DAR ES SALAAM INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

INTRODUCTION TO CIVIL
ENGINEERING MATERIALS
3.0 CONCRETE
Module Instructor: Jovitus Kato
1/10/2017

This topic gives an understanding of the properties of the basic ingredients of concrete and the
properties of concrete in its wet and hardened states.
3.1 INTRODUCTION
Concrete is a mixture of cement, water and aggregates mixed in certain proportions which when
placed in form and allowed to cure it turns into a hard artificial rock. The hardening is due to the
reaction between cement and water and continues for a long time after the concrete has a
sufficient strength for the work intended.
Concrete is one of the basic construction materials used in most of the construction projects in
the country. Such projects include the construction of roads, bridges, buildings and factories.
Various types of construction industries that depend on concrete provide job opportunities to the
civil engineers in the manufacture of concrete and construction of concrete facilities.
Due to the importance of concrete in the construction industry there is need to develop skills for
selection and testing of concrete ingredients and be well acquainted with the techniques of
concrete manufacture and construction
N.B : Any technician or engineer with adequate knowledge and skills in concrete is in demend
because the employer gets a better output with the least time and energy. Amassed practical
experience for a long time will lead such a person to build his own business.

3.2 AGGREGATES

3.2.1 Classification of aggregates

Aggregates can be grouped differently into various groups depending on different criteria as it
can be shown below

Basing on Geological origin

The aggregates may be classified into:
 natural aggregates and
 artificial aggregates.
Natural aggregates include gravels and sand reduced to their present size by the natural agencies
of weathering. The most widely used aggregate are from igneous origin. The most widely used
aggregates are from igneous origin.

Aggregates from pits or dredged from river, creek or sea are most often not clean enough or well
graded to meet the quality requirements they require to be sieved and washed before they
can be used in concrete.

Artificial aggregates include broken bricks, blast furnace slag and synthetic aggregates. Broken
bricks known as brick bats are suitable for mass concreting, for example, in foundation bases.
Blast furnace slag aggregate is obtained from slow cooling of the slag followed by crushing. The
dense and strong particles obtained are used for making precast concrete products , their specific
gravity range between 2–2.8 and bulk density 1120–1300 kg/m3. The blast furnace slag
aggregate has good fire resisting properties but are responsible for corrosion of reinforcement
due to sulphur content of slag. Synthetic aggregates are produced by thermally processed
materials such as expanded clay and shale used for making light weight concrete.
Basing on size
According to size aggregates are classified as
 coarse aggregates,
 fine aggregates,
 all-in- aggregate,
 Graded aggregates.

Coarse Aggregates. These are aggregate retained on 4.75 mm sieve.

Source:
-by natural disintegration or
- by artificial crushing of rock or stones. These may be crushed or partially crushed gravel
or stone most of which is retained on 4.75 mm sieve.

Requirements:
They should be hard, strong, dense, durable, clear and free from veins and adherent coatings; and
free from injurious amounts of disintegrated pieces, alkali, organic matter and other deleterious
substances.
The size is governed by the thickness of section, spacing of reinforcement, clear cover, mixing,
handling and placing methods. For economy the maximum size should be as large as possible
but not more than one-fourth of the minimum thickness of the member. For reinforced sections
the maximum size should be at least 5 mm less than the clear spacing between the reinforcement
and also at least 5 mm less than the clear cover. Aggregate more than 20 mm size are seldom
used for reinforced cement concrete structural members.

Functions of coarse aggregates:

They help to achieve economy by their use as ingredients in the concrete, prevent shrinkage and
development of cracks in concrete, and furnish strength to concrete against crushing.

Fine Aggregates. These are aggregate passing through 4.75 mm sieve. The smallest size of fine
aggregate (sand) is 0.063 mm. Sand is a granular form of silica

Source: They may be obtained as

- Natural sand—deposited by rivers and sea bed sand,
- Pit sand
-crushed stone or gravel sand—obtained by crushing stones or gravel

Classification of fine aggregates

Depending upon the source sand may be classed as natural sand—resulting from natural
disintegration of rocks or deposited by streams; crushed stone sand—produced by crushing hard
stones and, crushed gravel sand—produced by crushing natural gravel.

Depending upon mineralogical composition, sand is divided into quartz, feldspar and
Carbonaceous varieties.
Depending upon its size sand is classified as coarse sand—fineness modulus (F.M.) 2.90-3.20;
medium sand—F.M.: 2.60-2.90 and; fine sand—F.M. 2.20-2.60.

Functions of sand:
The functions of sand are to achieve economy by its use as adulterant in mortar, prevent
shrinkage and development of cracks in mortar, furnish strength to mortar against crushing and
allow carbon dioxide from the atmosphere to penetrate the fat lime mortars necessary for its air
hardening.

All-in-aggregate. These are naturally available aggregates of different fractions of fine and
coarse sizes. The deficiency of any particular fraction can be corrected for use in the mix but
they are not recommended for quality concrete.

Graded Aggregate. These are aggregates most of which pass through a particular size of sieve.
For example, a graded aggregate of nominal size 20 mm means an aggregate most of which
passes 20 mm sieve.

Effect of size on aggregate

For most purposes the maximum size of aggregate should be as large as possible consistent with
ease of placement within formwork and around any steel reinforcement. Typically, 20 mm
aggregate is used for most construction work, although 40 mm aggregate is appropriate for mass
concrete, and a maximum of 10 mm for thin sections. The use of the largest possible coarse
aggregate reduces the volume of sand and the amount cement required in the mix, thus
controlling shrinkage and minimising cost. Large aggregates have a low surface area/volume
ratio, and therefore produce mixes with greater workability for given water/ producing higher
crushing-strength concrete. Cement ratio, or allow water/cement ratios to be reduced for the
same workability, thus producing a higher crushing-strength concrete

Basing on shape
On the basis of shape, Aggregates are classified as:
 rounded aggregates,
 irregular aggregates,
 angular aggregates, and
 flaky aggregates.

Rounded aggregates. These are generally obtained from river or sea shore and produce
minimum voids (about 32 per cent) in the concrete. They have minimum ratio of surface area to
the volume and cement paste required is minimum. However, poor interlocking bond makes it
unsuitable for high strength concrete and pavements.

Irregular Aggregates. These have voids about 36 per cent and require more cement paste as
compared to rounded aggregate. But due to their irregularity in shape they develop good bond
and are suitable for making ordinary concrete.

Angular aggregates. They have sharp, angular and rough particles having maximum voids
(about 40 per cent). Angular aggregate provide very good bond than the earlier two, are most
suitable for high strength concrete and pavements; the requirement of cement paste is relatively
greate.

Flaky aggregates these are sometimes wrongly called as elongated aggregate. However, both
of these influence the concrete properties adversely. The least lateral dimension of flaky
aggregate (thickness) should be less than 0.6 times the mean dimension. For example, the mean
sieve size for an aggregate piece passing through 50 mm and retained on 40 mm sieve is (50 +
40)/2 = 45.0 mm. If the least lateral dimension is less than 0.6 × 45 = 27.0 mm, the aggregate is
classified as flaky. Elongated aggregate are those aggregates whose length is 1.8 times its mean
dimension. Flaky aggregate generally orient in one plane with water and air voids underneath.
They adversely affect durability and are restricted to maximum of 15 per cent.

Basing on Unit weight

Based on the unit weight and specific gravity , aggregates are classified as
 normal-weight,
 heavy-weight and
 light-weight aggregate
3.2.2 Important Properties To Consider In The Selection Of Aggregates

The properties to be considered while selecting aggregate for use include:

 Strength,
 Particle shape,
 Specific gravity,
 Unit weight,
 Bulk Density
 Void ratio
 Porosity
 Moisture content

Strength
Strength of aggregates should be at least equal to that of the concrete.
The tests for strength evaluation include the following:
 Aggregate crushing value test,
 Aggregate impact value test and
 Aggregate abrasion value test
 Ten per cent fines test.

Aggregate Crushing Value test (for strong aggregates)

This test is performed in accordance with BS 812; 1975.
The aggregates passing a 14mm sieve and retained on 10mm sieve, are dried and placed in a
cylindrical mould and tamped. A plunger is put on top of the aggregate and this assembly is
subjected to a load of 400kN which is applied gradually from 0 to400 within a period of
10minutes. After that the crushed sample is sieved through a 2.36mm sieve and the particles that
pass are weighed and their weight related to the total original weight as a percentage, recorded to
the first decimal place:
Aggregate crushing value =

Where B = weight of fraction passing the appropriate sieve.

A = weight of surface-dry sample.
For the crushing value, generally 45 per cent is specified for aggregate used for
concrete other than wearing surface and 30 per cent for concrete for wearing surfaces, such as
runways, roads etc.

Aggregates Impact Value test

This test is performed in accordance with BS 812; 1975. The test procedure is similar the ACV
test except that instead of the 400kNforce being applied gradually, an impact load is applied. The
results are similarly evaluated as in the ACV. The impact value should not exceed 30 per cent for
wearing surface and 45 per cent for remaining concretes, (The toughness of aggregate is
measured by impact test).
The ten percent fines value test. (for weaker aggregate)
This test is performed in accordance with BS 812; 1975. The material for the test consists of
surface-dry aggregate passing a 12.5 mm sieve and retained on a 10 mm sieve. The weight of
material comprising the test sample is determined. The test set up is as in the Aggregate
Crushing Value test except that here the force is applied gradually. The gradually increasing load
is applied so as to cause a penetration within 10minutes of about:
15 mm for rounded aggregates. (for example, uncrushed gravels)
20mm for crushed aggregates
24mm for honeycombed aggregates. (for example slags).
After reaching the maximum penetration, the load is released and the whole of the
material from the cylinder is sieved on a 2.36 mm sieve. The fines passing the sieve are
weighed, and expressed as a percentage of the weight of the test sample. Normally, this
percentage will fall within the range 7.5 to 12.5, but if it does not, a further test is made at a load
adjusted as seems appropriate to bring the percentage fines within the range of 7.5 to 12.5.
The mean percentage fines from the two tests at this load are used in the following formula
to calculate the load required to give 10 per cent fines:
Load required for 10 per cent fines =

The ten per cent fines value gives a measure of the resistance of an aggregate to crushing.

Aggregates Abrasion Value

The aggregates are pressed by a certain force on a rotating steel plate. Sand is added to enhance
abrasion. The loss of weight after a certain number of revolutions is measured. Abrasion test are
of more importance in road and pavement construction. In case of crushed gravel, the
percentage by weight of crushed fragments is determined.

Particle Shape
The shape of aggregates can significantly affect the properties of the mix and cured concrete.
Generally rounded aggregates require a lower water content to achieve a given mix workability,
compared to the equivalent mix using angular aggregates. However, cement paste ultimately
bonds more strongly to angular aggregates with rough surfaces than to the smoother gravels, so a
higher crushing strength can be achieved with crushed rocks as aggregate. Excessive proportions
of long and flaky coarse aggregate should be avoided as they can reduce the durability of
concrete.
Specific Gravity,
The specific gravity of most of the natural aggregates lies between 2.6-2.7. The specific gravity
and porosity of aggregates greatly influence the strength and absorption of concrete. Specific
gravity of aggregates generally is indicative of its quality. A low specific gravity may indicate
high porosity and therefore poor durability and low strength. The concrete density will greatly
depend on specific gravity.

Bulk Density,
The bulk density of aggregate depends upon their packing, the particles shape
and size, the grading and the moisture content. For coarse aggregate a higher bulk density is an
indication of fewer voids to be filled by sand and cement.
Voids,
Increased voids in the aggregates leads to more voids in the concrete a fact that leads to low
strength of the concrete.

Porosity,
Minute holes or cavities called pores in the aggregates make the concrete permeable and this
affects bond between aggregate and cement paste, resistance to freezing and thawing and
resistance to abrasion of the aggregates. Porous aggregates absorb moisture leading to less
workable concrete.

Moisture content.
A high moisture content of the aggregates increases the effective water/cement ratio to an
appreciable extent and may render the concrete weak. Water absorption test can be performed to
determine the moisture content of the aggregates.

Freedom from Deleterious Substances in Aggregate

-Organic Impurities

 Organic impurities interfere with the hydration reaction

 mostly found in sand and consist usually of products of decay of
vegetable matter (mainly tannic acid and its derivatives)
 Organic matter may be removed from sand by washing with clean
water.
 To determine the organic content; colorimetric test recommended
by ASTM St (C40-66)

NaOH (3% in solution) and the aggregates are shaken vigorously

and left to stand for 24hrs. The colour of the solution is compared
with the standard yellow colour. A brown colour indicates a too high
organic content. However this test does not discover the presence
of sugar.

 High organic content does not render the aggregates unfit for use in
concrete. Therefore strength test on mortar with questionable sand
(as per ASTM C 87-90) is recommended.

-Clay and other Fine Materials

 Clay present on the surface of the aggregate particles in the coating

form interfere with the bond between aggregate and the cement
paste, adversely affecting the strength and durability of concrete
  Other fine materials which may be present in aggregate are silt (2
to 60 µm) and crusher dust.
 Silt and dust, owing to their fineness, increase the surface area and
therefore increase the amount of water necessary to wet all the
particles in the mix
 In view of above, it is necessary to control the amount of clay, silt
and fine dust in aggregate
 Since no test is available to determine separately the clay content,
silt and dust, the limits of fine materials are prescribed in terms of
the percentage of material passing 75micrometer (No. 200) sieve

o Fine Aggregates: 3% when concrete is subjected to abrasion and 5%

for other concrete
o Coarse Aggregates: 1%

Tests to determine the presence of impurities in Aggregates

The presence of these impurities can be determined by the following tests:
Decantation test: - for detecting impurities less than 0.075mm. The
amount of material passing through a 75micrometer sieve is related by
weight to the original weight of an aggregate sample.
Sedimentation test: - for detecting impurities less than 20micron
Field settling test: -an approximate volumetric method. 1% NaCl solution
in water and sand are shaken vigorously in a measuring cylinder and allow
to stand for 3hrs. The fines make good visible layer on top of the sand and
can be measured.

TZS 58(3) limits the content of clay, dust and silt in the following way:
-less than 1% in coarse aggregates
-less than 3% in natural sand or crushed aggregates
-less than 4% in crushed stone sand
(for the field settling test the limit is higher at 8%)

-Chemical impurities
 Chemical substances may interfere with the hydration process
 harmful chemical substances include sulphates and chlorides
 To detect chemical impurities it is required to test the pH-value of
mortar or to carry out comparative suitability tests with the aggregate
in question and the clean aggregate

Salt contamination:
  Aggregaes from seashore or dredged from the sea or a river
estuary, as well as desert sand contains salt .
 Salts coming through aggregates cause reinforcement corrosion and
also absorb moisture from the air and cause efflorescence
(unsightly white deposits on the surface of the concrete).
 BS 882:1992 limits the chloride ion content of aggregate by mass,
expressed as a percentage of the mass of total aggregate, as
follows:

- for prestressed concrete: 0.01%

- for R.C. made with sulfate resisting cement: 0.03%

- for other reinforced concrete: 0.05%

-Unsound Particles
 Following are the two broad types of unsound particles found in
aggregates:
-Materials that fail to maintain their integrity
-Materials that lead to disruptive expansion on freezing or even
on exposure to water
 Unsound particles if present in large quantities (over 2 to 5% of the
mass of the aggregate) these particles may adversely affect the
strength of concrete and should certainly not be permitted in concrete
which is exposed to abrasion
 Shale and other particles of low density are regarded as unsound
 Clay lumps, wood, and coal, included in aggregate, are also regarded
as unsound
 Mica, gypsum, iron pyrites, etc. are also regarded as unsound. While
mica is very effective in reducing strength (15% reduction in 28-d f’c
with 5% mica), gypsum and iron pyrites are mainly responsible for
expansion of concrete
 The permissible quantities of unsound particles laid down by ASTM C
33-93 are as follows:

Type of particles Max. content (% of mass)

In FA In CA
1
Friable particles and clay 3.0 2.0-10.0
lumps
Coal 0.5-1.0 0.5-1.0
Chert2 that will readily – 3.0-8.0
disintegrate
1
Easy to crumble/pulverize.
2
A variety of silica that contains microcrystalline quartz
The table below gives a summary of substances and their effects:

The table below gives the limiting values for impurities according to
BS and ASTM
Alkali- Aggregate Reactions

 Reaction between alkali from cement and silica or carbonate from

aggregate is called “alkali- aggregate reaction”
 The most common reaction is that between the active silica
constituents of the aggregate and that alkalis in cement, called as
“alkali-silica reaction”
 Another type of the alkali-aggregate reaction is that between
dolomitic limestone aggregates, containing carbonate, and alkalis in
cement, called as “alkali-carbonate reaction”
 Both types of the reactions cause deterioration of concrete, mainly
cracking.

Factors affecting Alkali-aggregate Reaction

 Reactive type of Aggregates: Reactive material have been found to
have serious effects if present in small quantities but not if it
constitutes the whole of the aggregate.
 High Alkali content cement: If the cement contains less than 0.4 per
cent alkalis (computed as Na2O) no expansion or disruptive effect is
likely even with a quite highly reactive aggregate, but due to
difficulties of manufacture it is not usual to specify an alkali content of
less than 0.6 per cent.
 Availability of moisture: Progress of the alkali-aggregate reaction takes
place only in the presence of water. That is why this destructive effect
is not observed in the interior of mass concrete.
 Temperature conditions: The favorable temperature for the reaction is
10-38°C.

Control of Alkali-aggregate Reaction

 By selecting non alkali aggregates: Aggregate can be identified by

petrographic examination.
The mortar bar test and the chemical test are used.

 By using low alkali cement: Cements with alkali less than 0.6 per cent
should be used.

 By controlling moisture: Old concrete should not be allowed to come in

contact with water.
The best way is to apply mortar with water proofing agents on
concrete surface.

 By pozzolanas: _The aggregates are found to be reactive when they

contain silica in a particular proportion and fineness. When fly-ash or
 surkhi or crushed stone dust is added this optimum condition of silica
being in particular proportion and fineness is disturbed and the
aggregates turn to be innocuous.
 By use of air entraining agents:The alkali-silica-gel imparts osmotic
pressure over the set cement gel and this is mainly responsible for
formation of cracks. When air entraining agents are added they absorb
the osmotic pressure and control the expansion

-Grading

 Aggregate Grading is the particle-size distribution of an aggregate as

determined by a sieve analysis.
 The grading and grading limits are usually expressed as the
percentage of material passing each sieve.
 Reasons for specifying grading limits and nominal maximum aggregate
size; they affect relative aggregate proportions as well as cement and
water requirements, workability, pumpability, economy, porosity,
shrinkage, and durability of concrete and the tendency to
seggregation.
 Variations in grading can seriously affect the uniformity of concrete
from batch to batch.
 Very fine sands are often uneconomical; very coarse sands and coarse
aggregate can produce harsh, unworkable mixtures. In general,
aggregates that do not have a large deficiency or excess of any size
and give a smooth grading curve will produce the most satisfactory
results.

Grading Requirements

 The aggregate structure in the well compacted state should be as

coarse as possible while at the same time maintaining a minimum pore
content.
 Skillful grading requires that the gaps between the grains of one size
are filled basically by grains of the next smaller sieve size, the
remaining gaps again by the next small size and so on. This
arrangement is called continuous grading. This lowers the total content
of cement paste and guarantees a good compactability.
Practical grading

Practical grading is done by using a standard series of sieves. For the British
standards, the usual sieve sizes for concrete aggregates are based on the
inch-sytem (imperial system of units) which later developed into the
millimeter-system (metric)
Types of Aggregate gradation

Dense or well-graded:
 Frequently, a dense gradation, but not necessarily the maximum
possible density, is desired in many construction applications, because
of its high stability.
 Using a high-density gradation also means the aggregates occupy
most of the volume of the material, limiting the binder content and
thus reducing the cost. For example, aggregates for asphalt concrete
must be dense, but must also have sufficient voids in the mineral
aggregate to provide room for the binder, plus room for voids in the
mixture.

One-sized or uniformly Gradation:

 The particle size distribution has the majority of aggregates passing
one sieve and being retained on the next smaller sieve.
 The most of the aggregates have essentially the same diameter; their
gradation curve is nearly vertical.
 One-sized graded aggregates have good permeability, but poor
stability, and are used in such applications as chip seals of pavements.

Gap-graded gradations:
 The aggregates are missing one or more sizes of material.
 The gradation curve has a near horizontal section indicating that
nearly the same portions of the aggregates pass two different sieve
sizes.

AGGREGATE BLENDING

Generally, a single aggregate source is not sufficient to meet gradation

requirements for concrete mixes. Therefore, it is required to blend
aggregates from two or more sources to satisfy the specifications.

Reasons for aggregate blending;

 to obtain the desired gradation;

 single natural or quarried materials not enough and
 it is economical to combine natural and process materials
Characteristics of Blended Aggregates

Some of the properties of aggregates blended from different sources can be

determined from the properties of the individual components. With the
exception of specific gravity and density, the properties of the blend are the
simple weighted averages of the properties of the components. This
relationship can be expressed as
P = Aa+ Bb+ Cc+….where:
P = composite property of the blend
A, B, C= properties of fractions A, B, C
a, b, c= decimal fractions by weight of aggregates A, B, C used in the blend,
where the total is1.00 This equation applies to properties such as angularity,
absorption, strength, and modulus

3.2.3 Handling and storing of aggregates

Aggregates should be handled and stored in a way that minimizes
segregation and degradation and prevents contamination by deleterious
substances. Stockpiles should be built up in thin layers of uniform thickness
to minimize segregation. The most economical and acceptable method of
forming aggregate stockpiles is the truck-dump method, which discharges
the loads in a way that keeps them tightly joined. The aggregate is then
reclaimed with a front-end loader. The loader should remove slices from the
edges of the pile from bottom to top so that every slice will contain a portion
of each horizontallayer.
3.3 WATER

3.3.1 Introduction

water is used to enhance the hydration of cement

Apart from being used in hydration, water acts as a lubricant between coarse
and fine aggregates and produces a workable and economical concrete.
However, an optimum amount of water is requirement for a particular
concrete and mortar. Excess water leads to low concrete or mortar strength
and also leaks between the forms causing honeycombs. Lesser water makes
it difficult to work with concrete and because of non uniform mixing the
resultant concrete is weaker in strength. The amount of water must
therefore be limited to produce concrete of the quality required for a job.
Water is also used for washing aggregates and curing.

3.3.2 Quality of mixing water.

 Almost any natural potable water that has no pronounced taste or

odour is acceptable for the concrete mix.
 Many sources of water unsuitable for drinking may also be used after
ascertaining their quality.
 In case of doubt, water samples should be tested for suitability.

3.3.3 Impurities in mixing water

Excessive impurities may affect setting time, strength, durability and may
cause efflorescence, surface discolouration, and corrosion of steel. Most
impurities found in mixing water include the following:
 suspended particles: A higher concentration affects certain cements
adversely.
 Inorganic salts: The presence of salts of zinc, manganese, tin,
copper and lead considerably reduce the concrete strength. Sodium
phosphate, sodium borate and sodium iodate act as retarders and
cause a marked reduction in the strength of concrete. The presence of
calcium chloride accelerates setting and hardening of cement.
Carbonates of sodium and potassium cause a rapid setting and may
reduce the concrete strength. Bicarbonates may accelerate or retard
the setting of cement.
 Acids and alkalis: Water containing acids or alkalis (industrial waste
water) is supposed to be unsuitable for making concrete.
 sugar: retard the setting time, reduce the early strength
 oil contamination: mineral oil in concentrations greater than 2 per
cent by weight of cement may reduce the concrete strength by more
 than 20 per cent. The vegetable oils have detrimental effect on
concrete strength particularly at later ages.
 Algae: reduce bond by combining with the cement or reduces strength
by entraining a large amount of air in the concrete.

Tolerance concentration of impurities in mixing water

3.4 CEMENT

3.4 .1 Introduction

Cements in a general sense are adhesive and cohesive materials capable of

bonding together particles of solid matter into a compact durable mass. For
civil engineering
works, they are restricted to calcareous cements containing compounds of
lime as their chief
constituent, its primary function being to bind the fine (sand) and coarse
(grits) aggregate
particles together.
Cements used in construction industry may be classified as
hydraulic and
non hydraulic.
The hydraulic cement sets and hardens in water and gives a product which is
stable. The non- hydraulic does not set and harden in water such as non-
hydraulic lime or which are unstable in water, e g. Plaster of Paris. Portland
cement is one such.

Cement can be manufactured either from natural cement stones or

artificially by using calcareous and argillaceous materials. The examples of
natural cements are Roman cement, Puzzolana cement and Medina cement
and those of artificial cement are Portland cement andspecial cements.

Today cement finds extensive use in all types of construction works; in

structures where
high strength is required e.g. bridge piers, light houses, lofty towers, and
large structures such
as bridges, silos, chimneys. And also in structures exposed to the action of
water, e.g. reservoirs,
Dams, dock yards etc. Cement mortar, concrete, reinforced brick work,
artificial stones, plastering,Pointing and partition walls are routinely used in
buildings.

3.4 .2 Portland cement

Portland Cement is a hydraulic binder, i.e. a finely ground inorganic material

which, when mixed with water, forms a paste which sets and hardens by
means of hydration reactions and processes and which, after hardening,
retains its strength and stability even under water. The name Portland
cement comes from the fact that the colour and quality of the resulting
concrete are similar to Portland stone, a kind of limestone found in England.
3.4 .2 .1 The Production of Portland cement:

The basic raw materials of Portland cement include:

 Calcareous materials (materials that predominantly contain

calcium oxide)-eg lime stone, chalk, oystershell or
seashells
 Argillaceous materials: (materials that contain a
combianation of silica and alumina)-these can be obtained
from clay,shale, blastfurnace slag etc
examples of raw materials for cement.

Calcium Silicon Aluminum Iron

Limestone Clay Clay Clay
Marl Marl Shale Iron ore
Calcite Sand Fly ash Mill scale
Aragonite Shale Aluminum ore Shale
refuse
Shale Fly ash Blast furnace
dust
Sea Shells Rice hull ash
Cement kiln Slag
dust

Chemical composition of Portland Cement raw materials

The raw materials from the basic raw materials for manufacturing of
Portland cement include:

 lime, (CaO)………… 60-65%

 silica, (SiO2 ) ……… 55.57
 alumina (Al2O3 )and…..20-25%
 Ferrites (Fe2O3)………..2-4%

In addition, most cement contains small proportions of magnesia,(1-3%)

sulphur trioxide(2%) and alkalis. An increase in lime content beyond a
certain value makes it difficult to combine completely with other compounds.
Consequently, free lime will exist in the clinker and will result in unsound
cement. An increase in silica content at the expense of alumina and ferric
oxide makes the cement difficult to fuse and form clinker.
The table below gives the ingredients in parallel with their roles in cement
and concrete

The manufacture process includes the following procedures:

1. Quarrying: The raw materials are quarried from the ground.
2. Crushing: The quarried rock pieces are crushed into small pieces.

3. Mixing: The appropriate crushed mixture of the raw materials are

blended together. Mixing of the raw materials can be in two processes
namely wet process or dry process. The process to be chosen, depend
on the nature of the used raw materials.

Wet process ___

 Grinding and mixing of the raw materials in the existence of water to
form a slury.
 The slurry is a liquid of creamy consistency, with water content of between
35 and 50%,
 The slurry mix mechanically in the storage tanks.
 Finally, the slurry with the desired lime content passes into the rotary kiln.
This is a large, refractory-lined steel cylinder, up to 8 m in diameter,
sometimes as long as 230 m, which is slightly inclined to the horizontal.
Dry process
Grinding and mixing of the raw materials in their dry state. The raw materials
are crushed and fed in the correct proportions into a grinding mill, where they are
dried and reduced in size to a fine powder. The dry powder, called raw meal, is
then pumped to a blending silo, and final adjustment is now made in the
proportions of the materials required for the manufacture of cement.
reasons for dry mix process
-The raw materials is so hard (solid) that they do not disintegrate by water
- Cold countries, because the water might freeze in the mixture
- Shortage of the water needed for mixing process.

4. Burning: The mixed raw materials are heated at 1450oC in a rotary

kiln which continuously mixes them and calcined limestone to drive out
CO2 to form a clinker.
5. Cooling and grinding: The clinker is cooled, mixed with gypsum and
ground to a fine powder to give cement.

Role of gypsum: retards and controls the setting time to ensures that the
concrete does not set too quickly before it can be placed or too slowly so as
to hold up construction.
3.4 .2 .2 Main compounds of Portland cement

Calcination in the kiln restructures the

molecular composition of the raw materials, producing four main compounds
as seen in the table below,

C3S:
 renders the clinker easier to grind,
 increases resistance to freezing and thawing,
 hydrates rapidly generating high heat and develops an early hardness
and strength.
 Raising of C3S content beyond the specified limits increases the heat
of hydration and solubility of cement in water.
 The hydrolysis of C3S is mainly responsible for 7 day strength and
hardness. The rate of hydrolysis of C3S and the character of gel
developed are the main causes of the hardness and early strength of
cement paste.
 The heat of hydration is 500 J/g.
C2S:
 hydrates and hardens slowly and takes long time to add to the
strength (after a year or more).
 imparts resistance to chemical attack.
 Raising of C2S content renders clinker harder to grind, reduces early
strength, decreases resistance to freezing and thawing at early ages
and decreases heat of hydration. The hydrolysis of C2S proceeds
slowly.
 At early ages, less than a month, C2S has little influence on strength
and hardness. While after one year, its contribution to the strength
and hardness is proportionately almost equal to C3S.
  The heat of hydration is 260 J/g.
C3A:
 It reacts rapidly with water and is responsible for flash set (stiffening
without strength development) of finely grounded clinker.
 It is responsible for the initial set, high heat of hydration and has
greater tendency to volume changes causing cracking.
 Raising the C3A content reduces the setting time, weakens resistance
to sulphate attack and lowers the ultimate strength, heat of hydration
and contraction during air hardening.
 The heat of hydration of 865 J/g.

C4AF:
 Acts as a flux for clinker fusing, fusing them at lower temperature thus
saving fuel.
 It is responsible for flash set but generates less heat.
 It has poorest cementing value.
 Raising the C4AF content reduces the strength slightly.
 The heat of hydration is 420 J/g.

Minor compounds

 These Include:
 Magnesium Oxide,
 Titanium Oxide,
 Manganese Oxide,
 Sodium Oxide, and
 Potassium Oxide.
 These minor compounds represent a few percent by weight of cement.
The term minor compounds refers to their quantity and not to their
importance.
 Two of the minor compounds, sodium oxide (Na2O) and potassium
oxide (K2O) are known as alkalis.
 These alkalis react with some aggregates causing the disintegration of
concrete and affecting the rate of strength development
3.4 .2 .3 The hydration Process

Immediately after adding water, the cement starts to hydrates. Hydration is

the chemical reaction between cement and water. This reaction is
exothermic and irreversible. It is a complex process.

About averagely, 23% of water by weight of cement is required for complete

hydration of Portland cement by combining chemically with the cement
compounds-this is known as bound water. About 15% by weight of cement
is the water required to fill the cement gel pores-it is known as gel water.

Heat of hydration: This the heat evolved during hydration the amount of
which depends on the relative quantities of the clinker compounds and
reactivity due to fineness.

The evolution of heat causes an increase in temperature in the concrete.

High heat of hydration is desirable for concreting at low temperatures.
Cracks may result due to cooling of the surface while the interior is still at
higher temperature. Excessive heat loss is prevented by lagging.

3.4 .2 .4 Curing of cement and its influence on strength development

Only when moisture is provided in a way that the hydration is not stopped or
interrupted, can the required final strength be reached. Any withdrawal of
water will stop the hardening process.

3.4 .2 .5 Standard strength Classes/Grades of Portland cement

32.5 Grade Ordinary Portland Cement

This is more suitable cement for masonry and general concrete works where
the members are not taken to very high stresses. It is not suitable where
‘Sulphate’ is in the soil or in the ground water.

42.5 Grade Ordinary Portland Cement

It is used where high early strength in 1 to 28 days range is required. These
days the ‘Structural Engineers’ propose these cements mainly for RCC works
where a member takes high tensile stress.
52.5 Grade Ordinary Portland Cement
It is used where high early strength in 1 to 28 days range is required. These
days ‘Structural Engineers’ propose these cements mainly for RCC works,
where a member takes high tensile stress.
The strength of 52.5 grade cement does not increase much after 28th day because
of early gain while 32.5 grade cement continues to gain strength after 28th day.

In addition, due to faster hydration process, the concrete releases heat of hydration
at much faster rate initially and release of heat is the highest in case of 52.5
grades. The heat of hydration being higher, the chances of micro-cracking of
concrete is much greater. Thus during initial setting period of concrete, the higher
heat of hydration can lead to the damage of micro-cracking within the concrete
which may not be visible at surface.

This cracking is different from shrinkage or cracks which occur due to faster
dryness of concrete in windy conditions. The situation can be worse when we tend
to increase the quantity of the cement in concrete with a belief that such
increments are better for both strength and durability of concrete.

Thus it is very essential to be very careful in advance that higher grade cement
specially GRADE 52.5 SHOULD be used only where such use is warranted for
making the concrete of higher strength and also where good quality assurance
measures are in place by which proper precautions are taken to relieve the higher
heat of hydration through chilling of aggregates or by proper curing of concrete

3.4 .2 .6Various Colors of Cement

1. Grey = Color of OPC cement
2. Blackish = Color of PPC Cement
3. White = Other color of Cement

Portland Cements PC are graded according to their strength. The grade

indicates the compression strength (mpa) of the concrete that will attain
after 28 days of setting.

3.4 .2 .7 Nomenclature for Cements

Cement is described in terms of cement type, strength class and rate of
early strength development.
For example;
PC52.5R
PC: Type of cement
52.5: standard strength class
R: Sub-class: Indicated the rate of early strength development. (R: rapid,
N: Normal, L: Low)
3.4 .2 .8 Tests on cement

Experience shows that it is practically impossible for mills to make large

quantities of cement without any variation in quality. Therefore the engineer
ought to satisfy himself regarding the quality of th cement. He should test
his cement not only to see that he gets what he has paid for but also to
forestall the possibility of a failure through the use of defective material.

Field tests
When cement is received at the site it is important to test it to see whether
it is of required quality or not. the following field tests are commonly used.
 Visual test: The colour of ordinary Portland cement is greenish grey.It
is important to note that the colour of cement is uniform. The cement
should not have lumps which indicate that it has air set.
 Rubbing between the fingers: The cement should feel smooth when
rubbed between the fingers.
 Temperature: when the cement is the bag, it should feel cool when a
hand is put in the bag.
 The cement should not be moist

Laboratory tests on cement:

The parameters to be determined in the lab tests include the following:
 Soundness or consistency of volume,
 Strength,
 Time of set or activity, and
 Fineness.

Fineness Test

 The measurement of fineness is defined as specific surface and is

expressed as surface area of the grains in a sample per mass of that
sample.
 The British Standard (BS12-1991) specifies the max cement fineness
2
as 325 m /kg, though in practice it is usually in the range 350-380
2
m /kg.

 A fine cement will develop strength and generate heat more quickly
than a coarse cement. It will of course cost more for grinding the
clinker more finely.
 Fine cement in general improve the cohesiveness of fresh concrete and
can be effective in reducing the risk of bleeding but they increase the
 risk of being air-set before use and they increase the tendency of
shrinkage cracking.
 There are three methods to test fineness namely;

Sieve analysis-90micron sieve is used. This method serves only to

demonstrate the presence of coarse cement particles. This method is
primarily suited to checking and controlling production process. The fineness
of cement is measured by sieving it on standard sieves. The proportion of
cement of which the grain sizes are larger than the specified mesh size is
thus determined.
Air permeability method-blaine’s method is used. The principle of this
method is in observing the time taken for a fixed quantity of air to flow
through compacted cement bed of specified dimension and porosity. Under
standardised conditions the specific surface of cement is proportional to
where t is the time for a given quantity of air to flow through the
compacted cement bed. The number and size range of individual pores in
the specified bed are determined by the cement particle size distribution
which also determined the time for the specified air flow.
The method is comparative rather than absolute and therefore a reference
sample of known specific
surface is required for calibration of the apparatus.
sedimentation method-Wagner turbidimeter method.

Consistency Test

This test is carried out to estimate the quantity of mixing water to form a
paste of normal consistency defined as the % water requirement of cement
paste.

The consistency test is done by means of Vicat apparatus. When the

penetration of the needle attached to the Vicat plunger reads between 5-
7mm from the bottom of the mould, the amount of water added is
considered the correct one for normal consistency.

Soundness test
 Soundness is a physical property of cement paste, which determines
the ability of the cement paste to retain its volume after setting is
completed.
 The unsoundness is due to the presence of free CaO (lime) and free
MgO (magnesia) in cement. These constituents hydrate very slowly
after setting of cement. Since Ca(OH)2 and Mg(OH)2 occupy larger
volume, expansion takes place.
  Soundness of cement may be tested by Le-Chatelier method
(due to free lime only) or by autoclave method (sensitive to free CaO and
MgO)

 unsound cement produces cracks, distortion and disintegration,

ultimately leading to failure.
 The unsoundness may be reduced by;
 limiting MgO content to less than 5%,
 fine grinding,
 thorough mixing,
 Allow cement to aerate for several days (lime may have hydrated or
carbonated in cement).

Initial and Final setting time tests

The term setting implies solidification of plastic cement paste. The beginning
of solidification is referred to as initial setting-it marks the point in time
when the paste has become unworkable. The time taken to solidify
completely marks the final setting- this should not be too long to resume
activity within a reasonable time
Two stages in setting process: These are initial setting time which must
be a minimum of 45 min and a final set which must take place in 10 h.

Factors affecting the setting time of cement

 Its composition
 the %of retardants
 degree of calcinations
 fineness of grinding-
 aeration subsequent to grinding of clinker
 % of water for making the cement paste
 temperature of the mixing water
 atmosphere where the cement paste is placed
 Amount of manipulations the paste receives-e.g. prolonged toweling
leads to delay of setting.

Note: If the cement is exposed to humidity during storage, a false set might
occur in which the cement stiffens within a few minutes of being mixed,
without the evolution of much heat. To resolve this problem, the cement
paste can be vigorously remixed, without adding water, in order to restore
plasticity of the paste and to allow it to set in a normal manner without
losing strength. A false set is different than a quick set and a flash set
mentioned earlier; a false set can be remedied by remixing, whereas a quick
set and a flash set cannot be remedied.

Strength test

What affects the strength of cement are the clinker compounds (e.g. lime,
alumina, gypsum),the degree of burning, the fineness of grinding, and the
aeration it receives subsequent to final grinding. An under burnt cement is
likely to be deficient in strength.
Compressive strength is the property important in this test. The test
specimens are 70.6 mm cubes having face area of about 5000 sq. mm.
Large size specimen cubes cannot be made since cement shrinks and cracks
may develop. The temperature of water and test room should be 27°± 2°C.
A mixture of cement and standard sand in the proportion 1:3 by weight.
Compressive strength is taken to be the average of the results of the three
cubes. The compressive strength is calculated from the crushing load divided
by the average area over which the load is applied. The result is expressed
in N/mm2.

3.4 .2 .9 Storage of cement

 Portland cement is kept in sacks of 0.035 m3 (50 kg) capacity for local
use for short period of time
 Store in air tight room avoiding moisture and dampness,
 Store at some distance from walls and at some height from floors.
 The stack should be covered with suitable coverings to avoid
circulation of air through the stack and not more than ten bags should
be stacked one over another.
3.5 FRESH CONCRETE
3.5.1 Introduction
Fresh concrete means concrete in the state during which its future properties
can be influenced. “influencing” here include activities such mixing,
transportation, casting, compaction and curing. In the fresh state the
concrete passes through stages namely:
The so called green state, immediately after mixing, when all the stability or
resistance to external loads depends only to adhesion of water film to the
solid particles
The solidification state of the young concrete; this ends with the final
setting. At this point the plastic deformability changes to a visco-elastic
deformability.
Basic requirements of fresh concrete

3.5.2 Characteristics of fresh concrete

The properties of fresh concrete or wet concrete include the following:
 Workability,
 Bleeding
 Seggregation

Workability can be defined as the amount of useful internal work necessary

to produce full compaction. . It can also be defined as the ease with which
concrete can be compacted 100 per cent with regard to mode of compaction
and place of deposition.

Factors affecting workability

 Water content
 Grading of aggregates
 Water/cement
 Aggregate/cement ratio
 Ambient temperature
 Texture, shape and size of aggregates,

Measurement of workability
There is no single test to measure workability directly, instead there are
different attempts that provide useful information. There are 5 types of test,
which can measure workability indirectly:
1. Slump Test: Gives good results for rich mixes.
2. Compacting Factor Test: Used for low workable concretes.
3. Flow Table Test: Used for high workable concretes.
4. VeBe Test: Used for low workable concretes (fiber reinforced concrete).
5. Kelly Ball Test: It is practical in field test.
Slump Test
This test detects the variations in uniformity of a mix of a given nominal
proportions.
This test involves a mould which is in the shape of a frustrum of a cone
about 300mm high with200mm base dia and 100mm top dia. It is placed on
top of a smooth surface with a smaller opening at the top and filled with
concrete in three layers that are tamped 25times with a standard 16mm
tamping rod. The mould is held firmly against its base by means of handles.
The mould is removed immediately by raising it slowly and carefully in a
vertical direction. This allows the concrete to subside and the slump is
measured immediately by determining the difference between the height of
the mould and that of the highest point of the specimen being tested. The
slump measured is recorded in terms of millimeters of subsidence of the
specimen.

Slump: true, shear, and collapse

Seggregation
Segregation can be defined as separation of the constituents of a
heterogeneous mixture so that their distribution is no longer uniform.
There are two forms of segregation:
1) In the first form, the coarse particles tend to separate out since
they tend to settle more than fine particles.
2) The second form, segregation occurs particularly in wet mixes; it is
manifested by the separation of (cement+water) from the mix.
Causes of segregation
The causes of segregation are dropping concrete from heights, poorly
designed mixes, transporting concrete over long distances—pumping, belt
conveyor system etc. over vibrations, and during concrete finishing extra
floating and tamping.

Prevention of segregation
 Place concrete directly in position
 proper use of the vibrator
 Some amount of entrained air reduces segregation
 Avoid the use of coarse aggregates whose specific gravity differs
appreciably from that of fine aggregates.- use proper grading of the
aggregates.
 Correct handling of the fresh concrete.

Bleeding
This is a form of segregation in which some of the water in the mix tends to
rise to the surface of the freshly placed concrete. Bleeding is also known as
water gain.
The causes of bleeding include inability of solid ingredients to hold all the
mix water when they settle downward. Bleeding is decreased by increasing
the fineness of cement, by controlling compaction, addition of pozzolana. Air
entrainment effectively reduces bleeding so that finishing can follow casting
without delay.

3.5.3 Classification of concrete

Concrete is categorized variously into different groups according to different
criteria.

Basing on the cementing material:

Concrete can be classified as
 Lime concrete,
 Gypsum concrete,
 Cement concrete.

Basing on Perspective specifications:

This is the classification based on the proportions of different ingredients or
the mix proportions of concrete. For example 1(cement):1.5(fine
aaggregeate): 3(coarse aggregate)Concrete can be classified as Nominal mix
concrete.
Grade of concrete C10 C15 C20 C25
Mix proportion 1:4:8 1:3:6 1:2:4 1:1.5:3
Perspective 10 15 20 25
characteristic
strength

Basing on Performance Oriented Specification

Concrete may be classified as Design Mix Concrete, provided the concrete
properties such strength, w/c ration, compaction, shape etc are specified.

Basing on the grade of concrete

This is the classification depending on strength of concrete (N/mm2) of
concrete cubes at the age of 28days . in this category we can have concrete
Grade 10,15, 20, 25, 30, 35 , 40,45, 50

Basing on Bulk density

 Concrete may be classified as:
 Super heavy concrete(Over 2500 kg/m3)
 Dense concrete (1800- 2500 kg/m3)
 Light weight concrete (500-1800 kg/m3)
 Extra light weight concrete (below 500kg/m3)

Based on the place of casting

Concrete may be classified as:

 In-situ concrete
 Pre cast concrete

Basing on reinforcement

Concrete can be classified as

 Reinforced concrete
 Mass concrete

Basing on the method of deliverance of the mix

Ready mixed or pre mixed concrete. This is delivered ready for placing from
a central plant. This concrete is useful in congested areas or in road
construction where space for mixing is limited. This concrete is assumed to
be made under well controlled factory conditions.
Mixed on site concrete: This type is mixed on site may be by hand or by
plant depending on the extent of the project.

Production of concrete
Production of quality concrete requires a rational proportioning of the
ingredients. This process of production requires the adherence to some rules
in various stages of concrete production.
The stages of concrete production
The following are the stages of concrete production:
 Batching
 Mixing
 Transportation
 Placing
 Compaction
 Curing
 Finishing.

Batching of the materials

This operation involves the measurement of the proportions of the
ingredients of concrete. This measurement should be done within an
accuracy of +_3% of batch quantity and the admixturesby +_5% of the
batch quantity.

Batching Methods
Volume batching: -recommended for small jobs . This involves measurement
by volume using standad box known as gauge box.
Weigh Batching:- Reccommended for all important works. It can be
manually (for small works), by ordinary platform weighing matchines or by
automatic batching plants ranging from small to large capacity.

Mixing
This is done to a homogeneous and uniform mixture in colour and
consistence. All the ingredients should blend into a uniform mass. Mixing can
be by hand for small jobs or by matchine(mixer) for quality works, small and
mediud sized works

Types of mixers
Mixers can be classified as batch mixer and continuos mixers
Batch mixers- these produce concrete batch by batch with time interval.
They are used for small and medium sized works. Batch Mixers can be
classified into pan type and drum type( this can be tilting, non tilt or reverse
based on the discharging method)
Continuos Mixers- they produce concrete continuosly, they are used for large
sized jobs eg dams

3.3.3 .3.3Transportation
Concrete should be transported at earliest without the loss of homogeneity
obtained at mixing. If the transportation is by truck with the agitator a
minimum of 2hrs is required and if without agitator, aminimum of of 1hr is
required.It should be taken into consideration that segregation does not take
place during transportation. The methods to be employed in transportation
depend on the sizeand importance of the job,the distance of the deposition
place form the mixing place and the nature of the terrain.

Methods of Transportation

Mortar pan: This is labour intensive, pans are passed from hand to hand .
It is slow and expensive, it may lead to evaporation of the water from the
mix in hot conditions and in areas of low humidity as more and more
concrete is exposed to the air since the pan convey small amounts. However
an advantage is that it is not affected by segregation.

Wheel barrow: The wheelbarrow is used to transport concrete at ground

level. This method is affected by segregation due uneven surface. This
problem can be minimized by the use of pneumatic wheels instead of steel
wheels. The average capacity of the wheelbarrow is 35lts(80kg)

Chutes: - Used to transport concrete below ground levels. They are made of
metal sheets with a slope of 1V: 2.5H
Dumper- This includes dumpers, lorries or trucks- used for hauls up to
5tons.

Bucket and Rope way: - used for construction of piers or columns and
dams

Belt conveyor: - this leads to segregation, drying and stiffening of concrete.

Concrete needs to be remixed at the place of deposition, however, this is not
recommended.

Skip and Hoist: used for multistory buildings. In this method the mixer
feeds the skip which moves up over rails.

Pumping: used for multistory buildings, tunnels and bridges. In this method
the concrete is fed from the hopper into the pump by gravity. Air entraining
admixtures are used giving an air content of about3-5%

Placing
Placing of concrete in the forms should be done with care securing
homogeneity achieve during mixing and avoidance of segregation achieved
during transportation. The following should be done before placing of
concrete: clean the surface, wet the surface, check forms for tightness.
Avoid dropping concrete
Compaction
This is a process of getting rid of the entrapped air and voids, elimination of
segregation to form a homogeneous dense mass. This process consolidates
fresh concrete.
Poor compaction affects the quality of cement. 5% voids in hardened
concrete reduce the strength by 30% and 10% voids reduce the strength by
over 50%. Then the density, strength and durability largely depend on the
degree of compaction. Moreover voids reduce the embedded contact
between steel and concrete

Methods of compaction
 Hand compaction: - for small jobs also for thin sections and
congested reinforcement. This method involves ramming, rodding or
tamping.

 Compaction by Vibration: used for any structure. This method

reduces entrapped air and becomes denser. With the use of vibrations
concrete with low water to cement ratio can be well compacted
Types of vibrators
o Vibrators (also known as internal or immersion or poker
vibrators)
o Form work vibrators (also called external or shutter vibrators);
for thin walls and columns
o Table or platform vibrators –this is the special case of form
vibrators
o Surface vibrators- also known as screed board vibrators, used
for floors and roof slabs.

 Compaction by spinning, also called centrifugation

 Compaction by jolting
 Compaction by rolling.

Curing
This is the process of keeping the concrete damp to facilitate hydration.
Curing prevents the loss of moisture due to evaporation. Curing must be for
at least three weeks and in no case less than 10 days. About 14ltrs are
needed to hydrate a bag of cement. Curing is important for the strength of
the concrete for example, curing for seven days, a the concrete achieves
50% of the strength greater than that exposed in air
Methods of curing
 Water curing
 Steam curing
 Curing by infra red radiation
 Electrical curing
 Chemical curing

Finishing
The objective of finishing is to obtain a pleasant surface. The various
methods of finishing include- Formwork finishing, surface treatment and
applied finishes.
Properties of hardened concrete
The properties of the hardedned concrete include the following:
 Strength,
 Durability,
 Impermeability,
 Creep and
 Shrinkage

Factors affecting the strength of concrete

Factors depending on testing methods: are size of test specimen, size
of specimen relative to maximum size of aggregate, moisture condition of
specimen, rate of loading adopted, and type of testing machine used;
Factors independent of testing method: are type of cement and age of
cement, type and
size of aggregates, degree of compaction, water-cement ratio, aggregate-
cement ratio, airvoids,
curing method and curing temperature, and type of stress situation that may
exist (uniaxial, biaxial and triaxial).

REFERENCE

1. Duggal S.K (2008) Building materials 3rd Ed. New Age International
Publishers, New Delhi
2. Mamlouk M. and Zaniewski J. P (2006) Materials for Civil and
Construction Engineers, Pearson Education, Inc. New Jersey.
3. http://theconstructor.org/concrete/deleterious (Accessed on
27December 2016)