 34.3 kN
∑Fy = 0 , Ay + Cy – 180 = 0
Ay + 34.3 = 180, Ay = 145.7 kN
∑Fx = 0, Ax -120 = 0, Ax = 120 kN
12 | P a g e
Joint A, FAD
√2 1
1
120 FAB
∑Fy=0 , FAD x 1/√2 + 145.7 = 0 145.7 ∑Fx= 0, 120 + FAD x 1/√2 +

FAB=0
FAD = - 206.1 kN (C) 120 – 206.1 x 1/√2 +
FAB = 0
FAB = 25.7 kN (T)
Joint B, FBD
FBA FBC
∑Fy=0 , FBD = 0 (Zero- force member)

∑Fx= 0, FBC – FAB = 0
FBC – 25.7 = 0 , FBC = 25.7 kN (T)
Joint C, FCD
5
4
3
FBC
34.3
∑Fy=0 , 34.4 + FCD x 4/5 = 0; FCD = - 43 kN(C)
∑Fx= 0, - FCD x 3/5 – FBC = 0 ;
- (-43)x3/5 – FBC = 0 . FBC = 25.7 kN(T) Checked
13 | P a g e
2.4.3 Zero-Force Members
Member that have no force in them is called zero-force member. Zero member
exist may be due to the following:
1) It may increase the stability of the truss
2) It can provide the support if the load changes
3) It may be added for aesthetical reason
Analysis is simplified if one can identify those members that support no loads.
Zero force members can be identified quickly through inspection. Zero force
member can be identify if two members form a truss joint and there is no external
load or support reaction at that joint then those members are zero-force members.
Figure 2.15 shows a truss that is vertically loaded at C. Joints A and D in the
figure are the joints with no external load or support reaction, so F AF = FAB = FDE
= FDC= 0.
Figure 2.15: Truss vertically loaded at joint C
Example 2.4
14 | P a g e
Identify the zero force member in the truss as shown below:
G F E
800 N
A
D
B C
500 N
Solution:
Member BG and CF
By inspection, it can be observed that member BG and FC have one thing in
common. They are both zero-force members. Member BG is perpendicular to
members AB and BC and there is no external load or support reaction at the
common joint B. Therefore, it can be concluded that member BG is a zero-force
member. The same reasoning applies to member FC.
Example 2.5
Identify the zero force member in the truss as shown below:
G F E
800 N
A
D
B C
500 N
Solution:
Member AG, AB, BG, BC and FC
It can be observed that there is no reaction support or external load acting at the
joint between members AC and AB. Therefore, both AC and AB are zero-force
members. Member BG is perpendicular to members AB and BC, and there is no
external force or support reaction at the common joint. Therefore, it can be
15 | P a g e
concluded that member BG is a zero-force member as well. If members BA and
BG are zero force members, then so is member BC. The last zero-force member
is member FC. Thus, it can be seen that by simply changing the support condition,
the load-path changed significantly causing the introduction of many more zero-
force members than before.
2.5 Method of Sections
If the forces in only a few members of a truss are to be determined, the method
of sections is generally the most appropriate analysis procedure. The method of
sections consists of passing an imaginary line through the truss, cutting it into
sections. Each imaginary section must be in equilibrium if the entire truss is in
equilibrium and by using the equilibrium equations solve the unknown forces in
the cut member.
2.5.1 Procedure for Analysis
(a) If necessary, determine the support reactions for the entire truss.
(b) Make a decision on how the truss should be “cut” into sections and draw the
corresponding free-body diagrams.
(c) Try to apply the three equations of equilibrium such that simultaneous
solution is not required.
Example 2.6
16 | P a g e
Determine the forces GH, CH and BC the truss as shown below:
H G F
30
kN
3m
A E
B C D
40 40 40 kN
4m 4 4 4m
Solution:
The reactions are calculated and imagine cutting the structure into two sections
about line 1-1 as shown below.
1
H G F
30
E
A
30 kN
B C D
1
54.4 40 40 40 kN 65.6
kN
kNwill become two kN
The truss independent system namely left and right side.
Assume the ‘cut’ members are in tension.
54.4 65.6
kN kN
17 | P a g e
Typically the section with the fewest forces or with section with the most
convenient geometry is selected. In this example the left-hand side is selected.
FHG Apply the three equations of equilibrium to

the section. If possible, attempt to develop
FHC an equation in just one unknown. Look for
points where the lines of action of several
forces are concurrent.
FBC
54.4
kN
∑M H =0 54.4 x 4 – FBC x 3 = 0; FBC = 72.5 kN (Tension)
∑M C =0 FHG x 3 + 30 x 3 + 54.4 x 8 – 40x4 = 0; FHG = - 121.7
(Compression)
∑Y=0 54.4 – 40 – FHCx 3/5 = 0 ; = 24 kN (Tension)
18 | P a g e
Example 2.7
Determine the forces in members CD, DG and GH of the truss shown below:
Solution:
19 | P a g e
Example 2.8
Determine the forces in members CD, DG and GH of the truss shown below:
Solution:
20 | P a g e
Example 2.9
Determine the force in members GF and GD of the truss shown in the figure.
State whether the members are in tension or compression. The reactions at the
support have been calculated.
Solution:
21 | P a g e
2.6 Determining Members Forces Using Inspection
The method of joint is used when the forces in all members are to be determined.
However when the number of members in a truss is large, calculations using this
method can be rather slow. The analysis of trusses can be considerably expedited
if we can determine some (preferably all) of the member forces by inspection —
that is, without drawing the joint free-body diagrams and writing the equations of
equilibrium. This approach can be conveniently used for the joints at which at
least one of the two unknown forces is acting in the horizontal or vertical direction.
When both of the unknown forces at a joint have inclined directions, it usually
becomes necessary to draw the free-body diagram of the joint and determine the
unknowns by solving the equilibrium equations simultaneously. The calculations
itself can be made directly on the truss diagram hence making it faster. This
method will be useful in determining the deflection of truss and for indeterminate
truss that will be discussed in later topics.
Similar to the method of joint, the reactions on the supports due to external loads
must first be calculated. Find the zero-member forces if any. Sketch the truss
large enough to carry the operation. (Larger is preferable). Start the operation at
22 | P a g e
any joint with two unknown forces. Use ∑Fx = 0 ,∑Fy = 0 to determine the direction
of forces.
Example 2.10
Determine the forces in all members using inspection.
Solution:
23 | P a g e
4.2
2.8 D kN
kN k
0.8
3.4 kN(Step kN
6) Step
10 kN
1 3.4 0.6 2.0 m
kN( kN
0 Step
3.4 kN(Step 1 9 kN 0.6
3) kN
0.8
A 3.4 kN(Step C
kN
Ax=2.8k 2) k
N 0.6 kN B
(step7) kN 0.6 kN
Ay=3.4 (step8) Cy=0.
kN 2.0 m 1.5 8 kN
m
Step 1: Calculate the reaction
Calculate the reaction,
A - 2.8 x 2 + 4.2 x 2 – Cy x 3.5 = 0; C y = 0.8 kN
∑Fy = 0 Ay + Cy - 4.2 = 0; Ay = 3.4 kN
∑Fy = 0 Ax = 2.8 kN
Step 2. Find the vertical component on member AD

Begin with joint with two unknown. Let’s say joint A. In order to satisfy the
equilibrium equation ∑Fy = 0 at joint A, the vertical component of FAD must push
downward into the joint with a magnitude of 3.4 kN to balance the vertically
upward reaction of 3.4 kN. (Draw the vertical component 3.4 kN on member AD
with the arrow pointing downward)
Step 3. Find the horizontal component on member AD

The vertical component of FAD has been found to be 3.4 kN and since the slope
of member AD is 2:2, the magnitude of the horizontal component of F AD must also
be 3.4 kN.
Step 4. Find the direction of resultant force
24 | P a g e
The fact that member AD is in compression is indicated on the diagram of the
truss by drawing arrows near joints A and D pushing into the joints, as shown.
Step 5. Find the resultant of member AD

The magnitude of the resultant force FAD is FAD= √(3.4)2 + (3.4)2 = 4.8 kN
Step 6. Bring the component forces member AD at A to D and reverse the

direction.
Step 7. Find the force in AB

With the horizontal component of FAD now known, we observe that in order to
satisfy the equilibrium equation ∑Fx = 0 at joint A, the force in member AB (FAB)
must pull to the right on the joint with a magnitude of 0.6 kN to balance the
horizontal component of FAD of 3.4 kN acting to the left and the horizontal reaction
of 2.8 kN acting to the right. The magnitude of FAB is now written on member AB,
and the arrows, pulling away on the joints, are drawn near joints A and B to
indicate that member AB is in tension.
Step 8. Inspection at joint B

It should be obvious from the Figure that in order to satisfy ∑F y = 0 at B, the force
in member BD must be zero. To satisfy ∑Fx = 0, the force in member BC must
have a magnitude of 0.6 kN, and it must pull to the right on joint B, indicating
tension in member BC. By inspection ∑Fy = 0 at B also shown that member BD
is a zero-force member.
Step 9. Inspection at joint C

Considering now the equilibrium of joint C, we can see from the figure that in order
to satisfy ∑Fy = 0, the vertical component of FCD must push downward into the
joint with a magnitude of 0.8 kN to balance the vertically upward reaction of 0.8
kN. Thus, member CD is in compression. Since the magnitude of the vertical
25 | P a g e
component of FCD is 0.8 kN and since the slope of member CD is 2:1.5, the
magnitude of the horizontal component of FCD is equal to 1.5/2 x 0.8 = 0.6 kN.
The magnitude of FCD itself is, FCD = √(0.6)2+(0.8)2 = 1.0 kN
Step 10: Bring the component forces member CD at C to D and reverse the
direction.
Step 11: Check the computation
Having determined all the member forces, check the computations by applying
the equilibrium equations ∑Fx = 0 at joint C and ∑Fx = 0 and ∑Fy = 0 at joint D.
Example 2.11
Determine the forces in all members for the truss as shown below using
inspection.
Solution:
26 | P a g e
By inspection, member BC and FG are zero-force member. Using equilibrium
the reactions at A and H are calculated to give the following values:
Ay = 96.2 kN; Ax = 20 kN, By= 103.8 kN
Start at joint A since it has 2 unknown i.e FAB and FAC. At joint A, start with Fy
direction. (Don’t start in the Fx direction since it has 2 unknown)
50 100 50
20 209.9 209.9 103.8
96.2 C C
61.6 71.7
128.3 46.2 172.8
128.3 53.8 138.2
128.3 53.8 T 138.1
46.2 100
20 0 61.6 71.7 0 103.8
96.2
148.3 T 128.3 138.1 138.1 T

96.2 T
103.8
Problems
1. Find the forces in the members using either by inspection or using

method of joints.
(Answer: FAF = - 91.92; FAB = 65; FFG = -65; FBG = -35.36; FBF = +65; FBC = +90)

method of joints.
27 | P a g e
(Answer: FHD = 0: FGH = +30; FDG = 72.11; FGF = 110; FGC = -72.11;
FCD = -40: FCF = 108.17; FCB = -140; FEF = 230, FBE = 144.22; FBA = -280)

method of joints.
(Answer: FCD = 120; FDG = -126.49; FCG = -40; FGF = -189.74; FBG = 63.25;
FBC = 120; FBF = -60; FBA= 180; FAF = 72.11; FEF = -252.98)

method of joints.
28 | P a g e
(Answer: FAC = -62.5; FAD = 0; FCD = -32.5; FDE = 17.5; FDB = -130; FBE = -62.5)

method of joints.
(Answer: FAC = 390.67; FBD = -276; FCE = 70.67; FDF = -276; FEG = 70.67; FFH = -
62.67; FHJ = -32.45; FJP = -21.63; FGI = -32.45; FIK = -21.63; FKL = -2; FOP = 18;
FON = 18; FMN= 7)
29 | P a g e
method of joints.
(Answer: FAF = -100; FAB = 130; FBC = 130; FCF = -100;

FCG = 300; FCD = -190; FDE = -190; FEG = 237.5)
7. Determine the forces in the members marked “x” by the method of

section. .
(Answer: FIJ = -160; FCJ = -28.28; FCD = 180)

section.
(Answer: FGH = -100; FCH = -41.67; FCD = 113.33)
30 | P a g e
section.
(Answer: FAE = -34.38; FCD = 125; FBF = -190.62)
10. Determine the forces in the members by using the method of section and
inspection.
(Answer: FAE = 134.6; FAB = -120; FBE = -120.75;

FBF = -215; FEF = 30; FIF = -165; FEI= 161)
11. Determine the forces in the members by using the method of section
31 | P a g e
and inspection.
(Answer: FBC = 180; FCE = -225; FCH = -85; FBD = -37.5;

FDE = -30; FDF = 117.5; FFG = 90; FFI = 5; FIJ = -56.67; FGJ = 2.5)
32 | P a g e
TOPIC 3
DEFLECTION OF STATICALLY DETERMINATE TRUSSES
Learning outcomes

1. Derive expression for calculating deflections in trusses subjected to
mechanical loading using unit-load method. (PLO1,C2)
2. Compute deflections in various determinate trusses using unit-load
method. (PLO1, C3)
Content
3.1 Introduction
In this chapter, a method for the analysis of deflections of statically determinate

structures by using some basic principles of work and energy is developed.
3.2 Work
The work done by a force acting on a structure is simply defined as the force
times the displacement of its point of application in the direction of the force.
3.3 Principle of Virtual Work
33 | P a g e
The principle of virtual work, was introduced by John Bernoulli in 1717. The term
virtual simply means imaginary, not real. The method of virtual work is based on
the principle of virtual forces for deformable bodies, which can be written as
virtual external work = virtual internal work
or, more specifically, as
3.4 Deflections of Trusses by the Virtual Work Method
To develop the expression of the virtual work method that can be used to
determine the deflections of trusses, consider an arbitrary statically determinate
truss, as shown in Figure 3.1.
Figure 3.1: Real system
Let us assume that we want to determine the vertical deflection, ∆, at joint B of

the truss due to the given external loads P1 and P2. The truss is statically
determinate, so the axial forces in its members can be determined from the
method of joints described previously. If N represents the axial force in an
34 | P a g e
arbitrary member j (say CD), then the axial deformation, ∆, of this member is given
by
∂ = NL/AE
in which L; A, and E denote, respectively, the length, cross-sectional area, and
modulus of elasticity of member j.
To determine the vertical deflection, D, at joint B of the truss, we select a virtual

system consisting of a unit load acting at the joint and in the direction of the
desired deflection, as shown in Figure 3.2.
Figure 3.2: Virtual System
The forces in the truss members due to the virtual unit load can be determined
from the method of joints. Let n denote the virtual force in member j. Next, we
subject the truss with the virtual unit load acting on it Figure 3.1 to the
deformations of the real loads Figure 3.2. The virtual external work (Wve )
performed by the virtual unit load as it goes through the real deflection D is equal
to
Wve = 1 x ∆
To determine the virtual internal work, let us focus our attention on member j
(member CD). The virtual internal work done on member j by the virtual axial force
n, acting through the real axial deformation ∂, is equal to n ∂. Therefore, the total
virtual internal work done (Wvi ) on all the members of the truss can be written as
Wvi = ∑n(∂)
35 | P a g e
By equating the virtual external work to the virtual internal work in accordance
with the principle of virtual forces for deformable bodies, we obtain the following
expression for the method of virtual work for truss deflections:
1(∆) = ∑n(∂)
When the deformations are caused by external loads, can be substituted to obtain
1(∆) = ∑n (NL/AE)
Because the desired deflection, ∆, is the only unknown in the equation, its value
can be determined by solving this equation.
Where,
1 = external virtual unit load acting on the truss joint in the stated
direction of ∆
n = internal virtual normal force in a truss member caused by the external
virtual unit load
∆ = external joint displacement caused by the real load on the truss
N = internal normal force in a truss member caused by the real loads
L = length of a member
A = cross-sectional area of a member
E = modulus of elasticity of a member
3.5 Calculation Steps

1. Calculate the internal force of all members due to external loads.
2. Place a unit load on the node in the direction of the require deflection.
3. Calculate the internal force of all members due to this unit load.
4. Tabulate the results and summed the value of Σn(NL/AE).
Example 3.1
36 | P a g e
The cross-sectional area of each member of the truss shown in the figure is A
= 400 mm 2 and E = 200 GPa. Determine the vertical displacement of joint C.
Solution:
(i) Real Force N. The N force in each member is calculated using the
method of joint.
(ii) Virtual Force n. Since the vertical displacement of joint C is to be

determined, only a vertical 1 kN load is placed at joint C. The n force in each
member is calculated using the method of joint.
Tabulate the results and solve the vertical deflection of joint C.

Members Length(m) N kN n NnL
AB 8 2 0.667 10.672
AC 5 2.5 -0.833 -10.413
BC 5 -2.5 -0.833 10.413
∑NnL 10.672
Therefore, 1 x ∆c v = ∑NnL / AE = (10.672 x 10 ) / (400 x 200000) = 0.13 mm
6
Example 3.2
37 | P a g e
Determine the vertical displacement of joint C of the steel truss shown. The
cross-section area of each member is A= 400 mm 2 and E= 200 GPa.
Solution:
Real Force N. The N force in each member is calculated using the method of
joint.
Virtual Force n. Since the vertical displacement of joint C is to be determined,

only a vertical 1 kN load is placed at joint C. The n force in each member is
calculated using the method of joint.
Tabulate the results and solve the vertical deflection of joint C.

Member Length N n NnL
38 | P a g e
AB 4 4 0.333 5.328
BC 4 4 0.667 10.672
CD 4 4 0.667 10.672
DE 5.657 -5.66 -0.943 30.193
EF 4 -4 -0.333 5.328
AF 5.657 -5.66 -0.471 15.081
BF 4 4 0.333 5.328
BE 5.657 0 -0.471 0
CE 4 4 1 16
∑NnL 98.602
Therefore, 1 x ∆c v = ∑NnL /AE = (98.602 x 10 ) / (400 x 200000) = 1.23 mm
6
Example 3.3
Determine the horizontal components of the deflection at joint B of the truss
shown below by the virtual work method. Given EA = constant, E = 200 GPa, A
= 1200 mm 2.
Solution:
Real Force N.
Virtual Force n.
39 | P a g e
Tabulate the results and solve the horizontal deflection of joint B.
Member Length N n NnL

AB 4 21 1 84
BC 3 21 0
BD 4 84 0
AD 5.657 -79.2 0
DC 5 -35 0
∑NnL 84
1 x ∆BH = ∑NnL / AE = (84 x 106 ) / (1200 x 200000) = 0.35 mm
Example 3.4
40 | P a g e
Determine the vertical deflection of joint D under the loading as shown in the
diagram below. Given E = 200 x 103 N/mm 2 and the cross sectional areas for all
members = 103 mm 2.
Solution:
Real Force N. The N force in each member is calculated using the method of
joint.
FCD = 43.3 kN, FDE = -19.64 kN, FCE = -25.98 kN, FBC = 34.64 kN,
FBE = 51.63 kN,
FAE = - 60.94 kN, FAB = 0.
Virtual Force n.
FCD = 1.67, FDE = - 1.34, FCE = -1, FCB = 1.34, FBE = 1.67, FAE = -2.68
Tabulate the results and solve the vertical deflection of joint D.
41 | P a g e
Member Length (m) N (kN) n nNL / AE
CD 5 43.3 1.67 361.56 / AE
DE 4 -19.64 -1.34 105.27 / AE
CE 3 -25.98 -1 77.94 / AE
AE 4 -60.94 -2.68 653.28 / AE
AB 3 0 0 0
BE 5 51.63 1.67 431.11 / AE
BC 4 34.64 1.34 185.67 / AE
∑ 1814.83 / AE
Vertical deflection of joint D = (1814.83 x 106) / (1000 x 200x103) = 9.07 mm
42 | P a g e
Problems
1. Use the virtual work method to determine the horizontal and vertical
components of the deflection at joint B of the truss shown below.
(Answer: 4.24 mm 5.92 mm )
2. Use the virtual work method to determine the horizontal and vertical
components of the deflection at joint B of the truss shown below.
(Answer: 9.6 mm 2.13 mm )
43 | P a g e
3. Determine the smallest cross-sectional area A required for the members
of the truss shown, so that the horizontal deflection at joint D does not
exceed 10 mm.
(Answer: 3381 mm 2)
4. Determine the vertical displacement of joint A. Each bar is made of steel

and has a cross-sectional area of 600 mm 2 .Take E= 200 GPa.
(Answer: 0.536 mm )
44 | P a g e
5. Determine the vertical displacement of joint D. Given AE constant.
(Answer: 199 / AE )
6. Determine the vertical displacement of joint C of the truss. Each member

has a cross-sectional area of Use the method of virtual work.Given E =
200 GPa. A = 300 mm 2.
(Answer: 4.91 mm )
45 | P a g e
TOPIC 4
ANALYSIS OF STATICALLY INDETERMINATE TRUSSES
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Identify the redundant member or reaction. (PLO1,C2)
2. Derive expressions for determining redundant member and
reaction.(PLO1, C3)
3. Calculate the redundant force or reaction using the expression (PLO1, C3)
4. Determine the internal forces of members.(PLO1, C3)
CONTENT
4.1 Introduction
A structure is statically indeterminate when the number of unknowns exceeds the

number of equilibrium equations in the analysis. Indeterminacy may arise as a
result of added supports or members. The analysis of indeterminate truss is more
involved than statically determinate truss where the use of joints method or
sectional method is generally sufficient. There are some major advantages of
statically indeterminate truss namely:
(a) The maximum stresses and deflections in indeterminate trusses are
smaller than its statically determinate counterpart. Hence, the stiffness is
better than determinate truss.
(b) Statically indeterminate trusses have a tendency to redistribute its load to
redundant supports or members in the case of faulty design or overloading
occurs.
46 | P a g e
(c) Statically indeterminate trusses can support loads with support loading on
thinner members with increased stability. The use of indeterminate trusses
also present some disadvantages in terms of:
(a) More costly to make an indeterminate truss since it involved addition of
joints and members.
(b) Redundant trusses can induce problems such as differential
displacement which create stress by settlement of a support.
4.2 Internal and External Redundancy
The indeterminacy or redundancy of a truss may be either external, internal, or

both. The truss is externally indeterminate if the number of the reaction
components exceeds the number of equilibrium equation as shown in Figure 4.1.
The reaction components are 4 which exceed the number of equilibrium equation
which is 3. Therefore, the truss is said to be externally redundant to one degree.
Figure 4.1: Externally indeterminate truss
The internally redundancy of a truss can be determined using the expression m

+ r > 2j. For the truss is Figure 4.2:
m = 14, r = 3 and j=8.

m + r = 17, 2j = 16
17>16 (one internal redundancy)
47 | P a g e
Figure 4.2: Internally indeterminate truss.
4.3 Method of Analysis
The analysis of statically indeterminate truss in this topic is performed by force

and displacement methods. The force method is also called the method of
consistent deformations and is known as the compatibility or flexibility method.
4.3.1 Externally Indeterminate Truss
Consider, for example, the truss shown in Figure 4.3(a) which is pinned supported
at A and D. The By inspection it can be deduced that the truss is externally
indeterminate to one degree.
.
Figure 4.3(a) : Truss which is pin supported
Let’s say the reaction D x is removed or replaced pinned support D with roller
support. The structure will become determinate and stable. But the consequence
of replacing D with roller will cause deformation of the truss and support D will
move to a new position D’ a distance say ∆DO as shown in Figure 4.3(b).
48 | P a g e
Figure 4.3(b)
Let’s say we apply a unit load at D’ to the left as shown in Fig. 4.3 (c). This will
cause the D’ to move to the left a distance say f dd .
Figure 4.3(c)
For D’ to move to the original position D, required a displacement of f dd. Dx . So,
we can write down the expression of displacement as follows:
∆DO + f dd . Dx = 0 -----------(1)
From previous unit load method for truss deflection, we have the following
exprΔDO = ∑ NL.nD/AE
and the displacement f dd can be written as: f dd = ∑ ndL.nD/AE
where N = the member forces due to N load on the truss and nd = the member
forces due to 1 unit load on the truss.
Therefore expression (1) can be written as:
----------(2)
49 | P a g e
4.3.2 Procedure of calculating redundant force in member/support
Step 1: Find the degree of indeterminacy of the truss.

Step 2: Remove a sufficient number of unknown forces (examples: reactions or
member forces) from the indeterminate structure so that the structure
become statically determinate but remain geometrically stable.
Step 3: Calculate the forces of the “determinate” structure.
Step 4: Place a unit load at the redundant location and calculate the internal
forces due to the unit load.
Step 5. Solve the redundant force using expression (2). The values can be
tabulated as shown in example 1.
Example 4.1
Calculate the reactions and the forces in the members for the truss as shown
below. Given the cross-sectional area for member : AE=EF=FD=AB=BC=CD=
0.0006 m 2 and for member BE=BF=FC=0.0004 m 2.
Figure 4.4: Member of truss
Solution:
Step 1: Find the degree of indeterminacy of the truss
m = 9, r = 4, j = 6
m + r = 13, 2j =12
50 | P a g e
Therefore, m + r > 2j with 1 degree of indeterminacy
By inspection, the redundancy can be located externally. (The total
reaction from pinned supports is 4. For determinate support requires 3
reactions. Therefore, there is one external redundancy).
Step 2: Remove the redundant force from the indeterminate truss so that the
structure become statically determinate but remain geometrically stable.
At support D say, remove Dx. Effectively the support now becomes roller
support. Now the truss has become determinate. The removal of the force
doesn’t cause any geometrical instability to the truss,
Step 3: Calculate the forces of the “determinate” structure.
Use joint method or by inspection.
Step 4: Place a unit load at the redundant location i.e Dx and calculate the
internal forces due to the unit load.
51 | P a g e
Step 5: Tabulate the result and solve D x and the final forces in all members.
Member L(m) A(m2 ) N (kN) nD NnDL/A nD2 L/A P=N +nD.Dx

AB 2 0.006 5.2 1 17333.3 3333.3 0.6
BC 2 0.006 4.3 1 14333.3 3333.3 -0.3
CD 2 0.006 4.3 1 14333.3 3333.3 -0.3
EF 2 0.006 -2.4 0 0 0 -2.4
BE 1.5 0.004 1.8 0 0 0 1.8
CF 1.5 0.004 2.5 0 0 0 2.5
AE 2.5 0.006 -3.0 0 0 0 -3.0
BF 2.5 0.004 1.1 0 0 0 1.1
DF 2.5 0.006 -5.4 0 0 0 -5.4
∑ 46000 10000
∑ NL.nD/AE + ∑L nD2 Dx /AE = 0

46000/E + 10000/E .Dx = 0
Dx = -4.6 kN
Add the final column (P=N +nD.Dx ) for the final internal forces of the members
after taking into account the redundant force D x.
4.3.3 Internally Indeterminate Truss
Consider, for example, the truss shown in Figure 4.5 which is pinned supported
at A and roller at B.
Figure 4.5: Truss which is pinned and roller supported
52 | P a g e
m = 6, r = 3, j = 4
m + r = 9, 2j = 8.
Therefore, m + r > 2j with 1 degree of indeterminacy.
By inspection, it can be deduced that it is an internal redundancy.
Select member AD as the redundant member. If the member AD is “cut” the cut
section will form a gap say ΔADO as joint D moves to D’ as shown in Figure
4.5(a).
Figure 4.5(a)
If we apply a unit load on the cut section AD, than there will be a movement of
fAD due to this load. If the actual force NAD acts on the member than the gap
will close back after a movement of fAD . NAD.

Using compatibility, we can write the following expression:
ΔADO + fAD. NAD = 0
And can be written as:
∑NnADL/AE + ∑n2 ADL . NAD/AE = 0
The final force in the member can be calculated using this expression:
F = No + nAD.NAD
where No is the internal force in a member due to external load.
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Example 4.2
Determine the force in the members of the truss as shown below:
Solution:
Step 1: Find the degree of indeterminacy of the truss
m =10, j = 6, r= 3 ;
m + r = 13, 2j = 12. Therefore m+r > 2j with one degree of indeterminacy.
Step 2: Remove the redundant force from the indeterminate truss so that the
structure become statically determinate but remain geometrically stable.
Remove member CE. The structure is statically determinate and stable.
Step 3: Calculate the forces of the “determinate” structure using the method of
joints or by inspection.
Step 4: Place a unit load at the redundant member CE and calculate the internal
forces due to the unit load.
54 | P a g e
Step 5: Tabulate the result and solve the redundant force CE. Finally calculate
the final forces in all members.
Member L(m) N0 nCE NnCEL n2CEL N=N0 +nCENCE
AB 1.8 3 0 0 0 3+0=3
BC 1.8 2.63 -0.6 -2.84 0.65 2.63-(0.6)1.08=1.98
CD 1.8 2.63 0 0 0 2.63
EF 1.8 -3 -0.6 3.24 0.65 -3.65
BE 2.4 4 -0.8 -7.68 1.54 3.14
CF 2.4 3 -0.8 -5.76 1.54 2.14
AE 3.0 -5 0 0 0 -5
BF 3.0 0.63 1 1.88 3 1.7
CE 3.0 0 1 0 3 1.08
DF 3.0 -4.38 0 0 0 -4.38
∑ -11.16 10.37
∑NnCEL/AE + ∑n2 CEL . NCE/AE = 0

-11.16/AE + 10.37.NCE/AE = 0
Therefore, NCE = 1.08 kN
Example 4.3
The figure below shows a truss supported on roller at C and D and pinned at A.
A concentrated load of 100 kN is subjected vertically at B.
(a) Determine the determinacy of the structure.
(b) Identify the redundant member or support.
(c) Calculate the force/reaction on the redundant member/support.
(d) Determine the force in all members.
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Solution:
(a) m = 7, j = 5, r = 4. Thus, m + r = 11 and 2j = 10.
Since 11>10 the truss is considered stable and statically indeterminate
with 1 degree of indeterminacy.
(b) Since the external reaction is more than three hence the redundant force
must be external. The most likely reaction that can be removed without
causing instability to the truss is reaction at C.
(c) Step 1: Remove the reaction at C. The truss is now statically determine.
Step 2 : Calculate the internal forces due to the 100 kN force.
400/3
100 100 100
400/3
400/3
Step 3: Remove the external load and apply a unit load vertically at C.
Calculate the internal forces in the truss due to the unit load.
56 | P a g e
4/3
1
1
4/3 4/3
1 4/3
4/3
1 1
8/3 4/3
1
Step 4: Tabulate the result and solve the redundant force at C. Finally calculate
the final forces in all members.
Member L(m) N(kN) n NnL n2L N + nCy

AB 4 -400/3 8/3 -1422.22 28.44 -25.41
AD 3 -100 1 -300 3 -59.53
DB 5 166.7 -1.7 -1416.95 14.45 97.90
DE 4 0 -4/3 0 7.11 -53.96
EB 3 0 1 0 3 40.47
EC 5 0 -1.7 0 14.45 -68.80
BC 4 0 4/3 0 7.11 53.96
∑ -3139.17 77.56
∑NnL/AE + ∑n2L . Cy/AE = 0

-3139.17 + 77.56Cy = 0
Cy = 40.47 kN
(d) The final internal forces in the truss is calculate using the expression in the
final column of the above table.
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Problems
1. Determine the force in member AC of the truss as shown in figure below.
AE is constant.
(Answer: FAC = - 7.91 kN)
2. Determine the force in each member of the truss as shown in figure

below. Assume the members are pin connected at their ends. AE is
constant.
(Answer: FAE = 6.04 kN, FAD = - 8.54 kN, FCB = 14.1 kN)
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3. Determine the force in member CD of the truss as shown in figure below.
AE is constant.
(Answer: FCD = 4.63 kN)
4. Calculate the forces in the members of the truss shown in figure below and
the vertical and horizontal components of the reactions at the supports, all
members of the truss have the same cross-sectional properties.
(Answer: Ay = 67.52 kN, Ax = 70.04 kN, Fy = 32.48 kN, AB = -32.49 kN,

AD = -78.31 kN, BC = -64.98 kN, BD = 72.65 kN, CD = -100 kN,
CE = -64.98 kN, DE = 72.65 kN, DF = -70.04 kN, EF = -32.49 kN)
5. Determine the force in each member of the truss as shown in figure
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below.
(Answer: FBC = -119.8 kN, 71.9 kN, -170.8 kN)
6. Figure below shows a truss supported on pin both at point A and D. The
modulus of elasticity and cross sectional area for all members are 200
kN/mm 2 and 400 mm 2 respectively.
(a) Determine the determinancy of the truss.
(b) Calculate the forces in all members of the truss.
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TOPIC 5
STATICALLY DETERMINATE SPACE FRAME
Learning Outcomes
1. Define space frame. (PLO1, C1)
2. Name the types of support used in space frame. (PLO1, C1)
3. Determine the stability and determinacy of space frame. (PLO1, C2)
4. Calculate member forces of space frame using tension coefficient analysis.
(PLO1, C3)
Contents
5.1 Introduction
A space frame is a three-dimensional structure that is usually constructed from

the same fundamental triangular form associated with plane frame. Figure 5.1
shows three new members (14, 24 and 34) are added to the basic three-member
plane truss (123), one to each of the existing joints, and attach the other ends to
a new out-of-plane joint (4), then the newly formed structure is a simple space
frame known as tetrahedron – a very stable geometry.
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Figure 5.1: The simplest form of space frame
5.2 Advantages of Space Frame
Figure 5.2 shows a typical application of roof space truss for large span structures
such as sport complexes and aircraft hangers.
Figure 5.2: Roof space truss
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Space frames offer several advantages namely:
1. One of the most important advantages of a space frame structure is its

light weight. Most space frames are now constructed with steel or
aluminum, which decreases considerably their self-weight. This is
especially important in the case of long span roofs.
2. The units of space frames are usually mass produced in the factory so that
they can take full advantage of an industrialized system of construction.
Such units can be easily transported and rapidly assembled on site by
semi-skilled labor. Consequently, space frames can be built at a lower
cost.
3. A space frame is usually sufficiently stiff in spite of its lightness. This is due
to its three-dimensional character and to the full participation of its
constituent elements. Engineers appreciate the inherent rigidity and great
stiffness of space frames and their exceptional ability to resist
unsymmetrical or heavy concentrated load.
4. Space frames possess a versatility of shape and form and can utilize a
standard module to generate various flat space grids, latticed shell, or even
free-form shapes.
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5.3 Types of Support
For the force analysis the supports of a space truss are generally modeled as a
short link, plane roller joint, slotted roller joint, or a ball-and-socket joint. Each of
these supports and their reactive force components are shown in Figure 5.3
Figure 5.3: Types of support and reactions
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Example 5.1
Show the reactive force at the support if the space truss is supported by a ball-
and-socket joint at A, a slotted roller joint at B, and a cable at C.
Solution:
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5.4 Determinacy and Stability
Since space frame is in three dimensions, there will be three equations of

equilibrium for each joint.
∑Fx = 0; ∑Fy = 0; ∑Fz = 0
The external stability of the space truss requires that the support reactions keep
the truss in force and moment equilibrium.
Generally, the least number of required reactions for stable and externally
determinate is six.
Thus, for external stability and determinacy:
r=6 ------------ Determinate if Truss is Stable
If r < 6 ------------ Unstable
If r > 6 ------------ Externally Indeterminate
For internal determinacy, if m = number of members; j = number of joints; r =
number of supports; therefore:
m + r = 3j --------Determinate Truss
m + r > 3j-------- Indeterminate Truss
m + r < 3j --------Unstable Truss
Internal stability can sometimes be checked by careful inspection of the member
arrangement.
Example 5.2
Determine the determinacy of the space frame below. Connections to the
foundation are ball and socket.
(a) (b)
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Solution:
Case (a) Case (b)
m = 3, j = 4, r = 9 m = 9, j = 6, r = 9
m + r = 12 and 3j = 12 m + r = 18 and 3j = 18
Since m + r = 3j, determinate Since m + r = 3j, determinate
5.5 Assumptions for Design
1. The members are joined together by smooth pins (no friction – cannot
resist moment)
2. All loadings and reactions are applied centrally at the joints
3. The centroid for each members are straight and concurrent at a joint
5.6 Zero Force Member
The analysis of space trusses can be expedited by identifying the zero-force

members by inspection. Three common types of member arrangements that
result in zero-force members are the following:
Case 1
If all but one of the members connected to a joint lie in a single plane and no
external loads or reactions are applied to the joint, then the force in the member
that is not coplanar is zero.
Figure 5.4: Zero force member (case 1)

Figure 5.4 shows that if all members and external force except one member at a
joint, (say, joint B) lie in the same plane, then, the force in member A is zero.
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Case 2
If all but two of the members connected to a joint have zero force and no external
loads or reactions are applied to the joint, then unless the two remaining members
are collinear, the force in each of them is also zero.
Figure 5.5(a): Zero force member (case 2)
Figure 5.5(a) shows that if all members at a joint has zero force except for two
members, (say member A and B), and both members (A and B) do not lie in a
straight line, then the force in member A and B are zero. In Figure 5.5(b). If
members A and B lie in a straight line, then, the forces in these members might
not be zero since FAx = -FBx and FAy = -FBy.
Figure 5.5(b): Straight line (case 2)
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Case 3
If three members at a joint do not lie in the same plane and there is no external
force at that joint, then the force in the three members is zero.
Fig. 5.6: Case 3
Figure 5.6 shows that three members connected at a joint has zero force. A plane
can consists of two members, say member A and B. Thus, no force can balance
the component of member C that is normal to the plane.
Example 5.3
Identify the members of the space truss that has zero force.
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Solution:
Case 1: Joint L
F1 = 0 and F2 = 0
Case 3: Joint K
F3 = F4 = F5 = 0 and F1 = 0
Case 3: Joint M
F6 = F7 = F8 = 0 and F2 = 0
Case 3: Joint J
F9 = F10 = F11 = 0 and F5 = F6 = 0
Example 5.4
Identify the members of the space truss that has zero force.
Solution:
Case 1: Joint F
Members FE, FC, FD lie in a plane, except member FG. Thus, member FG has
zero force.
Case 2: Joint F
Members FE, FC, FD have zero force.
Case 3: Joint E
Members ED, EA, EH have zero force.
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5.7 Tension Coefficient Method
The most convenient method of analyzing statically determinate stable space

frames is the method of tension coefficients. This method of analysis can also be
applied to plane frames but it does not generally give the answer quickly as the
method of joints or by inspection.
The fundamental principles of the method in case of plane frame are as follows.
Consider the member AB, as shown in Figure 5.7, which connects two pinned
joints A and B whose coordinates, referred to arbitrary xy axes are A (x A, y A) dan
B (x B, y B) respectively. The member carries a tensile force of TAB and the length
of the member is LAB. The member is inclined at an angle Ɵ to the x axis.
Figure 5.7: Method of tension coefficient
The component TAB parallel to x axis at A is given by:

TABcosӨ = TAB (x B-x A) = tAB (x B-x A)
LAB
Where tAB = TAB/LAB and is known as the tension coefficient of the bar AB.
Similarly, the component in the y direction = tAB(y B-y A)
If at the joint A in the frame there are a number of bars AB, AC and AD and the
external load RAY and RAX acting in the x and y directions as shown in Figure
5.8, then, since the joint is in equilibrium the sum of the components of the
external and internal forces must be zero in the x and y directions.
71 | P a g e
Figure 5.8: Forming equilibrium equation at A
The equation of equilibrium at joint A are:

X direction: tAB(x B – x A) + tAC(x C – x A) + tAD(x D – x A) + RAX = 0
Y direction: tAB(y B – y A) + tAC(y C – y A) + tAD(y D – y A) + RAy = 0
Equilibrium equations may be written down for each joint in terms of tension
coefficients and joint coordinate referred to some convenient axis system. The
solution of this equations gives tAB, etc. It is than converted to force using
expression:
TAB = tABLAB
LAB can be calculated using Pythagoras’ theorem:
In the case of a space frame the equation of equilbrium at any joint will be written
in the x, y and z directions.
5.8 Procedures of Using Tension Coefficient Method

1. Choose an axis system and an origin of axes. Take positive directions for
x, y and z.
2. Write down the coordinate of each joint with respect to the origin chosen.
3. Begin writing the equations at one joint at which there are no more than
three unknown member forces. (In some rare case, support reactions has
to be determined first before writing the equations) Assume that all
members are in tension.
72 | P a g e
Example 5.5
Write down the coordinates of the joints with respect with the given origin.
Solution:
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Example 5.6
Determine the force in all members using tension coefficient method for the
problem in Example 5.5.
From the diagram A (0, 0, 10), B (-4, 0, 0), C (10, -3, 0), D (8, 6, 0)
1. Write the equations at one joint at which there are no more than three
unknown member forces. In this case joint A has three unknown forces.
X direction,
tAB (-4-0) + tAC (10-0) + tAD (8-0) + 8 = 0
-4tAB + 10tAC + 8tAD = -8 …………….(1)
Y direction,
tAB (0-0) + tAC (-3-0) + tAD (6-0) = 0
-3tAC + 6tAD = 0 ……………(2)
Z direction,
tAB (0-10) + tAC (0-10) + tAD (0-10) – 10 =0
-10tAB - 10tAC - 10tAD = 10 …………..…(3)
2. Solving the simultaneous equations give the following answers:
tAB = -1/10, tAC = -3/5 and tAD = -3/10
3. Determine the length of all members using Pythagoras’ theorem.
LAB= √102 + 42 = 10.77 m
LAC=√ 102 +102+32 = 14.46 m
LAD= √102 + 82 +62 = 14.14m
74 | P a g e
4. Calculate the force in all member using the expression T = t x L
TAB = tABLAB = -1.077 kN
TAC = tACLAC= -8.68 kN
TAD = tADLAD = -4.24 kN
Example 5.7
Case (a):
Calculate the forces in the space frame as shown below using tension coefficient
method.
Case (b):
Determine the reactions at support A, B and C. Assume all supports are ball -and
–socket.
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Solution:
Case (a):
1) Write down the coordinate of the nodes.
B (0, 0, 0); A (3, 4, 0); D (1, 4, 10); E (-1, 4, 10) and C (-3, 4, 0)
2) Write down the tension coefficient equations starting from joint E (Joint E
has three unknown members) and solve the coefficients.
At E:
X direction tED (2) + tEC (-2) + tEB (1) = 0 …..(1)
Y direction tED (0) + tEC (0) + tEB (-4) – 30 = 0 ……(2)
Z direction tED (0) + tEC (-10) + tEB (-10) = 0 ……(3)
From (2)
-4tEB = 30
tEB = -7.5
From (3)
tEC = -tEB
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tEC = 7.5
From (1)
2tED – 15 – 7.5 = 0
tED = 11.25
At D:
X direction tAD (2) + tCD (-4) + tBD (-1) + tED (-2) = 0 ….…..(4)
Y direction tAD (0) + tCD (0) + tBD (-4) + tED (0) – 20 = 0..…(5)
Z direction tAD (-10) + tCD (-10) + tBD (-10) + tED (0) = 0..…(6)
From (5),
tBD = -5 and solve other coefficients: tAD = 6.25, tCD = -1.25
3) Calculate the length of each member.
Length of node E (-1, 4, 10) to B (0, 0, 0) = √ 12 + 42 + 102 = 10.82 m
Length of node E (-1, 4, 10) to C (-3, 4, 0) = √22 + 102 = 10.20 m
Length of node A (3, 4, 0) to D (1, 4, 10) = √22 + 102 = 10.82
4) Calculate the force in all members.
TEB = -7.5 x 10.82 = - 81.15 kN
TEC = 7.5 x 10.2 = 76.5 kN
TAD = 6.25 x 10.82 = 67.6 kN
Case (b):
For a ball-and-socket type support, there are 3 reactions that has to be considered
for each support namely in the x, y and z direction. Write down the reaction as
shown in the Figure.
For joint A, use node A (3, 4, 0) and node B (0, 0, 0) and write the tension
coefficient equations for the joint.
At A:
X direction
RAX + tAD (1-3) = 0
RAX = -6.25x2 = 12.5 kN
Y direction
RAY + tAD (0) = 0
RAY = 0
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Z direction
RAZ + tAD (0 – 10) = 0
RAZ = - 6.25 x 10 = 62.5 kN
Similarly solve the other support reactions:
RBX = -2.5 kN, RBY = 50 kN, RBZ = 125 kN
RCX = -10 kN, RCY = 0, RCZ = -62.5 kN
Check: ∑x = 12.5 -2.5-10 = 0
∑y = 0 + 50 + 0 -20-30 = 0
∑z = -62.5 + 125 – 62.5 = 0
Example 5.8
The diagram below shows a plan and elevation view of a space frame which is
supported on ball-and-socket joint at C, D and E. The member EF is horizontal
and at a height of 6 m above the plane CDE. Point loads are applied at B as
shown in the figure below.
Case (a):
Classify the structure whether it is statically determinate or indeterminate.
Case (b):
Calculate the force in all members using the tension coefficient method.
(Assume point C as the origin).
78 | P a g e
Solution:
Case (a):
m = 6, j = 5, r = 9
m + r = 15 and 3j = 15
Since m + r = 3j, the space frame is determinate.
Case (b):
1. Write down the coordinate of all nodes using C as the origin.
C (0, 0, 0); A (2, -6, -2); D (0, 0, -4); B (4, -6, -2); E (4, 0, -2)
2. Write down the equations beginning with joint A since it has 3 unknown.
At A:
X direction -2tAC + 2tAB -2tAD = 0 ………(1)
Y direction 6tAC + 6tAD = -10 ………(2)
Z direction 2tAC – 2tAD = 0 ………(3)
Solving the simultaneous equations gives:
tAD = tAC = -0.83
tAB = -1.67
Proceed to joint B (Joint B now has 3 unknown since t AB has been resolved)
At B:
X direction -2tAB – 4tBD – 4tBC = -20
Y direction 6tBD + 6tBC + 6tBE = -10
Z direction -2tBD + 2tBC = -10
Solving the simultaneous equations gives:
tBD = 5.42
tBC = 0.42
tBE= -7.51
3. Calculate the length of each member.
LAC = √22 +62 +22 = 6.63 m
LAD = √22 +62 +22 = 6.63 m
LBC = √22 +62 +42 = 7.48 m
LDB = √22 +62 +42 = 7.48 m
LAB = √22 = 2 m
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LAB = √62 = 6 m
4. Calculate the forces
TAC = -0.83 X 6.63 = -5.51 kN; TAD = -0.83 X 6.63 = -5.51 kN;
TBC = 0.42 X 7.48 = 3.14 kN; TAB = -1.67 X 2 = 3.34 kN; TDB
= 5.42 X 7.48 = 40.55 kN and TBE = -7.51 X 6 = - 45.06 kN
80 | P a g e
Problems
1. Determine the determinacy of the space frame below. Connections to the
foundation are ball and socket.
(Answer: Indeterminate truss to the first degree)
2. The space truss shown in the figure below has roller and socket support
at joint A, B, C and D
(i) Determine the member force for all members at joint F and G
(ii) Determine the reaction at support C
(Answer: (i) TGC = -40 kN; TGE = 11.18 kN; TGF = -5 kN;
TFC = -14.14 kN; TFD = -33.6 kN; TFE = 0;
(ii) RCX = 0; RCY = -10 kN ; RCZ = 50 kN)
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3. The space truss shown in the figure has various type of supports at
joint A, B and C as shown in the figure below.
(i) Identify the zero member force

(ii) Determine the forces in other members
(Answer: (i) Joint D: tDC = tDA = tDE = 0

(Case 3: Three members at a joint and no external force)
Joint C: tCE = tCD = 0; therefore using case 3: tCB = tCA = RCy = 0
(ii) TEB= 6 kN; TEA= -4.47 kN)
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4. Calculate the forces of the members in the space frame as shown below.
Assume all supports are ball-and-socket.
(Answer: TAB = TAC = 0.7 kN; TAD = TAF = - 2.43 kN;

TAE = 3.33 kN; TBC = -0.5 kN)
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TOPIC 6
ANALYSIS OF INDETERMINATE STRUCTURES
SLOPE- DEFLECTION METHOD
Learning Outcomes

1. Apply the equation of slope-deflection on indeterminate beams and
non-sway frames. (PLO1, C3)
2. Determine the reactions at supports of indeterminate beam and
non-sway frames. (PLO 1, C3)
3. Sketch the shear force and bending moment diagram for indeterminate
beam and non-sway frames (PLO1, C4)
Content
6.1 Introduction
Slope deflection method is a classical method developed by George Maney in

1915. It was considered the most popular method of analysis until 1930, when
the Hardy Cross method of moment distribution was introduced. Slope deflection
continues to be an important analytical procedure since an understanding of the
slope-deflection method provides an excellent introduction to learning the Hardy
Cross method of moment distribution. The slope-deflection method can be easily
be programmed for a computer analysis of indeterminate flexural structures
especially where large numbers of unknown deformations are to be determined.
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6.2 Slope-Deflection Equations
In slope-deflection equations, the moments at the ends of a beam element are

related to the end displacements and rotations.
Consider the beam, 1-2, as shown in Fig. 6.1. The beam has flexural rigidity EI
and is subjected to moments, M 1 and M 2 at its ends. The moments produce
displacements ∂1 and ∂2 and rotation Ɵ1 and Ɵ2 as shown. The relative
displacement of the beam ends is given as: ∂ = ∂2 - ∂1
y
Figure 6.1: Slope and deflection of a beam
The bending moment diagram for beam is illustrated in Figure 6.2. The moment
M 1 produces sagging and is denoted as positive moment while the moment M2
causes hogging and is denoted as negative moment.
Figure 6.2: Bending moment diagram of the beam
85 | P a g e
At any section x of the beam, the bending moment can be written as:
M = M 1(1 - x/L) - M 2x/L…………..…….……..(1)
The differential equation of symmetrical bending is given as:
-EI d2y/dx 2 = M.............................................(2)
Subtituting (1) into (2)
-EI d2y/dx 2 = M = M 1 (1 - x/L) - M 2x/L.............(3)
Integrating (3) with respect to x gives the expression for slope:
-EI dy/dx = M 1(x – x 2 /2L) – M 2x 2 /2L + A…....(4)
Integrating (4) with respect to x gives the expression for deflection:
-EIy = M 1 (x 2/2 – x 3/6L) – M 2 x 3/6L + Ax + B...(5)
A and B is a constant of integration and can be solved using the boundary
conditions of the beam. At the left hand side of the beam y = 0 when x=0 and
subtituting in equation (5) gives B = 0.
Also when x = 0, dy/dx = θ1, substituting into equation (4) gives A = -EIθ1
When x = L, y = ∂ (differential displacement) ; subtituting into equation (5) gives:
-EI∂ = M 1 L2/3 – M 2 L2 /6 – EIθ1L ……..........(6)
Also, when x = L; dy/dx = θ2 ; subtituting into equation (4) gives:
-EIθ2 = M 1L/2 – M 2L/2 – EIθ1......…………(7)
Arranging equation (6) dan(7) produce the relationship between moment, slope
and displacement(settlement) of the beam:
M 1 = 4EIθ1 / L + 2EIθ2 / L - 6EI∂/L2
M 2 = 4EIθ2 / L + 2EIθ1 / L - 6 EI∂/L2
or
M 1 = 2EI/L(2θ1 + θ2 - 3∂/L)..........……….(8)
M 2 = 2EI/L(2θ2 + θ1 - 3∂/L)............………(9)
Equation (8) and (9) are known as the slope- deflection equations.
The beam in Figure 6.1 is not subject to lateral loads. Clearly, in practical cases,
lateral loads will be present. These will cause additional moments at the ends of
the beam as shown in Figure 6.3.
86 | P a g e
Figure 6.3: Additional moment due to lateral load
Equation (8) and (9) may be written as:

M 1-2 = 2EI/L(2θ1 + θ2 - 3∂/L) + M F12 ...……….(10)
M 2-1 = 2EI/L(2θ2 + θ1 - 3∂/L) + M F21......………(11)
in which M F12 and M F21 are the moments at the ends of the beam caused by the
applied loads i.e. they are fixed-end moments. Standard formula for fixed-end-
moments for several applied load cases is shown in Figure 6.4.
Figure 6.4: Formula for fixed-end-moment
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Example 6.1
Find the end moment at A using the slope-deflection method for the beam as
shown below. Assume no settlement at the support occurred and the beam has
constant rigidity EI.
Solution:
Check the determinacy of the beam.
r=4,n=1
3n = 3; r > 3n . Therefore the beam is statically indeterminate with one degree of
indeterminacy.
(i) Write down the slope-deflection-equation for span AB.
M AB = 2EI/8(θA + θB – 3∂/L) + M FAB..............(1)

M BA = 2EI/8(2θB + θA - 3∂/L) + M FBA.............(2)
(ii) Determine the boundary conditions from the diagram.
A is built-in, θA = 0
Support B is roller, than, M BA = 0
No Settlement case, δ = 0
Support B roller, M BA = 0
(iii) Calculate the fixed-end-moment.
From Figure 6.4,
M FAB = - PL/8 = -100x8/8 = -100 kNm
M FBA = PL/8 = +100x8/8 = +100 kNm
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Therefore, equation (1) and (2) become:
M AB = 2EI/8( θB) – 100...................(1)
0 = 2EI/8 (2θB) + 100.....................(2)
(iv) Solved the equations.
θB = -200/EI
(v) Substitute back in (1):
The answer is M AB = -150 kNm
Example 6.2
The beam carries the load as shown below. Determine:
a) The end moments

b) The support reactions
c) Draw the bending moment and shear force diagram of the beam
Assume no settlement at support occurred and the rigidity, EI is constant.
Solution:
Check the determinacy of the beam.
r = 7, n = 1
3n = 3; r > 3n. Therefore the beam is statically indeterminate with four degree of
indeterminacy.
a) Determining the end moments
i) Write down the slope-deflection-equation for span AB and BC.
M AB = 2EI/6(θA + θB + 3∂/L) + M FAB............(1)
M BA = 2EI/6(2θB + θA + 3∂/L) + M FBA........... (2)
M BC = 2EI/6(2θB + θC + 3∂/L) + M FBC.........(3)
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M CB = 2EI/6(θC + θD + 3∂/L) + M FCB...........(4)
ii) Determine the boundary conditions and the equilibrium of moments at
the support.
Support A is built-in, θA = 0
Support B is built-in, θB = 0
No Settlement at support, δ = 0
Equilibrium equation at support B, M BA + M BC = 0
iii) Calculate the fixed-end-moment.(Refer Figure 6.4)
For span AB,
M FAB = -wL2/12 = -20 x 36/12 = -60 kNm
M FBA = + wL2/12 = +60 kNm
For span BC,
M FBC = -wL/8 = -120 x 6/8 = -90 kNm
M FCB = +wL/8 = 90 kNm
iv) Substitute the boundary conditions and fixed-end-moment in equation
(1-4)
M AB = 2EI/6(0 + θB + 0) – 60..................(1)
M BA = 2EI/6(2θB + 0 + 0) + 60..........…..(2)
M BC = 2EI/6(2θB + 0 + 0) – 90................(3)
M CB = 2EI/6(0 + θB + 0) + 90..................(4)
v) Using the equilibrium equation at support B, M BA + M BC = 0
Thus, the sum of equation 2 and 4 gives:
4EIθB / 6 + 60 + 4EIθB / 6 - 90 = 0
θB = 45 / 2EI
vi) Substitute the value of θB into equation (1-4),
M AB = 2EI/6 x 45 / 2EI - 60 = -52.5 kNm
M BA = 2EI/6(2 x 45 / 2EI) + 60 = +75 kNm
M BC = 2EI/6 x 2 x 45 / 2EI - 90 = -75 kNm
M CB = 2EI/6 x 45 / 2EI + 90 = 97.5 kNm
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b) Determining the reactions at supports
i) Separate the beam at support B and sketch all the forces acting on the
beam as shown below.
Where RB1 + RB2 = RB

Consider span AB.
∑M B=0
52.5 – 75 – RA x 6 + 20 x 6 x 3 = 0; RA = 56.25 kN
∑Fy = 0
RA + RB1 = 20 x 6; RB1 = 63.75 kN
Consider span BC
∑M c=0
RB2 x 6 - 75 + 97.5 – 120 x 3 = 0; RB2 = 56.25 kN
Thus, RB = 63.75 + 56.25 = 120 kN
∑Fy = 0
RB2 + RC = 120; RC = 63.75 kN
c) Bending moment diagram
The bending moment diagram of indeterminate beam is drawn by
superimposing end moments and free moment diagrams.
i) Step 1: Plot the end moment derive from the calculations on the vertical
axis. The vertical axis is positive downward and negative upward as show n
in figure below. (Downward denote bending and upward denote hogging).
End moments that cause hogging will be plotted on the negative axis and
if the end moment cause sagging it will be plotted on the positive axis. Join
the plotted end moments using dotted line.
1|Page
ii) Step 2: Assume each span as simply supported. Calculate the free
moment at the centre of span for a distributed load or under a concentrated
load. Sketch the bending moment diagram
For span AB;
Free moment at the centre of span = wL2/8 = 20 x 62/8 = 90 kNm

For span BC;
Maximum free moment under the load = PL/4 = 120 x 6/4

= 180 kNm
iii) Step 3: Superimpose the free bending moment diagram with the end
moments diagram as shown below.
2|Page
Shear force diagram can be defined using the support reactions that were
calculated. The shear force diagram can be sketched as follows:
6.3 Slope-deflection-equation for non-sway frame.
For the purpose of analysis, the structural frames are classified as non-sway and
sway frames as given below:
a) Non-sway frame– one in which the transverse displacement of one end of
the member relative to the other end is effectively prevented.
b) Sway frame – one in which the transverse displacement of one end of the
member relative to the other end is not effectively prevented.
Figure 6.5 shows sway frame can be prevented from swaying by introducing
some kind of lateral support or bracing to the frame.
3|Page
Figure 6.5: Sway and non-sway frame
Example 6.3
The non-sway frame as shown below is built-in at A and D and pinned at C. The
frame is subjected to a point load and distributed load respectively as shown.
Using the slope-deflection equations:
a) Determine the end moments
b) Sketch the bending moment diagram
Solution:
a) Determine the end moments
i) Write down the slope-deflection-equation for span AB , BC and BD.
M AB = [2E(2I)(2θA + θB)] / 5 + M FAB...............(1)
M BA = [2E(2I)(2θB + θA )] / 5 + M FBA................(2)
M BC = [2EI(2θB + θC)] / 3 + M FBC...................(3)
M CB = [2EI(2θC + θB)] / 3 + M FCB...................(4)
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M BD = [2EI(2θB + θD)] / 3 + M FBD...................(5)
M DB = [2EI(2θD + θB)] / 3 + M FDB...................(6)
ii) Determine the boundary conditions and the equilibrium of moments at
the support.
Support A is built-in, θA = 0
Support D is built-in, θD = 0
Support C is pinned, M CB = 0
Equilibrium equation at support B, M BA + M BC + M BD = 0
iii) Calculate the fixed-end-moment.
M FAB = -100x2x32 /52 = -72 kNm
M FBA = +100x22x3/52 = 48 kNm
M FBC = - 20x32 /12 = -15kNm
M FCB = +15 kNm
M FBD = M FDB = 0
iv) Substitute the boundary conditions and fixed-end-moment in equation
(1-6)
M AB = [2E(2I)(θB)] / 5 – 72...........………..(1)
M BA = [2E(2I)(2θB)] / 5 + 48...........………(2)
M BC = [2EI(2θB + θC)] / 3 – 15...........……(3)
M CB = [2EI(2θC + θB)] / 3 + 15.........…….(4)
M BD = [2EI(2θB)] / 3 = [4EIθB] / 3.....…….(5)
M DB = [2EI(θB)] / 3……..………………… (6)
Since M CB = 0
Thus, 2/3EI(2θC + θB) + 15 = 0
or 4θC + 2θB = - 45/EI............………(7)
Using: M BA + M BD + M BC = 0
8/5EIθB + 48 + 4/3EIθB + 2/3EIθC - 15 + 4/3EIθB = 0
or
64θB + 10θC = -495/EI............................(8)
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Solving equation (7) and (8), gives: θC = - 8.008/EI; θB = - 6.483/EI
Substitute back in equation (1-6);
M AB = -77.19 kNm, M BA = 37.63kNm, M BC = -28.98 kNm
M CB = 0, M BD = -8.65, M DB = -4.32 kNm
b) Bending moment diagram
Free moment for span AB = Pab/L = 100x2x3/5 = 120 kNm
Free moment for span BC = wL2/8 = 22.5 kNm
6|Page
Problems
1. Determine the reactions and draw the shear and bending moment diagram
for the beam shown by using the slope-deflection method.
(Answer: M AB = -100 kNm, M BA = -200 kNm, M BE = 200 kNm,

M EB = -500 kNm, RA = -33.3 kN, RB = 116.67 kN, RE = 116.67 kN)
2. Determine the end moments, reactions and draw the bending moment
diagram for the frame shown.
(Answer: M AC = -9.4 kNm, M CA = - 187.5 kNm and M CD = 187.5 kNm

Dy = 91.67 kN, Dx = 70.31, Ay = 133.33 kN, Ax = 4.69 kN)
7|Page
3. Determine the reactions and draw the shear and bending moment
diagrams for the beams shown.
(Answer: M AB = 114.3 kNm, M BA = -171.4 kNm, M BC = 171.4 kNm

Ay = 92.8 kN, By = 228.6 kN and Cy = 78.6 kN)
4. Determine the moments at A, B, and C, then draw the moment diagram for
the beam as shown below. Assume the support at A and D is fixed, B and
C are rollers. EI is constant.
(Answer: M AB = 4.09 kNm, M BA = 8.18 kNm,

M CD = -8.18 kN m, M DC = -4.09 kNm)
8|Page
TOPIC 7
ANALYSIS OF INDETERMINATE STRUCTURES
MOMENT DISTRIBUTION METHOD
Learning Outcomes
1. Define stiffness factor, distribution factor and carry-over factor. (PLO1, C2)
2. Apply the moment distribution method for indeterminate beam and non-
sway frames. (PLO1, C3)
3. Determine the reactions at supports. (PLO1, C3)
4. Draw the bending moment diagram for non-sway frames. (PLO1, C4)
Contents
7.1 Introduction
Slope deflection method can become extremely tedious due to the fact that a lot
of simultaneous equations has to be solved hence alternative methods are
desirable. One obvious alternative is to employ computer-based techniques but
another, quite powerful hand method is an iterative procedure known as the
moment distribution method. The method was derived by Professor Hardy Cross
in 1932.
7.2 Principle
In this method, all the members of a structure are first assumed to be fixed in
position and direction and the fixed end moments due to external loads are
obtained. Now all the hinged joints are released, by applying an equal and
opposite moment, and their effects are evaluated on the opposite joints. The
9|Page
balanced moment at a joint, is distributed in the two spans in the ratio of their
distribution factors. This process is continued, till we reach the required degree of
precision.
Consider the continuous beam as shown in Figure 7.1.
Figure 7.1 A continuous beam
1. Suppose the beam is clamped at B before the loads are applied,

thereby preventing any rotations at the joint. When the loads are
applied, each span then becomes a fixed beam with moments at each
end, i.e. fixed end moments. The fixed end moments can be calculated
and are shown in Figure 7.2.
Figure 7.2 Fixed end moments
2. If we now release the beam at the support B, the resultant moment at

B,(60 -120 = -60 kNm), will cause rotation of the beam at B until
equilibrium is restored; where -60 kNm is the out of balance moment at
B. By allowing the beam to rotate to an equilibrium position at B a
balancing moment of +60 kNm must be applied so that the total
10 | P a g e
equilibrium moment at joint B is zero. The balancing moment will cause
rotation ƟB in span BA and BC as shown in Figure 7.3. The balancing
moment at B has been distributed into span BA and BC, the relative
amounts depending upon the stiffness, or resistance to rotation, of BA
and BC.
Figure 7.3 Balancing moment cause rotation
3. This procedure will affect the fixed-end moments at A and C so that

they will no longer be equal to the original value. For continuous beam
of more than one support, the clamping/release procedure is repeated
until the different between the angle of rotation at each support and the
equilibrium state is negligibly small.
7.3 Stiffness Factor, Distribution Factor and Carry over Factor
In applying the moment distribution method, the followings are required:

(a) Determining the fixed-end moments in the different members of a beam
or frame.
(b) Determining the distribution of the balancing moment at a support into
adjacent spans.
(c) Determining the fraction of the distributed moment which is carried over
to each adjacent support.
7.3.1 Distribution of balancing moment at a joint
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Consider the frame as shown in Figure 7.4 which consists of three members’ built-
in at A, B and C and rigidly connected at X. A balancing moment, M is applied at
X as shown in the figure. Since the joint X is rigid, the balancing moment will
cause the same amount of rotation Ɵ at X for each member.
Figure 7.4 Three members’ built-in at A, B and C
By applying the slope- deflection equation, the end moment at X for each
member can be written as:
M XA = 4 X E X (IXAϴ / LXA)……………..(1)
M XB = 4 X E X (IXBϴ / LXB)……………..(2)
M XC = 4 X E X (IXCϴ / LXC)……………..(3)
Since the balancing moment is M, then,
M = M XA + M XB + M XC…………………(4)
Substitute equation 1,2 and 3 into 4:
M = 4 X Eϴ X (ΣI/L)
Arranging,
4 X Eϴ = M / (ΣI/L)
Substitute back into equation 1, 2 and 3, gives the end moment at A, B and C
that known as distribution factor for XA, XB and XC:
M XA = M X [(IXA / LXA) / (ΣI/L)]
M XB = M X [(IXB / LXB) / (ΣI/L)]
M XC = M X [(IXC / LXC) / (ΣI/L)]
The ratio of second moment of area to length (I/L) is known as stiffness factor
usually denoted as k. Therefore:
12 | P a g e
1) The distribution factor for member XA = (IXA / LXA) / ∑I/L
2) The distribution factor for member XB = (IXB / LXB ) / ∑I/L
3) The distribution factor for member XC = (IXCA / LXC ) / ∑I/L
7.3.2 Carry- Over Factor
Consider the member AX in Figure 7.5 where the end moment is M XA.
Figure 7.5 End moment at member AX
By applying the slope- deflection equation, the end moment at A and X can be
written as:
M XA = 4 X E X (IXAϴ / LXA)
M AX = 2 X E X (IXAϴ / LXA)
Therefore, M AX = ½ M XA
Therefore one-half of the applied moment, M XA, is carried over to A so that the
carry over factor (COF) = ½.
13 | P a g e
Example 7.1
Determine the distribution factor for each member at joint X. The stiffness factor
for each member is as shown below.
Solution:
∑I/L = 2 + 1 + 3 = 6
DFXA = (IXA / LXA) / ∑I/L = 2 / 6
DFXB = (IXB / LXB) / ∑I/L = 1 / 6
DFXC = (IXC / LXC) / ∑I/L = 3 / 6
Example 7.2
Determine the distribution factor for joint D, E and F for the frame as shown
below.
14 | P a g e
Solution:
Joint D Joint E Joint F

DA DE ED EB EF FE FC
k I / 40 I / 20 I / 20 I / 40 1 / 20 I / 20 I / 40
DF 1 / 3 : 2 / 3 2/5 : 1/5 : 2/5 2/3 : 1/3
7.4 Moment Distribution Procedures
(1) Calculate the fixed end moment for each span of a continuous
beam or frame using the standard formula as shown in Table 7.1.
Table 7.1 Standard Fixed-End Moment Formula

Diagram End (1) End (2)
-Pab2 / L2 +Pa2b / L2
-PL / 8 +PL / 8
-wL2 / 12 +wL2 / 12
(2) Determine the distribution factor at the joint between members.

(3) Prepare the moment distribution table and carry out the moment
distribution operations.
15 | P a g e
Example 7.3
Determine the moment at joint A, B and C for the continuous beam as shown.
The flexural rigidity EI is constant throughout.
Solution:
1) Calculate the fixed-end moments for each span using Table 7.1.
M FAB = -wL2 /12 = - 60 kNm
M FBA = + 60 kNm
M FBC = - PL/8 = - 120 kNm
M FCB = + 120 kNm
2) Determine the distribution factor.
Joint B
Member BA BC
K (I/L) I/6 I/8
Dist. Factor 4/7 3/7
Note: The sum of the distribution factors at a support must always be equal
to unity.
16 | P a g e
3) Prepare the distribution table and carry out the moment distribution.
A B C Joint
AB BA BC CB Member
4/7 3/7 D.F
-60 60 -120 120 MF
34.3 25.7 Balance
7.5 12.9 Carry over
-52.5 94.3 -94.3 132.9 Final moment
Example 7.4
A continuous beam as shown in the figure below:
a) Determine the moment at joint A, B, C and D.

b) Determine the support reactions. (flexural rigidity EI is constant
throughout)
Solution:
a) Moment at joint A, B, C and D
1) Calculate the fixed-end moments for each span using Table 7.1.
M FAB = -wL2/12 = -6.0 kNm, M FBA = +6 kNm
M FBC = -wL2/12 – PL/8 = -8 X 22 / 12 – 20 X 2 / 8 = -7.67 kNm
M FCB = + 7.67 kNm
M FCD = -8 X 22 / 12 = -2.67 kNm, M FDC = 2.67 kNm
17 | P a g e
2) Determine the distribution factor.
Joint B C
Member BA BC CB CD
K (I/L) I/3 I/2 I/2 I/2
D.F 2/5 3/5 1/2 1/2
Prepare the distribution table and carry out moment distribution.

A B C D Joint
AB BA BC CB CD DC Member
2/5 3/5 1/2 1/2 D.F
-6 6 -7.67 7.67 -2.67 2.67 MF
0.69 0.98 -2.5 -2.5 Balance
0.35 -1.25 0.49 -1.25 Carry over
0.5 0.75 -0.25 -0.25 Balance
0.25 -0.13 0.38 -0.13 Carry over
0.05 0.08 -0.19 -0.19 Balance
0.03 -0.10 0.04 -0.10 Carry over
0.04 0.06 -0.02 -0.02 Balance
-5.37 7.28 -7.28 5.62 -5.62 1.19 Final Moment
Note: As a general rule it is sufficient to stop the procedure when the distributed
moments are of the order of 2% of the original fixed-end moments. In the table
the last moment at C in CD is -0.02 which is 0.75% of the original fixed-end
moment. We could, therefore, have stopped the procedure at least one step
earlier and still have retained sufficient accuracy.
18 | P a g e
b) Support reactions
The final reactions at the supports are now calculated from the final support
moments and the reactions corresponding to the actual loads, i.e. the free
reactions; these are calculated as though each span were simply supported.
Joint A B C D
Free reactions 12 12 18 18 8 8
Final moment 0.64 0.64 0.83 0.83 0.45 0.45

reactions
Total reactions 11.35 12.64 18.83 17.17 8.45 7.55
(kN)
The final moment reaction in AB, for example, form a couple to balance the
clockwise moment of 7.28 – 5.37 = 1.91 kNm acting on AB. Thus at A the reaction
is 1.91 / 3 = 0.64 kN acting downwards while at B in AB the reaction is 0.64 kN
acting upwards. Finally the complete reactions at each supports are:
RA = 11.35 kN, RB = 12.64 + 18.83 = 31.47 kN, R C= 17.17+8.45 = 25.62 kN;
RD = 7.55 kN
Check: Total reaction (upward) =11.35 + 31.47 + 25.62 + 7.55 = 76 kN
Total load (downward) = 8 x 7 + 20 = 76 kN
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7.5 Case where the outside support is pinned
Consider the case when the external support (refer to 7.3.1), A is pinned and a
balancing moment is applied at X as shown in Figure 7.6.
Figure 7.6 External support is pinned
Figure 7.7 shows the balancing moment for member XA is M XA and has the
result of changing support A from built-in to pinned, there will be rotation at A
says ф (if A is built –in the rotation is zero).
Figure 7.7 Effect of changing external support from built-in to

pinned
By applying the slope-deflection equation,

M AX = 2EI/L (2ф + Ө ) = 0 (A pinned)
Hence, ф = - Ө/2
Therefore, M XA = 2EI/L (2Ө + ф) = 3 EIӨ/L
If the equation is written in the form of equation (1), then
M XA = 4EӨ (¾ I/L)
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This means that whenever the outside support is pinned, the attach member
stiffness is reduce to ¾. This reduction of stiffness must be taken into account
when determining the distribution factor.
It must be noted that an outside pinned support has a final moment of zero. The
amount of computation can be reduce by balancing the beam at the pinned
support initially and then there will be no carry over moment from the adjacent
support to the pinned support in the subsequent moment distribution.
Example 7.5
A continuous beam is built-in at A and pinned supported at C. The beam is loaded
as shown in the figure. Determine the moment at joint A, B, and C. The flexural
rigidity EI is constant throughout.
Solution:
1) Calculate the fixed-end moments for each span.
M FAB = -wL2 / 12= -96 kNm M FBC = -PL / 8 = -12kNm
M FBA = +96 kNm M FCB = +12kNm
2) Determine the distribution factor at the joint between members
Joint B
Member BA BC
K (I/L) I/24 I/8 X 3/4
Dist. Factor 4/13 9/13
Note: Since the external support C is pinned, the stiffness for member BC
is multiply by ¾.
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3) Prepare the distribution table.
AB BA BC CB Joint
4/13 9/13 D.F
-96 96 -12 12 MF
-6 -12 Carry over
-96 96 -18 0 M F(New)

-24 -54 Balance
-12 Carry over
- 72 -72 0 Total moment

108
No carry over is required
Example 7.6
a) Determine the moment at joint A, B, C and D for the continuous beam as
shown in the figure below. External support A is pinned while D is roller.
b) Determine the support reactions.
The flexural rigidity EI is constant throughout.
Solution:
a) Moment at joint A, B, C and D
1) Calculate the fixed-end moments for each span.
M FAB = -M FBA = -5 X 62 / 12 = -15 kNm
M FCD = -M FDC = -5 X 62 / 12 = -15 kNm
M FBC = -M FCB = -40 X 5 / 8 = -25 kNm
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Joint B C
Member BA BC CB CD
K (I/L) I/6 X 3/4 I/10 I/10 I/6 X ¾
Dist. Factor 5/9 4/9 4/9 5/9
3) Prepare the distribution table and carry out the distribution.
A B C D Joint
AB BA BC CB CD DC Member
5/9 4/9 4/9 5/9 D.F
-15 15 -25 25 -15 15 MF
+15 7.5 -7.5 -15 Balance
0 22.5 --25 25 -22.5 0 M F (New)
1.39 1.11 -1.11 -1.39 Balance
-0.56 0.56 Carry over
0.31 0.25 -0.25 -0.31 Balance
0 24.2 -24.2 24.2 -24.2 0 Final Moment
b) Support reactions
Joint A B C D
Free reactions 15 15 20 20 15 15
Final moment reactions 4.03 4.03 0 0 4.03 4.03
Total reactions(kN) 10.97 19.03 20 20 19.03 10.97
Finally the complete reactions at each supports are:

RA = 10.97 kN, RB = 19.03 + 20 = 39.03 kN, R C = 39.03 kN, RD = 10.97 kN
23 | P a g e
Check: Total reaction (upward) = 10.97 X 2 + 39.03 X 2 = 100 kN
Check: Total load (downward) = 30 + 40 + 30 = 100 kN
7.6 Non-sway frame
Frames fall into two distinct categories as sway and non-sway frame. This module
will only dealt with non-sway category. The moment distribution analysis is
virtually identical to that for continuous beams with only, in some cases, the added
complication of more than two members meeting at a joint.
Example 7.7
The frame as shown in the figure is pinned at A and built-in at C as shown in the
figure below. The frame is prevented from swaying by a horizontal support at C.
The flexural rigidity for the column and beam is EI and 3EI respectively.
a) Determine the moment at all joints.

b) Draw the bending moment diagram for the frame.
Solution:
a) Moment at all joints

1) Calculate the fixed-end moments for each span
M FAB = -10 X 12 X 3 / 42 = -1.875 kNm
M FBA = +10 X 1 X 32 / 42 = 5.625 kNm
24 | P a g e
M FBC = -20 X 62 / 12 = -60 kNm
M FCB = +60 kNm
Joint B C
Member BA BC CB CD
K (I/L) I/ 4X3/4 3I / 6 3I / 6 I/4
Dist. Factor 3 / 11 8 / 11 2/3 1 /
3
3) Prepare the distribution table and carry out the distribution
AB BA BC CB CD DC SAMB
3/11 8/11 2/3 1/3 DF
-1.875 5.625 -60 60 MF
+1.875 0.938 Balance
6.56 -60 60 M F(New)
14.57 38.87 -40 -20 Balance
-20 19.43 -10 Carry over
5.45 14.54 -12.95 -6.47 Balance
-6.47 7.27 -3.23 Carry over
1.76 4.71 -4.84 -2.42 Balance
-2.42 2.35 -1.21 Carry over
0.66 1.76 -1.57 -0.78 Balance
-0.78 0.88 -0.39 Carry over
0.21 0.57 -0.58 -0.29 Balance
0 29.23 -29.23 29.98 -29.98 -14.84 Final Moment
25 | P a g e
Example 7.8
A multi-bays frame is prevented from swaying by a horizontal support at F. The
loadings and the support conditions are as shown in the figure below. The flexural
rigidity EI is constant throughout the frame.
a) Determine the moment at all joints.
b) Draw the bending moment diagram for the frame
a) Moment at all joints

1) Calculate the fixed-end moments for each span
M FAD = -10 X 30 X 102 / 402 = -18.75 kNm
M FDA = 10 X 10 X 302 / 402 = 56.25 kNm
M FDE = -2 X 202 / 12 = -66.67 kNm
M FED = 66.67 kNm
26 | P a g e
2) Determine the distribution factor at the joint between members.
Joint D E F
Member DA DE ED EB EF FE FC
K (I/L) I / 40 I / 20 I / 20 I / 40 I / 20 I / 20 I / 40
Dist. Factor 1/3 2/3 2/5 1/5 2/5 2/3 1/3
3) Prepare the distribution table and carry out the distribution

AD DA DE ED EB EF FE FC CF BE Member
1/3 2/3 2/5 1/5 2/5 2/3 1/3 D.F
- 56.25 - 66.6 MF
18.7 3.47 66.6 7 - - Balance
5 7 - 13.3 26.6
6.95 26.6 3 7
7
1.74 - 3.48 - - Carry
4.45 13.3 -1.39 -0.7 -1.39 13.3 4.45 6.6 over

4 4 7 Balance
8.89 8.89
2.23 -0.7 4.45 4.45 -0.7 2.2 - Carry
0.23 0.47 -3.56 -1.78 -3.56 0.47 0.24 2 0.3 over

5 Balance
0.12 -1.78 0.24 0.24 -1.78 0.1 - Carry

2 0.8 over
0.59 1.19 -0.19 0.1 -0.19 1.19 0.59
9
Balance
- 64.99 - 43.0 - - -5.27 5.28 2.3 - Final

14.6 64.9 3 15.9 27.1 4 7.9 Moment
6 9 1 2 1
27 | P a g e
Note: The bending moment diagram is drawn on the tension side of each
member. The bending moment distribution in member DE is determined by
superimposing the fixing moment diagram on the free bending moment diagram,
i.e. the bending moment diagram obtained by supposing that DE is simply
supported.
28 | P a g e
Problems
1. Determine the reactions and draw the shear and bending moment
diagrams for the beams shown below by using the moment-distribution
method.
a) Case A
b) Case B
c) Case C
d) Case D
(Answer: M CA = -189.1, M EC = 190.8)
29 | P a g e
2. Determine the member end moments and reactions and draw the bending
moment diagram for the frames shown.
a) Case A (EI constant)
(Answer: M AC = -9.4, M CD = 187.6)

b) Case B
(Answer: M AB = 18.44 kNm, VA = 47.38 kN

M BA = 36.88 kNm, VC = 32.62 kN
M BC = -36.88 kNm, HA = 37.53 kN)
30 | P a g e
c) Case C
(Answer: M BA = +28.17, HA = VA = 10.31 kN

M BD = +1.63, VD = HD = 21.18 kN
M BC = -29.8, HC = VC = 19.75 kN
M DB = -14.5, M CB = +18.8)
d) Case D
31 | P a g e
(Answer: M BA = 11.28, HA = -6.19, VA = 0.7
M BD = 14.45, HD = 6.19, VD = 35.73
M BC = -25.73, VC = 35.57, M DB = 7.23)
e) Case E
(Answer: M AB = 21.3, M BA = 42.6, M CE = -27.1

M BC = -42.6, M CD = -21.1, M EC = -13.6
M CB = 48.2, HA = 75.1, VA = 59.1
HB = 70.2, HD = 5.28, HE = -10.18)
32 | P a g e
TOPIC 8
PLASTIC ANALYSIS
Learning Outcomes
1. Define plastic hinge, full plastic moment and collapse mechanisms.
(PLO1, C2)
2. Identify the location of plastic hinges. (PLO1, C2)
3. Determine the critical plastic moment in continuous beams using graphical
method. (PLO1, C3)
4. Determine the critical plastic moment in continuous beams using virtual
work method. (PLO1, C3)
Contents
8.1 Introduction
In plastic analysis and design of a structure, the ultimate load of the structure as
a whole is regarded as the design criterion. The term plastic has occurred due to
the fact that the ultimate load is found from the strength of steel in the plastic
range. This method is rapid and provides a rational approach for the analysis of
the structure. It also provides striking economy as regards the weight of steel
since the sections required by this method are smaller in size than those required
by the method of elastic analysis. Plastic analysis and design has its main
application in the analysis and design of statically indeterminate structures.
33 | P a g e
8.2 Plastic hinge, plastic moment and collapse mechanism
Consider a beam subjected to a gradually increasing point load, W at the center

of the beam and the deflection is recorded as shown in Figure 8.1. If the load is
plotted against deflection of the beam a typical graph as shown Figure 8.2 is
produced.
Figure 8.1 Gradually applied load and deflection
If the load is plotted against deflection of the beam a typical graph as shown
Figure 8.2 can be produced.
Figure 8.2 Graph of applied load versus deflection
The zone between O and A is linear and is called elastic region. A is the yield
point of the material and beyond A the material has become plastic. If at any point
in the plastic region the load is removed, there will be a permanent deformation
remain on the beam. In the plastic region one important observation
34 | P a g e
can be made such as a small incremental load is accompanied by a large
deflection and this phenomenon is similar to hinge mechanism.
For analysis purpose, the graph is idealized as shown in Figure 8.3. The symbol
Wc is termed as collapse load and as shown in the graph is accompanied by a
large rotation (B-C) occurring at the centre of the beam. Upon reaching the
collapse load, the moment at that particular instant becomes the largest moment
before the beam collapse.
Figure 8.3 Idealized graph
Since the rotation at the center of the beam (B-C) is very large, the beam has
formed what is termed as plastic hinge. The plastic hinge occurs at a section of
the beam where the moment is the largest or is termed as full plastic moment
(M p).
The basic concept of plastic analysis is to find a collapse mode or termed as

collapse mechanism whereby part or the whole structure fail.
35 | P a g e
8.3 Formation of Plastic Hinge
If the middle section of a rectangular beam as shown Figure 8.1 is analyzed, the
section bending stress distribution will change from elastic to plastic mode as
shown in Figure 8.4.
Figure 8.4 Bending stress distribution across a section
If the moment M, at the centre of the beam increases gradually, the stress also
increases as described below:
1) The bending stress (σ) goes on increasing, linearly, until the extreme fibre
stress reaches the yield stress (σa ) as shown in Figure 8.4(B).
2) The increase in moment, cannot produce any increased fibre stress
beyond the yield stress. But it causes the yield stress to spread into the
inner fibres as shown in Figure 8.4(C). At such a stage the beam is said to
be in elasto-plastic stage, as part of the beam is in elastic stage and the
remaining in plastic stage.
3) The further increase in moment will cause more and more fibres of the
section to reach yield stress, until the whole section reaches the yield
stress as shown in Figure 8.4(D). At this moment, the section has reached
its maximum resistance, and thus it cannot be subjected to any
36 | P a g e
more moment or in other words, it cannot carry any further load and any
increase of load will cause the beam to collapse. The beam will behave,
as if it is hinged at the plastic section. Such a section is called plastic hinge.
8.4 Plastic Moment or Collapse Moment
Plastic moment is the resisting moment of a beam section, which has developed
a plastic hinge. Consider a beam, subjected to a moment which has caused a
plastic hinge as shown in Figure 8.5.
Figure 8.5 Plastic section
Plastic moment of resistance (taken from the centroid of the tension block)
M p = Force X lever arm(a)
= (σ yield X B X D/2) x D/2 = σ y X BD2/4
= σ y X Zp
where Zp (BD2/4) is the plastic section modulus or plastic modulus. In steel design
practice, Zp can be obtained from design table for steel section supplied by the
manufacturer. If Zp and σy are known, then we can calculate the plastic moment
of resistance of section and compare it with the applied moment. Usually if plastic
moment of resistance is bigger than the applied moment than the member is
considered safe.
37 | P a g e
8.5 Load Factor
The ratio of collapse load, to the safe working load, is known as load factor.
Load factor, λ = Wc / Ws
8.6 Shape Factor
The ratio of plastic modulus of section, to the elastic modulus of section, is

known as shape factor.
Shape factor, Φ = Zp / Ze
Sometimes, the shape factor is also expressed as the ratio of plastic moment to
the moment of resistance, on the basis of ultimate stress, within the elastic limit:
Shape factor, Φ = M p / M y
The shape factor also can be expressed as:
Shape factor, Φ = λ X σw / σy
Example 8.1
Find the shape factor of a rectangular section having width and depth equal to b
and d respectively.
Solution:
The elastic modulus of a rectangular section, Ze = bd2 / 6
The plastic section modulus of a rectangular section, Z p = bd2 / 4
Shape factor, Φ = Zp / Ze = (bd2 / 6) / (bd2 / 4) = 6 / 4 = 1.5
And so a rectangular section can sustain 50% more moment than the yield
moment, before a plastic hinge is formed. Therefore the shape factor is a good
measure of the efficiency of a cross section in bending. Shape factors for some
other cross sections are shown in Figure 8.6.
38 | P a g e
Figure 8.6 Shape factor of various cross-sections
Example 8.2
A rectangular beam is simply supported beam and has a safe working load of 165
N/mm 2 and yield stress of 250 N/mm 2. Determine the load factor.
Solution:
Using the expression: Φ = λ X σw / σy

Where Φ = 1.5 (shape factor for rectangular section)
Therefore, λ = Φ X σy / σw = 1.5 X 250 / 165 = 2.27
Example 8.3
The working stress of mild steel is 150 N/mm 2 . If the yield stress is 230 N/mm 2,
determine the load factor of a mild steel beam with a form factor of 1.15.
Solution:
Using the expression: Φ = λ X σw / σy
λ = σy X Φ / σw = 230 / 150 X 1.15 = 1.76
8.7 Identifying Possible Locations of Plastic Hinges
Since the bending moment cannot exceed the M p value for a given cross-section
it is evident that when hinges develop they will occur at the positions of maximum
bending moment such as fixed supports, rigid-joints, under point loads and within
the region of distributed loads. For collapse mechanism to occur, sufficient
number of hinges must be developed depending on the support conditions of the
structures.
39 | P a g e
Figure 8.7(a) Single plastic hinge formation
For simply supported beam, a single plastic hinge is sufficient for the beam to
become a mechanism (collapse) as shown in Figure 8.7(a).
Figure 8.7(b) Double plastic hinge formation
For a beam with one end built-in and the other end on roller support, two plastic
hinges are needed for a mechanism (collapse) to occur as shown in Figure 8.7(b).
Figure 8.7(c) Triple plastic hinge formation
40 | P a g e
For an encastre beam, three plastic hinges are needed for a mechanism
(collapse) to occur as shown in Figure 8.7(c). Generally, plastic hinges can occur
in the following places as shown in Figure 8.8.
i) Built-in support
ii) Under a concentrated load
iii) At the centre of a uniformly distributed load
iv) Over an internal supports of a continuous beam
v) At a rigid joint such as in the portal frame
Figure 8.8 Possible locations of plastic hinges
8.8 Plastic Analysis Method
The analysis of beams and frames involves determining:

1) The possible hinge positions
2) The number of hinges required to induce collapse
3) The collapse loads
41 | P a g e
There are two methods of analysis which are frequently used to determine the
values of plastic moment of resistance for sections required for a structure to
collapse at specified factored loads; they are:
1) Graphical Method (Static Method)
2) Virtual Work Method (Kinematic Method).
8.8.1 Graphical Method
In the graphical analysis for continuous beam, the Free Bending Moment
diagrams for the structure are drawn and the Fixed Bending Moment diagrams
are then added algebraically. The magnitude and sense +ve or −ve of the
moments must be such that sufficient plastic hinges occur to cause the collapse
of the whole or a part of the structure.
8.8.2 Collapse Load on a Simply Supported Beam with Central Point Load
A B
.
Figure 8.9 Point load at a centre of a simply supported beam
Consider a simply supported beam AB carrying a central point load as shown in

Figure 8.9.
If Wc = collapse load and M p = Plastic moment,
At critical value, M p = WcL / 4
Therefore, Wc = 4M p / L
42 | P a g e
8.8.3 Collapse Load for a Simply Supported Beam with an Eccentric Load
Consider a simply supported beam AB carrying an eccentric point load at a

distance a and b from the support A and B as shown in Figure 8.10.
A B
Figure 8.10 Simply supported beam with eccentric point load
If Wc = collapse load and M p = Plastic moment. At critical value:

M p = Wc ab / L
Wc = M pL / ab
8.8.4 Collapse Load for Simply Supported Beam with Uniformly

Distributed Load
Consider a simply supported beam AB carrying a uniformly distributed load as

43 | P a g e
A B
Figure 8.11 Simply supported beam with uniformly distributed load
If Wc = collapse load and M p = Plastic moment,

At critical value, M p = WcL2 / 8
Therefore, Wc = 8M p / L2
Example 8.4
An encastre (built-in at both end) beam is 8.0 m long and supports an unfactored
load of 40 kN/m as shown in the figure. Assuming that the yield stress p y = 460
N/mm 2 and a load factor λ = 1.7, determine the required plastic moment of
resistance.
Solution:
The collapse load = (40.0 X 1.7) = 68.0 kN/m
The possible hinge positions are at the supports A and B and within the region of
a distributed load since these are the positions where the maximum bending
moments occur. Superimpose the fixed and free bending moment diagrams:
44 | P a g e
For hinge to develop, M 1 = M 2 = M 3 = M p
At the centre of the beam, M 2 + M 3 = 2Mp = λwL2 / 8
M P = 1.7 X 40 X 82 / 16 = 272 kNm
Example 8.5
Determine the collapse load of the propped cantilever with a central load as
shown.
45 | P a g e
Solution:
Fixed Bending
Moment
Diagram
Superimpose the fixed and free bending moment diagrams:
46 | P a g e
Example 8.6
Find the plastic moment and the collapse load for the beam as shown. Take
working stress as 150 N/mm 2 and yield stress as 225 N/mm 2 and the shape factor
as 1.15.
Solution:
Therefore, M p + 1/3M p = Wc X 3 X 1.5 / 4.5

4/3M p = Wc
M p = ¾ Wc
Load factor, λ = σy X Φ / σw = 225/ 150 X 1.15 = 1.72
Therefore collapse load = 1.72 X W
Thus, M p = ¾ X 1.72W = 1.29 W
47 | P a g e
Example 8.7
A propped cantilever is L m long and supports a collapse load of w kN/m as shown
in the figure. Determine the position of the plastic hinges and the required plastic
moment of resistance M p.
Solution:
The possible hinge positions are at the support A and within the region of a
distributed load since these are the positions where the maximum bending
moments occur. In this case the maximum moment under the distributed load
does not occur at mid-span since the bending moment diagram is not
symmetrical. Consider the final bending moment diagram:
The maximum bending moment such as M p occurs at a distance x from the roller
support and can be determined as follows:
48 | P a g e
Equate the M p values to determine x:
This is a standard value such as for a propped cantilever the plastic hinge in the
span occurs at a distance X = 0.414L from the simply supported end and the
value of the plastic moment M p = 0.0858wL2
8.9 Virtual Work Method
In this method, a displacement is imposed upon each possible collapse

mechanism and an equation between external work done and internal work
absorbed in forming the hinges is developed. The collapse mechanism involving
the greatest plastic moment, M p , is the critical one.
A virtual work equation can be developed by equating the external work done by
the applied loads to the internal work done by the formation of the hinges where:
Internal work done during the formation of a hinge = moment X rotation
External work done by a load during displacement = load X displacement
(In the case of distributed loads the average displacement is used).
49 | P a g e
8.10 Collapse Load on a Simply Supported Beam with Central Point Load
Consider a simply supported beam AB carrying a central point load as shown in

Figure 8.12
Figure 8.12 Point load at a centre of a simply supported beam
A single plastic hinge is sufficient for the beam to become a mechanism as

Figure 8.13 A single plastic hinge causing a mechanism to occur
For small values of θ,
The Internal work done in developing the hinge is found from the product of the
moment induced such as M p and the amount of rotation (2θ) for the hinge.
The internal work done: moment X rotation at the hinge
Internal work done = M p X 2θ
The external work done by the applied load system is found from the product of
the load and the displacement for each load. The external work done: load X
displacement
External work done = Wc X δ = W X L X θ/2
50 | P a g e
From principal of virtual work, the external work done is equal to the internal
work done
Wc X L X θ/2 = M p X 2θ
At critical value, M p = WcL / 4
Therefore, Wc = 4M p / L
Example 8.8
Find the plastic collapse load for the encastre (built-in at both end) when a point
load W acts at the centre of the beam as shown in figure below.
Solution:
The plastic hinges that lead to a mechanism to occur are located at the built-in
ends and under the point load. Draw the deform shape and determine the rotation
at each joint.
For small angle, δ = L/2 X θ

The external work done = Wc X δ = WcL / 2 X θ
The internal work done = M pθ + M p θ + 2M p θ = 4 X M p θ
The external work done = the internal work done
Wc X L/2 X θ = 4 M p θ
M p = WcL / 8
51 | P a g e
Example 8.9
Find the plastic collapse load for the encastre (built-in at both end) when a
uniformly distributed load acts on the beam.
Solution:
Failure Mechanism:
The uniformly distributed load causes zero deflection at the supports and δ at
the centre.
For small values of θ,
For uniformly distributed load case, average displacement of the load = δ/2 = Lθ
/4
The external work done = Wc X δ = Wcθ X L / 4
The internal work done = M pθ + M p θ + 2M p θ = 4 X M p θ
Wcθ X L / 4 = 4 X M p θ
M p = WcL / 16
52 | P a g e
8.11 Continuous Beam
There are a number of possible elementary beam mechanisms and it is necessary

to ensure all possibilities have been considered. It is convenient in multi-span
beams to consider each span separately as shown in Figure 8.14 and identify the
collapse mechanism involving the greatest plastic moment M p; this is the critical
one and results in partial collapse.
Figure 8.14 Failure mode for each span of a continuous beam
53 | P a g e
Example 8.10
Determine the critical collapse load for the continuous beam as shown using
graphical method.
Solution:
Consider Mode 1:
M F = WL / 4
M p + M p / 2 = WL / 4
Wc = 6M p / L
54 | P a g e
Consider Mode 2:
M B = PL / 4 = 2WL / 4
M p + M p / 2 = 2WL / 4
Wc = 3M p / L
It can be seen that from the two mode of failures, the most likely mode that can
cause a mechanism (failure) to occur is mode 2 since the value of W c is less than
in mode 1. Therefore the critical collapse load is Wc = 3M p / L
Example 8.11
Determine the critical plastic moment for the continuous beam as shown below
using graphical method.
55 | P a g e
Solution:
Mp + Mp = MF
2M p = WL2 / 8
M p = 30 X 64 / 16 = 120 kNm
Mp + Mp / 2 = MF
3/2M p = 100 X 10 / 4
M p = 166.67 kNm
Comparing the plastic moment of the two cases, the critical failure moment is
M p = 166.67 kNm. (Choose the highest value) and collapse will occur on span
BC.
56 | P a g e
Example 12
Determine the critical plastic moment using the virtual work method.
Solution:
Span AB
δ =4 Xθ

80 X 4θ = M p θ + M pθ + M p2θ
320 = 4M p
M p = 80 kN
Span BC
Case 1
δ = 3 θ, α = δ/6 = 3 θ/6= θ/2, δ1 = θ/2 X 3 = 3 X θ/2, β = θ+ α = 3 θ/2

50 X δ + 30 X δ1 = M pθ + M p(θ / 2) + M p (3θ / 2)
50 X 3θ + 30 X 3θ / 2 = M p(3θ)
57 | P a g e
M p = 65 kNm
Case 2
δ1 = 3θ, δ = 6θ, α = 6θ / 3 = 2θ, β = 3θ

50 X 3θ + 30 X 6θ = M pθ + M p(3θ) + M p (2θ)
M p = 55 kNm
Comparing the three modes of failure, the critical plastic moment is 80 kNm (the
highest value) and the most likely place for the beam to fail is on span AB.
58 | P a g e
Problems
A series of continuous beams are indicated in which the relative M p values and
the applied collapse loadings are given in Problems 1 to 5. Determine the required
value of M p to ensure a minimum load factor λ=1.7.
1. Case 1
(Answer: Critical M p = 17 kNm)

2. Case 2
(Answer: Critical M p = 22.67 kNm)

3. Case 3
(Answer: Critical M p = 30 kNm)

4. Case 4
59 | P a g e
(Answer: Critical M p = 46.67 kNm)
5. Case 5
(Answer: 117.94 kNm)
60 | P a g e
REFERENCES
1. Hibbeler, R.C. (2006). Structural Analysis, 6th Edition. Prentice Hall, USA.
(TA645 .H52 2006)
2. Chia-Ming Uang, Anne Gilbert. (2008). Fundamentals of Structural Analysis.
McGraw Hill Higher Education, USA. (TA645 .L34 2008)
3. Williams, Alan. (2009). Structural Analysis: In theory and practice;
Butterworth-Heinemann. (TA645 .W55 2009)
4. Aslam Kassimali. (2005). Structural Analysis, SI Edition. Brooks Cole, USA.
(TA645 .K37 2005)
5. William M.C. McKenzie. (2006). Examples in Structural Analysis. Taylor and
Francis, London and New York.
6. T.H.G Megson. (1996). Structural and Stress Analysis. Arnold, London.
61 | P a g e

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DAC 31502

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

Diterbit dan dicetak oleh:

Upon completion of the course, students will be able to:

Course Work: 50%

At the end of this topic, student should be able to:

A structure can be defined as a construction form which consists of

Structural analysis is the determination of the effects of loads on the physical

A structure can be classified based on the primary forces that it resists.

1.2.1 Tension Structures

A tensile structure is a construction of elements carrying mainly tension and no

Figure 1.1: Tensile membrane structure is most often used as a roof,

Figure 1.2: The Akashi Kaikyo Bridge in Japan,

1.2.2 Compression Structures

Compression structures develop mainly compressive stresses under the action

Figure 1.4: Column under compression

An arch is a curved structure frequently used to support bridges and long-span

1.2.3 Truss Structures

Trusses are made of straight members connected at their ends by hinged

1.2.4 Shear Structures

Shear structures, such as reinforced concrete shear walls as shown in Figure

Figure 1.7: Application of shear wall in a multistory structure

1.2.5 Bending Structures

1.3 Structural Analysis and Design

In a building project an architect on behalf of a client will prepare the building

General Analyses of loads and forces

Figure 1.9: Relationships between analysis and design stages

1.4 Structure Idealizations

Figure 1.10: Idealization of a structure which floor beam carrying slab(1),

Fig 1.11(a): Actual beam Fig 1.11(b): Idealized beam

Figure 1.12(b): Unstable due to reaction lines of action are parallel

1.6 Determinacy of a Structure

A stable statically determine structure is a structure that doesn’t move or become

If the unknown reactions of a structure under load can be computed or solved

2kN 5kN 5kN 4kN 2 kN

1.6.2 Determinacy of Beams and Rigid Frame

Mathematically, there is a simple rule to determine whether a beam or rigid frame

r = 3n, statically determinate .………(1)

r > 3n, statically indeterminate ………..(2)

r < 3n , unstable ………..(3)

r : number of external reactions (Figure 12)

n : number of parts in the system.

If a structure is found to be unstable or becoming a mechanism, then it cannot be

Determine whether the structures shown below are statically determinate,

Free body diagram: n1 = 1

r1 = (3) r2 = (1) r3 = (3)

Free body diagram:

Cutting the loop

Using equation (2),

11>3(2), statically indeterminate. Degree of indeterminacy = 11 – 6 = 5

1.6.3 Stability and Determinacy of Trusses

A truss is essentially a triangulated system of (usually) straight interconnected

A truss is considered statically determinate if all of its support reactions and

Mathematically, there are simple rules to determine whether a truss is statically

m + r = 2j (Statically determinate truss assuming it is stable) ......................(5)

m + r > 2j (Statically Indeterminate truss) ....................................................(6)

where m = number of elements

Figure 1.14: Unstable Truss

Trusses may externally or internally unstable. External instability occurs when

unstable concurrent reactions unstable parallel reactions

Figure 1.15: External instability

Figure 1.16: Internal instability

If a truss is unstable, it does not matter whether it is statically determinate or

1. Classify each of the structures as statically determinate, statically