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architectural styles
a visual guide
architectural styles
a visual guide
Margaret Fletcher
Illustrations by Robbie Polley

Princeton University Press

Princeton and Oxford
CO N T EN TS

Introduction 6 2 Medieval and Renaissance

Early Christian and Byzantine 68
1 Ancient and Classical Islamic 74
Ancient Middle East 16 Romanesque 80
Ancient Egypt 20 Gothic 86
Pre-Columbian 26 Medieval Fortifications 94
Pre-Classical 32 Renaissance 100
Ancient Greek 36 Mannerism 106
Ancient Roman 40
Early and Classical China 48 3 Baroque to Art Nouveau
Early and Classical Japan 54 Baroque and Rococo 112
Early and Classical India 60 Palladianism 120
Georgian 126
Classical Revival 132
Gothic Revival 138
Exotic Revival 144
Beaux Arts 152
Arts and Crafts 158
Art Nouveau 162

Church of St. Leopold, Vienna, Austria

4 Modern and Contemporary 5 Elements
Art Deco 170 Domes 216
Expressionism 176 Columns 222
Modernism 178 Towers 232
Constructivism 186 Arches and Arcades 238
Brutalism 190 Doorways and Entrances 244
Metabolism 194 Windows 248
High-Tech 196 Pediments and Gables 258
Postmodernism 200 Roofs 264
Deconstructivism 204 Vaulting 270
Eco-Architecture 208 Stairways 274
Biomorphism 210
Parametric 212 Glossary 278
Index 282

Mortuary Temple of Hatshepsut, Deir el-Bahari, Egypt

 I N TRO DUCT ION
Architecture tells stories. Extant historic architecture allows
us to reflect on and revel in the built environment of our
ancestors, and to glimpse into their world. It connects us
directly to our personal and collective past. Learning about
architectural history allows us to travel back in time and
understand more about previous cultures and civilizations,
and discover what was important to their people. Was it
religion? Self-expression? Cultural institutions? Urban or
rural living? Wealth or family? One can stand in the footprints
of Julius Caesar, Cleopatra, Shakespeare, or any unknown
individual, and begin to envision how life used to be.

Looking at architecture through all periods of time is

important, not only because it formulates our basic
understanding of the past, but also because it enriches
our understanding of how each period influenced the next.
Was it a progression, a rebellion, or an outright rejection
of what came before? It allows us to trace the evolution of
the built environment, how architecture has changed over
time, and how cross-cultural interactions have traveled across
continents to spread knowledge. The relationship between

6 INTRODUCTION
Santa Costanza, Rome, Italy

architecture and culture is symbiotic: architecture impacts

culture and society, and in turn culture and society impact
architecture. The man-made heritage of architecture has
shaped human experience, and continues to do so today.

This book organizes architecture by multiple means—time

period, location, aesthetics, cultural and societal impact—
all cataloged within a style. Defining architectural styles
and the history of architecture has the luxury of reflection,
although it should be noted that the idea of an architectural
style is a relatively new concept. There is an abundance of
stylistic and developmental overlap that occurs when looking
at architecture over several thousand years. The very fact
that we can categorize our built environment in this way
reveals interesting inclinations that have developed over time.
It is important to remember that style categories develop
reflectively, so it is particularly challenging to discuss the
development of architecture in contemporary times; this
categorization has more to do with descriptive qualities than
with an actual defined style because, for the moment, we lack
time for reflection.

INTRODUCTION 7
 Gamble House, Pasadena, California, US

Contemporary architecture is moving at a rapid pace and its

architects are often not keen to be labeled. They work within
a set of objectives that are important both to the academy of
architecture and to their individual clients; their work tends to
fall into multiple categories and can be cataloged in a variety
of ways. This book attempts to define the most compelling
features of each piece of contemporary architecture, to
encourage understanding of current practice. But remember,
as style is a reflective process, and not the goal of a designer,
these should be considered as rather fluid characterizations.
At any given time in history, the people, the culture, and the
architects respond to the current situation. They act in the
now, the present of that time.

This book, by design, is a visual narrative that will take you on

a drawn journey through history. The illustrator, Robbie Polley,
has created a masterful collection of architectural drawings
that transcend photography and bring a warmth and human
touch to the representation of the architectural examples.
Each one is constructed with a careful hand and an eye for
stylistic clarity. Humans are visual creatures; we understand

8 INTRODUCTION
and remember things better if we see them. The drawings
are therefore the primary feature to help you recognize
associations between buildings within a certain style or
period, as well as contrasts between different styles or periods.
Each period discussed uses drawn examples to help you to
assimilate visual elements and features, and begin to learn
and identify the nature of each of the architectural styles in
the buildings you may see day-to-day. Perhaps they will also
inspire you to draw during your own architectural adventures!

The written descriptions aim to provide direct, clear, and

concise information for each example. While there are
moments of specificity, the objective here is to give enough
information to put each example within historic and stylistic
context, and to present a broad visual and textual narrative of
the history of architectural styles and design.

Ad Deir, Petra, Jordan

INTRODUCTION 9
 Okochi Sanso Villa, Kyoto, Japan

The book is organized into five sections, four of which are

focused on time-based architectural styles: Ancient and
Classical, Medieval and Renaissance, Baroque to Art Nouveau,
and Modern and Contemporary. Each of these sections is
broken down into design styles and outlines the defining
characteristics of each style. The final part of the book
focuses on elements related to all styles of architecture—
domes, columns, towers, arches and arcades, doorways,
windows, pediments and gables, roofs, vaulting, and
stairways—each of which are represented with rich,
drawn examples from multiple periods and styles.

This book is designed for architectural enthusiasts, history

buffs, travelers, students, or anyone who is curious about
buildings and their environment. I hope it will enable you

10 INTRODUCTION
to journey through time and identify architectural features,
classify buildings into specific architectural styles, recognize
the relationships between periods and styles, understand
the development of architectural elements, experience other
cultures and places, and consider the deep relationship
we all share with the buildings we inhabit.

Empire State Building, New York Times Square Building, Rochester,

City, New York, US New York, US

INTRODUCTION 11
THE
BUILDINGS
1
ANC I E NT AND
C LASS IC AL
A NC I EN T MI DDL E EAST
CIRCA 5300 BCE TO 650 CE

The primary building material of the Ancient Middle East was Ancient Middle East
the mud brick. Typically consisting of mud, sand, loam, water, key features:

and a binder such as straw, these bricks were either air-dried • mud brick
• tile
or fired in a kiln to increase their durability. Glazing techniques • relief sculpture
for bricks and tiles further increased durability and also • animal and human form
allowed for additional ornamental advancements. The in sculpture
• load-bearing construction
everyday homes of this era are no longer in existence, but • ziggurat
what remain are the impressive ruins of palaces and temples
associated with power and religion. Sculptors were highly
skilled in depicting animal battles and grand beasts, surely
intended to demonstrate the power of the kings. As such,
relief-carved surfaces of brick became an important element
of architectural decoration.

Taq Kasra, Arch of Ctesiphon,

Ctesiphon, Iraq, third to sixth
centuries CE.
Built as part of an imperial
complex, this is the largest
brick catenary arch in the
world. Constructed without a
centering device or scaffolding,
it was built by slanting the walls,
brick layer by brick layer, until
they met at the top.

16 ANCIENT MIDDLE EAST

Ishtar Gate, Babylon, Iraq, 575 BCE.
Built as the main gate to the city of Babylon,
the Ishtar Gate was dedicated to the Babylonian
goddess Ishtar. It was part of a processional way
over half a mile long with tall walls—50 feet—on
each side. The gate itself is made with bricks,
most of which are glazed in blue.

Ziggurat of Ur, Muqayyar, Iraq,

twenty-first century BCE.
Oriented to true north, this
stepped ziggurat has three
levels of terraces, with three
monumental staircases leading
up to a gate on the first level.
Constructed with large mud
bricks, each level is supported
by the one directly beneath.
The temple at the top of the
ziggurat did not survive, but
the lower parts still exist and
give evidence of construction
and engineering methods.

ANCIENT MIDDLE EAST 17

Mudhif House, Iraq, circa 3300 BCE.
This typical Madan structure used for
community gatherings is located in the
swamps of southern Iraq and made from
local reeds. The reeds were bundled into
structural arches and arrayed across the
space, with horizontal bundles acting as
ties to the overall weaving of the exterior
reed covering.

Naqsh-e Rostam Necropolis, Fars Province,

Iran, sixth to fourth centuries BCE.
The ancient necropolis is of the Achaemenid
Dynasty and houses four tombs carved into
caves high up on the stone cliffs. Only one
of the tombs, for Darius the Great, is identifiable
through an inscription.

18 ANCIENT MIDDLE EAST

 Tomb of Darius the Great,
Naqsh-e Rostam, Iran, 485 BCE.
One of the four tombs of kings
of the Achaemenid Empire, the
monumental Tomb of Darius the
Great is carved into a cliff. The
tomb is in the shape of a cross,
with an opening at the center
that leads to a small chamber
where the king was buried.

Persian Column, Persepolis, Iran, 550–330 BCE.

This example of a Persian column is from the
ancient city of Persepolis, the ceremonial capital
of the Achaemenid Empire. The city had at least
five palaces, and many of the structures were
located upon a great plinth. This typical column
capital was likely part of the Apadana, a large
hypostyle hall.

ANCIENT MIDDLE EAST 19

A NC I EN T EGYPT
CIRCA 3000 TO 30 BCE

The buildings of Ancient Egypt were primarily associated Ancient Egypt key features:
with life, death, and the celebration of the gods. The ruins of • massive constructions
temples and tombs reveal that the architecture of Ancient • monumental structures
• mud brick, limestone,
Egypt did not follow a specific style, but rather used building sandstone, granite
practices of different types with associated features. The two • post-and-lintel construction
most prominent building systems used were load-bearing and • load-bearing construction
• relief sculpture
post-and-lintel structures. The load-bearing structures, built • hieroglyphics
from uniform bricks and cut stone block, were massive in size
and wall thickness, with sloping walls spreading wider at the
base to support their weight and height. Post-and-lintel
construction consisted of horizontal elements, in this case
stone, bridging the gap between vertical members, columns.
Columns were made of stacked stone, carved to shape, with
capitals typically depicting abstracted forms of papyrus or
lotus buds. The monumental buildings of Ancient Egypt were
decorated with carved stone, hieroglyphics, and paintings
depicting elements expressing the power of gods, animals,
humans, and nature, as well as scenes of everyday life.

Pyramid of Djoser, Saqqara Necropolis,

Egypt, twenty-seventh century BCE,
Imhotep, architect.
Originally covered in polished white
limestone, the stepped pyramid is part
of a large funereal complex and is the
earliest pyramidal form in Egypt.

20 ANCIENT EGYPT
Pyramid of Sneferu, Dahshur Necropolis,
Egypt, 2600 BCE.
Called the Bent Pyramid because of the two
different angles of inclination as the pyramid rises
to its full height, it is believed that this particular
pyramid was an experiment in construction and
was found to be too steep during construction.
It had to be adjusted to a shallower angle,
thus the bend.

Giza Pyramid Complex, Cairo, Egypt, 2560 BCE.

The Great Pyramid at Giza is the largest and
oldest of the three pyramids at the Giza complex.
Originally clad in limestone, the pyramid had a
smooth white appearance. Intended as a tomb for
Egyptian Pharaoh Khufu, there are three internal
chambers currently detected within the structure.

ANCIENT EGYPT 21
 Great Hypostyle Hall of Karnak
Temple Complex, Karnak,
Egypt, 2000–330 BCE.
This enormous structure covers
around 6,000 square yards and
has 134 columns in sixteen rows.
The temple is symmetrical, with
ten larger columns flanking the
central corridor and equal-sized
wings on each side.

Karnak Temple Complex,

Karnak, Egypt,
2000–330 BCE.
Largely in ruins today, Karnak
Temple Complex is a walled
compound with temples,
pylons, and chapels as well
as other related structures.
The length of construction
of the complex is extraordinary,
with many different pharaohs
responsible for different parts
of the building.

22 ANCIENT EGYPT
Abu Simbel Temples, Abu Simbel, Egypt,
thirteenth century BCE.
The two temples at the Abu Simbel site are carved
into sandstone cliffs at the edge of the River Nile.
This, the entrance to the Small Temple, Temple of
Hathor, was built by Ramesses II. The pylon-like
facade has six colossal statues: figures of
Ramesses, his wife Nefertari, and their children.
Trajan’s Kiosk, Philae, Egypt,
seventh century BCE.
Serving at one time as the main entrance to
Philae, the structure now sits on the island of
Agilkia—along with other important buildings of
the Philae Temple Complex—to save it from the
flood waters of the River Nile after the installation
of the Aswan High Dam. The fourteen column
capitals have different plant forms and originally
held a wood-frame roof.
ANCIENT EGYPT 23
Colonnade, Temple of Isis,
Philae, Egypt, 690 BCE.
Two grand colonnades line
the path toward the pylon
at the entrance to the Temple
of Isis at Philae. All the column
capitals are plant-like, yet no
two are alike.

Pillars of the Mammisi Chapel, Temple of Isis,

Philae, Egypt, seventh century BCE.
A mammisi is a small chapel attached to a larger
temple, in this case the Temple of Isis at Philae.
Also known as a birth house, this type of temple
was used for the annual ceremony to honor the
birth of the child of the god to which it was
dedicated. The column capitals shown here have
animal heads resting on top of plant forms.

24 ANCIENT EGYPT
Temple of Horus, Edfu, Egypt, 57 BCE.
Buried under hundreds of years of sand,
excavation of the temple began in the mid-
nineteenth century. This view of the first pylon
and main entrance to the temple shows the
monumental mass of the load-bearing structure.
The base of the pylon is considerably thicker than
the top, necessary to support the overall weight
and height. Typically, these pylons were decorated
with carved scenes proclaiming the power and
authority of the pharaoh.

ANCIENT EGYPT 25
PR E - CO LU MBI A N
1500 BCE TO 1532 CE

The Pre-Columbian era is recognized for its complex Pre-Columbian key features:
civilizations incorporating an agricultural lifestyle within an • monolithic structures
urban structure of social class. The builders of this time were • mud brick
• carved stone
known for their advanced understanding of astronomy and • rectilinear and trapezoidal
engineering, and built their cities aligned with astronomical apertures
and natural features. Typically, buildings were constructed of • load-bearing construction
• urban civilizations
mud brick and stone. The stone was often a native volcanic • astronomical alignments
rock that was soft enough to allow for intricate carvings, such • ceremonial buildings
that many of the buildings were decorated with images of
cultural and religious importance. Pre-Columbian architecture
flourished in the Mesoamerican region, containing parts
of Mexico and Central America. Entire cities with pyramids,
temples, platforms, open squares, ball courts, and sacrificial
altars were indicative of the grand civilizations of this period.

Temple of the Inscriptions,

Palenque, Mexico, 700 CE,
Maya.
Built as a funerary monument
for K’inich Janaab’ Pakal, the
complex consists of a temple
atop an eight-stepped pyramid
with a central stair. Originally
the monument would have been
covered in stucco and painted
red. The temple is named for
the three hieroglyphic tablets
found on the walls inside.

26 PRE-COLUMBIAN
Cempoala Stone Ring, Úrsulo Galván Municipality,
Veracruz, Mexico, 900–1168 CE, Toltec,
a contemporary civilization of Aztec.
Part of a larger complex of temples, a palace,
and several mounds, there are three stone rings
of varying sizes. The rings are made from beach
stones stacked together to make small pillars,
and are thought to support the understanding
of astronomical cycles.

Ancient City of Copán, Copán, Honduras,

250–900 CE, Maya.
This sculpture is found on the ruins at the ancient
city of Copán. The site includes stone temples,
two pyramids, plazas, stairways, and a ball court,
all elevated on a plinth. Common subjects of Maya
art are royalty and celestial beings, often worked
in limestone and volcanic tuff.

PRE-COLUMBIAN 27
Temple II, Tikal, Guatemala,
200–900 CE, Maya.
There are many ancient
buildings at Tikal, including six
large temples. Temple II was a
funerary temple for the wife of
Jasaw Chan K’awiil. The temple
rises up a monumental stairway
to a summit shrine with a
carving of the queen on the
main lintel over the doorway.

El Caracol Observatory Temple, Chichen Itza,

Tinúm Municipality, Yucatán State, Mexico,
circa 600–850 CE, Maya.
The spiral staircase inside the tower of this
structure led to the name El Caracol, which means
snail in Spanish. Used as an observatory, the tower
is raised on a platform, affording clear views,
and is thought to be in particular alignment to
Venus, an important planet for the Maya people.

28 PRE-COLUMBIAN
Templo de los Guerreros (Temple of the
Warriors), Chichen Itza, Tinúm Municipality,
Yucatán State, Mexico, 1200 CE, Maya.
One of the best-preserved temples at Chichen
Itza, it consists of a large stepped pyramid
surrounded by row upon row of columns
representing warriors. Officially part of the
Group of the Thousand Columns, they supported
a large wood or thatch roof structure that housed
religious or civic events.

Temple of the Virgins of

the Sun, Isla de la Luna,
Lake Titicaca, Bolivia,
1000–1500 CE, Inca.
Thought to be a residential
complex for Inca women who
were either noble or part of the
aristocracy, the remains of this
temple open onto a large plain
overlooking Lake Titicaca.

PRE-COLUMBIAN 29
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
niin on lopulta kaikki muuttuva. Työläisten voittoa ei voi ehkäistä
mikään sorto eikä väkivalta. Ei siis tarvitse toivottomaksi — tämä on
vain…

POLIISI keskeyttää ankaran virallisesti.

Vaiti! Lopettakaa vihdoinkin kiihoituksenne, sillä te joudutte

vastaamaan siitä, mitä nyt olette saaneet aikaan! Tiedättekö mikä
rangaistus seuraa murhaan yllyttämisestä?

KORPI tolkuttomasti.

Murhaan yllyttämisestä?

POLIISI

Niin juuri 1 Siitä tulee kuritushuonetta! Sentähden minä kiellän

teitä poistumasta, kunnes saan lähempiä ohjeita.

ANNI tuskallisen hämmästyksen valtaamana.

Isä kuritushuoneeseen 1 Isä on syytön!

KAARLO katkeran masentuneesti.

Korpi? Yllytyksestä? Mitä, mitä te puhutte? Ei, älkää enää — se on

liikaa.

EMIL kuohahtaen voimattomasta vihasta.

No, viekää sitten minutkin! Ja pian! Parempi on istua raudoissa,

kuin elää tällaista elämää! Miksette tapa heti? Kuolema ainakin
lapsille tulee, jos ne yksin jätetään.
POLIISI

Vaiti, sanon minä! Ei täällä rähistä!

KAARLO kääntyy mestarin huonetta kohden, katseessaan

epämääräinen toivottomuus ja tuska.

Eikö jo voida lähteä täältä? Minne tahansa!

POLIISI röyhkeästi.

Ei täältä lähdetä ennenkuin patruuna tulee!

(Tarttuu Kaarlon hihaan aivankuin peläten tämän pakenevan.)

ANNI on aivankuin kauhun ja hämmästyksen lamauttamana. Nyt

hän tulee Kaarlon luokse, tarttuu vapisevin sonnin vuoroin käsiin ja
rautoihin ikäänkuin irroittaakseen ne, sitten lysähtää polvilleen kuin
kuolettavan kuulan satuttamana parahtaen särkyneesti.

Kaarlo…

KAARLO hätkähtää, kuin pahasta unesta havahtuessa ja änkyttää

katkonaisesti:

Voi Anni — mitä tämä on? Onko kaikki totta, Anni parka? Olenko
minä murhaaja jonka elämä hukkuu hämärään vankikoppiin… —
(Katsahtaa kuin tuskasta sekopäisenä ympärilleen.) — Voi Anni…
eikö mitään… Sinnekö meidän pikku kotimme häipyi…? Ja me
puhuimme puutarhasta… missä leikkivät pienokaiset… Ei, kyllä
kuolema on parempi… — (Ääni katkeaa kuin tukehtuneena.)

KORPI
 Kyllä tämä raskaalta tuntuu… sinäkin, poikaparka… — (Vaikenee
tietämättä, mitä sanoisi, miten lohduttaisi. Mutta yhtäkkiä hänen
kasvonsa kirkastuvat ja hänen matalassa, hillityssä äänessään ja
laihoilla kasvoillaan kuvastuu väkevä sisäinen innostus ja voima.)

Ei pojat… ei niin! Tiedättekö, minä tunnen tällä hetkellä jotain

sellaista, etten koskaan ennen, niinkuin pimeässä kurjuudessamme
olisi leimahtanut outo väkevä valo.

Mutta ei sittenkään tarvitse masentua. Tunnen sen tällä hetkellä

omituisen selvästi — aivankuin salaperäinen kirkas valo olisi
valaissut pimeän kurjuutemme, paljastaen läheltämme jotain niin
suuremmeistä ja lohduttavaa, ettei työläisten enää koskaan tarvitse
masentua, muistin ne kauhistavat kärsimykset, mitä työläiset halki
vuosisatojen ovat kestäneet — turhaan; kun miljoonat ovat
heittäneet henkensä hirsipuissa, vankikomeroissa ja katusuluilla tai
sortuneet sortajien puolesta heidän sodissaan, niin
masentuisimmeko me nyt, kun tiedämme kärsivämme rakkaittemme
puolesta, oman luokkamme ja onnellisemman tulevaisuuden hyväksi
varmoina voitostamme. Ja jos toisinaan tuntuukin raskaalta, niin on
hyvä muistaa, että me olemme kuin etujoukot sodassa joiden on
aina täytynyt kestää enemmän. Siksi emme nytkään saa kun
toisetkin ovat kestäneet - sillä tämä juuri on nyt etuvartiotaistelua.

(Juuri silloin avautuu ovi ja Korven pikku Antti työntyy sisään

kalpeana, laihana ja repaleisena. Hän huohottaa raskaasti ja vapisee
vilusta voimatta sanoa mitään. Kaikki kääntyvät, tuijottaen häntä
jännittyneenä.)

EMIL hätäisesti.

Mitä, Antti, mitä?

 ANTTI Katkonaisesti, vapisevin huulin.

Isä, tulkaa kotiin — Aune kuoli…

KORPI katsahtaa tuskallisesti, tyrmistyneenä ympärilleen ja hänen

vartalonsa painuu kuin musertavan kivilohkareen alla. Känsäinn,
vapiseva käsi kohoaa kasvoille ja hänen äänessään värisee viiltävä
suru, tuska ja hellyys.

Pieni, pieni tyttöseni…

(Mutta valtavalla tahdonponnistuksella hän pakottaa kasvonsa

tyyniksi, pyyhkäisee otsaansa kuin poistaisi jonkun näkymättömän
häiritsevän verhon. Ja sitten hän lausuu rohkaisten.)

Niin meidän täytyy kestää, sillä niinkuin sanoin, tämä on

etuvartiotaistelua.

Esirippu.
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