DAR ES SALAAM INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

CET 04113
INTRODUCTION TO
CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY
INTRODUCTION

Concrete is a mixture of cement, water and aggregates mixed in certain proportions which when
placed in form and allowed to cure it turns into a hard artificial rock.

The hardening is due to the reaction between cement and water and continues for a long time after
the concrete has a sufficient strength for the work intended.

Concrete is one of the basic construction materials used in most of the construction projects in the
country. Such projects include the construction of roads, bridges, buildings and factories.

Due to the importance of concrete in the construction industry there is need to develop skills for
selection and testing of concrete ingredients and be well acquainted with the techniques of concrete
manufacture and construction
AGGREGATES

Generally, in civil engineering the term aggregate means a mass of crushed stone, gravel, sand,
etc., predominantly composed of individual particles, but in some cases including clays and silts.

The largest particle size in aggregates may have a diameter as large as 150 mm (6 in.), and the
smallest particle can be as fine as 5 to 10 microns.

There are two main uses of aggregates in civil engineering: as an underlying material for
foundations and pavements, and as ingredients in Portland cement and asphalt concretes. By
dictionary definition, aggregates are a combination of distinct parts gathered into a mass or a
whole.

Classification of aggregates
Aggregates can be grouped differently into various groups depending on different criteria as it
can be shown below:
 Basing on geological origin
 Basing on size
 Basing on shape
 Basing on unit weight

i. Basing on Geological origin

The aggregates may be classified into:
• natural aggregates and
• Artificial aggregates.

Natural aggregates include gravels and sand reduced to their present size by the natural agencies
of weathering. The most widely used aggregate are from igneous origin. The most widely used
aggregates are from igneous origin.

Aggregates from pits or dredged from river, creek or sea are most often not clean enough or well
graded to meet the quality requirements they require to be sieved and washed before they can be
used in concrete.

Artificial aggregates include broken bricks, blast furnace slag and synthetic aggregates. Broken
bricks known as brick bats are suitable for mass concreting, for example, in foundation bases.

Blast furnace slag aggregate is obtained from slow cooling of the slag followed by crushing.

Synthetic aggregates are produced by thermally processed materials such as expanded clay and
shale used for making light weight concrete.
 ii. Basing on size
According to size aggregates are classified as
• coarse aggregates,
• fine aggregates,
• all-in- aggregate,
• Graded aggregates.

Coarse Aggregates. These are aggregate retained on 4.75 mm sieve.

Source:
- By natural disintegration or
- By artificial crushing of rock or stones. These may be crushed or partially crushed gravel
or stone most of which is retained on 4.75 mm sieve.

Functions of coarse aggregates:

i. Cheap fillers - They help to achieve economy by their use as ingredients in the concrete
ii. Prevent shrinkage and development of cracks in concrete
iii. Hard material - Furnish strength to concrete against crushing.
iv. Provide for volume stability - Reduce volume changes
v. Provide abrasion resistance

Fine Aggregates. These are aggregate passing through 4.75 mm sieve. The smallest size of fine
aggregate (sand) is 0.063 mm.

Source: They may be obtained as

- Natural sand—deposited by rivers and sea bed sand,
- Pit sand
-crushed stone or gravel sand—obtained by crushing stones or gravel

Functions of sand (Fine aggregates)

The functions of fine aggregates in concrete are
i. Help in producing workability and uniformity in mixture.
ii. Assists the cement paste to hard the coarse aggregate particles.
iii. Helps to prevent possible segregation of paste and coarse aggregate particularly during the
transport operation of concrete for a long distance.
iv. Fine aggregate reduces the shrinkage of binding material.
v. Prevents the development of a crack in the concrete.
vi. Fills the voids existing in the coarse aggregate. Thus, it helps in increasing the density of
concrete.
vii. Assists in hardening of cement by allowing the penetration of water through its voids.
All-in-aggregate. These are naturally available aggregates of different fractions of fine and
coarse sizes. The deficiency of any particular fraction can be corrected for use in the mix but they
are not recommended for quality concrete.

Graded Aggregate. These are aggregates most of which pass through a particular size of sieve.
For example, a graded aggregate of nominal size 20 mm means an aggregate most of which
passes 20 mm sieve.

iii. Basing on shape

On the basis of shape, Aggregates are classified
• Rounded aggregates
• irregular aggregates,
• angular aggregates, and
• Flaky aggregates.
• Elongated aggregates
Rounded aggregates. These are generally obtained from river or sea shore and produce
minimum voids (about 32 per cent) in the concrete. They have minimum ratio of surface area to
the volume and cement paste required is minimum. However, poor interlocking bond makes it
unsuitable for high strength concrete and pavements.

Irregular Aggregates. These have voids about 36 per cent and require more cement paste as
compared to rounded aggregate. But due to their irregularity in shape they develop good bond
and are suitable for making ordinary concrete.

Angular aggregates. They have sharp, angular and rough particles having maximum voids
(About 40 per cent). Angular aggregate provide very good bond than the earlier two, are most
suitable for high strength concrete and pavements; the requirement of cement paste is relatively
greater.

Flaky aggregates: - the least lateral dimension of flaky aggregate (thickness) should be less
than 0.6 times the mean dimension.
Elongated aggregate are those aggregates whose length is 1.8 times its mean dimension.

iv. Basing on unit weight

Based on the unit weight and specific gravity, aggregates are classified as
• normal-weight,
• heavy-weight and
• light-weight aggregate
 Important properties to consider in the selection of Aggregates
The properties to be considered while selecting aggregate for use include:
i. Gradation
ii. Strength,
iii. Particle shape,
iv. Specific gravity,
v. Unit weight,
vi. Bulk Density
vii. Void ratio
viii. Porosity
ix. Moisture content
x. Freedom from Deleterious Substances in Aggregate

i. Grading

Aggregate Grading is the particle-size distribution of an aggregate as determined by a sieve

analysis.
The grading and grading limits are usually expressed as the percentage of material passing each
sieve.
Reasons for specifying grading limits and nominal maximum aggregate size; they affect relative
aggregate proportions as well as cement and water requirements, workability, pump-ability,
economy, porosity, shrinkage, and durability of concrete and the tendency to segregation.
Variations in grading can seriously affect the uniformity of concrete from batch to batch.
Very fine sands are often uneconomical; very coarse sands and coarse aggregate can produce
harsh, unworkable mixtures. In general, aggregates that do not have a large deficiency or excess
of any size and give a smooth grading curve will produce the most satisfactory results.

Grading Requirements

 The aggregate structure in the well compacted state should be as coarse as possible while
at the same time maintaining a minimum pore content.
 Skillful grading requires that the gaps between the grains of one size are filled basically
by grains of the next smaller sieve size, the remaining gaps again by the next small size
and so on. This arrangement is called continuous grading. This lowers the total content of
cement paste and guarantees a good compactability.

Practical grading

Practical grading is done by using a standard series of sieves. For the British standards, the usual
sieve sizes for concrete aggregates are based on the inch-system (imperial system of units) which
later developed into the millimeter-system (metric)
 Sieve stack

Types of Aggregate gradation

Dense or well-graded:
 A dense gradation refers to a sample that is approximately of equal amounts of various
sizes of aggregate. By having a dense gradation, most of the air voids between the
materials are filled with particles.
 A dense gradation will result in an even curve on the gradation graph.

One-sized or uniformly Gradation:

 It refers to a gradation that contains most of the particles in a very narrow size range. In
essence, all the particles are the same size.
 The curve is steep and only occupies the narrow size range specified.

Gap-graded gradations:
 Gap-graded aggregate contains only a small percentage of aggregate particles in the mid-
size range. The curve is flat in the mid-size range
ii. Strength
Strength of aggregates should be at least equal to that of the concrete.
The tests for strength evaluation include the following:
 Aggregate crushing value test,
 Aggregate impact value test and
 Aggregate abrasion value test
 Ten per cent fines test.

iii. Particle Shape

The shape of aggregates can significantly affect the properties of the mix and cured concrete.
Generally rounded aggregates require a lower water content to achieve a given mix workability,
compared to the equivalent mix using angular aggregates.

However, cement paste ultimately bonds more strongly to angular aggregates with rough surfaces
than to the smoother gravels, so a higher crushing strength can be achieved with crushed rocks as
aggregate.

Excessive proportions of long and flaky coarse aggregate should be avoided as they can reduce the
durability of concrete.

iv. Specific Gravity,

Specific gravity of aggregates generally is indicative of its quality. A low specific gravity may
indicate high porosity and therefore poor durability and low strength.
The specific gravity and porosity of aggregates greatly influence the strength and absorption of
concrete. The concrete density will greatly depend on specific gravity.

The specific gravity of most of the natural aggregates lies between 2.6-2.7.

v. Bulk Density,
The bulk density of aggregate depends upon their packing, the particles shape and size, the
grading and the moisture content. For coarse aggregate a higher bulk density is an indication of
fewer voids to be filled by sand and cement.

vi. Voids
Increased voids in the aggregates leads to more voids in the concrete a fact that leads to low
strength of the concrete.

vii. Porosity
Minute holes or cavities called pores in the aggregates make the concrete permeable and this
affects bond between aggregate and cement paste, resistance to freezing and thawing and
resistance to abrasion of the aggregates. Porous aggregates absorb moisture leading to less
workable concrete.

viii. Moisture content.

A high moisture content of the aggregates increases the effective water/cement ratio to an
appreciable extent and may render the concrete weak. Water absorption test can be performed to
determine the moisture content of the aggregates.

ix. Freedom from Deleterious Substances in Aggregate

Aggregates for concrete, if containing deleterious substances, may affect strength, workability
and long term performance of concrete in the long term. These substances or materials are
normally referred to as deleterious materials. They are undesirable due to their weakness,
softness and fineness or any other physical or chemical characteristics harmful to properties of
concrete.

These substances can be grouped under three categories:

i. Impurities - these refer to organic matter which may interfere with hydration of
cement. Common examples are decayed vegetables in the form of humus or organic
loam which are more likely found in fine aggregates though these can be easily washed
away.
 ii. Fine materials - such as silt and crusher dust. These may be present in the form of
surface coatings. This may interfere with bonding between aggregates and cement
paste. This is important as a strong bonding is critical to the strength and durability of
concrete. As with impurities, these also can be washed away.

iii. Unsound particles - these can be either particles failing to maintain their integrity or
particles leading to disruptive expansion on freezing or exposure to water. Examples of
these are low density shale, clay lumps, wood and coal. These materials lead to pitting
and scaling. If found in excess quantities, the strength of concrete may be affected.

The table below gives a summary of substances and their effects

AGGREGATE BLENDING

Generally, a single aggregate source is not sufficient to meet gradation requirements for concrete
mixes. Therefore, it is required to blend aggregates from two or more sources to satisfy the
specifications.

Reasons for aggregate blending;

 to obtain the desired gradation;

 single natural or quarried materials not enough and
 it is economical to combine natural and process materials

Characteristics of Blended Aggregates

Some of the properties of aggregates blended from different sources can be determined from the
properties of the individual components. With the exception of specific gravity and density, the
properties of the blend are the simple weighted averages of the properties of the components.
This relationship can be expressed as P = Aa+ Bb+ Cc+….where:
P = composite property of the blend
A, B, C= properties of fractions A, B, C
a, b, c= decimal fractions by weight of aggregates A, B, C used in the blend, where the total is
1.00 this equation applies to properties such as angularity, absorption, strength, and modulus

Handling and storing of aggregates

Aggregates should be handled and stored in a way that minimizes segregation and degradation and
prevents contamination by deleterious substances.
Stockpiles should be built up in thin layers of uniform thickness to minimize segregation.

WATER
Water is used to enhance the hydration of cement Apart from being used in hydration, water acts
as a lubricant between coarse and fine aggregates and produces a workable and economical
concrete.

However, an optimum amount of water is requirement for a particular concrete and mortar.
Excess water leads to low concrete or mortar strength and also leaks between the forms causing
honeycombs. Lesser water makes it difficult to work with concrete and because of non-uniform
mixing the resultant concrete is weaker in strength.

The amount of water must therefore be limited to produce concrete of the quality required for a
job. Water is also used for washing aggregates and curing.

Quality of mixing water.

 Almost any natural potable water that has no pronounced taste or odor is acceptable for
the concrete mix.
 Many sources of water unsuitable for drinking may also be used after ascertaining their
quality.
 In case of doubt, water samples should be tested for suitability.

Impurities in mixing water

Excessive impurities may affect setting time, strength, durability and may cause efflorescence,
surface discoloration, and corrosion of steel. Most impurities found in mixing water include the
following:
 Suspended particles: A higher concentration affects certain cements adversely.
 Inorganic salts: The presence of salts of zinc, manganese, tin, copper and lead
considerably reduce the concrete strength. Sodium phosphate, sodium borate and sodium
iodate act as retarders and cause a marked reduction in the strength of concrete. The
presence of calcium chloride accelerates setting and hardening of cement. Carbonates of
sodium and potassium cause a rapid setting and may reduce the concrete strength.
Bicarbonates may accelerate or retard the setting of cement.
 Acids and alkalis: Water containing acids or alkalis (industrial waste water) is supposed
to be unsuitable for making concrete.
  sugar: retard the setting time, reduce the early strength
 Oil contamination: mineral oil in concentrations greater than 2 per cent by weight of
cement may reduce the concrete strength by more than 20 per cent. The vegetable oils
have detrimental effect on concrete strength particularly at later ages.
 Algae: reduce bond by combining with the cement or reduces strength by entraining a
large amount of air in the concrete.

Tolerance concentration of impurities in mixing water

Ppm- parts per million (1X10-6)

CEMENT

Cements in a general sense are adhesive and cohesive materials capable of bonding together
particles of solid matter into a compact durable mass.

For civil engineering works, they are restricted to calcareous cements containing compounds of
lime as their chief constituent, its primary function being to bind the fine (sand) and coarse (grits)
aggregate particles together.

Cements used in construction industry may be classified as hydraulic and non-hydraulic.

The hydraulic cement sets and hardens in water and gives a product which is stable. Portland
cement is one such

The non- hydraulic cement does not set and harden in water such as non-hydraulic lime or which
are unstable in water, e g. Plaster of Paris..
Cement can be manufactured either from natural cement stones or artificially by using calcareous
and argillaceous materials. The examples of natural cements are Roman cement, Pozzolana
cement and Medina cement and those of artificial cement are Portland cement and special
cement (e.g. white cement)

Today cement finds extensive use in all types of construction works; in structures where high
strength is required e.g. bridge piers, light houses, lofty towers, and large structures such as
bridges, silos, chimneys. And also in structures exposed to the action of water, e.g. reservoirs,
Dams, dock yards etc. Cement mortar, concrete, reinforced brick work, artificial stones,
plastering, Pointing and partition walls are routinely used in buildings.

Portland cement
Portland Cement is a hydraulic binder, i.e. a finely ground inorganic material which, when mixed
with water, forms a paste which sets and hardens by means of hydration reactions and processes
and which, after hardening, retains its strength and stability even under water.
The name Portland cement comes from the fact that the colour and quality of the resulting
concrete are similar to Portland stone, a kind of limestone found in England.

The Production of Portland cement:

\The basic raw materials of Portland cement include:


Calcareous materials (materials that predominantly contain calcium
oxide)-e.g. lime stone, chalk, oyster shell or seashells
 Argillaceous materials: (materials that contain a combination of silica and
alumina)-these can be obtained from clay, shale, blast furnace slag etc.
Examples of raw materials for cement.

Calcium Silicon Aluminum Iron

Limestone Clay Clay Clay
Marl Marl Shale Iron ore
Calcite Sand Fly ash Mill scale
Aragonite Shale Aluminum ore refuse Shale

Shale Fly ash Blast furnace dust

Sea Shells Rice hull ash

Cement kiln dust Slag
In addition, most cement contains small proportions of magnesia, (1-3%) sulphur trioxide (2%)
and alkalis. An increase in lime content beyond a certain value makes it difficult to combine
completely with other compounds. Consequently, free lime will exist in the clinker and will
result in unsound cement. An increase in silica content at the expense of alumina and ferric oxide
makes the cement difficult to fuse and form clinker.

The table below gives the ingredients in parallel with their roles in cement and concrete

The manufacture process includes the following procedures:

1. Quarrying: The raw materials are quarried from the ground.
2. Crushing: The quarried rock pieces are crushed into small pieces.
3. Mixing: The appropriate crushed mixture of the raw materials are blended together.
Mixing of the raw materials can be in two processes namely wet process or dry process. The
process to be chosen, depend on the nature of the used raw materials.

Wet process
 Grinding and mixing of the raw materials in the existence of water to form a slury.
 The slurry is a liquid of creamy consistency, with water content of between 35 and 50%,
  The slurry mix mechanically in the storage tanks.
 Finally, the slurry with the desired lime content passes into the rotary kiln. This is a
large, refractory-lined steel cylinder, up to 8 m in diameter, sometimes as long as 230 m,
which is slightly inclined to the horizontal.

Dry process
Grinding and mixing of the raw materials in their dry state. The raw materials are crushed and fed
in the correct proportions into a grinding mill, where they are dried and reduced in size to a fine
powder. The dry powder, called raw meal, is then pumped to a blending silo, and final adjustment
is now made in the proportions of the materials required for the manufacture of cement.
Reasons for dry mix process
- The raw materials are so hard (solid) that they do not disintegrate by water
- In Cold countries, because the water might freeze in the mixture
- Shortage of the water needed for mixing process.

4. Burning: The mixed raw materials are heated at 1450oC in a rotary kiln which continuously
mixes them and calcined limestone to drive out CO2 to form a clinker.
5. Cooling and grinding: The clinker is cooled, mixed with gypsum and ground to fine powder
to give cement
Role of gypsum: retards and controls the setting time to ensures that the concrete does not set
too quickly before it can be placed or too slowly so as to hold up construction.

Main compounds of Portland cement

Calcination in the kiln restructures the molecular composition of the raw materials, producing
four main compounds as seen in the table below,

C3S:
 renders the clinker easier to grind,
 increases resistance to freezing and thawing,
 Hydrates rapidly generating high heat and develops an early hardness and strength.
 Raising of C3S content beyond the specified limits increases the heat of hydration and
solubility of cement in water.
 The hydrolysis of C3S is mainly responsible for 7 day strength and hardness. The rate of
hydrolysis of C3S and the character of gel developed are the main causes of the hardness
and early strength of cement paste.
 The heat of hydration is 500 J/g.

C2S:
 Hydrates and hardens slowly and takes long time to add to the strength (after a year or
more).
 Imparts resistance to chemical attack.
 Raising of C2S content renders clinker harder to grind, reduces early strength, and
decreases resistance to freezing and thawing at early ages and decreases heat of hydration.
The hydrolysis of C2S proceeds slowly.
 At early ages, less than a month, C2S has little influence on strength and hardness. While
after one year, its contribution to the strength and hardness is proportionately almost
equal to C3S.
  The heat of hydration is 260 J/g.

C3A:
 It reacts rapidly with water and is responsible for flash set (stiffening without strength
development) of finely grounded clinker.
 It is responsible for the initial set, high heat of hydration and has greater tendency to
volume changes causing cracking.
 Raising the C3A content reduces the setting time, weakens resistance to sulphate attack
and lowers the ultimate strength, heat of hydration and contraction during air hardening.
 The heat of hydration of 865 J/g.

C4AF:
 Acts as a flux for clinker fusing, fusing them at lower temperature thus saving fuel.
 It is responsible for flash set but generates less heat.
 It has poorest cementing value.
 Raising the C4AF content reduces the strength slightly.
 The heat of hydration is 420 J/g.

Minor compounds
 These Include:
 Magnesium Oxide,
 Titanium Oxide,
 Manganese Oxide
 Sodium Oxide,
 Potassium Oxide.
 These minor compounds represent a few percent by weight of cement. The term minor
compounds refers to their quantity and not to their importance.
 Two of the minor compounds, sodium oxide (Na2O) and potassium oxide (K2O) are
known as alkalis.
 These alkalis react with some aggregates causing the disintegration of concrete and
affecting the rate of strength development

The hydration Process

Immediately after adding water, the cement starts to hydrates. Hydration is the chemical reaction
between cement and water. This reaction is exothermic and irreversible. It is a complex process.

About averagely, 23% of water by weight of cement is required for complete hydration of Portland
cement by combining chemically with the cement compounds-this is known as bound water.
About 15% by weight of cement is the water required to fill the cement gel pores-it is known as
gel water.

Heat of hydration: This the heat evolved during hydration the amount of which depends on the
relative quantities of the clinker compounds and reactivity due to fineness.

The evolution of heat causes an increase in temperature in the concrete.

High heat of hydration is desirable for concreting at low temperatures. Cracks may result due to
cooling of the surface while the interior is still at higher temperature.

Excessive heat loss is prevented by lagging.

Curing of cement and its influence on strength development

Only when moisture is provided in a way that the hydration is not stopped or interrupted, can the
required final strength be reached. Any withdrawal of water will stop the hardening process.

Standard strength Classes/Grades of Portland cement

32.5 Grade Ordinary Portland cement
This is more suitable cement for masonry and general concrete works where the members are not
taken to very high stresses. It is not suitable where ‘Sulphate’ is in the soil or in the ground
water.
42.5 Grade Ordinary Portland cement
It is used where high early strength in 1 to 28 days range is required. These days the ‘Structural
Engineers’ propose these cements mainly for RCC works where a member takes high tensile
stress.
52.5 Grade Ordinary Portland cement
It is used where high early strength in 1 to 28 days range is required. These days ‘Structural
Engineers’ propose these cements mainly for RCC works, where a member takes high tensile
stress.
The strength of 52.5 grade cement does not increase much after 28th day because of early gain
while 32.5 grade cement continues to gain strength after 28th day.

Various Colors of Cement

1. Grey = Color of OPC cement
2. Blackish = Color of PPC Cement
3. White = Other color of Cement

Portland Cements PC are graded according to their strength. The grade indicates the compression
strength (mpa) of the concrete that will attain after 28 days of setting.
Nomenclature for Cements
Cement is described in terms of cement type, strength class and rate of early strength
development.
For example;
PC52.5R
PC: Type of cement
52.5: standard strength class
R: Sub-class: Indicated the rate of early strength development. (R: rapid, N: Normal, L: Low)

Tests on cement

Experience shows that it is practically impossible for mills to make large quantities of cement
without any variation in quality. Therefore the engineer ought to satisfy himself regarding the
quality of the cement. He should test his cement not only to see that he gets what he has paid for
but also to forestall the possibility of a failure through the use of defective material.
Field tests
When cement is received at the site it is important to test it to see whether it is of required quality
or not the following field tests are commonly used.
• Visual test: The colour of ordinary Portland cement is greenish grey.It is important to
note that the colour of cement is uniform. The cement should not have lumps which
indicate that it has air set.
• Rubbing between the fingers: The cement should feel smooth when rubbed between the
fingers.
• Temperature: when the cement is the bag, it should feel cool when a hand is put in the
bag.
• The cement should not be moist

Laboratory tests on cement:

The parameters to be determined in the lab tests include the following:
• Soundness or consistency of volume,
• Strength,
• Time of set or activity
• Fineness.

Soundness test

Soundness is a physical property of cement paste, which determines the ability of the cement
paste to retain its volume after setting is completed.
The unsoundness is due to the presence of free CaO (lime) and free MgO (magnesia) in cement.
These constituents hydrate very slowly after setting of cement. Since Ca(OH)2 and Mg(OH)2
occupy larger volume, expansion takes place.

Unsound cement produces cracks, distortion and disintegration, ultimately leading to failure.
The unsoundness may be reduced by;

▪ limiting MgO content to less than 5%,

▪ fine grinding,
▪ thorough mixing,
▪ Allow cement to aerate for several days (lime may have hydrated or carbonated in
cement).
▪
Initial and Final setting time tests

The term setting implies solidification of plastic cement paste.

The beginning of solidification is referred to as initial setting-it marks the point in time when the
paste has become unworkable.

The time taken to solidify completely marks the final setting- this should not be too long to resume
activity within a reasonable time

Two stages in setting process: These are initial setting time which must be a minimum of 45
min and a final set which must take place in 10 h.
Factors affecting the setting time of cement

• Its composition
• the percentage of retardants
• degree of calcinations
• fineness of grinding-
• aeration subsequent to grinding of clinker
• Percentage of water for making the cement paste
• temperature of the mixing water
• atmosphere where the cement paste is placed
• Amount of manipulations the paste receives-e.g. prolonged toweling leads to delay of
setting.
Note: If the cement is exposed to humidity during storage, a false set might occur in which the
cement stiffens within a few minutes of being mixed, without the evolution of much heat. To
resolve this problem, the cement paste can be vigorously remixed, without adding water, in order
to restore plasticity of the paste and to allow it to set in a normal manner without losing strength.
A false set is different than a quick set and a flash set mentioned earlier; a false set can be
remedied by remixing, whereas a quick set and a flash set cannot be remedied.

Storage of cement
Portland cement is kept in sacks of 0.035 m3 (50 kg) capacity for local use for short period of
time

Cement should be stored in air tight room avoiding moisture and dampness,

It should be stored at some distance from walls and at some height from floors.

The stack should be covered with suitable coverings to avoid circulation of air through the stack
and not more than ten bags should be stacked one over another.

Alkali- Aggregate Reactions

 Reaction between alkali from cement and silica or carbonate from aggregate is called
“alkali- aggregate reaction”
 The most common reaction is that between the active silica constituents of the aggregate
and that alkalis in cement, called as “alkali-silica reaction”
 Another type of the alkali-aggregate reaction is that between dolomitic limestone
aggregates, containing carbonate, and alkalis in cement, called as “alkali-carbonate
reaction”
 Both types of the reactions cause deterioration of concrete, mainly cracking.

Factors affecting Alkali-aggregate Reaction

 Reactive type of Aggregates: Reactive material have been found to have serious effects if
present in small quantities but not if it constitutes the whole of the aggregate.
 High Alkali content cement: If the cement contains less than 0.4 per cent alkalis
(computed as Na2O) no expansion or disruptive effect is likely even with a quite highly
reactive aggregate, but due to difficulties of manufacture it is not usual to specify an
alkali content of less than 0.6 per cent.
 Availability of moisture: Progress of the alkali-aggregate reaction takes place only in the
presence of water. That is why this destructive effect is not observed in the interior of
mass concrete.
 Temperature conditions: The favorable temperature for the reaction is 10-38°C.
Control of Alkali-aggregate Reaction

 By selecting non alkali aggregates: Aggregate can be identified by petrographic

examination.
The mortar bar test and the chemical test are used.

 By using low alkali cement: Cements with alkali less than 0.6 per cent should be used.

 By controlling moisture: Old concrete should not be allowed to come in contact with
water. The best way is to apply mortar with water proofing agents on concrete surface.

 By pozzolanas: _The aggregates are found to be reactive when they contain silica in a
particular proportion and fineness. When fly-ash or crushed stone dust is added this
optimum condition of silica being in particular proportion and fineness is disturbed and
the aggregates turn to be innocuous.
 By use of air entraining agents: The alkali-silica-gel imparts osmotic pressure over the set
cement gel and this is mainly responsible for formation of cracks. When air entraining
agents are added they absorb the osmotic pressure and control the expansion
 FRESH CONCRETE
Introduction

Fresh concrete means concrete in the state during which its future properties can be influenced.
“Influencing” here include activities such mixing, transportation, casting, compaction and curing.
In the fresh state the concrete passes through stages namely:

Green state, immediately after mixing, when all the stability or resistance to external loads
depends only to adhesion of water film to the solid particles

Solidification state; this ends with the final setting. At this point the plastic deformability changes
to a visco-elastic deformability.

Characteristics of fresh concrete

The properties of fresh concrete or wet concrete include the following:
• Workability,
• Bleeding
• Segregation

Workability can be defined as the amount of useful internal work necessary to produce full
compaction.
It can also be defined as the ease with which concrete can be compacted 100 per cent with
regard to mode of compaction and place of deposition.

Factors affecting workability

• Water content
• Grading of aggregates
• Water/cement
• Aggregate/cement ratio
• Ambient temperature
• Texture, shape and size of aggregates,

Measurement of workability
There is no single test to measure workability directly, instead there are different attempts that
provide useful information. There are 5 types of test, which can measure workability indirectly:
1. Slump Test: Gives good results for rich mixes.
2. Compacting Factor Test: Used for low workable concretes.
3. Flow Table Test: Used for high workable concretes.
4. VeeBe Test: Used for low workable concretes (fiber reinforced concrete).
5. Kelly Ball Test: It is practical in field test.
Slump Test

This test detects the variations in uniformity of a mix of a given nominal proportions.

This test involves a mold which is in the shape of a frustum of a cone about 300mm high with
200mm base diameter and 100mm top diameter.

It is placed on top of a smooth surface with a smaller opening at the top and filled with concrete in
three layers that are tamped 25times with a standard 16mm tamping rod.

The mould is held firmly against its base by means of handles. The mould is removed immediately
by raising it slowly and carefully in a vertical direction.

This allows the concrete to subside and the slump is measured immediately by determining the
difference between the height of the mould and that of the highest point of the specimen being
tested. The slump measured is recorded in terms of millimeters of subsidence of the specimen.

Slump: true, shear, and collapse

Segregation
Segregation can be defined as separation of the constituents of a heterogeneous mixture
so that their distribution is no longer uniform.
There are two forms of segregation:
1) In the first form, the coarse particles tend to separate out since they tend to settle
more than fine particles.
2) The second form, segregation occurs particularly in wet mixes; it is manifested by
the separation of (cement + water) from the mix.

Causes of segregation
The causes of segregation are:-
• dropping concrete from heights,
• poorly designed mixes,
• Transporting concrete over long distances—pumping, belt conveyor system etc.
• Over vibrations during concrete finishing extra floating and tamping.

Prevention of segregation
• Place concrete directly in position
• proper use of the vibrator
• Some amount of entrained air reduces segregation
• Avoid the use of coarse aggregates whose specific gravity differs appreciably from
that of fine aggregates. - use proper grading of the aggregates.
• Correct handling of the fresh concrete.

Bleeding
This is a form of segregation in which some of the water in the mix tends to rise to the surface of
the freshly placed concrete. Bleeding is also known as water gain.
The causes of bleeding include inability of solid ingredients to hold all the mix water when they
settle downward.
Bleeding is decreased by:-
• increasing the fineness of cement,
• Controlling compaction, addition of pozzolana.
• Air entrainment effectively reduces bleeding so that finishing can follow casting without
delay.

Classification of concrete
Concrete is categorized variously into different groups according to different criteria.
i. Basing on cementing material
ii. Basing on perspective specification
 iii. Basing on Performance Oriented Specification
iv. Basing on the grade of concrete
v. Basing on Bulk density
vi. Based on the place of casting
vii. Basing on reinforcement
viii. Basing on the method of deliverance of the

Basing on the cementing material:

Concrete can be classified as
• Cement concrete.
• Lime concrete
• Gypsum concrete,

Basing on Perspective specifications:

This is the classification based on the proportions of different ingredients or the mix proportions
of concrete. For example 1(cement):1.5(fine aggregate): 3(coarse aggregate) Concrete can be
classified as Nominal mix concrete.
Grade of concrete C10 C15 C20 C25
Mix proportion 1:4:8 1:3:6 1:2:4 1:1.5:3
Perspective 10 15 20 25
characteristic strength

Basing on Performance Oriented Specification

Concrete may be classified as Design Mix Concrete, provided the concrete properties such
strength, w/c ration, compaction, shape etc. are specified.

Basing on the grade of concrete

This is the classification depending on strength of concrete (N/mm2) of concrete cubes at the age
of 28 days in this category we can have concrete Grade 10,15, 20, 25, 30, 35 , 40,45, 50

Basing on Bulk density

• Concrete may be classified as:
• Super heavy concrete(Over 2500 kg/m3)
• Dense concrete (1800- 2500 kg/m3)
• Light weight concrete (500-1800 kg/m3)
• Extra light weight concrete (below 500kg/m3)
Based on the place of casting
Concrete may be classified as:
• In-situ concrete
• Pre-cast concrete

Basing on reinforcement
Concrete can be classified as
• Reinforced concrete
• Mass concrete
Basing on the method of deliverance of the mix
Ready mixed or pre mixed concrete. This is delivered ready for placing from a central plant. This
concrete is useful in congested areas or in road construction where space for mixing is limited.
This concrete is assumed to be made under well controlled factory conditions.
Mixed on site concrete: This type is mixed on site may be by hand or by plant depending on the
extent of the project.

Production of concrete
Production of quality concrete requires a rational proportioning of the ingredients. This process
of production requires the adherence to some rules in various stages of concrete production.
The stages of concrete production
The following are the stages of concrete production:
i. Batching
ii. Mixing
iii. Transportation
iv. Placing
v. Compaction
vi. Curing
vii. Finishing.

i. Batching of the materials

This operation involves the measurement of the proportions of the ingredients of concrete. This
measurement should be done within an accuracy of +_3% of batch quantity and the admixtures
by +_5% of the batch quantity.

Batching Methods
Volume batching: -recommended for small jobs. This involves measurement by volume using
standard box known as gauge box.
Weight Batching: - Recommended for all important works. It can be manually (for small
works), by ordinary platform weighing machines or by automatic batching plants ranging from
small to large capacity.
Batching by weight is more preferable to volume batching, as it is more accurate and leads to
more uniform proportioning. It does not have uncertainties associated with bulking

ii.Mixing
This is done to a homogeneous and uniform mixture in colour and consistence. All the
ingredients should blend into a uniform mass. Mixing can be by hand for small jobs or by
machine (mixer) for quality works, small and medium sized works

Types of mixers
Mixers can be classified as batch mixer and continuous mixers
Batch mixers- these produce concrete batch by batch with time interval. They are used for small
and medium sized works.
Batch Mixers can be classified into pan type and drum type (this can be tilting, non-tilt or reverse
based on the discharging method)

Continuous Mixers- they produce concrete continuously, they are used for large sized jobs e.g.
dams
 iii.Transportation

Concrete should be transported at earliest without the loss of homogeneity obtained at mixing.

If the transportation is by truck with the agitator a minimum of 2hrs is required and if without
agitator, a minimum of 1hr is required.

It should be taken into consideration that segregation does not take place during transportation.
The methods to be employed in transportation depend on the size and importance of the job, the
distance of the deposition place form the mixing place and the nature of the terrain.

Methods of Transportation
Mortar pan: This is labour intensive, pans are passed from hand to hand.
• It is slow and expensive,
• it may lead to evaporation of the water from the mix in hot conditions and in areas of low
humidity as more and more concrete is exposed to the air since the pan convey small
amounts.
However it has an advantage that the concrete is not affected by segregation.

Wheel barrow: The wheelbarrow is used to transport concrete at ground level.

This method is affected by segregation due uneven surface. This problem can be minimized by
the use of pneumatic wheels instead of steel wheels.
The average capacity of the wheelbarrow is 35lts (80kg)

Chutes: - Used to transport concrete below ground levels. They are made of metal sheets with a
slope of 1V: 2.5H
Dumper- This includes dumpers, Lorries or trucks- used for hauls up to 5tons.

Bucket and Rope way: - used for construction of piers or columns and dams

Belt conveyor: - this leads to segregation, drying and stiffening of concrete. Concrete needs to be
remixed at the place of deposition, however, this is not recommended.

Skip and Hoist: used for multistory buildings. In this method the mixer feeds the skip which
moves up over rails.

Pumping: used for multistory buildings, tunnels and bridges. In this method the concrete is fed
from the hopper into the pump by gravity. Air entraining admixtures are used giving an air
content of about 3-5%
 iv. Placing
Placing of concrete in the forms should be done with care securing homogeneity achieve during
mixing and avoidance of segregation achieved during transportation. The following should be done
before placing of concrete: clean the surface, wet the surface, check forms for tightness. Avoid
dropping concrete

v. Compaction
This is a process of getting rid of the entrapped air and voids, elimination of segregation to form a
homogeneous dense mass. This process consolidates fresh concrete.
Poor compaction affects the quality of cement.
5% voids in hardened concrete reduce the strength by 30% and 10% voids reduce the strength by
over 50%. Then the density, strength and durability largely depend on the degree of compaction.
Moreover voids reduce the embedded contact between steel and concrete

Methods of compaction
• Hand compaction: - for small jobs also for thin sections and congested reinforcement.
This method involves ramming, rodding or tamping.

• Compaction by Vibration: used for any structure. This method reduces entrapped air
and becomes denser. With the use of vibrations concrete with low water to cement ratio
can be well compacted
Types of vibrators
i. Internal vibrator
ii.Formwork Vibrator
iii.Table Vibrator
iv. Platform vibrator
v. Surface vibrator
 vi. Curing
This is the process of keeping the concrete damp to facilitate hydration. Curing prevents the loss
of moisture due to evaporation.
Curing must be for at least three weeks and in no case less than 10 days. About 14ltrs are needed
to hydrate a bag of cement.
Curing is important for the strength of the concrete for example, curing for seven days, a the
concrete achieves 50% of the strength greater than that exposed in air
Methods of curing
• Water curing
• Steam curing
• Curing by infra-red radiation
• Electrical curing
• Chemical curing
•
i. Water curing: This is done by covering the concrete with gunny bags and sprinkling
water over them
ii.Steam curing: This is done by artificial heat while the concrete is maintained in moist
condition.
iii.Curing by Infra-red radiations: It is suitable for hollow concrete products where the
heater could be placed in the voids.
iv. Electrical curing: This is done by passing alternating current of low voltage through
electrodes in the form plates covering the entire area of two opposite faces of concrete
v. Chemical curing: Done by spreading chemical membrane on to the concrete. Liquid
membrane forming curing compounds such as sodium silicate (water glass) to prevent or
retard evaporation of moisture of concrete.

vi. Finishing
The objective of finishing is to obtain a pleasant surface. The various methods of finishing
include- Formwork finishing, surface treatment and applied finishes.

Properties of hardened concrete

The properties of the hardened concrete include the following:
 • Strength,
• Durability,
• Impermeability,
• Creep and
• Shrinkage

Factors affecting the strength of concrete

Factors depending on testing methods: are size of test specimen, size of specimen relative to
maximum size of aggregate, moisture condition of specimen, rate of loading adopted, and type of
testing machine used;
Factors independent of testing method: are type of cement and age of cement, type and size of
aggregates, degree of compaction, water-cement ratio, aggregate cement ratio, air voids, curing
method and curing temperature, and type of stress situation that may exist (uniaxial, biaxial and
triaxial).

REFERENCE

1. Duggal S.K (2008) Building materials 3rd Ed. New Age International Publishers, New
Delhi
2. Mamlouk M. and Zaniewski J. P (2006) Materials for Civil and Construction
Engineers, Pearson Education, Inc. New Jersey.
3. Domone P. and Illston (2010), Construction Materials- their nature and behavior, 4th
EDITION, E&FN SPON
4. Peter A. Claisse, (2015) Civil Engineering Materials. Elsevier Science Publishers